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OOMMZTTBa. 

lUfM  Hob.  tORD  BROUOHAIf .  F.I13.»  MMWr  of  Ui«  HrtltMl  iMlMttU  oT  fIruM. 

-JOHN  WOOD.  Iwi. 
WILLIAM  TOOKE,  B«|.,  F.ll.8. 


W.  Alloa.  Km|..  F.R.  Md  R.A.S. 

Captain  Beaufort,  R.N.,  F.R.   and  R.A.8.. 

Hydrographer  to  the  Admiralty. 
6.  Harrow*.  M.I). 
Teter  Stafford  Carey,  Esq..  A.M. 
Wtlllam  CoiiltoD,  Esq. 
R.  1).  Craig.  Eaq.  • 

J.  F.  Davit.  Esq.,  F.R.S. 
H.  T.  Dela  Beche.  Esq..  F.R.S. 
The  Right  Hon.  Lord  Uenman. 
Samael  Duckirorth,  Esq.,  M.P. 
B.  F.  Dnppo.  Esq. 

Tlie  night  Rev.  the  Bishop  nf  nurham,  DJ). 
Sir  Henry  Rllla.  Prin.  Lib.  Brit.  Mnt.) 
T.  F.  Rllts.  Es«)..  A.M..  F.R.A.». 
John  Rlliotson.  M.D..  K.R.S. 
George  Erana,  Et4U  M.P. 
Thoroaa  Falconer,  Esq. 


I.  L.  Ooldamid,  Eao^  F.R.  and  R.A.8. 

Franefa  Henry  Ooidamtd,  Esq. 

B.  Gomperti.  Esq.,  F.R.  and  itA.S. 

O.  B.  Greenongh,  Esq.,  F.R.  and  LA, 

M.  D.  Rill,  EkO. 

Rowland  Hill,  Ksq..  F.R.A.S. 

Right  Hon.  Sir  J.  C.  Hobhoaac,  Bart.,  M.P. 

Darld  Jardlne.  Esq.,  A.M. 

Henry  B.  Ker,  Esq. 

Thomas  Hewitt  Key,  Esq.,  A.lf. 

George  C.  Lewis,  Esq.,  A.M. 

Thomas  Henry  Lister,  Esq. 

Jamrs  Loch,  Esq.,  M.P.,  K.G.S* 

George  Long,  Esq..  A.M. 

Sir  Fredericic  Madden,  K.C.H. 

H.  Maiden.  Esq.  A.M. 

A.  T.  MalklB.  Ell)..  A.U« 

Jaaca  Manmiiv,  Esq. 


B.  I.  Murehtaoo,  £iq.,  F.RJ^  F.0.3* 

The  Right  Hon.  Lord  Niigent. 

Wm.  Smith  O'Brien.  Baq..  M.P. 

The  Right  Hon.  Sir  Henry  Parncll,  Bt,  M.P. 

Dr.  Roget,  Sec.  R.S.,  F. R.A.S. 

Edward  RomiUy.  Esq..  A.M. 

The  Right  Hon.  Lord  John  Ruaaell,  M.P. 

Sir  M.  A.  Shee.  P.R.A.,  F.R.8. 

John  Abel  Smith,  Esq.,  M.P. 

The  Right  Hon.  Earl  Spencer. 

John  Taylor.  Esq.  F.R.S. 

Dr.  A.  T.  Thomson.  F.L.S. 

Thomaa  Vardon,  Eaq. 

H.  Waymouth.  Esq. 

J.  Whiahaw,  Esq..  A.M.,  F.R.S. 

John  Wrottesley,  Esq..  A.M.,  F.R.A.8, 

Thomaa  Wyae.  Esq.,  M  P. 

J.  A.  Yatea,  Eaq.,  M.P. 


ifltoa,  Sfq/erAJhff— 'Re^.  J.  P.  Jodm, 
4l«r/cs«a— Rev.  E.  Wllllama. 

Rev.  W.  Johnaon. 

Mr.  Miller. 
A»khmTton-'i,  F.  Klngatoii,  Esq. 
Darmtaple. Bancraft,  l^sq. 

Wlilism  Oribble.  Esq.. 
Bet/tut—  Dr.  Drummond.     • 
Birwumtjfinm—J.Corrlt, Esq. F. R.8.  Ckn^rmmi, 

Paul  Moon  James.  Esq.,  Treomrsr. 
Brifiport—i^mtt  Williams,  Esq. 
ffn'sM/'-J.N. Sanders,  Eiiq..  K.O.S.  CAairMan. 

J.  Reynolds.  Esq.,  Trtaturer. 

J.  B.  Estlin,  Esq.,  F.L.S.,  Seereimrf, 
Ottlemttn—Sir  B.  H.  Malkiu. 

Jame*  Young.  Esq. 

C.  H.  Ca-nerpn.  Eyo. ,     . 

Rev.  Prof.  He|(i)o«».>KA.^F.X.S.&4>!S» 
Rer.  Leonard- J enyn%,  ^.A.,  F.L.S. ' 
RcT.  John  Lodge,  M.A>    . 
ReT.Geo.  Peacock.  M. A.,  f.R.8.4iO$.  *  ' 
Robert  W.  Rothman.E^^M.A.,'^ .IL«1.9l 

ReT.Prof.  Sedgwick. M/A.,  i;jl.9.8t  a.a( 

Rer.  C.  Thirl  wall,  M.  A.  ^    •   •    *   '.  • 
CaaterbaryJohn  Bren^  E#q^  AVdWmabI  .  t 

William  M astern,  Esq. 
Giafoa— Wra.  Jardlne.  Esq.,  FrtsidaU, 

Robert  Inclla,  Eaq.,  Tntumrwr, 

ReT.  C.  BffMgman,     } 

Rce.  C.  Gutzlaff,        \Seeretari^ 

J.  R.  Morrlaon,  Esq., ) 
Cnrdigam-^Ket.  J.  Black  well,  M.A. 
Tiiriiri/e— Thomaa  Barnca,  M.D.,  F.R. 8.R. 
Camormii— >R.  A.  Poole,  Esq. 

William  RoberU,  Eaq. 
CAfifer^Hayea  Lyon,  Eaq. 

Henry  Potts,  Esq. 
CMehetttr^John  Forbes,  If.D.,  F.R,8.. 

C.C.  Dendy.Ksq. 
OicltfraMalA— Rev.  J.  Whitrldgt. 
torrm — John  Crawford,  Esq. 

Mr.  Plato  Petrldca 
ror^^nfry— Arthnr  Gregory,  Raq« 
Denbigh — John  Madoeks,  Esq, 

Tnomaa  Evans,  Esq. 


ZiOCAA   OOJMACZTTaaS. 

I>«r6|r— Joeeph  Strutt,  Baq. 

Edward  StrtKt,  Esq..  M.P. 
Dtoonport  and  ^foaeAowe— John  Cola,  Eaq. 

—  Norman,  Ksq. 

Lt.CoL  C.  Hamilton  Smith,  F.R.S. 
thiUiik—T.  Drummond,  Esq.  R.E.,  F.R.A.8. 
^diater^A— Sir  C.  Bell,  F.ILS.L.  and  E. 
iffrana— Jos.  Wedgwood,  Eaq. 
E*€t0r—'J.  Tyrrell,  Esq. 

John  MUVord,  Esq.  (Ceaver.) 
aUunorgantiiire^  Dr.  Malkin,  Cowbrldg*. 

W.  Williams,  Esq.,  Aberpergwm. 
niatffoie — K.  Finlay,  Esq. 

Professor  Mylne. 

Alexander  McG rigor,  Eaq. 

Charles  Tennant,  Kkq. 
.  ^AJames  Cowpcr,  Esq. 
0«A-nstfv — F.  C.  Lukls.  Eaq. 
ffJv— J.  C.  Parker,  Esq. 
TCri^hleyt  VorAiAtre^ReT.  T.  Dury,  M.A. 
J.taminyton  Sprt-^Dr.  London,  U.D. 
Leeds— J.  Marshall,  Esq. 
y.eieei — J.  W.  Woollgar,  Eaq. 
Lwerpooi  Loe.  At.-^W-  W.  Carrie,  Eaq.  Ck, 
\       J.  Mnllencvx,  Baq.,  Trawarir. 

Rev.  Dr.  Shepherd, 
^.atf/ote— T.  A.  Knight.  Eaq.,  P.H.8.   ' 
Maidenkead    R.  Goolden.  Esq.,  F.L.S, 
JtfaMttvne— Clement  T.  Smyth,  Eaq. 

John  Caae,  Eaq. 
ila/mattsirf    B.  C.  Ttonaa,  Ba^ 
UaneJmUr  Loe,  As.—G,  W.  Wood.  Esq..  Ck, 

Benjamin  Heywood,  Eaq.,  Treasmrer, 

T.  W.  Winstanley,  Baq.,  Han,  S§e, 

Sir  O.  Phlllpa,  Bart,  M.P. 

Ben).  Oott,  Kaq. 
JfoiAoai— ReT.  George  WaddiqgtoB,  If  JL 
Mertkyr  TyMA-J.  J.  Gneat,  Esq. 
J#tficMftAmnBlofi~John  G.  Ball,  Eaq. 
AfeasMafA— J.  H.  Moggridge,  Esq. 
ATaa/A— John  Rowland,  Esq. 
A'0wea$tio—Ktt,  W.  Turner. 

T.  Sopwltb,  Esq..  F.6.S. 
Kemport,  lileo/  IFifAl— Ab,  CUrka»  Baq. 

T.  Cooke.  Jan.,  Eaq. 

R.  G.  KIrkpatrick,  Eaq. 
Kewperf  Pmr««— J.  Millar,  Baq.    ' 
Nemtown,  Alontgawurythire^Yr,  Pngh ,  Baq. 


^orwtftf A— Richard  Bacon,  Baq. 

Wm.  Forater,  Esq. 
Offaff,  Buex^Dr.  C«>rbetr,  M.D. 
OiQfbnf—Dr.  Daubeny,  F.U.S.  Praf.  ofChenu 

Bee.  Prof.  Powell. 

Rer.  John  Jordan,  R.A. 

E.  W.  Head,  Esq.,  M.A. 
Petth,  Hwtgnry — Count  Ssechanyl. 
r^moM/A—H.  Woollcombe.  Esq.,  F.A.8.. CA. 

Snow  Harris,  Esq..  F.R.S. 

E.  Moore,  M.D.,  F.L.S.,  ^>cr#fiiry. 

G.  WIghtwIck,  Esq. 
i»ret^«>— Dr.  A.  W.  DaTJs,  M.D. 
Mpon—Rtr,  H.  P.  Hamilton,  M.A„  F.R.S. 
and  G.S. 

Rev.  P.  Ewart.  M.A. 
Jta/Ain— ReT.  the  Warden  of 

Humphreys  Jones.  Esq. 
Rpde.  L  o/'/F^AI— Sir  Rd.  Simeon.  Bt. 
Sa/t«ta*y~ReT.  J.  BarfitL 
She0ieid—J.  H.  Abrahama.  Esq. 
SJteptou  AlalM—Q.  F.  Burroughs.  Esq. 
KArcvf&nrv-R.  A.SIaney.  Esq..  M.P. 
South  Pelherton^Jchn  Nkholetla,  Eaq. 
St,  Atoph^Ktr.  George  Strong. 
Stockport— H.  Marslaud,  Esq.,  Treoaarar, 

Henry  Conpock.  Esq.,  Seeretan, 
Sifdngu,  New  South  Waiee-- 
_    William  M.  Manning.  Eaq. 
fmeiatoek—Kvr,  W.Bvaaa. 

J«ha  Ruodle.  Baq. 
SVaro— Richard  Tannton.  M.D.,  K.R.8. 

Henry  S^well  Stokea,  Eaq. 
Tim^^^e  YFeAs— Dr.  Yeata.  M.D. 
rifOMCsr— Robert  Blurton,  Baq. 
IFarwicl^-Dr.  Conolly. 

The  Rev.  William  Field,  U^omiogtom.) 
Wmltrford—9\r  John  Newport,  Bt. 
IFo/verAmnplon— J.  Pearson,  Esq. 
IForew/«r— Dr.  HaaUnga,  M.D. 

C.  H.  Hebb.  Eaq. 
IFraarAcai— Thomaa  Edgworlh,  Ra^. 

J.  E.  Bowman,  Esq.,  F.L.8. 

Major  WlllUm  Lloyd. 
FarawtA—C.  E.  Rumbold,  Baq. 

Dawaon  Turner,  Eaq. 
FarA— Rev.  J.  Kenrick,  M.A. 

J.PhllUpa,Eaq.,  F.R.8 


TB0UA8  C0ATB8,  K«|.,  Sfcrttary,  No.  A^  LUcqIb*!  Inn  Fieldt. 


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PUG 


dry  plains  of  Kmfi^  Charles's  Southland,  as  already  observed. 
(Captain  Philip  Parker  King,  in  London  Geogr,  JoumcU^ 
vol.  i. ;  Captain  Fitxroy,  in  ditto,  vol.  vi. ;  and  Captain  Basil 
Hall's  Journal.) 

FUEL  is  any  combustible  matter  employed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  creating  and  maintaining  heat.  In  the  early  ages 
of  the  world,  wood  must  have  constituted,  as  indeed  in 
many  countries  it  does  to  this  day,  the  principal  fuel  em- 
ployed. Wood  consists  chieHy  of  three  principles:  car- 
bon, hydroffea,  and  oxygen.  The  two  former  are  both  of 
them  highly  combustible ;  and  the  last  principle  is  espe- 
cially so,  and  is  the  principal  cause  of  the  flame  with 
which  wood  is  well  known  to  burn.  When  the  smoke  oc- 
casioned by  the  combustion  of  wood  is  found  inconvenient, 
or  when  the  fuel  is  required  to  last  for  a  longer  period  in  a 
given  bulk,  then  charcoal  is  employed,  which  is  merely 
wood  that  has  undergone  imperfect  combustion,  so  as  to 
expel  its  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  and  to  leave  the  greater 
part  of  the  carbon. 

Another  kind  of  fbel,  which  doubtless  was  early  in  use 
on  account  of  the  facility  with  which  it  is  obtained  from  its 
nearness  to  the  surface,  is  peat,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  turf:  this  is  a  con^^eries  of  ve^i^etable  matter,  in 
which  the  remains  of  organization  are  more  or  less  visible. 
Peat  is  the  common  fuel  of  a  large  part  of  Wales  and  Scot- 
land, and  of  many  districts  of  England,  where  coal  is  not 
readily  procured. 

In  this  country,  however,  coal  furnishes  the  great 
supply  of  fuel,  and  its  various  kinds  are  employed  in  dif- 
ferent ways  and  for  different  purposes  according  to  its 
nature  and  that  of  the  substance  to  be  acted  on  by  it8 
agency.  When  coal,  by  a  process  analogous  to  that  by 
which  charcoal  is  procured  from  wood,  is  freed  from  its 
more  volatile  constituents,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  azote, 
it  is  converted  into  coke ;  it  then  burns  with  but  little  tlame 
and  comparatively  little  smoke,  and  is  used  for  giving  an 
intense  degree  of  heat  in  the  reduction  of  most  metallic  ores, 
especially  those  of  iron. 

In  some  cases  a  mixture  of  coke  and  charcoal  is  very  ad- 
vantageously employed,  especially  in  assaying  in  the  small 
way.  The  mixture  gives  out  a  great  degree  of  heat  while 
burning,  and  being  more  combu»tible  tlian  coke  alone, 
•mall  furnaces,  in  which  the  draught  is  less  powerful  than 
in  larger  ones,  are  particularly  adapted  for  its  use ;  and 
though  it  consumes  faster  than  coke,  it  lasts  longer,  gives 
a  greater  heat,  and  is  more  economical  than  charcoal  alone. 

In  some  countries,  even  the  dried  excrement  of  animals 
is  used  as  fuel:  and  from  the  use  of  earners  dung  the 
formation  of  sal  ammoniac  was  derived  in  Egypt ;  this  salt 
subliming  from  the  excrement  during  its  combustion. 

In  smul  chemical  operations,  as  for  the  blow-pipe,  tallow 
or  wax  candles  are  frequently  employed ;  and  in  lamps,  oil, 
spirit  of  wine,  or  pyroxihc  spirit,  and  even  carburetted 
hydrogen  gas,  are  used,  either  for  the  purpose  of  boiling  or 
evaporating  small  quantities  of  fluids,  or  oissolving  various 
bodies  in  different  menstrua. 

During  the  combustion  of  different  kinds  of  fuel,  the  pro- 
ducts vary :  thus,  when  wood,  coal,  wax,  tallow,  oil,  alcohol, 
or  cmrburetted  hydrogen  is  employed,  the  principal  pro- 
ducts are  oarbonio  acid  gais  and  water ;  when  charcoal  is 
used,  carbonic  acid  is  almost  the  only  volatile  substance 
Ibrmed,  for  the  hydrogen  which  the  wood  contained  is  ex- 
pelled by  the  process  or  charring. 

FUENTE  RABIA.  or  FONTARABIA.  [Guipuzco^] 

FUERT  A  VENTURA.    [Canaries] 

FUGrGER,  a  German  family,  originally  of  Augsburg, 
that  amassed  great  wealth  in  the  fiAeenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries  by  commerce,  and  especially  by  the  monopoly  of 
the  spices,  which  they  drew  from  Venice,  and  with  which 
they  supplied  Germany  and  other  parts  of  the  Continent. 
The  Fuggeri  were  created  counts  by  Charles  V.  in  1530,  to 
whom  they  had  lent  large  sums  of  money ;  and  a  story  is 
told  of  their  lighting  a  fire  of  cinnamon-wood  with  his  bond 
or  bonds  for  the  amount,  in  the  presence  of  Charles,  who 
happened  to  be  a  visiter  at  their  house  in  passing  through 
Augsburg.  They  also  supplied  Philip  II.  with  money,  and 
two  of  their  family  contracted  with  the  Spanish  government 
for  the  mines  of  Almaden.  [Almaden.]  The  family  became 
divided  into  several  branches,  one  of  which  obtained  the 
rank  of  princes  of  the  German  empire,  under  the  title  of 
Fugger  Babenhausen,  near  Ulm.  The  family  continue  to 
this  day,  and  their  domains  are  partly  in  Bavaria  and  partly 
in  Wiirtemberg.     The   Fugger  family,  in  the  sixteenth 


century,  made  a  liberal  use  of  their  wealth,  in  founding 
charitable  institutions,  such  as  the  one  still  called  Fuggerei 
[AuosBURo] ;  in  promoting  learning,  collecting  MSS.,  and 
forming  valuable  libraries.  Several  members  of  the  family 
were  themselves  men  of  learning;  among  others  (jlrich 
Fugger,  bom  about  1520,  was  for  a  time  a  confidential 
attendant  of  Pope  Paul  III.,  but  afterwards  retum«l  to 
Germany,  and  had  several  valuable  MSS.  of  classic  authors 
which  he  had  collected  nrinted  at  his  own  expense.  He 
engaged  as  his  printer  Henri  Estienne,  with  a  handsome 
salary.  His  family  being  dissttisfied  with  hit  expenditure, 
obtained  an  order  from  the  eivil  courts  taking  away  from 
Ulrich  the  administration  of  his  property  under  the  pretence 
of  incapacity ;  but  the  order  was  ultimately  rescinded,  and 
he  was  restored  to  his  rifl;hts.  He  died  in  1584  at  Heidel- 
berg, leaving  his  fine  library  to  the  Elector  Palatine  and 
several  legacies  to  poor  students.  Another  Fugger  wrote 
a  history  of  Austria,  published  at  Niimberg  in  1668.  Philip 
Edward  Fugger,  born  in  1546,  added  greatly  to  the  library 
and  cabinet  of  antiquities  begun  by  his  ancestors  at  Auc:s- 
burg,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  munificence.  Otho 
Henry  Fugger,  count  of  Kirchberg  and  Weissenhom,  bom 
in  1592,  served  with  the  Spanish  army  in  Italy,  and  after- 
wards raised  troops  in  Germany  for  the  Emperor  Fer- 
dinand II.  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  (Imhoff,  Notitia 
Imperii;  Moreri^s  DicHonary^  art  'Fugger;*  Almanach 
de  Gotha.) 

FUGUE,  in  music,  a  composition  in  which  a  Subject,  or 
brief  air,  passes  successively  and  alternately  firom  one  part 
to  another,  according  to  certain  rules  of  harmony  and  mo- 
dulation. Such  is  Rousseau's  definition,  which  would  have 
been  more  complete  if  he  had  added  that  the  Fugue  is  also 
formed  after  rules  peculiar  to  itself.  The  term  seems  to 
have  originated  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
and  is  commonly  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Latin 
word  fu^a  (flight),  because  the  theme,  or  point,  flies  fium 
part  to  part  ;  but  this  etymology  is  by  no  means  satis- 
factory, though  we  certainly  have  no  better  to  offer 

Writers  on  music  enumerate  many  kinds  of  Fugue,  tbe 
chief  of  which  ore,  the  Strict  Fugue,  the  Free  Fugue,  the 
Double  Fugue,  and  the  Inverted  Fugue;  to  which  we  shall 
add  ihat  species — for  it  decidedly  belongs  to  the  Fugue  ge- 
uus— called  Imitation. 

'  In  a  Strict  Fugue,'  says  Dr.  Crotch  (Elements  of  Cum- 
position), "  the  subject  is  given  out  by  one  of  the  parts,  then 
the  answer  is  made  by  another;  and  aflerwards  the  subjei  t 
is  repeated  by  a  third  part,  and,  if  the  fugue  consbt  of  four 
parts,  the  answer  is  again  made  bv  the  fourth  part :  after 
which  the  conii>oser  may  use  either  the  subject  or  the 
answer,  or  small  portions  of  them,  in  any  key  lie  pleast'S,  or 
even  on  dificrent  notes  of  the  key.'  In  this  severe  kind  of 
composition,  when  the  subject,  or  leader,  or  point,  or  dux, 
or  by  whatever  name  the  theme  may  be  designated,  is  com- 
prised between  the  tonic  and  the  dominant,  uie  answer  (or 
Comes)  must  be  given  in  the  notes  contained  between  the 
dominant  and  the  octave.  Ex.: 


The  chorus  '  He  trusted  in  God,'  in  the  Meitiah,  is  a  fine 
specimen  of  this  sort  of  fugue,  to  which  we  refer  the 
reader  ;  for  few  are  without  that  sublime  oratorio  in  sorof 
form. 

In  the  Free  Fugue  much  more  latitude  is  allowed  tnc 
composer ;  he  is  not  so  restrained  by  the  subject,  but  may 
introduce  what  AVbrechtsberger  terms  episodes — passages 
not  closely  related  to  the  theme,  though  they  should  ncAcr 
be  very  foreign  to  it  The  overture  to  tbe  ^^^f^?r 
affords  a  splendid  example  of  this  speeds.  The  Double 
Fugue  consists  of  two  or  more  subjecta.  moving  together, 
and  dispersed  among  the  different  p4rts.  Dom.  Scarlatti  * 
in  D  minor  is  a  double  fugue  which  has  no  superior  of  U» 
kind.  The  first  few  bars  of  this  will  more  clearly  cxplJU» 
than  words  can  do  the  nature  of  so  elaborate  a  species  oi 
composition. 


P  U  L 


P  U  L 


1>etweeii'152d  and  1540.  The  Sebinalkald  articles  were  alio 
promulgated  ftt>m  this  spot  in  1537.  Steinbacb,  a  market 
village  on  the  Hasel,  with  about  390  houses,  and  2600  in- 
habitants, who  manufacture  iron-ware.  Htinfeld  on  the 
Haune,  a  town  with  walls,  2  churches,  about  280  houses, 
and  1800  inhabitants,  with  manufaoturiS  of  linens,  and 
some  trade  in  yams:  and  Brotterode,  an  irregularly  built 
town,  1708  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  with  about  350 
houses,  and  2100  inhabitants,  and  manufactures  of  tin,  to- 
baccci,  brass  and  steel  ware,  &c. 

FULDA,  the  capital  of  the  province,  and  the  seat  of  its 

fovemment  and  law  courts,  is  about  60  miles  north-east  of 
'rankfort  on  the  Main,  at  an  elevation  of  834  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea ;  in  5U^  34'  N.  lat,  and  9^  44'  B.  long. 
It  is  built  on  the  banks  of  the  Fulda,  which  is  crossed  by  a 
handsome  stone  bridge.  Fulda  is  a  pretty  town,  with  eight 
suburb:*  outside  its  walls.  The  walls,  which  are  decayed,  have 
seven  gates.  Its  population,  which  was  7468  in  1810,  and 
S 1 50  in  18 1 7,  is  at  present  about  9600 ;  the  houses  are  about 
1 100.  It  contains  a  market>place  and  two  squares,  one  of 
which  is  a  public  promenade,  with  rows  of  linden  trees,  an 
electoral  palace  and  grounds,  eleven  churches,  one  of 
which  is  Lutheran,  a  Iu>man  Catholic  Lyceum,  which  was 
instituted  out  of  the  funds  of  the  university,  founded  in 
1 734,  a  Protestant  high-school,  a  chapter  seminary,  a  school 
in  which  forest  economy  is  taught,  and  another  for  edu- 
cating teachers,  an  hospital,  public  library,  8cc.  It  is  the  re- 
sidence  of  the  Roman  Catholic  bishop  for  the  electorate, 
and  has  a  handsome  cathedral  or  minster,  built  between  the 
years  1700  and  1712:  it  is  memorable  as  the  place  of  sepul- 
ture of  St  Bonifacius,  whose  remains  were  deposited  below 
an  altar  in  an  underground  chapel  in  755,  the  year  of  his 
death.  The  manufactures  of  Fulda  are  on  a  confined  scale, 
and  consist  of  linens,  woollens,  stockings,  saltpetre,  leather, 
articles  in  wood,  &c.  The  mineral  spring,  on  St.  John's 
Hill  near  the  town,  resembles  the  Seltzer  water.  About 
five  miles  out  of  Fulda  is  the  electoral  country-seat  called 
the  Fasanerie,  where  there  are  valuable  collections  of  paint- 
ings, china,  and  subjects  in  natural  history.  St.  Bonifa- 
ciub's  Well,  in  the  midst  of  some  well  laid  out  shrubberies, 
is  also  close  to  the  town. 

FULGE'NTIUS.   FABIUS  CLAUDIUS   GORDU- 
NUS,  bishop  of  Ruspina,  a  town  on  the  coast  of  Africa, 
was  born  about  ad.  464.     His  father  Gordianus,  who  was  a 
senator  of  Carthage,  waa  obliged  to  leave  his  native  city 
during  the  persecutions  of  the  Vandals,  and  retired  to 
Telepte,  in  tue  province  of  Bvzacium,  where  Fulgentius 
passed  the  early  years  of  his  life.     He  is  said  to  have  made 
great  progress  in  his  studies,  and  to  have  acquired  an  ac- 
curate knowledge  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  lan^ages.    In 
consequence  of  liis  attainments,  he  was  appointed  at  an 
early  age  to  receive  the  public  revenues  of  the  province ; 
but  he  resigned  his  oflUce  soon  after  his  appointment,  and 
retired  to  a  monastery  in  the  neighbourhood.    After  en- 
during many  persecutions  on  account  of  his  opposition  to 
the  Arian  doctrines,  he  resolved  to  go  into  Egypt  to  visit 
the  celebrated  monks  of  that  country.    From  this  design 
he  was  dissuaded  bv  Eualius,  bishop  of  Syracuse,  on  the 
ground  that  the  monks  of  the  East  had  withdrawn  from  the 
Catholic  communion,  and    accordingly  he  proceeded   to 
Rome,  AJ},  500.    On  his  return  to  his  native  countrv,  the 
Catholic  clergy  elected  him  bishop  of  Ruspina ;  but  he  did 
not  enjoy  his  dignity  long,  being  exiled  to  Sardinia,  to- 
gether with  the  other  Catholic  bishops  of  that  part  of 
Africa,  by  Thrasimond,  king  of  the  Vandals.    His  learn- 
ing, his  austere  manner  of  living,  and  his  frequent  con- 
troversies with   the  Arians,  procured  him  the  universal 
respect  of  the  Catholic  clergy,  who  considered  him  the 
greatest  ornament  of  the  African  church  in  that  age. 
Curiosity  led  Thrasimond  to  rccal  him  to  Carthage,  where 
he  held  disputes  with  the  king  on  the  debated  points  of  the 
Arian  controversy ;  but  as  he  was  unable  to  convince  the 
monarch,  he  was  obliged  to  returf^  to  Sardinia,  where  he 
remained  till  a>d.  522,  when  the  death  of  Thrasimond  and 
the  succession  of  Hildcricus  to  the  throne  occasioned  the 
recal  of  the  Catholic  bishops.     Fulgentius  returned  to  Rus- 
pina, and  resided  there  till  the  time  of  his  death,  which 
happened  either  in  a.d.  529  or  533. 

His  works  were  printed  at  Paris,  in  a  4to.  volume,  in 

1684.    IVith  regard  to  his  style,  Dupin  remarks,  'that  St. 

^'ulgentius  did  not  only  follow  the  doctrine  of  St.  Austin, 

t  also  imitat«<l  his  style.     He  had  a  quick  and  subtle 

iitf  which  easily  oomprehended  things,  set  them  in  a  I 


good  light,  and  explained  them  eopioasly,  which  may  ap* 
pear  unpleasant  to  those  who  read  his  works.  He  loved 
thorny  and  scholastic  questions,  and  used  them  sometimes 
in  mysteries.  He  knew  well  the  holy  Scriptures,  and  had 
read  much  the  works  of  the  fathers,  particularly  those  of 
St.  Austin.*  His  principal  works  are :— I.  'Three  Books  to 
Thrasimond,  king  of  tne  Vandals,  on  the  Arian  Contro- 
versy ;*  II.  *Tliree  Books  to  Monimus.'  The  first  supports 
the  opinions  of  Augustine  on  the  doctrine  of  predestination ; 
the  second  explains  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  and  the  passage 
in  1  Cor.  vi.,  6,  *  But  I  speak  this  by  permission,  ana  not  of 
commandment;*  the  third  contains  remarks  on  the  Arian 
interpretation  of  John  i.,  1,  *The  word  was  with  God.' 
III.  'Two  Books  to  Buthymius,  on  the  Remission  of  Sins,* 
to  show  that  God  will  pardon  sins  only  in  this  life ;  IV.  *  A 
Book  to  Donatus,  on  the  Trinity;*  V.  'Three  Books  on 
Predestination,  to  John,  a  priest,  and  Venerius,  a  deacon  ;* 
VI.  'A  Book  on  Faith  ;*  Vll.  *  Letters  on  various  religious 
Subiects,*  written  principally  during  his  exile. 

(Dupin  s  Bibliothdque  EccUiiaiHque^  vol.  t^  P*  13-21; 
Eng.  Trans. ;  Ada  Sanctorum^  vol.  i.,  Januar.,  p.  32.) 

FULGENTIUS  FERRANDUS,  who  is  frequently 
confounded  with  Fulgentius,  bishop  of  Ruspina,  lived  in 
the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century.  He  waa  a  disciple  of 
the  bishop  of  Ruspina,  whose  Ufe  he  wrote.  He  was  also 
the  author  of  an  '  Abridgment  of  the  Canons,*  and  finished 
a  treatise  addressed  to  Reginus,  on  which  his  master  was 
engaged  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

(Mosheim's  EccleiiGtHcal  History,  vol.  ii.,  p.  109:  Eng. 
Trans.,  1826.) 

FULGENTIUS,  FABIUS  PLANCLADE.S,  is  said  to 
have  been  a  bishop  of  Carthage,  and  to  have  lived  in  the  sixth 
centurv.  He  wrote  a  work  on  M3rthology,  in  three  books,  ad- 
dressea  to  a  priest  of  the  name  of  Catus,  which  was  printed 
for  the  first  time  at  Milan,  in  1487.  There  is  another  work 
of  Fulgentius,  entitled  '  Expositio  Sermonum  Antiquorum 
ad  Chalcidicum  Grammaticum,*  which  is  usually  printed 
with  the  works  of  Nonius  Maroellus. 

(Fabricii,  Bibliotheca  Latina,  lib.  ii.,  c.  2.) 

FULGURITES  are  vitrified  sand  tubes,  supposed  to  have 
originated  from  the  action  of  lightning;  they  are  called  by 
the  Germans  blitzrohre. 

These  tubes  were  discovered  in  the  year  1711  by  the 
pastor  Herman,  at  Massel  in  Silesia ;  and  they  were  ogain 
discovered  in  1805  by  Dr.  Hentzen,  in  the  heath  of  Pader- 
born,  commonly  called  the  Sonne,  and  he  first  attributed 
their  formation  to  the  agency  of  lightning. 

These  tubes  have  since  been  found  in  ^eat  number  at 
Pillau,  near  Konigsberg,  in  Eastern  Prussia;  at  Nietleben, 
near  Halle  on  the  Saale ;  at  Drigg  in  Cumberland,  and  some 
other  places. 

At  Drigg,  the  tubes  were  found  in  the  middle  of  sand- 
hanks  forty  feet  high,  and  very  near  the  sea.  In  the  Senne 
they  were  most  commonly  found  on  the  declivities  of 
mounds  of  sand,  about  thirty  feet  high  ;  but  sometimes  in 
cavities,  which  are  stated  to  have  Men  hollowed  in  the 
heath,  in  the  tixm  of  bowls,  200  feet  in  circumference,  and 
12  to  15  feet  in  depth. 

These  tubes  are  nearly  all  hollow.  At  Drigg  their  ex- 
ternal diameter  was  2^  inches ;  those  of  the  Senne,  reckon- 
ing firom  the  surface,  are  firom  one  quarter  to  seven  lines 
internal  diameter ;  but  they  narrow  as  they  descend  lower, 
and  frequently  terminate  in  a  point :  the  thickness  of  tlio 
tube  varies  from  half  a  line  to  one  inch. 

These  tubes  are  usually  placed  vertically  in  the  sand ;  but 
they  have  been  found  at  an  angle  of  4 0^  Their  entire  length, 
judging  from  those  which  have  been  extracted,  is  from 
twenty  to  thirty  feet ;  but  frequent  tranverse  fissures  divide 
them  into  poHions  from  half  an  ineh  to  five  inches  in  length. 

Usually  there  is  only  one  tube  found  at  a  place ;  some- 
times however,  at  a  certain  depth,  this  tube  divides  into 
two  or  three  branches,  each  of  which  gives  rise  to  small 
lateral  branches,  ftom  an  inch  to  a  foot  in  length ;  Uiese  are 
conical,  and  terminate  in  points,  inclining  gradually  to  the 
bottom. 

The  internal  part  of  the  tubes  is  a  perfect  gUaa,  smooth 
and  very  brilliant,  resembling  hyalite.  It  seratehes  ghis», 
and  gives  fire  with  steel.  All  the  tubes,  whatever  mav  be 
their  form,  are  surrounded  by  a  crust  «ompoaed  of  aggluti- 
nated grains  of  ouartx,  which  havo  the  appearance,  when 
examined  by  a  glsss,  of  having  undergone  mcipient  Aision. 
The  colour  of  the  internal  mass  or  the  tubes,  and  espe- 
ciaUy  thai  of  the  external  part8»  depends  npeii  th«  ]»• 


ture  of  tbe'sKndy'stratt  which  they  trayerse.  In  the  rope- 
rior  beds,  which  contain  a  little  soil,  the  exterior  of  the  tubes 
is  frequently  black ;  lower  down  the  colour  of  the  tube  is 
of  a  yellowish  grey ;  still  lower,  of  a  greyish  white ;  and 
lastly,  where  the  sand  is  pure  and  white,  the  tubes  are 
almost  perfectly  colourless. 

That  the  cause  of  these  tubes  is  correctly  attributed  to 
lightning  is  shown  by  some  observations  presented  to  the 
Royal  Society,  in  1 790,  by  Dr.  Withering.  On  opening  the 
ground  where  a  man  had  been  killed  by  lightning,  the  soil 
appeared  to  be  blackened  to  the  depth  of  ahout  ten  inches ; 
at  this  depth,  a  root  of  a  tree  presented  itself,  which  was 

Suite  black ;  but  this  blackness  was  only  superficial,  and 
id  not  extend  far  along  it  About  two  inches  deeper,  the 
melted  quartzose  matter  began  to  appear,  and  continued  in 
a  sloping  direction  to  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches ;  within 
the  hollow  part  of  one  mass,  the  fusion  was  so  perfect,  that 
the  melted  quartz  ran  down  the  hollow,  and  assumed 
nearly  a  globular  figure. 

Professor  Hagen,  of  Konigsberg,  has  made  a  similar  ob- 
servation. In  the  year  1823  the  lightning  struck  a  birch 
tree  at  the  village  of  Rauschen ;  on  cautiously  removing 
the  earth.  Professor  Hagjen  found,  at  the  depth  of  a  fbot,  the 
commencement  of  a  vitnfied  tube,  but  it  oould  not  be  ex- 
tracted from  the  sand  in  pieces  of  more  than  two  or  three 
inches  in  length ;  the  interior  of  these  fragments  was  vi- 
trified, as  usual;  several  were  flattened,  and  had  zigzag 
projections. 

It  is  also  to  be  observed,  thatSaussure  found  on  the  slaty 
hornblende  of  Mont  Blanc  small  blackish  beads,  evidently 
vitreous,  and  of  the  size  of  a  hemp-seed,  which  were  clearly 
the  effects  of  lif^htning.  Mr.  R^ond  has  also  remarked 
on  the  Pic  du  Midi,  in  the  Pyrenees,  some  rocks,  the  entire 
face  of  which  is  varnished  with  a  coating  of  enamel,  and 
covered  with  beads  of  the  size  of  a  pea ;  the  interior  of  the 
rock  is  totally  unchanged. 

FULHAM.    [MiDDLBSBX.1 

FU'LICA.      [RALLIDiK.] 

FUUGULI'NiE,  a  subfkmUy  of  the  AnaticUe.  The 
prince  of  Musignano  (C.  L.  Bonaparte)  arranged,  under  the 
subgenus  Fuligtda,  those  species  of  ducks  which  other  mo- 
dem ornithologists  have  distinguished  by  the  generic  titles 
of  SomcUeria,  Oidemia^  Fulieulct,  Clanjgula^  and  Harelda. 
The  prince  observes,  that  M.  Temminck,  who  had  been  op- 
posea  to  all  dismemberment  of  the  ereat  genus  Anas,  had  at 
fast  been  induced  to  assemble  all  the  species  of  the  prince's 
subgenus  Fuligula  under  one  genus;  whence  the  prince 
argues  the  necessity  of  M.  Temminck's  admitting  the  swohm 
and  gee8&9a  distinct  genera ;  and  he  observes  that  he  can- 
not see  any  good  reason  why  M.  Temminck  should  have 
rejected  the  name  of  Fidigukt^  as  well  as  Platypus,  given 
anteriorly  to  the  genus  by  Brehm,  and  should  have  imposed 
on  it  the  name  of  Hydrobates,  a  term  already  applied  by 
Vieillot  to  the  genus  Cincius,   (Specchio  Comparaiivo.) 

Mr.  Swainson  (Fauna  Borealt-Americana)  adopts  the 
term  ^digxdinee  to  distinguish  this  subfamily,  under  which 
he  arranges  the  genera  Somateria,  Oidemia%  Fuligufa,  Clan- 
gula,  and  Harelda, 

Habits,  Fbod,  ^. — ^The  FuUgulifue,  or  sea  ducks,  as  they 
have  been  not  inaptly  named,  frequent  the  sea  principally ; 
but  many  of  them  are  to  be  found  in  the  fresh-water  lakes 
and  rivers  where  the  water  is  deep.  The  plumage  is  very 
close  and  thick  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  true  ducks 
iAnatina;),  and  the  covering  of  the  female  differs  much  in 
hue  from  that  of  the  male,  which  when  adult  undergoes  but 
little  change  in  its  dress  from  the  difference  of  season.  The 
young  resemble  the  female  in  their  feathered  garb,  and  do 
not  assume  the  adiilt  plumage  till  the  second  or  third  year. 
Moulting  takes  place  twice  a-year  without  change  of  colour. 
In  the  male,  the  capsule  of  the  trachea  is  large. 

The  Sea  Ducks  are  not  good  walkers,  on  account  of  the 
backward  position  of  their  feet,  but  they  run,  or  rather  shuffle 
along  rapidly,  though  awkwardly.  They  swim  remarkably 
well,  though  low  in  the  water,  and  excel  in  diving,  whether 
for  amusement,  safety,  or  food,  which  last  consists  of  insects, 
mollusks,  the  fry  of  fish,  and  marine  or  other  aquatic  vege- 
tables. They  take  wing  unwillingly  as  a  security  from  dan- 
ger, relying  more  confidently  on  their  powers  of  diving  and 
swimming  as  the  means  of  escape,  than  on  those  of  flight. 
Though  they  are  often  strong,  steady,  rapid,  and  enduring 
in  their  passage  through  the  air,  they  generally  fly  low, 
laboriously,  and  with  a  whistling  soond. 

This  sabfiunily  may  be  consideied  to  be  monogamous^ 


\  P  U  L 

and  the  nest  is  frequently  made  near  the  fresh  waters ;  the 
female  alone  incubating,  though  both  parents,  in  several  of 
the  species  at  least,  strin  the  down  from  their  breasts  as  a 
covering  for  the  e^gs,  wnich  are  numerous. 

Geographical  Distribution. — ^The  North  maybe  considered 
the  great  nive  of  the  f\i/t^t4/tit£p  ;  though  some  of  the  forma 
are  spread  over  the  greater  part  of  the  globe.  Large  flocks 
are  seen  to  migrate  periodically,  keeping  for  the  most  part 
the  line  of  the  sea-coast,  and  flying  and  feeding  generally 
by  night,  though  often,  especially  in  hazy  or  blowing  wea- 
ther, by  day. 

SouATERXA*    (Leach.) 

Oenerie  Character. — Bill  smaU,  with  the  base  elevated 
and  extending  up  the  forehead,  where  a  central  pointed  line 
of  feathers  divides  it;  the  anterior  extremity  narrow  but 
blunt;  nostrils,  mesial;  neck,  thick;  wings,  short;  ter- 
tiaries  long,  and  generally  with  an  outward  curve,  so  as  to 
overlie  the  jmmaruv.  Tail  moderate,  consisting  of  14  fea- 
thers. 


Bill  of  Eidar  Dock. 

This  genus  is  peculiarly  marine.  Dr.  Richardson,  whose 
opportunities  of  observing  the  northern  birds  were  so  great, 
and  so  well  used,  says,  that  Somateria  spectabilis  and  mol- 
lissima  are  never,  as  he  believes,  seen  in  fresh  water ;  their 
food  consisting  mostly  of  the  soft  mollusca  in  the  Arctic 
Sea.  They  are,  he  says,  only  partially  migratory,  the  older 
birds  seldom  moving  farther  southwards  in  winter  than  to 
permanent  open  water.  He  states  that  some  eider  ducks 
pass  that  season  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  but  that  the 
king  ducks  {S.  spectabilis')  have  not  been  seen  to  the  south- 
ward of  the  o9th  parallel.  Audubon  however  says,  that  in 
the  depth  of  winter  the  latter  have  been  observed  off  the 
coast  of  Halifax,  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  Newruundland,  and 
that  a  few  have  been  obtained  off  Boston,  and  at  Eastport  in 
Maine. 

The  genus  is  remarkable  for  the  high  development  of  the 
exquisitely  soft  and  elastic  down  so  valuable  in  commerce, 
and  so  essential  to  the  keeping  up  of  the  proper  balance  of 
animal  heat  in  the  icy  regions  inhabited  by  these  birds.  We 
select  as  our  example  : — 

Somateria  mollissima  (Anas  mollissima,  Linn.),  the 
Eider  Duck.  This  is  the  Oie  d  duvet  ou  Eider  of  the  French ; 
Die  Eider gans  and  Eiterente  of  the  Germans  ;  Oca  Sett  en- 
trionale  of  the  Italians  (Stor.  degli  ucc.) ;  ihe  Eider  Goose, 
Eider  Duck,  St  CuthberVs  Duck,  Cuthbert-Duck,  or  Cutbert- 
Duck,  Great  black  and  while  Duck,  nxiA  Colk  Winter  Duck,ot 
the  modem  British ;  Hwvad  fwythblu,  of  the  ancient  Bri- 
tish ;  Dunter  Duck,  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  residents ;  and 
Mittek,  of  the  Esquimaux. 

The  following  is  Dr.  Richardson's  description  of  a  male 
killed  June,  14,  1822,  at  Winter  Island,  66«*  ll^'N.  lat. 
Colour.  Circumference  of  the  frontal  plates,  forehead,  crown, 
and  under  eye-lid,  deep  Scotch  blue ;  hind  head,  nape  and 
temples,  siskin-green.  Stripe  on  the  top  of  the  head,  cheeks, 
chin,  neck,  breast,  back,  scapulars,  lesser  coverts,  curved 
tertiaries,  sides  of  the  rump,  and  under  wing-coverts,  white ; 
the  tertiariea  tinged  with  greenish  yellow,  and  the  breast 
with  buff.    Greater  coverts,  quills^  rump,  tail  and  its  oo- 


F  U  L 


FU  L 


verts,  ftad  the  ufider  plumage  pitch  bteek;  the  end  of  the 
quills  and  Uil  fading  to  brown.  BilK  oil-green*  lAg9t 
greenish  yellow. 

Fnrm.  Bill  prolonged  on  the  lengthened,  depressed  fore- 
head, into  two  narrow  flat  plates  that  are  separated  by  an 
angular  projection  of  the  frontal  plumage.  Natriii  net 
pervious,  f^eckt  short  and  thick.  IVingt  nearly  three  in- 
ches shorter  than  the  tail.  Hind  toe  attenuated  posteriorly 
into  a  broad  lobe.  The  length  of  this  bird  was  25  inches 
6  lines. 

Female,  Pale  rufous  or  yellowish  brown  with  black  bars ; 
mng'caverte  black » with  ferruginous  edges ;  greater  coverts 
and  secondariee  with  narrow  white  tips ;  head  and  upper 
part  of  the  neck  striped  with  dnsky  lines.  Beneath^  brown 
with  obscure  darker  blotches. 

Young  ai  the  age  of  a  week.  Of  a  dark  mouse  colour, 
thickly  covered  with  soft  warm  down. 

young  male.  Like  the  female;  and  not  appearing  in 
the  full  adult  male  plumage  till  the  fourth  year. 

Geographical  Distribution,— -The  icy  seas  of  the  North 
appear  to  be  the  principal  localities  of  this  species.  Cap- 
tain, now  Major  Edward  Sabine,  enumerates  it  among  the 
animals  whicn  were  met  with  during  the  period  in  which 
the  expedition  under  Captain  Parry  remained  within  the 
Arctic  circle.  He  mentions  it  as  abundant  on  the  shores 
of  Davis*  Straits  and  Baffin*s  Bay ;  but  adds,  that  deriving 
its  food  principally  from  the  sea,  it  was  not  met  with  after 
the  entrance  of  the  ships  into  the  Polar  Ocean,  where  so 
little  open  water  is  found.  The  females  were  without  the 
bands  on  the  wings  described  by  authors.  (Appendix  to  Cap- 
tain Sir  W.  E.  Pane's  First  Voyage,  1819—20.)  The  late 
lamented  Captain  Lyon  saw  the  Eider  in  Duke  of  York's 
Bay.  {Journal.)  Captain  James  Ross  (Appendix  to  Cap- 
tain Sir  John  Ross's  Last  Voyage),  notices  vast  numbers  of 
the  king  duck  as  resorting  annually  to  the  shores  and  islands 
of  the  Arctic  regions  in  the  breeding  season,  and  as  having 
on  many  occasions  afforded  a  valuable  and  salutary  supply 
of  fresh  provision  to  the  crews  of  the  vessels  employed  in 
those  seas.  Speaking  of  the  eider  duck  he  says,  it  is  so  si- 
milar in  its  habits  to  the  king  duck,  that  the  same  remarks 
apply  equally  to  both.  In  Lapland,  Norway,  Iceland,  Green- 
land, and  at  Spitsbergen,  the  eider  duck  is  very  abundant ; 
and  it  abounds  also  at  Bering*s  Island,  the  Kuriles,  the  Heb- 
rides, and  Orkneys.  In  Sweden  and  Denmark  it  is  said  to 
be  more  rare,  and  in  Germany  to  be  only  observed  as  a  pas- 
senger. Temminck  states  that  the  young  only  are  seen  on 
the  coasts  of  the  ocean,  and  that  tne  old  ones  never  show 
themselves.  Captain  James  Ross,  in  the  Appendix  above 
alluded  to,  speaking  of  the  eider  down,  says  tnat  the  down 
of  the  king  duck  is  equally  excellent,  and  is  collected  in 
great  quantities  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Danish  colonies  in 
Greenland,  forming  a  valuable  source  of  revenue  to  Den- 
mark. A  vast  quantity  of  this  down,  he  adds,  is  also  col- 
lected on  the  coast  of  Norway,  and  in  some  parts  of  Sweden. 
The  eider  duck  is  found  throughout  Arctic  America,  and  is 
said  to  wander,  in  severe  winters,  as  far  south  to  sea  as  the 
capes  of  the  Delaware.  From  November  to  the  middle  of 
February,  small  numbers  of  old  birds  are  usually  seen  to- 
wards the  extremities  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  along  the 
coast  of  Maine.  A  few  pairs  have  been  known  to  breed  on 
some  rocky  islands  beyond  Portland,  and  M.  Auduboa 
found  several  nesting  on  the  island  of  (jrrand  Manan  in  the 
Bay  of  Fundy.  The  Prince  of  Musignano  notes  it  as  rare 
ana  adventitious  in  the  winter  at  Philadelphia.  The  most 
southern  brecdins;  place  in  Europe  is  said  to  be  the  Fern  or 
Fam  Isles,  on  the  cuiist  of  Northumberland. 

Habits,  Rej^roduction^  &c. — Willuijhby,  quoting  Wor- 
mius,  says  that  the  Eider  Ducks  *  build  themselves  nests 
on  the  rocks,  and  lay  good  store  of  very  savoury  and  well- 
tasted  eggs ;  for  tlie  getting  of  which  the  neighbouring 
people  let  themselven  down  by  ropes  dangerously  enough, 
and  with  the  same  labour  gather  the  feathers  {Eider  aun 
our  people  call  them),  which  are  very  soft  and  fit  to  stuff 
beds  and  quilts ;  for  in  a  small  quantity  they  dilate  them* 
selves  muck  (being  very  springy)  and  warm  the  body  above 
any  others.  These  birds  are  wont  at  set  times  to  moult 
their  feathers,  enriching  the  fowlers  with  this  desirable 
merchandize.*  Willughby  also  remarks  that  '  when  its 
voung  ones  are  hatched  it  takes  them  to  the  sea  and  never 
looks  at  land  till  next  breeding  time,  nor  is  seen  anywhere 
about  our  coasts.'  This  early  account  is  in  the  main  cor- 
rect; but  there  are  two  kinds  of  Eider  down:  the  live 
down^  aa  it  is  termed,  and  ib»deaddou/n;  tlM  latt«r»  which 


is  eonaidered  to  be  Tery  inferior  in  qualitf,  is  thai  takea 
from  the  dead  bird.  The  down  of  superior  quality,  or  live 
down,  is  that  which  the  duck  strips  from  herself  to  cherish 
her  eggs.  Its  lightness  and  elasticity  are  such,  it  is  asserted, 
that  two  or  three  pounds  of  it  squeezed  into  a  ball  which 
may  be  held  in  the  hand  will  swell  out  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  fill  a  ease  large  enough  for  the  foot  covering  of  a  bed. 
It  is  collected  in  the  following  manner :  The  female  is  suf- 
fered to  lav  her  five  or  six  e^ggs,  which  are  about  three 
inohei  in  length  and  two  in  breadth.  These,  which  are 
very  palatable,  are  taken,  and  she  strips  herself  a  second 
time  to  supply  the  subsequent  eggs.  If  this  second  batch 
be  abstracted,  the  female  being  unable  to  supply  any  more 
down,  the  male  plucks  his  breast,  and  his  contribution  is 
known  by  its  pale  colour.  The  last  deposit,  which  rarelv 
consists  of  more  than  two  or  three  eggs,  is  always  left ;  fur 
if  deprived  of  this  their  last  hope,  the  bereaved  birds  for- 
sake the  inhospitable  place;  whereas,  if  suffered  to  rear 
their  young,  the  parents  return  the  following  year  with 
their  progeny.  The  Quantity  of  down  afforded  by  one  fe- 
male during  the  whole  period  of  laying  is  stated  at  half  a 
pound  neat,  the  quantity  weighing  nearly  a  pound  before  it 
IS  cleansed.  Of  this  down  Troil  states  that  the  Iceland  com- 
pany sold  in  one  year  (1750)  as  much  as  brought  85U/.  ster- 
ling, besides  what  was  sent  to  Gliickstadt. 

The  haunts  of  birds  capable  of  producing  so  valuable 
an  article  are  not  unlikely  to  be  objects  of  peculiar  care ' 
we  accordingly  find  that  in  Iceland  and  Norway  the  dis- 
tricts resorted  to  by  them  are  reckoned  valuable  property, 
and  are  strictly  preser>'ed.  Every  one  is  anxious  to  inducu 
the  Eiders  to  take  up  their  position  on  his  own  estate ;  and 
when  they  show  a  disposition  to  settle  on  any  islet,  the  pro- 
prietor has  been  known  to  remove  the  cattle  and  dogs  to  the 
mainland  in  order  to  make  way  for  a  more  valuable  stock, 
which  might  be  otherwise  disturbed.  In  some  cases,  arti- 
ficial islets  have  been  made  by  separating  promontories 
from  the  continent ;  and  these  Eider  tenements  are  handed 
down  from  father  to  son  like  any  other  inheritance.  Not 
withstanding  all  this  care  to  keep  the  birds  undisturbed, 
they  are  not,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  scared  by  the 
vicinity  of  man,  in  some  places  at  least.  We  proceed  to 
give  the  personal  observations  of  some  of  those  who  ha\c 
visited  Eider  settlements:^' When  I  visited  the  Fam 
Isles,*  writes  Pennant  (it  was  on  the  i5th  July,  1769),  *  I 
found  the  ducks  sitting,  and  took  some  of  the  nests,  the 
base  of  which  was  formed  of  sea-plants,  and  covered  with 
the  down.  After  separating  it  carefully  from  the  plants,  it 
weighed  only  three-quarters  of  an  ounce,  yet  was  so  elastic 
as  to  fill  a  larger  space  than  the  crown  of  the  greatest  hat 
These  ulrds  are  not  numerous  on  the  isles ;  and  it  was  ob- 
served that  the  drakes  kept  on  those  most  remote  from  the 
sitting-places.  The  ducks  continue  on  their  nests  till  you 
come  almost  close  to  them,  and  when  they  rise  are  very 
slow  fliers.  The  number  of  eggs  in  each  nest  was  from  three 
to  five,  warmly  bedded  in  the  down,  of  a  pale  ohve  colour, 
and  very  large,  glossy  and  smooth.*  Horrebow  declares 
that  one  may  walk  among  these  birds  while  they  are  sitting 
without  scaring  them ;  and  Sir  George  Mackenzie,  during 
his  travels  in  Iceland,  had  an  opportunity,  on  the  8th  June 
at  Vidoe,  of  observing  the  Eider  aucks,  at  all  other  times  of 
the  year  perfectly  wild,  assembled  for  the  great  work  of  in- 
eubation.  The  boat,  in  its  approach  to  the  shore,  passed 
multitudes  of  these  binls,  which  hardly  moved  out  of  the 
way ;  and,  between  the  landing-place  and  tlie  governor's 
house,  it  required  some  caution  to  avoid  treading  on  the 
nests,  while  the  drakes  were  walking  about,  even  more 
familiar  than  common  ducks,  and  uttering  a  sound  which 
was  like  the  cooing  of  doves.  The  ducks  were  sitting  on 
their  nests  all  round  the  house,  on  the  garden  wall,  on  the 
roofs,  nay  even  in  the  inside  of  the  houses  and  in  the 
chapel.  Those  which  had  not  been  long  on  the  ne^^t  gene- 
rally left  it  when  they  were  approached ;  but  those  that  hud 
more  than  one  or  two  eggs  sat  perfectly  quiet  and  suA'ciiMl 
the  party  to  touch  them,  though  they  sometimes  gentl\  u- 

Eclled  the  intrusive  hand  with  their  bills.  But,  if  a  drake 
appen  to  be  near  his  mato  when  thus  visited,  he  becomes 
extremely  agitated.  He  passes  to  and  fro  between  her  and 
the  suspicious  object,  raising  his  head  and  cooing. 

M.  Audubon  saw  them  in  great  numbers  on  the  coa^t 
of  Labrador — where,  by  the  way,  tho  down  is  neglected* — 

*  Aodoboa  Mjt  th«t  Um  erf nv  of  labrador  collect  H;  U\\,  at  tlm  Mime 
tfnM,  .make  Mioh«hafoc  among  the  birds,  llui  at  ao  rtxy  tHatanl  pMiod  \hm 


put, 

cmplojed  about  their  neits,  which  they  begin  to  form  about  I 
the  end  of  M*y.  The;  arrive  there  and  on  the  ooMt*  of 
NeiTfbundlsnd  about  the  flnt  of  that  month.  The  eggt 
vetf  of  a  duUcreenish-whilA,  and  smooth,  from  six  to  ten 
in  number.  The  nest  was  uiually  placed  under  the  ibelter 
ofa  low  proetrate  branched  and  dwarf  fir*;  and  Knuetimes 
there  were  aevBial  under  the  tame  bush,  within  a  ftwt  or 
two  of  each  other.  The  ground-work  of  the  nesta  oonsiitsd 
of  (CA-weedR  and  mow,  and  the  female  did  not  add  the 
down  till  ibe  e^a  were  laid,  "nie  duck,  having  at  this 
time  acquired  an  attachment  for  her  eggs,  waa  easily  ap- 
proached, and  her  flight  was  even  and  rather  slow.  Audu- 
bon stales  that,  as  soon  as  incubation  has  commenced,  the 
males  leave  the  land  and  join  blether  in  large  flocks  out 
tt  sea ;  they  begin  to  moult  in  J  uly,  and  soon  become  so 
bare  as  to  be  scarcely  able  to  rise  from  the  water.  By  the 
1st  of  August,  according  to  the  same  author,  scarcelyui 
Eider  Duck  was  to  be  seen  on  the  coast  of  Labrador.  The 
young,  as  soon  aa  hatched,  are  led  by  the  female  to  the 
water,  where  they  remain,  except  at  night  and  in  stormy 
weather.  Their  greatest  feathered  enemy  is  the  Saddle- 
backed  Gull,  or  Black-backed  Gull  ILarui  marittut),  which 
devours  the  ^gs  and  young,  but  whose  pursuit  the  young, 
after  they  have  left  the  nest,  elude  by  diving,  at  whiob 
both  old  and  young  are  very  expert. 


According  to  Brunnich  and  others,  the  male  utters 
hoarse  nnd  moaning  cry  at  the  pairing  time,  but  the  cry  of 
the  female  is  like  that  of  the  common  duok.  Both  sexes 
assist  in  forming  the  nest,  though  the  female  only  sits : 
the  male  watches  in  the  vicinity,  and  gives  notice  of  the 
danger.  This  teems  to  be  conflrmed  by  the  account  given 
of  the  nesting-place  at  Vidiie.  Sometimes  two  females  de- 
posit their  eggs  in  ibe  same  nest,  and  sit  amicably  together. 
The  Gulli  are  not  their  only  enemies  in  addition  to  two, 
for  the  Ravens  often  suck  their  eggs  and  kill  their  young. 
At  sea,  aeveral  hatches  congreealG,  led  by  the  females, 
and  there  they  may  be  seen  splashing  the  water  in  the  shal- 
■  ia-».ii  .-jj-..  a...  .1.- . r~'-'-'T.  "l-i-"r-^r(iTiiii. 


lows,  to  beat  up  the  small  crustaceans  and  nollusks,  and 
diving  in  deeper  water  forthe  larger  marine  animals,  among 
which  muscles  and  other  concbirers,  lurMuated  testaceans, 

id  occasionally  sea-eggs  {Echini)  are  said  to  be  taken. 
Utility  to  Man.—ThA  down  above  described  is  Ihe  prin- 

pol  tribute  paid  by  the  Eider  Duck  lo  man:  but  the 
Indian  and  Oreenlander  eat  the  ftesh,  which  is  dark  and 
fishy,  and  their  skin  is  converted  into  a  worm  inner  gar- 
ment. According  to  Sir  W.  E.  Parry,  the  Esquimaux  In- 
dians catch  these  birds  with  ipringes  made  of  whalebone, 
and  take  the  eggs  wherever  they  can  find  them.  The  skin, 
prepared  with  the  feathers  on,  forms  an  article  of  commerce, 
particularly  with  the  Chinese,  M.  Audubon  is  of  opinion  that 
if  this  valuable  bird  weTedomesticated.il  would  prove  a  great 
SM^uisition,  both  on  account  of  its  donn,  and  iis  Hcsh  as  an 
article  of  food ;  and  he  is  persuaded  ihat  very  little  atten- 
tion would  effect  this.  Indeed,  it  appears  that  the  experi- 
ment was  made  at  Bastport  with  success,  but  the  greater 
number  of  the  ducks  were  shot,  being  taken  by  gunners 
for  wild  birds.  The  same  author  says  that,  when  in  cap- 
tivity, it  feeds  on  different  kinds  of  grain  and  moistened 
corn-meal,  when  its  flesh  becomes  excellent.  Mr.  Selby 
succeeded  twice  in  rearing  Eiders  from  the  egg,  and  kept 
them  alive  upwards  of  a  year,  when  they  were  accidentally 
killed. 

Oidomia.  {Fleming.'i 
Oaurie  Character. — Bill,  broad  with  dilated  margins, 
and  coarse  lamellifbrm  teeth,  gibbous  above  the  NottriU, 
wfakh  ai«  nearly  mesial,  large  and  elevated.    Tail,  of  four- 
teen feMhera. 

The  OidgmuB  seek  their  food  at  sea  principally;  and 
have  oblained  the  name  of  SurfDveht,  from  frequenting 
ita  edge.  The  prevailing  colour  of  the  tribe  is  black  in  the 
male,  and  brown  in  the  female.  Tbe  plumage  is  very  thick 
and  close;   and,  according  to  Audubon,  tbe  dawn  in  the 

VtlvetDueh  iOidemia/tuea)  is  similar  to  that  of  the  £td«r 
Dvek,  and  apparently  of  equal  quality.  Their  flesh  is 
high-flavoured  and  oily,  according  to  Dr.  Richardson,  who 
gives  that  character  to  the  flesh  of  three  species,  viz.  Oi- 
aemicB  pertpidllata,  Jiaea,  and  nigra.  The  two  former, 
according  to  that  enterprising  zoologist,  breed  on  tbe 
Arctic  coasts,  migrate  southward  in  company  with  Clan- 
gula  (Harelda  t)  glaeiaiit,  hailing  both  on  the  shores  of 

Hudson's  Bay  and  on  the  lakes  of  the  interior,  aa  long  as 
they  remain  open,  and  then  feed  on  tender  shelly  mollusca. 

Oiaemia  nigra,  he  adds,  frequents  tbe  shores  of  Hudson's 
Bay,  and  breeds  between  the  5Dth  and  60th  parallels.  It 
was  not  seen  by  Dr.  Richardson  and  his  companions  in  the 
interior.     We  select,  as  an  example — 

Oidemia  peripicillata,  Anat  pertpicillala  of  Linnieus, 
the  Black  or  Sur/Duck.  This  is  the  Macreune  d  large  bee 
ou  Marchand  and  Canard  Marchand  of  the  French,  the 
Black  Duek  of  Pennant,  and  the  Great  Black  Duck  from 
Hvdtoiie  Bay  of  Edwards. 


Bm  of  OidemU  p«n]kkiLlftU, 

DeKnpHon.—MaU,  velvet  black,  with  a  reddish  re 
flexion.  Throat  brownish.  A  broad  while  band  between 
the  eyes,  and  a  triangular  patch  of  the  same  on  ilie  nape. 
Bill  reddish  orange,  the  nail  paler ;  a  square  bla<:k  tpot  on 
the  lateral  protuberance.  Lege  onagt^  webs  brown.  Bill 
mtich  like  that  of  the  Veloel  Duck  (Ottimua  /tteca),  but 


F  U  L 


the  laleral  protubcranccc  ore  n&kod  uid  homf,  and  the 
central  ono  it  fealheretl  farther  dovo.  The  lamina  ve 
diilnnt,  ind  the  lower  onos  particululy  prominent,  with 
culling  ed|;es.  Aa  In  the  other  Oidemur,  me  bill  and  fore- 
head  are  inflated,  earning  the  head  to  appear  lengthened 
and  the  crown  dcpreised.  The  nottriU  are  talher  laige, 
and  nearer  to  the  point  than  to  the  rictus.  Length  2i  inchea. 
(Dr.  RichiTd«on.  from  a  hird  killed  at  Fort  Franklin.) 

F^maie  and  Young. — Black  aahy  hrown  whereveT  the 
male  iH  deep  black.  Head  and  neck  lighter ;  frontal  hand 
and  great  angular  apace  upon  the  nape  indicated  by  very 
bright  aihy  brown.  Lateral  protuberances  of  the  btU  but 
HllTe  developed,  and  the  whole  hill  of  an  aahv  yelloirish 
colour.  Feet  and  toet  brovn ;  uxb*  black.  (Temminck.) 
Dr.  Richardson  observes  that  the  under  plumage  in  parti- 
cular ii  paler,  that  ihc  back  and  trt'wf  coverit  are  narrowly 
edged  with  grey,  that  the  brciat.JlankM,  and  ear*  have  some 
wliilibh  edgings,  that  the  bill  is  black,  its  base  not  so  much 
indated.  and  that  the  noilrili  are  smaller  than  in  the  male. 

GengTophirat  Distribution. — Rare  and  accidental  in  thi 
Orcadcd,  and  in  the  higher  latitude*  towards  the  pole 
very  rare  in  the  cold  and  temperate  countries  bathed  by  the 
ocean;  very  common  and  numerous  in  America,  at  J 
son's  and  Baffin's  Bajs.  Such  is  Tcmminck's  account 
Nutlall  says  that  this specicsof  duck,  wiih  other  dark  kinds 
commonly  called  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic  'coots,' 
may  be  properly  considered  as  on  American  species;  its 
visiti  in  the  Orkneys  and  European  seas  being  merely  ac- 
cidenlal.  They  breed  on  the  Arctic  cuasts,  and  extend  their 
residence  1^  the  opposite  side  of  the  conlinenl,  having  been 
feen  at  Noolka  Sound  by  Cautain  Cuok.  The  bird  is  not 
Mentioneil  in  the  notice  of  ihc  animuU  which  were  met 
uiili  during  iho  period  in  which  the  expedition  remained 
ivithin  Ilie  Arctic  Circle,  appended  to  <Jap<ain  Sir  W.  E. 
Parry's  First  Vojage,  nor  in  Captain  James  Ross's  Ap- 
iieiidix  to  Captain  Sir  John  Ross's  ]..ast  Voyage.  The 
Prince  of  Muaignano  notes  it  as  very  commoil,  and  moat 
Abundiint  in  the  sea  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  ahore  at 
Philtidelphia. 

llabilf,  Rrproduction,  ^e.—\n  aummer  the  Surf  Duck 
fuL'ds  principally  in  the  sea,  and  haunts  shallow  estuaries, 
liars  and  bavs,  where  it  may  be  seen  constantly  diving  for 
ils  Khelly  food.  The  surf  is  a  favourite  slalion  with  it. 
lliids>iir»  Bay  nnd  Labrador  ore  among  its  breeding  places, 
and  ilic  lie.^1  is  fiimitd  of  giass  wiih  a  lining  of  down  or 
fi'iitliers  oil  llie  bordera  of  freah-waler  ponds.  The  eggs 
are  white,  and  from  four  to  six  in  number.  The  young  are 
hatcheil  in  July,  and  detained  on  the  borders  of  the  ponds, 
irhere  they  were  exclude<l  rrom  the  cgi;,  until  thev  are  able 
to  Ily.  Their  migrations  extend  to  Florida,  but  liiey  often 
remain  throughout  the  winter  along  the  shores  and  open 
bays  of  the  United  Stales.  At  the  end  of  April  or  early  in 
Mav  they  again  proceed  northward. 

t/lilHy  to  Man— The  flesh  of  the  old  birds  is  very  dark, 
red,  ana  fishy  when  dressed ;  the  young  are  of  bellor 
flavour.  They  are  hoivcvcr  often  eaten  by  Ihe  inhabitants 
of  the  coasts  frequented  by  them;  and  being dillicull  to 
approach,  they  are  decoyed  by  means  of  a  wooden  figure  of 
a  auck  of  the  same  general  appearance  with  themwlvet. 


8  F  tJ  L 

Fuligula.  (Ray.) 

Gtnene  CharactrT.—'BiU  flat,  broad,  long,  with  hardly 
any  gibbosity  at  the  hue,  and  rather  dilated  at  the  ex- 
tnmity.  NiMlriU  suboval,  basal.  Tail  short,  ori4liM- 
thers.  graduated  laterally.     First  quill  longeat 

The  aea,  and  iu  bays  and  estuaries,  are  the  vindpal 
haunta  of  this  ganus.  Dr.  Ricbardaon  stalas  that  Putigula 
Valitneria,  /erina,  tnarila,  and  rujllorquei.  breed  in  all 
parts  of  the  fur  countriea,  from  the  SOlb  parallel  to  their 
most nortliam  limits,  and  associate  much  on  the  water  with 
the  Analirut.  Fuligula  nibida,  he  remarks,  Irequenli  the 
small  lakei  of  the  mierior  up  to  the  SHih  parallel,  and  hi- 
adds  that  it  is  very  unwilling  to  lake  wing,  and  dives  re- 
markably well.  In  swimming,  according  to  the  same  ob- 
server, it  carries  its  tail  erect,  and,  from  the  shortnc^  of 
its   neck,  nearly  as  high  at  ils  head,  which,  at  _■ 


TlK- 


of  Wilson,  may  be  selectal  as  an  illustration  of  Ihe  genus. 

DeteripHon. — ^The  following  accurate  description  of  a 
male,  killed  on  the  Saskatchewan  on  the  3rd  of  May,  l-'27. 
is  given  by  Dr.  Richardson  in'  Fauna  Boresli- American  J.' 
CoTiHw.— Reeioii  of  the  bill,  top  of  the  head,  chin,  base  of 
the  neck,  and  adjoining  parts  of  the  breast  and  back,  rum)-, 
upper  and  under  tail-coverta,  pitch-black ;  sides  of  the  beuii 
and  the  neck  reddish-orange ;  middle  of  the  back,  scapuluR>, 
wing-coverts,  tips  of  the  seconrlarifS,  tertiaries,  Hank-, 
posterior  part  of  the  belly  and  thighs,  greyish-white,  flntly 
undulated  Willi  hair-brown  ;  primaries  and  their  covtis 
hair-brown,  their  tip*  darkest;  secondaries  ash-grey,  tippid 
with  white;  the  two  adjoining  tertiaries  edged  with  bLic'.. 
Belly  while,  faintly  undulated  on  the  medial  line.  In  some 
specimens  the  while  parts  are  glossed  with  fetTUBlnoii!'. 
Bill  and  Ug*.  bUckish-brown.  Form.— Bill  lengthened, 
the  depressed  frontal  angle  longer,  the  nostrils  farther 
from  the  front,  and  the  unguis  differently  shaped  aiid 
smaller  than  ia  Fuligula  ferina  {\he  Pochard);  theu/Kc 
lamina  flat,  cuneale,  not  prominent,  and  confined  wiihiii 
the  margin  of  Ine  mandible.  The  bill  and  head  of  iIil- 
Canvass-back  approach  somewhat  to  the  form  of  ihe  A"'"'^ 
Duck,  being  much  lengthened,  and  of  equal  brendih 
throughout.     Firil  qttill  the  longest.     Length,  34  inchi^ 

Frmo/e.— Ground  colour  of  the  upper  plumage  and  flan'.> 
liver-brown ;  sides  of  the  head,  neck,  nnd  breast,  fuTni/i- 
nous;  shoulders,  shorter  scapulars,  and  under  pluinu;.'. 
edged  with  the  same.  Middle  of  the  back  and  winjj-cjii'tii 
clove-brown,  finely  undulaled  with  greyish-white.  Tli.  t^ 
arenounduhted  markings  on  theleriiariesand  seco:;!Drii%, 
and  only  a  few  on  the  lips  of  the  scapulars.  Bill  as  in  liio 
male;  the  neck  more  slender.    (Dr.  Richardson.) 


BDl  nrCiBTUrUeli  Dock. 
peograpkicai  Dittribulion. — We  have  above  gi^-en  Dr. 
Iticbardsou's  account  of  its  breeding  from  the  SDlh  parallel 
to  the  most  northern  limit*  of  the  fur  countries.  Wlien 
the  worlL  of  incubation  is  past,  flocka  of  CaovaM-becLs 
pursue  their  course  to  the  southward,  and  arrive  about  ibc 
tniddle  of  October  on  the  sea-coasta  of  the  United  Slates. 
The  Hudson,  the  Delaware,  and  the  faaya  of  North  (Jar.- 

•  Coaa  AUbjs  (Ddii), 


P  U  L 

lina,  are  Tisited  hy  Mine  of  these  flock* ;  and  it  is  stated 
that  they  are  abundant  in  the  river  Neuse,  in  the  vicinitf 
of  Newbern,  and  probably  in  most  of  the  other  soulhero 
waters  doim  to  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Meitico,  being  seen 
in  winler  in  the  mild  climale  of  New  Orleans,  at  which 
season  a  few  pairs  arrive  in  Masiachuaetts  Baj,  near  Cohaset 
and  Si.  Marlha'a  Vineyard.  But  it  is  to  Chesapeake  Bay, 
its  EBstuaries  and  rivers,  among  which  the  Susquehanna, 
the  Patapsco,  James's  River,  and  the  Potomac,  may  be 
particularly  mentioned,  that  the  great  multitude  of  Can- 
vasa-back  Ducks  resort,— (Wilson ;  Nuttall.J 

Habitt,  Food,  ^.  The  canvass-backa  associate  with  the 
pochards,  and  are  wailed  upon  by  Ihe  bald-pates  or  wigeons 
iMareca  Americana),  which  rob  them  in  the  manner  de- 
scribed in  the  article  Ducks  (vol.  ix.  p.  ISJ).  -  They  are 
named  in  different  parts  of  the  Union  while-hacks  and 
sheldrakes,  as  well  as  eanvass-backs.  Zottrra  marina 
and  Rmipia  viaritima  form  their  food,  as  well  as  the  fresh- 
water raiisneria,  which  lost  is  limited  in  its  diatribulion. 
The  sea-wracks  or  eel-crass,  as  the  long  marine  v^^tables 
above  alluded  to  are  called  in  America,  are  widely  spread  over 
the  Atlantic,  and  over  the  mud-Hats,  bays,  and  inlets  whore 
salt  or  brackish  water  Hnds  access.  The  canvass-hacks 
dive  for  and  generally  pluck  up  the  sea-wrack,  and  feed 
only  on  the  most  tender  portion  near  the  root.  They  are 
leryshy  birds,  and  most  difficult  to  be  approached.  Various 
Blratagems  are  resorted  to  for  getting  within  gunshot  of 
them  ;  and  in  severe  winters  artificial  openings  ore  made 
in  the  ice,  to  which  the  ducks  crowd  and  fall  a  sacrifice  to 
their  eagerness  to  obtain  food.  That  they  will  eat  seeds 
and  grain  as  well  as  sea-wrack,  &c.,  was  proved  by  the  loss 
uf  a  vessel  loaded  with  wheat  near  the  entrance  of  Great 
Kgg  Harbour,  New  Jersey,  to  which  great  flocks  of  canvoss- 
backs  were  attracted.  Upon  this  occasion  as  many  as  240 
were  killed  in  one  day.  (Wilson  ;  Nuttall.) 

UHtity  to  Man. — The  canvass-back,  which  is  lean  on 
its  first  arri\-al  in  the  United  Stales,  becomes,  in  November, 
about  ihiee  pounds  in  weight,  and  in  high  order  for  the 
table:  there  are  few  birds  which  grace  tne  board  better. 
The  Prince  of  Muaignano  is  etoauent  in  its  praise :  *  Carne 
della  massima  squisitezzo,  granaemente  ricercata  dai  gas- 
tronomi.  La  miglioce  dello  Anitre.  Forse  il  miglior  uccello 
d'Ainerica.'  Any  attempt  to  introduce  the  binl  into  Eng' 
land  WDuI'l,  it  is  feared,  proi'e  a  failure;  for  even  if  the 
ordinary  ditEculties  should  be  got  over,  the  absence  of  the 
food  to  which  it  is  supposed  to  owe  its  exquisite  Havour 
would  reader  the  success  of  the  experiment  very  doublAil.* 


Clanguls  (Boi£>. 

Bin  narrow,  elevated  at  the  base,  somewhat  attenuated 
at  the  anterior  extremity,  and  short.  NotlriU  inclining  to 
oval,  submesial,  or  rather  anterior  to  Ihe  middle  of  the  bill. 
Tail  rather  long,  of  16  feathers  generally. 

Though  many  of  this  genus  frequent  Ine  sea,  the  species 
are  more  generally  met  with  in  the  fVesh  waters  than  the 
other  Sea  Ducks,  Thus  Dr.  Richardson  remarks  thai 
Clanguia  vulgari*  (Common  Golden  Eye)  and  albeola 
rSpint  Duck)  frequent  the  rivers  and  fresh-water  lakes 
throughout  the  fiir  conr.triea  in  great  numbers.    They  arc, 

■  Tilt  WMtiTD  Duck  IFtSftda  SItUfrO  h>i  Ixin  *1iTi>itd  lo  •  Etani  b> 
Rtba  auWr  Ih*  nun*  ot  CelSdttr. 
P.  C,  No.  659. 


as  he  stales,  by  no  means  shy,  allowing  a  near  approaeli  to 
the  sportsman ;  but  at  the  flash  of  a  gun  or  even  at  the 
twang  of  a  bow,  they  dive  so  suddenly  that  they  ore  seldom 
killed.  Hence  the  natives  impute  supernatural  powers  to 
them,  as  the  appellations  of  'Conjuring  DuckH*  and 
'  Spirit  Ducks'  sufficiently  testify.  Dr.  Riuhardson  says 
that  the  manners  of  Clangulo  Barrovii  (Richardson  and 
Swainson),  described  in  'Fauna  Boreal i- Americana,'  and 
which  has  hitherto  been  found  only  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  do  not  differ  from  those  of  the  Common 
Golden  Eye.  He  speaks  of  Clan^lu  hiilrionica  as  haunt- 
ing eddies  under  cascades  and  rapid  streams,  as  very 
vigilant,  taking  wing  at  once  when  disturbed,  as  rare,  and 
as  never  associating,  as  far  as  he  saw,  with  any  other  bird. 
The  high  northern  latitudes  may  be  considered  generally 
as  the  localities  of  this  genus,*  which  we  proceed  lo  illus- 
trate by  Clanguia  albeola,  Ataa  albeola  of  Linneus,  th« 
^ril  Duck. 


This  is  the  Sugil  Duck  of  Pennont ;  the  Bi^ei't  Head 
Duck  of  Calesby ;  Ihe  Liitle  black  and  toAite  Duck  of  Ed- 
wards ;  ihe  Sujfel- headed  Duck  of  Wilson ;  Wakai»hte~ 
wefsheep.  Wain  haisheep,  and  Wappano-sheep  of  the  Croe 
and  Chippeway  Indians. 

Dr.  Richardson  thus  describes  a  male  and  iemale  killed 
on  the  Saskatchewan. in  May,  1827. 

Malt.— Colour.  Forehead,  region  of  the  bill,  nuchal 
crest,  and  upper  sides  of  the  neck  rich  duck  green,  blendinr 
with  the  resplendent  auricula-purple  of  the  top  of  Ihe  head 
and  throat.  Broad  ba:id  from  the  eye  to  the  tip  of  Ihe  oo- 
cipital  crest,  loner  half  of  the  neck,  the- shoulders,  exterior 
scapulars,  intermediate  and  greater  coverts,  outer  webs  of 
five  or  six  secondaries,  flanks,  and  under  plnmage  to  the 
vent  pure  white.  Back,  long  scapulars,  and  tertiariei 
velvet  black;  lesser  coverts  bordering  the  wing  the  same, 
edged  with  while;  primaries  and  their  coverts  brownish- 
black.  Tail-coverts  blackish-grey ;  toil  broccoli-brown. 
Vent  and  under  tail-coverts  greyish.  Bill  bluish-black. 
Legt  yellowish.  In  many  sprine  specimens  the  under 
plumage  is  ash  grey.  Form.— Bill  smaller  in  proportion 
than  tnat  of  the  common  Garrot.  and  Ihe  nostrils  nearer 
the  ba.se ;  but  otherwise  similar.  Head  large,  with  Ihe 
upper  part  of  llie  neck  clothed  in  velvety  plumage,  rising 
into  a  short  thick  crest.  Wings  two  inches  and  a  half 
shorter  than  the  taiL  JoiV— lateral  feathers  graduated, 
three  middle  pairs  even.  Length  sixteen  inches ;  but  indi- 
viduals differ  in  size. 

Female. — Considerably  smaller.  Head  and  dorsal  plu- 
mage dork  blackish-brown ;  the  forepart  of  the  back,  sia- 
pulars,  and  tertiaries,  edged  with  yellowiiih  brown.     Foie 

Cof  the  neck,  sides  of  the  breast.  Honks,  and  veul- 
tiers,  hlackish-grey ;  breast  end  belly  while,  glossed 
with  brownish-orange.  White  hand  un  the  eon  and  occiput 
much  narrower  than  in  the  male.  The  white  speculum  is 
less  perfect,  and  Ihe  whole  of  Ihe  lesser  coverls  and  sca- 
pulars are  unspotted  blackiah-hrown.  Bill  aad/eel  brownish. 
Total  length  fourteen  inches  and  a  half. 

Voung  male*  resemble  the  females.    ('Fauna  Boteali- 
Americana.*) 
•  Th.  ConiiDOiiOold.iiEie.1 


f^U.'i" 


d  bi  T.  C 

IB  m>  Bciu 


it(CIaanJa  nJlorir.  Jmti  Cliaftim, 

i  Aguiri  Cludib  Ham^  lud  t-Un- 
rop«,  Ihe  fomrr  bsTiof  bHP  aavl  im 
la  knnhwiaikatn  IhquaajHp 

Vol.  XL-C 


10 


OeograpMeal  Z>t'rirt£irftOR.— Abunduit  in  the 
on  tha  riven  ind  freth-wHor  lake*  of  lbs  fur  e 
Id  •utumn  and  «inler  very  romraon  in  tho  Unitad  Slalei, 
■ometimes  on  the  te>-ahoTM.  Caleiliy  mjs  ihat  the  Buffel'i 
Head  Durk  appeva  in  Carolina  durini  tho  winter  only. 
On  the  rivor  NeuM,  in  Norlb  Carolina,  they  bave  been  seen 
in  abundance  in  February.  In  April  and  May  Ihono  in  tbe 
■ouih  lake  their  depwture  northward. 

Habitt.  Food,  Bsproduetiim.—Tidi  ipecies  i»  a  mo«t 
expert  diver,  wliMber  it  rcMrta  In  ihat  feat  aa  a  mode  of 
earape,  or  »a  ibe  means  of  procuring  tho  »ea-WTttck  and 
laver  (Ulea  /ac(u£a),and  cruslac«ans  and  moUuika,  which, 
al  parlicolar  leasons  of  ihe  year  wbon  it  visiU  the  tea  baya 
and  uU  marebea,  furm  ita  favourite  food.  The  rapidity  of 
its  diMppearance  from  the  surface,  and  tha  artful  way  in 
which  it  conreaU  itself  after  il  hai  vanished  under  water, 
have  earned  for  it  the  appropriate  name  of"  Spirit  Duck.' 
or  *  Conjurer.*  A  bird  is  rmrely  hit,  and  when  it  ia,  if  not 
killed  oulrighl,  it  can  rarely  bo  captured;  w  quick  is  Ibe 
Spirit  Duck  in  avoiding  Ihe  shot  aliugether,  and  so  dex- 
lerou*  in  eiadin«  ill  pursuer,  if  only  wounded.  About 
Hudson's  Bay  ihey  are  said  to  form  their  nests  in  hollow 
trees  in  woods  sdjacenl  to  water,    (Wilson  ;  Nuttall). 

Ulililt/  to  Man  —The  llcsh  of  the  Spirit  Duck  is  not  in 
high  repule  but  the  females  and  young  are  tender  and 
well-flavoured  in  the  winler.  The  bird  becomes  so  fat  that, 
in  Pennsjlvania  and  Nuw  Jersey,  it  b  commonly  called 
'  Butter-Box,'  or '  Buller-Ball.' 


(V  /h. 


h. 

/ 


or  Rirtldi  (Imd 


This  ia  tbe  Canard  d  longue  Queue,  ou  Canard  de 
Miclnn  of  tbe  French;  Euentn.  Wintar  Ente  of  the  Ger- 
mans ;  Ungta,  AnKellaikr.  Tratfnmer  of  the  Norwegians ; 
Oedel  of  the  Fcroe  lalandera ;  HaOld.  Ha-Blta  of  tbe 
Icelanders;  Sinailoui-tmUd  Sheldrake,  Sharp-tailed  Dudi, 
Calao.Calaw,  Coal  and  Candle  Light  of  the  modem  British  - 
Hwyad  gynffbn  gwennol  of  tbe  antient  Britiah ;  Old  (Vife 
and  Sval'lme-laiUd  Duck  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
-   -     '    ~  iiJi. 


Harelda.     (I^ch). 

Generie  Chararlfr.—Rilt  very  shorl,  high  a>  the  base,  nail 
bro.id  and  arched.  Laminir-  prominent,  Irenchnnl,  and  dis- 
iBiii ;  ihe  iii'per  laminB  prujccliiif-  below  the  maririn  of  the 
mnriilibli.-,  ilm  loner  laminte  dliiili-d  into  a  nearly  equal 
duiil'le  wrieii.  Sntlnh  oblong,  large,  and  nearly  biual. 
r>i,elifa<<  \\\f.h:  ntH'k  railier  thick.  Tail  very  long,  of 
fonrieen  fealhrits.     Ton  &hurt. 

Example.  Harelda  glacialii,  Anai  gtaeiali*.  Linn,  the 
Vong-latted  Duck. 


Bay  residents; 

South-Southerly  of  the  United  States;  Aldiggte-areon 
of  the  Esquimaux ;  Caecdwee  of  the  Canadian  voyageurs ; 
and  Hahhateay  of  the  Cree  Indians. 

Deicription.—Old  MaU  (Winter).  Summit  of  the  head, 
nape,  front,  and  lower  parts  of  the  neck,  lone  scapulars, 
belly,  abdomen, and  lateral  tail-feathers,  pure  white;  cheeks 
and  throat  ash-colour ;  a  great  apace  of  maroon-bro«n  on 
tho  sides  of  the  neck;  breast,  back,  rump,  wings,  and  the 
two  long  featheraof  the  middle  of  the  Uil  brownish;  Hank* 
ahh-coloured ;  the  black  of  the  bill  cut  tronsverselj'  by  a  red 
hand;  tarsi  and  toes  yellow;  weba  blackish;  ins  ornntre. 
Length,  composing  tho  long  tail-featheia,  twenty  to  twenty- 

Old  /•>ma/«.— Differing  much  from  the  male.  Tail  short. 
the  feathers  bordered  with  while  and  the  two  middle  ones 
not  elongated  ;  forehead,  throat,  and  eyebrows  whitish  a.-h ; 
nape,  front,  and  lower  part  of  the  neck,  belly,  and  abdomen 
pure  while ;  top  of  the  head  and  great  space  at  the  sides  of 
the  neck  blackish  ash  ;  breast  variegated  with  ash-colour 
and  brown ;  feathers  of  the  back,  scapulars,  and  wing-coveria 
black  in  thj  middle,  bordered  and  terminated  with  ashy- 
red  ;  rest  of  the  other  peils  brown ;  the  bluish  colour  of  the 
bill  cut  by  a  yellowish  bond;  iris  brigbt  brown;  foal  lead- 
colour.     Leni^lh  16  inches. 

Young  ((f  the  Fear.— Not  differing  much  from  the  old 
female ;  Ihe  whiteness  of  the  face  ia  varied  with  numeroui 
brown  or  ash-coloured  apols ;  throat,  ttont  of  the  neck,  and 
nape  ashy-brown  ;  lower  part  of  the  neck,  a  large  spot  be- 
hind tbe  eycK,  belly,  and  abdomen  white  ;  breaal  and  thighs 
varicfcated  wiih  brown  and  ash-coloured  spots.  (Temminck.) 

Summer  Dreu.—Male.  kdled  May  I,  18i6,  on  the  Sas- 
katchewan. Colour. — The  whole  upper  plumage,  the  two 
central  pairs  of  Oil  feelhers,  and  the  under  plumage  to  the 
fjre  part  of  the  belly  brownith-black;  the  leaser  quills  paler. 
A  Iriangulat  patch  of  the  feathers  between  the  shoulders,  and 
the  scapulars,  broadly  bordered  with  orange-brown.  Sides 
of  the  head  from  the  bill  to  tho  ears  aiih-grey ;  eye-slnpe 
and  poalerior  under  plumage  pure  while.  Flanks,  side>  of 
the  rump,  and  lateral  tail-foathera  while,  stained  wiili 
brown ;  axillaries  and  inner  wing-covrata  cbn'e-biown.  Bill 
bUck,  with  an  orange  belt  before  tbe  nostrils.  Ltgi  dark- 
brown.  Sjiecimens  killed  a  fortnight  or  throe  weeks  laipr 
in  the  season  al  Bear  I^ke,  on  their  way  to  (be  breedini;- 
pleces,  differed  in  bavingalsree  white  palchoolbehindhead 
and  occiput,  with  scattered  while  feathers  on  the  neck  and 
among  the  scapulars ;  the  sides  under  (be  wings  pure  peart 
grey,  and  the  sides  of  Ihe  rump  unstained  white.  (l>r. 
Richardson,  '  Fauna  Boreali-Amerieaiu.') 

Captain,  now  Major,  £dward  Sabine  (Supplement  lo 
Appendix  of  Captain  Sir  W.  E.  Parrr'a  Fint  VoT^ge)  mttattm 


11 


^  u  t 


■  male  obtdn«d  io  Jane,  corrMpoodbg  precisely  with  the 
indit-idunl  killed  in  Baffin's  Bay  in  the  summer  of  1S1B, 
which  furnished  the  description  of  the  full  breeding  plum- 
s' in  the  '  Memoir  of  the  Greeiiltnd  Birds.'  An  account, 
adds  the  author,  of  this  state  of  plumage  is  yet  wanting  to 
complete  the  histary  of  this  species  in  M.  Temminck'i 
second  edition,  The  plumage  of  a  young  male  killed  on 
the  aind  of  June  cocresponded  precisely  with  M.  Tem- 
minck's  male  of  one  or  two  years  old.  Dr.  Richardson 
observes  (foe,  eit.)  that  Captain  Sabine  describes  the  plum- 
age of  the  specimens  killed  at  Bear  Lake  as  the  pure 
breeding  plumage;  but  individuala  coloured  like  the  one 
killed  on  the  Saskatchewan  are,  he  remarks,  otlen  seen  at 
the  breeding  stations.  He  quotes  Mr.  Edwards,  surgeon 
of  the  Fury  (Sir  W.  K.  ParryS  2nd  Voyage),  as  describing 
the  Long-tailed  Ducks  killed  at  HelviUe  Peninsula  between 
the  iBt  and  2Sth  of  June  as  follows :— Tbey  bad  all  a  dark 
silky  cheslnut-brown  patch  on  the  side  of  the  neck;  a 
mixture  of  white  in  the  black  stripe  from  the  bill  to  the 
crown ;  the  crown  and  nape  either  entirely  while,  or  mixed 
with  black  ;  scapulars  and  upper  lail-coverts  edged  with 
white ;  a  broad  white  collar  round  the  lower  part  of  the 
neck,  in  some  individuals  tipped  with  black  or  brown ; 
occasionally  a  white  band  on  the  breat  The  colour  of  the 
belt  on  the  bill  varied  from  rose-red  to  violet 

Mature  Femaie,  killed  May  2S,  lat.  63^".  Upper  plumage 
and  sides  of  the  breast  pale  liver-brown,  with  dark  centres ; 
the  winfr-coverts,  scanulats,  and  hinder  parts  mostly  edged 
with  white.  Top  of  the  head  blackish-brown,  its  sides 
anteriorly  broccob-brown ;  ears  and  base  of  the  neck  below 
clove-brown.  A  spot  at  the  base  of  the  bill  and  a  stripe 
behind  the  eye  white.  Throat  and  collar  ash-grey.  Tail- 
feathers  brownish-grey,  edged  with  white,  short  and  worn. 
(Dr.  Richardson.) 

Geograplkeal  Dutribution,— The  Arctic  seaa  of  both 
worlds.  An  accidental  visitor  on  the  great  lakes  of  Ger- 
many, and  along  the  Baltic.  Otlen,  but  never  in  ttocks, 
on  the  maritime  coasts  of  Holland.  (Temminck.)  Abund- 
ant in  Sweden,  Lapland,  and  Russia,  ((jould.)  Noted 
in  the  list  of  birds  seen  within  the  Arctic  Circle  and  as 
breeding  in  the  North  Georgian  Islands,  but  not  ct 
there.  (Supplement  to  Appendix  to  Captain  Parry' 
Voyai5e.)  Females  taken  in  Duke  of  York's  Bay.  (Captt  ._ 
Lyon's  Journal.)  Abundant  on  the  Arctic  Sea,  associating 
with  the  Oidtimte,  remaining  in  the  north  as  long  as  it 
can  find  open  water,  and  assembling  in  very  large  flocks 
before  migrating.  Halts,  during  its  progress  southwards. 
both  on  the  shores  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  and  in  the  inland 
Iftkes,  and  is  one  of  the  last  of  the  birds  of  passage  which 
quits  the  fur  countries.  (Dr.  Richardson,  *  Fauna  Boreali- 
Americana.')  Captain  James  Ross  describes  it  as  the  most 
Doisy  Rnd  roost  numerous  of  the  ducks  that  visit  the  shares 
of  Boothia.  (Appendix  te  Captain  Sir  John  Ross's  Last  Voy- 
age.) The  species  is  abundant  in  Greenland,  Lapland, 
Russia,  and  Kamtchatka,  and  (locks  pass  the  winter  (fhim 
October  to  April)  at  the  Orkney  Islands.  They  are  seldom 
seen  in  ilie  southern  parts  of  England,  unless  the  weather 
he  very  severe.  Id  October  they  visit  the  United  States, 
wid  abound  in  Chesapeake  Bay. 

Habit*,  Food,  Iteproduction,  if*.— Lively,  most  noisy, 
and  gregarious,  the  Lon^-tailed  Duck,  with  its  swallow-like 
appearance  in  flight,  swims  and  dives  with  all  the  expert- 
nese  of  the  Spirit  Ducks.  Dr.  Richardson  stales  that  in  the 
latter  end  of  August,  when  a  thin  cnut  of  ice  forms  during 
the  night  on  the  Arctic  Sea,  the  female  may  be  alien  secu 
breaking  a  way  with  her  wings  for  her  young  brood.  The 
same  author  states  that  the  eggs  are  pale  greenish-grey, 
with  both  ends  rather  obtuse,  36  lines  long  and  18  wide, 
Tbey  are  about  five  in  number;  and  in  Spitibergen,  Ice- 
land, and  along  the  grassv  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay,  near 
the  Bi-B.  this  species  is  said  to  form  its  nest,  about  the  mid- 
dle of  June,  hniug  the  interior  with  the  down  of  the  breast. 
Marine  productions  principally,  both  animal  and  vegetable, 
form  it«  food,  particularly  tha  Zottera,  or  Grass-wrack,  for 
whirb  it  dives  like  others  of  its  congeners.  'Late  in  the 
evening,  or  early  in  the  morning,'  writes  Nuttall  in  his 
Manual*  '  towards  spring  more  particularly,  vast  flocks  are 
seen  in  the  bays  and  sheltered  inlets,  and  in  calm  and 
fo|,'gy  weather  we  hear  the  loud  and  blended  nasal  call 
reiterated -for  hours  from  the  motley  multitude.  There  is 
something  in  the  sound  like  the  honk  of  the  goose,  and, 

■  Misul  et  llig  Oridihalen  'I  !>>■  tTniM  Suta  ud  «C  Cuadi,'  ■  v«U, 
Bn^ltoMaa.    AMMiMlgltBlllBtfnUHlM^ 


„  fkr  u  words  can  express  a  subject  so  uncouth,  it  resem- 
bles the  guttural  syllables  ogH,  ough,  egh,  and  then  ngh, 
ogh,  ogk,  ough,  egh,  given  in  a  ludicrous  drawling  lune; 
but  still,  with  ail  Uie  accompaniments  of  scene  and  season, 
this  humble  harbinger  of  spring,  obeying  the  feelings  ot 
nature,  and  pouring  forth  his  final  ditty  before  his  de,  ar- 
turo  to  the  distant  north,  conspires,  with  the  novelty  of  the 
call,  to  please  rather  than  disgust  those  happy  few  who  may 
be  willing  to  find  "  good  in  everythbg,"' 

Utility  to  Man. — The  old  birds  are  not  considered  ns  of 
much  value  for  the  table ;  but  the  young  birds  are  tender 
and  juicy.  If,  as  is  on  good  authority  asserted,  the  down 
which  the  Long-tailed  Duck  strips  from  its  breaal  as  a 
lining  for  the  neit  is  as  soft  and  elastic  as  that  of  the  Etder 
Dock,  it  may  considered  as  ofiering  no  mean  contribiiiion 
to  the  comforts  of  man,  a  contribution  which,  however  ap- 
parently hitherto  neglected,  deserves  the  attention  of  th» 
uteUigent  and  enterprising. 


In  addition  to  the  genera  above-mentioned,  OymnHra 
(Oxyura  of  Bonaparte),  Macropu*,  and  Mieroplenu  find  a 
place  among  the  Sea  Duckt. 

The  species  from  which  the  genus  Oxyura  is  establisbed 
is  bred,  according  to  Nuttall  ('Manual'),  in  the  north,  and 
principally  haunis  f)'esh-water  lakes,  diving  and  swim- 
ming with  great  ease,  but  it  Is  averse  to  rising  into  the  air. 
It  is  small,  and  is  said,  by  the  last-named  author,  to  be 
nearly  allied  to  .iJRiu/eucocmAa/a,  which  inhabits  the  salina 
lakes  and  inland  seas  of  Siberia,  Russia,  and  the  east  of 
Europe ;  and  also  to  have  an  affinity  with  A.  Jamaiceruit  of 
Latham.  Nuttall  thinks  that  it  is  perhaps  identical  with 
A.  spinosa  of  Guiana,  if  not  also  with  A.  Dominica  of 
Gmelin,  a  native  of  St.  Domingo,  and  probably  only  resident 
there  during  the  winter.  He  also  observes  that  the  nam* 
of  OTi/ura  naving  been  previously  employed  for  a  sub-genus 
of  Creepers,  it  was  necessary  to  alter  it ;  bot  the  student 
should  remember  that  Gymnura  had  been  preoccupied  by 
Sir  Stamford  Rallies  tor  a  genus  of  mamnnfers;  and  that 
Spix  has  named  a  family  of  South  American  monkeya 
(fymnuru    Xtie  Ptinca  of  Musigoano,  howevei,  oomoted 


F  U  L 


12 


F  U  L 


btmself  ftod  changc>dthe  name  to  Eri$maiura>    Mr.  Gould 

Save  the  name  of  Undina  to  the  genus,  and  figures  the 
European  species  under  the  name  of  Undina   leucoce- 

phala. 

It  should  he  rcmemhered  that  the  suhgeneric  term  Ma- 
tropui  has  heeu  long  applied  as  a  generic  name  for  the 
Kangaroos. 

Micropierui  is  the  genus  containing  the  well-known 
Baee-HorH  of  Cook  {Micropterus  braehypterus.  Anas  bra- 
ehyptera  of  authors).  CapUin  Phillip  Parker  King,  R.N., 
who  has  added  a  second  species  (Micropterui  Patachonieus), 
gives  these  short-winsed  but  rapidly  progressing  Sea  Ducks 
the  familiar  name  of  Steamer  IXicks  or  Steamers. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Zoological  Society,  in  December  1837, 
Mr.  T.  C.  Kyton  made  some  observations  on  the  Anatida, 
which  family  he  regarded  as  connected  with  the  Grallato- 
rial  Birds  by  means  of  the  Flamingo  on  the  one  side  and 
tlie  itmipalmated  Goose  on  the  other,  with  the  Divers 
of  the  family  i4/cflA»  by  the  Mergansers^  and  also  with  the 
Cormorants  through  the  Erismalurime.  Mr.  Ejrton  di- 
vides the  AnatidtB  into  the  subfamilies  Plectroptenna,  An- 
serine,  Anatime,  Fkdigulin€e,Erismaiurin{e,Bxid  Merging. 

The  Anatina,  according  to  Mr.  Eyton,  contain  the  fol- 
lowing genera  :  Tadoma,  Eeach ;  Casarka,  Bonaparte  ; 
Dendrocygna^  Swainson;  Levtotarsis,  Gould  (L.  Eytoni); 
Da/lla,  Leach;  Aforeco, Stephens ;  ijio,  Boi6 (Anas sponsa, 
Linn.) ;  PtpcOonetta,  Eyton  (Anas  marmorata,  Teram.) ; 
Querquedula,  Auct. ;  Cyanopterus  (Anas  Eqfflesii,  Kmg) ; 
Ehynchaspis,  Leach ;  Malacorhynchus,  Swainson  ;  Chau- 
liodus,*  Swainson ;  Anas,  Auct. ;  Carina,  Fleming. 

Mr.  Evton's  Fuligulinte  consist  of  the  genera— Affcrop- 
ierus.  King;  Melanitta,  Boi6;  Somaleria,  Leach;  Polys- 
ticia,  Eyton  (Anas  disnar,  Gmel.) ;  Kamptorhyuchus,  Eyton 
(Anas  Labradoray  Wilson^  ;  Callicher,  Brehm  ;  F^tligula, 
Ray  ;  Nyroca,  Fleming;  Harelda,  Leach;  and  Clangula, 
Leach. 

Mr.  Eyton  stated,  that  characters  of  the  genera  and  spe- 
cies would  be  given  in  his  forthcoming  monograph  on  the 
Anatidtr. 

FULLER.  THOMAS,  was  the  son  of  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Fuller,  rector  of  Aldwincle,  in  Northamptonshire,  where 
he  was  born  in  1608.  He  was  educated  under  his  father, 
ond  was  sent  at  the  early  age  of  twelve  years  to  Queen's 
College,  Cambridge.  He  became  B.A.  in  1625,  and  MA. 
in  1628,  but  afterwards  removed  to  Sidney  College,  where 
he  obtained  a  fellowship  in  1631,  and  nearly  ot  the  same 
time  the  prebend  of  Nctherbyi  in  the  church  of  Salisbury. 
In  this  year  also  he  issued  his  first  publication,  a  poem, 
now  little  known,  entitled  '  David's  Hainous  Sin,  Hearti 
Repentence,  Heavie  Punishment,'  in  12mo.  He  was 
soon  after  ordained  priest,  and  presented  to  the  rectory 
of  Broad  Windsor,  in  Dorsetshire  ;  but  growing  weary 
of  a  country  parish,  and  uneasy  at  the  unsettled  state  of 
public  affairs,  he  removed  to  London,  and  disting;uishcd 
nimself  so  much  in  the  pulpits  there,  that  he  was  invited 
by  the  master  and  brethren  of  the  Savoy  to  be  their  lec- 
turer. In  1639  he  published  his '  History  of  the  Holy 
War:'  it  was  printed  at  Cambridge,  in  folio,  and  so 
favourably  received  that  a  third  edition  anpeared  in  1647. 
On  April  13,  1640,  a  parliament  was  called,  and  a  convoca- 
tion also  began  at  Westminster,  in  Henry  Vllth's  chapel, 
having  licence  granted  to  make  new  canons  for  the  better 
government  of  the  church :  of  this  convocation  he  was  a 
member,  and  has  detailed  its  proceedings  in  his  '  Church 
History.'  During  the  commencement  of  the  Rebellion, 
and  when  the  king  left  London,  in  1641,  to  raise  an  army, 
Mr.  Fuller  continued  at  the  Savoy,  to  the  great  satisfaction 
of  his  congregation  and  the  neighbouring  nobility  and 
gentry,  labouring  all  the  while  in  private  and  in  public  to 
Ber>'e'the  king.  On  the  anniversary  of  his  inaugura- 
tion, March  37,  1642,  he  preached  at  Westminster  Abbey 
on  this  text,  2  Sam.  xix.  30,  *  Yea,  let  him  take  all,  so 
that  my  lord  the  king  return  in  peace,'  which,  being 
printed,  gave  great  offence  to  those  who  were  engaeed  in 
tlie  opposition,  and  exposed  the  preacher  to  a  go(^  deal  of 
danger. 

In  1643,  refusing  to  take  an  oath  to  the  parliament,  unless 
with  such  reserves  as  they  would  not  admit,  in  April  of 
that  year  he  joined  the  king  at  Oxford,  who,  having  heard 
of  his  extraordinary  abilities  in  the  uulpit,  was  desirous  of 
knowing  them  personally,  and  accoruingly  Fuller  nrcached 

*  Prr-occnpied  by  Scbaeider  for  a  geotts  of  K;sl«t»f— CliAAlivdai  Sioaoi, 


before  him  at  St.  Mary's  Church.'  He  had  before  preached 
and  published  a  sermon  in  London,  upon  the  *  new- 
moulding  church-reformation,*  which  caused  him  to  be 
censured  as  too  hot  a  rovalist ;  and  now,  from  his  fiormo.i 
at  Oxford,  he  was  thought  to  be  too  luke-warm,  which  run 
only  be  ascribed  to  his  modemtion,  which  he  would  mu- 
cerely  have  inculcated  upon  each  party  as  the  only  nieaii4 
of  reconciling  both.  During  his  stay  here,  bis  leaiiienro 
was  in  Lincoln  College,  but  ne  was  not  long  aAer  scqucH- 
tered,  and  lost  all  his  books  and  manuscripts.  This  lo^>, 
the  heaviest  be  could  sustain,  was  made  up  to  him  partly 
by  Hennr  Lord  Beauchamp,  and  partly  by  Lionel  Cranfield, 
earl  of  Middlesex,  who  gave  him  the  remains  of  his  father's 
library.  That,  however,  he  might  not  lie  under  the  suspicion 
of  want  of  zeal  or  courage  in  the  royal  cause,  he  determined 
to  join  the  army,  and  therefore,  being  well  recommended 
to  Sir  Ralph  Hopton  in  1643,  he  was  admitted  by  him  in 
quality  of  chaplain.  For  this  employment  he  was  at  liberty, 
being  deprived  of  all  other  preferment.  Though  he  attended 
the  army  from  place  to  place,  and  constantly  exercised  his 
duty  as  chaplain,  he  yot  found  proper  intervals  for  his  favorite 
studies,  which  he  employed  chielly  in  making  historical 
collections,  and  especially  in  gathering  materials  for  his 

*  Worthies  of  England,'  which  he  did,  not  only  by  an  ex- 
tensive correspondence,  but  by  personal  inquiries  in  every 
place  which  tne  army  had  occasion  to  pass  through. 

After  the  battle  at  Cheriton-Down,  March  29,  1644, 
I^rd  Hopton  drew  on  his  army  to  Basing-Housc,  and 
Fuller,  being  left  there  by  him,  animated  the  garrison  to 
so  vigorous  a  defence  of  that  place,  that  Sir  William  Waller 
was  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  with  considerable  loss.  But 
the  war  coming  to  an  end,  and  part  of  the  king*s  army 
being  driven  into  Cornwall  under  Lord  Ilupton,  FLllcr, 
with  the  permission  of  that  nobleman,  took  refuge  at  Exeter, 
where  he  resumed  his  studies,  and  preached  constantly  to 
the  citizens.  During  his  residence  here  he  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  the  infant  princess,  Henrietta  Maria,  who  wps 
born  at  Exeter  in  June,  1643.  lie  continued  his  attendance 
on  the  princess  till  the  surrender  of  Exeter  to  the  parlui- 
ment,  in  April,  1646.  He  is  said  to  have  written  his  *  (luod 
Thoughts  in  Bad  Times '  at  Exeter,  where  the  book  was 
published  in  1645,  16mo.  On  the  garrison  being  forced  to 
surrender,  he  came  to  London,  where  he  found  his  lecture- 
ship at  the  Savoy  fillefl  by  another.  It  was  not  lon;4 
however  before  he  was  chosen  lecturer  of  St.  Clement's,  near 
Lombard  Street,  and  shortly  afterwards  removed  to  St. 
Bride's,  Fleet  Street  In  1647  he  published,  in  4to.,  *a 
Sermon  of  Assurance,  fourteen  years  ago  preached  at 
Cambridge,  since  in  other  places,  now  bv  the  importunity 
of  his  friends  exposed  to  public  view.'  He  dedicated  it  to 
Sir  John  Danvers,  who  had  been  a  royalist,  was  then  an 
Ohverian,  and  next  year  one  of  the  king*s  judges;  and  m 
the  dedication  he  says,  that  *  it  had  been  the  pleasure  of  the 
present  authority  to  make  him  mute,  forbidding  him,  till 
further  order,  the  exercise  of  his  public  preaching.'  Not* 
withstanding  his  being  thus  silenced,  he  was,  about  1648, 
presented  to  the  rectory  of  Waltham  Abbey,  in  Essex,  by 
the  earl  of  Carlisle.  In  1648  he  published  his  <  Holy 
State.'  folio,  Cambr.  His  '  Pis^ah-sight  of  Palestine  and 
the  Confines  thereof,  with  the  History  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  acted  thereon,'  was  published,  fol.  Lond.  ]60O« 
and  reprinted  in  1662.  At  this  period  he  was  still  emploved 
upon  his  *  Worthies.'  In  1651  he  published*  Abel  fte- 
divivus,  or  the  Dead  yet  Speaking ;  the  Lives  and  Deaths  of 
the  Modern  Divines.*  Lond.  4to.  In  the  two  or  thrtn? 
following  years  he  printed  several  sermons  and  tracts  up*.it 
religious  subjects:  'The  Infant's  Advocate,'  8va  Lmd. 
1653;  •  Perfection  and  Peace,  a  Sermon,*  4lo.  Lond.  1653 

*  A  Comment  on  Ruth,  with  two  Sermons,"  8vo.  Lond. 
1654;  *  A  Triple  Reconciler,'  8vo.  Lond.  1654.  About  this 
last  year  he  took  as  a  second  wife  a  sister  of  the  Viscount 
Baltinglasse.  In  1655,  notwithstanding  Cromweirs  pro- 
hibition of  all  persons  from  preaching  or  teaching  sciiool 
who  had  been  adherents  to  the  late  king,  he  continued 
preaching  and  exerting  his  charitable  disposition  towards 
those  ministers  who  were  ejected,  as  well  as  towanis 
others.  In  1655  he  published  in  folio  '  Tlie  Church  His- 
tory of  Britain,  from  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ  until  the 
year  mdcxlviii..'  to  ^hich  he  subjoiued  *  The  History  of 
the  University  of  Cambridge  since  the  Conquest,'  and  *'th^ 
History  of  Waltham  Abbey,  in  Essex,  founded  by  King 
Harold.*  The  Church  History  was  animadverted  upon  bv 
Dr.  Peter  Heylyn  in  his  •  Examen  Historicum,'  to  whicli 


PU  M  ] 

Mr.  tivingitoii,  wm  dkiwled,  uid  hk  oppoiwnta  mn,  in  k 
coDudenblfl  degree,  lucceisfuL  Ub  oonitituiioii  liad  been 
impaired  by  bis  numeroui  Uboun.  and  a  severe  coM  whieb 
be  Rsughl  by  ineautioiu  expoiure  ia  giving  direclinni  la  bu 
workmeD,  to^tber  with  ths  anxiety  and  fretfulnetu  occa- 
■ionod  by  the  law-auita  about  bi«  patent  rigbla,  brought  hit 
liA  to  a  premature  tvmination  on  the  14th  of  February, 
IBia,  in  his  fortjp-nintfa  year.  Hia  death  occaaioned  estra- 
ordinarydMnoutntioiu  of  oatioDkl  mourning  iu  the  United 
Staiea. 

Id  penwn  be  wu  UH.  tod  though  ilender,  well  formed. 
He  appear*  to  have  been  an  tuniabl*,  aocial,  and  liberal 
man.  {Encyeiopitdia  Jmeriaaia;  Dietioitnain  dt  la 
Coavertation.) 

FUMARIACB.S,  a  small  natural  order  of  Zii^nous 
plnnli,  consisting  of  ileuder-steromed,  berbaceoui  planla, 
many  of  which  scramble  up  othen  b*  aid  of  tbeir  twist- 
ing Icaf^ttalka.  They  are  rather  lucculent  in  texture,  with 
watery  juiro.  Their  leaves,  which  have  no  stipules,  are 
repeaiedly  divided  till  the  terminal  lobes  become  small 
ovate  leaflets ;  their  flowers,  which  are  extremely  irregular, 
cansiat  of  two  membranous,  minute,  ragged  sepals,  two  ex- 
terior distinct  linear  petals,  and  two  others,  which  hold 
flrmly  together  at  the  points ;  there  are  six  stamens  united 
into  two  parcels,  and  the  ovary  is  a  ono-celled  case  with  one 
or  many  seeds,  whose  pUcentatioQ  is  parietal ;  finally,  the 
seeds  consist  principally  of  albumen,  in  which  then  ripens 
a  very  small  embryo.  FUmaria  oficinaii*  is  one  of  the 
commonest  of  weeds  ;  many  are  objects  of  cultivatiou  by 
the  gardener  for  the  sake  of  their  showy  flowers ;  all  are 
reputed  diaphoreltcs.  Tbayonty  inhabit  the  cooler  parla  of 
the  world,  alike  avoiding  extreme*  of  heat  or  cold.  It  it 
probable  that  notwithaianding  the  divenitr  of  tbeir  &ppesr- 
ancu  they  are  only  alow  insular  form  of  Papavetaoen. 


l-t^lvo  irlnlBi  •Uinau,  KBd  vUlil ;  V.  «  tkfBtUuAskl  ■KlkwoTtkaDTtrT  I 
■.  >  IniifiiiiiliBd  iKtiga  at  ■  mmi.  •bmtBi  Iba  tnrj :  lU  ■>»  «r  Wh  b^ 

FUMIGATION  is  tho  application  of  the  rapour  or 
fumes  from  metallic  or  other  preparationt  to  the  body,  with 


n  of  healing  either  generally,  or  particular  nai 
t  of  hot  tinegar,  burning  sulphur,  and  of  a 
c  vegetable  matters,  have  been  long  used  to  counteract 


The  vapours  of  hot  v. 


unpleasant  or  unwholesome  smells:  this  ia  effected  chiefly 
by  the  formation  uf  such  at  are  stronger.  The  most  im. 
portant  kind  of  fiimigation  is  that  which  consists  in  the 
omplo>ment  of  tuch  vapours  or  gases  ai  do  not  merely  de- 
stroy unhuallhy  odour*  bv  exciting  such  as  are  more  power 
ful,  but  which  by  their  chemical  action  convert  daogerout 
miasmata  into  innocuous  matter. 

The  fumigation  of  the  Dist  kind,  that  which  is  intended 
to  produce  a  beating  effect,  is  now  much  lest  employed  than 
formerly :  Mill,  huvever,  the  bisulphuret  of  mercury  is  oc- 
casion aUy  used  in  vapour,  asuhat  is  termed  a  mercurial 
fbmigation,  in  certain  forms  of  syphilis.  The  use  of  vinegar, 
of  tranuio  pMtilles,  and  even  Uw  smoke  gf  burning  braim 


t  P  U  M 

pap«r,  whieh  constitute  the  aecond  kind  of  Aimigatani,  does 
not  requireany  particular  notice:  IheiroperalioDcan  hardly 
be  regarded  as  any  other  than  thai  of  substituting  one 
smell  br  another.  In  the  last  kind  of  (bmigaiion  thi«e 
substances  have  been  chielly  employed,  and  in  the  gaseous 
tiate :  first,  the  vapour  of  burning  sulphur,  or  sulphurous 
acid  gas,  muriatic  acid  eas,  nitric  scid  gas.  and  cblorina 
gat ;  all  but  the  last  of  these,  or  at  any  rale  the  first  and 
second  named,  appear  to  have  been  first  used  and  recom- 
mended by  Dr.  Jamea  Johnstone  of  Worcester,  about  the 
year  1758;  in  1773  Ouyton  de  Morveau  also  mentioned 
the  application  of  rauriatie  and  nitrio  acid  gases,  and  in 
18D2  their  use  was  still  fiinher  extended  by  Dr.  J.C.Smith, 
who  received  a  public  mnuneration  aa  the  discoverer,  which 
he  certainly  was  not 

Chlorine  gas,  which  is  undoubtedly  preferable  to  any  dis- 
infeclanl,  was  fljst  recommended  by  Dr.  Rollo,  who  pub- 
lished a  work  on  diabetet  in  1 797 ;  he  liberated  the  gas  by 
the  usual  method  of  mixing  sulphuric  acid,  binoxide  of 
manganese,  and  common  salt  When  it  is  desirable  to  pro- 
duce a  great  eSect  in  a  abort  time,  this  ia  still  unquestmn- 
■bh' the  b«st  mode  of  proce»ding. 

We  shall  give  an  abalract  of  the  mode  adopted  by  Hr. 
Faraday  in  himigating  the  Penitentiary  at  Milbank  in 
181S.    iQuarUrh/ Journal,  yolT^iiL,  p.  93.) 

The  space  requiring  Aimigation  amounted  to  nearly 
3,000,000  cubic  feet;  and  the  Burhc«  of  the  walla,  floors, 
ceilings.  Sec,  was  about  1,200,000  square  feet  This  turlace 
was  principajly  ttone  and  brick,  most  of  which  bad  been 
lime-washed.  A  ijuantity  of  salt  reduced  to  powder  was 
mixed  with  an  equal  weight  cf  binoxide  of  manganese,  and 
upon  Ibis  mixture  wore  poured  two  parts  of  suiphuric  acid, 
previously  diluted  with  one  part  of  water,  and  cold.  The 
acid  and  water  were  mixed  in  a  wooden  tub,  the  water 
being  first  put  in,  and  it  being  n 
than  to  weigh  the  water  and  acid,  b 
and  nine  of  acid  were  used ;  half  the  acid  was  first  u>cd, 
and  when  the  mixture  had  cooled  the  remainder  was  added. 

Into  common  red  earthen  pans,  each  capable  of  holding 
about  a  gallon,  were  put  3j  lbs.  of  tho  mixed  salt  and  man* 
^nosc,  and  there  was  then  added  such  a  measure  of  tlit- 
diluted  acid  as  weighed  4)  lbs.;  the  mixture  was  wi'll 
stirred  and  then  left  to  itself^  and  all  apertures  were  well 
slopped.  The  action  did  not  commence  immediately,  to 
that  there  was  sufficient  time  for  the  operator  to  go  from 
pan  to  pan  without  inconvenience.  On  entering  a  gallery 
ISO  feet  in  length,  a  few  minute*  afler  the  mixture  ba^ 
been  made,  the  general  difi\uion  of  chlorine  was  sufficiently 
evident;  in  half  on  hour  it  was  often  almost  impossibk-  to 
enter,  and  frequently  on  looking  along  the  gallery  the  )clluw 
tint  of  the  atmosphere  could  easily  be  perc4>ived.  Up  lo 
thu  fifth  day  the  colour  of  the  chlorine  could  generally  be 
obsencd  in  the  buildintj;  after  the  sixth  day  the  nans  were 
removed,  thoueh  sometimes  with  difficulty,  and  Ine  gallery 
thus  fumigated  bad  its  windows  and  doors  thrown  u|>on. 
The  charge  contained  in  each  pan  was  eslimatfd  to  Jield 
about  bi  cubic  feet  of  chlorine  gas ;  in  fumigating  a  tpa<'>: 
of  2,000,000  cubic  feet  About  700  lbs.  of  common  salt  and 
the  same  of  binoxide  of  manganese  were  employed :  and  it 
will  appear  by  a  slight  calculation,  that  about  1710  cubic 
feet  of  chlorine  wet«  employed  to  disinfect  this  space.  In 
common  cases,  Mr.  Faraday  conceives  that  about  or.r- 
half  to  one-faurth  of  this  quantity  of  chlorine  would  be  suf- 
ficient 

When  any  cause  is  continually  recurring,  and  in  some 
cases  almost  imperceptibly  so,  the  cbloride  of  lime  or  sodj, 
and  especially  of  the  former,  has  been  within  a  few  yvan 
successfully  employed  by  M.  Labairaque;  the  exact  nature 
of  these  compounds  is  still  under  discussion,  but  the  chlo- 
ride of  lime  is  a  substance  well  known  and  extensively  em- 
ployed under  the  name  of  bleacbing-powder. 

Wo  shall  relate  a  few  experiments  performed  by  H.  Gual- 
tier  de  Claubry,  illustrative  of  the  mode  in  which  these  sub- 
stances produce  their  effects.  A  solution  of  cbloride  of 
lime  exposed  to  the  air  for  about  two  months,  ceased  to 
acl  upon  litmus,  contained  no  chlorine,  but  a  precipitate  waa 
formed  in  it  which  consisted  entirely  of  carbixiale  of  lime, 
without  any  admixture  of  chloniie  ;  it  was  therefore  evident 
that  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  atmosphcTe  had  deoorapoaed 
the  chloride  of  lime,  evolved  the  tdibrine,  and  precipitated 
the  lime.  That  ibis  was  the  case  was  proved  by  pMting 
atmoapheric  air  through  a  aolutioo  of  potash,  before  it  waa 
nuda  to  MToiM  on*  of  ehlotido  of  line ;  ia  tkii  mm  Um 


vvv 


Cfi 


PU'N 


potash  MpanKMtIieearboiiie«dd,M  that  no  ehloiiiie  ms 
evolved  from  the  solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  nor  was  any 
precipitate  formed  in  it ;  in  fkct  no  change  whatever  oe- 
curred.  That  it  was  the  caifoonic  aeid  which  prodneed  this 
effect,  was  Airther  proved  hy  passing  a  current  of  thia  gas 
into  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime ;  hy  Mb  it  loat  its  hleach- 
ing  power,  the  whole  of  the  chlorine  was  expelled,  and  all 
the  ume  converted  into  oarhonate» 

In  order  to  show  the  manner  in  which  these  compounds 
of  chlorine  a.nd  lime,  and  of  chlorine  and  soda,  act  on  putrid 
miasmata  floating  in  the  air.  some  further  experiments  were 
made  in  the  following  manner  t^Air  was  passed  through 
hlood  which  had  heen  left  to  putrefy  for  eif^ht  days;  being 
then  passed  through  a  solution  of  the  chloride  of  lime,  car- 
bonate of  lime  was  deposited,  and  the  air  was  rendered  in- 
odorous and  eompletefy  purified.  In  a  second  similar  ex- 
periment the  fetia  air  was  passed  through  a  saturated  solu- 
tion of  potash  before  it  arrived  at  the  solution  of  chloride  of 
lime;  the  latter  had  then  no  effect  upon  it,  and  the  air  re- 
tained  its  insupportable  odour ;  this  huipened  eridentiy  be* 
cause  the  carbonic  acid,  which  would  otherwise  have  evolved 
chlorine  to  have  acted  upon  the  putrid  matter,  was  absorbed 
by  the  potash.  Another  experiment  was  made  with  air  left 
for  twenty-four  hours  over  putrescent  blood ;  the  portion  of 
it  which  was  passed  directly  through  the  chloride  was  per** 
fectly  purified,  but  when  preriousl^  flreed  from  caibonio 
acid  the  chloride  had  no  effect  upon  tt 

These  experiments  sufficiently  prove  that  the  carbonio 
acid  in  the  air,  arising  from  the  various  sources  of  respirao 
tion,  oombustbn,  and  the  decomposition  of  animal  and  ve-* 
getable  matter,  liberates  the  chlorine  tnm  its  combination 
with  lime  or  soda ;  and  as  this  action  is  slow,  the  chlorine, 
though  scareelv  susceptible  of  affecting  the  animal  eco* 
nomy,  readily  decomposes  putrid  miasmata.  It  is  therefore 
true  frimigation  by  chlorine,  only  it  is  less  violent  than  that 
effected  by  the  rapid  evolution  of  the  gas,  and  it  continues 
for  a  longer  time. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  chloride  of  lime  is  used  in  solu* 
tion,  and  is  obtained  by  dissolving  one  part  of  bleaching 
powder  in  about  100  times  its  weight  of  water,  and  allowing 
the  solution  to  bec<Hne  clear.  This  is  to  be  exposed  to  in- 
fected air,  or  in  rooms  which  have  any  unpleasant  odour, 
in  flat  vessels,  in  order  that  a  sufficient  surface  may  be  acted 
upon.  If  it  should  be  required,  the  operation  may  be  quick- 
ened by  the  addition  of  a  little  vinegar,  or  of  muriatic  acid 
largely  diluted.  In  some  cases,  where  the  disagreeable 
smell  is  extremely  strong,  and  where  it  would  be  difficult 
to  expose  a  solution  to  slow  action,  it  may  be  thrown  into 
the  place,  or  the  powder  may  be  used,  the  action  of  which 
would  be  more  gradual  and  effectual.  Chloride  of  soda  is 
prepared  onlv  in  solution ;  the  process  is  given  in  the  last 
edition  of  toe  London  Pharmacopceia :  it  is  however  less 
easily  obtained  than  the  chloride  of  lime,  is  more  expen- 
sive, and  not  in  any  respect  preferable ;  the  solution  is  then 
called  liquor  sodse  chlorinatse. 
FUNCHAL.    [Madeira.] 

FUNCTIONS.  CALCULUS  OP.  By  the  term  fync 
tion  of  a  quantity  is  meant  any  algebraical  expression,  or 
other  quantity  expressed,  alsebraically  or  not,  which  de- 
pends for  its  value  upon  the  first  Thus  the  circumference 
of  a  circle  is  a  function  of  the  radius ;  the  expression 
(<!*— ac*)  (4^  +  y*)  is  a  function  of  a,  6,  x,  and  y.  For  the 
distinctive  names  of  functions,  see  Transcendental 
and  Algebraical. 

All  algebra  is,  in  one  sense,  a  calculus  of  functions ;  but 
the  name  is  peculiarly  appropriate,  and  always  given,  to 
that  branch  of  investigation  in  which  the  form  of  a  function 
is  the  thing  sought,  and  not  its  value  in  any  particular  case, 
nor  the  conditions  under  which  it  mav  have  a  particular 
value.  [Equations,  Functional.]  For  instance,  •  What 
is  that  function  of  x  which,  being  multiplied  by  the  same 
funetion  of  y,  shall  give  the  same  function  of  a?  +  y  /  *— is 
a  question  of  the  calculus  of  Functions. 

Various  isolated  questions  connected  with  this  calculus 
have  been  treated,  from  the  time  of  Newton  downwards, 
particularly  by  Lagrange,  Laplace,  Monge,  and  Suler.  But 
the  direct  solution  of  functional  equations,  or  at  least  the 
first  attempt  to  form  general  methods  in  the  case  of  func- 
tions of  a  single  variable,  appears  to  have  been  made  by 
Mr.  Babbage  and  Sir  J.  Herschel  (1810-1813).  To  the 
treatise  entitled  '  Examples  of  the  Calculus  of  Differences,' 
by  the  latter,  the  former  anpended  another,  containing  ex- 
amples of  the  solutions  of  nmctional  equations.    This  last. 


and  fbB  artie^,  *  Oaleiflus  of  Fonctioni.*  in  the  'Xneyclo* 
psdia  Metropolitana,'  are  the  only  formal  treatises  on  the 
sulyect,  of  wnich  we  know. 

A  function  of  c  is  denoted  by  fx,  ^x,  xx,fx,  Fx,  «:r, 
&c,v  &e.,  the  first  letter  being  a  symbol  of  an  operation  to 
be  performed.  Thus,  ¥/x  denotes  that  when  the  operation 
signified  by /has  been  performed  upon  x,  that  signified  by 
F  is  performed  upon  the  result.  When  the  same  operation 
is  repeated,  the  results  may  be  denoted  hy  /x,Jtx,///x, 
&c.,  which  may  be  abbreviated  into  /x,  /*x,  /»x,  &c.  Fur 
different  points  of  interest  connected  with  the  relations  of 
functional  forms,  see  Periodic;  Inyxrsb. 

FUNCTIONS,  THEORY  OF,  a  name  given  by  La- 
grange to  a  view  of  the  principles  of  the  Differential  Cal- 
culus»  of  which  we  have  expressed  our  opinion  in  the  article 
DiFFXRBNTiAL  Calculus.  The  works  of  Lagrange,  in 
which  its  details  are  to  be  found,  are  '  Th^orie  des  Fonc- 
tions  Analytiques,'  first  edition,  1797 ;  second  edition,  1813 ; 
and  '  Le9ons  sur  le  Oalcul  des  Fonctions,'  of  which  the  first 
edition  is  volume  10  of  the  'Lecons  de  TEcole  Normale 
(1801),  and  the  second  was  published  in  1806. 

Taking  Lagrange's  intention  to  have  been  the  proof  that 
algebra,  as  it  existed  in  his  time,  was  sufficient  to  demon- 
strate the  principles  of  the  Differential  Calculus  without  the 
introduction  of  limits,  we  have  only  to  remark  that  the  end 
is  completely  attained.    [Differential  Calculus.]    It  is 

Slain  to  any  one  acquainted  with  that  calculus,  that  a 
emonstration  of  Taylor's  Theorem  being  once  attained,  all 
the  rest  follows.  We  now  proceed  to  look  at  the  proof  of 
this  theorem  given  by  Lagrange,  with  reference  to  absolute 
correctness  or  incorrectness. 

La^nge  first  attempts  to  prove  that  eveiT  function  fx 
has  this  property,  that  ^{x  +  n)  can  be  expanded  in  a  series 
of  the  form 

^(a?  -f  A)  =  fc  -*-  AA  +  BA«  +  CA»  -I- 

He  says,  firstly,  that  no  negative  powers  of  h  can  enter  the 
expansion,  for  if  such  were  the  case  ^  (:r  +  0),  instead  of 
being  ^x,  would  be  infinite.  This  is  true  as  to  any  finite 
number  of  negative  powers  of  h,  but  does  not  exclude  an 
infinite  series  of  negative  powers.     For  instance, 

1  I        X  ^ 

+ 


iT  +  A 


h* 


X' 


when  h-  0,  a//  the  terms  become  infinite,  but  the  first  side 
of  the  equation  is  not  infinite.  Secondly,  he  assumes  that 
there  cannot  be  fractional  powers  of  h,  for  if  such  were  the 
case,  there  must  be  fractional  powers  in  the  original 
functbn   ^,  and  if  ^x  had   m  different  values,  and  if 

p 
Kh*  were  one  of  the  terms  of  the  development,  the  n  values 
of  this  latter,  combined  with  the  m  values  of  ^x,  would  give 
mn  different  values  io^ix  +  h),  instead  of  m.  In  answer 
to  this  it  may  be  asked  how  is  it  known,  d  priori,  that 
there  must  be  a  series  of  powers  of  h,  every  value  of  which 
is  an  expansion  of  0  (a?  +  A)?  May  it  not  possibly  be  true 
that  there  is  an  expression  of  the  form 

m  n 

^(a?  +  A)  »  ^0?  +  AA«+  BA*  +  .  .  .  . 

whioh  is  true  under  certain  conditions,  determining  which 
of  the  values  of  the  several  terms  are  to  be  taken  ?  Thirdly, 
he  assumes  that  (having  thus  obtained  a  series,  in  which 
only  whole  powers  of  A  are  found)  the  supposition  A  =  u 
must  reduce  it  to  its  first  term ;  an  assumption  which  can 
only  be  admitted  of  such  a  series  as  M  +  AA  +  BA«  +  . . . . 
when  it  can  be  made  convergent  by  giving  sufficiently 
small  values  to  A. 

Having  once  proved  or  assumed  that  ^(x  +  h)  can  be 
expanded  in  a  series  of  the  form  ^  +  AA  +  BA*  +  . . . 
the  proof  of  Taylor's  Theorem,  given  by  Lagrange,  does 
not  differ  from  the  common  one.  He  calls  A  the  derived 
function  of^a*,  and  denotes  it  by  ^'x:  generally,  if  changing 
X  into  x  +  h  change  P  into  P  +  P'A  -f . . .  .f  P'  is  the  de- 
rived function  of  P.  The  derived  function  of  ^V,  denoted 
by  f"x,  is  called  the  second  derived  function  of  fx,  and  so 
on.  By  changing  x  into  a?  +  A,  ^  (a?  -i-  A),  or  ^  -I-  AA  + 
BA*  -h  . .  ••  becomes 

(^a?-h«'a?^+  ..)  +  (A  +  A'A+..)A  +  (B  +  B'A  +  ..)A« 

I   •  •  •  •   . 

and  by  changing  A  into  A  +  A,  f  (j;  +  A)  becomes 
ft  +  A(A  +  A)  +  B(A+A)«+  .... 


F  U'N 


IB 


PUN 


ThaM must  be  the  saroe,  since  both  repivent  f  (a?+  A + A) : 
and  by  nnuating  the  terms  which  contain  the  fini  poweri  of 
A,  ve  find 

f'x  +  A'A  +  B7*«  +  \ , .  =  A  +  2BA  +  . . .  • 
whence  A  =  ^'t.  2B  =  A'  =  ^"x,  and  so  on.     The  reader 
will  recognise  in  this  process  the  proof  frequently  given  by 
means  of  the  preliminary  lemma,  that  if 

du       du 

The  works  of  Laji^nge  on  this  subject,  though  defectire 
in  their  fundamental  positions,  except  upon  the  explana- 
tion given  in  Differential  Calculus,  yet  abound  in  new 
and  useful  details,  given  with  all  the  elegance  for  which 
his  writings  are  distinguished:  and  the  student  will  find 
them  well  worth  his  attention. 

FUNDAMENTAL  BASE,  in  music  is  the  lowest  note 
of  the  Perfect  Chord,  or  Triad,  as  the  Germans  call  it,  and 
of  the  chord  of  the  7th :  hence  it  is  the  root  of  all  real 
chords; — for  chords  not  derived  from  either  the  perfect 
chord  or  that  of  the  7  th,  are  considered  as  suspensions  or 
retardations ;  or,  to  speak  in  unaffected  language,  the  dis- 
cordant notes  of  wnich  they  are  composed  are  simply 
appogiaturas.    [Chord.] 

The  following  will  show  the  two  Fundamental  Chords^ 
and  their  inversions,  with  the  continued  [Continued],  or 
ordinarv  base^  and  the  Fundamental  Base* 


C§ntiny<rd  Bate. 


Fundatncntal  Bau, 


Tills  term  is  not  the  best  that  might  have  been  chosen ; 
tho  same  meaning  i^  much  better  conveyed  by  the  word 
radirai,  introduced,  wo  beliuvo,  by  Dr.  CalU'ott.  Tlie 
systnn  of  tlio  Funclanjenial  Base,  founded  on  harmonics, 
and  a  continual  addition  of  thirdi  to  the  triad,  is  indebted 
for  its  origm  to  Rameau»  the  celebrated  French  composer 
[R\MRAu].  nnd  \ias  once  almost  universally  received. 
D'Aleinbcrt  wrote  a  book  to  explain  and  eulogize  it,  and 
Marpurg,  a  most  distin<^uishcd  tiieorist,  adopted  it  in  his 
Ihvuiburh  hey  dem  Generalbasse,  But  though  it  may  be 
rendered  in  some  degree  6er>'iceablo  in  the  analysis  of 
chords,  it  is  in  more  than  one  respect  erroneous,  and 
the  rules  drawn  from  it  by  its  author  would  cruelly  fetter 
genius,  were  they  allowed  to  exert  any  influence  on  the 
composition  of  music.  Rameau*s  once  vaunted  system  b 
now  therefore  entirely  laid  aside,  even  in  the  country 
that  guve  it  birth. 

FUNDS  and  FUNDING  SYSTEM.  [National 
Debt.] 

FUNDY,  BAY  OF,  is  the  most  extensive  gulf  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  North  America,  between  Cape  Florida  and 
tho  mouth  of  the  St.  Laurence  river.  It  separates  Nova 
Srotia  from  New  Brunswick,  and  lies  between  44^  and  4G° 
N.  Iftt.  and  63*  and  67'  W.  long.  Its  direction  is  from 
cast-north-cast  to  west- south-west ;  its  entrance  is  at  the 
W(«st-south-wcstern  extrcmitv. 

This  entrance  is  formed  by  Brier  Island,  on  the  side  of 
Nova  Scotia  and  Quoddy  Head,  on  the  mainland  ;  a  straight 
line  between  theso  two  points  passes  through  the  island  of 
Grand  Manan,  which  lies  about  8  or  9  miles  from  Quoddy 
point,  and  35  miles  from  Brier  Island.  In  this  part  the 
bny  is  about  oQ  miles  wide ;  but  it  narrows  by  degrees  to 
about  30  miles  and  less,  after  which  it  again  attains  a  width 
of  between  30  and  35  miles,  which  breadth  it  nrcscrves  for 
the  greatr«^t  part  of  its  extent,  the  shores  of  No\*a  Scotia 
and  New  Brunswick  running  nearly  parallel.  Towards  its 
inner  extremity  it  is  divided,  by  a  bold  headland  terminat- 
ing wi:h  Cape  Chignecto,  into  two  smaller  bays,  of  which 
one  extends  due  cast,  and  is  called  the  Bay  of  Minas ;  the 


other,  preserving  the  east-north-eastern  direction,  is  named 
Chignecto  Bay.  The  whole  length  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy  ii 
about  180  milea. 

Both  shores  of  the  large  bay  are  rocky  and  bold,  but 
especially  so  on  the  side  of  Nova  Sootia,  where  a  chain  of 
hills,  probably  not  lesa  than  500  feet  above  the  tea, 
rises  at  a  short  distance  from  the  coast.  The  entrances, 
both  of  the  Bay  of  Minas  and  of  Chignecto,  are  likewise 
rocky ;  but  in  the  interior  the  shores  ate  low,  sandy,  and 
flat. 

The  navigation  of  the  bay  is  both  difficult  and  danf^r- 
ous,  on  account  of  the  great  strength  of  the  tide  and  the 
prevailing  fogs.  The  tide  rises  to  a  great  height,  some- 
times  seventy  feet,  and  flows  with  great  rapidity,  running 
at  the  entrance  about  three  miles  an  hour,  increasing 
as  it  advances  to  more  than  seven,  and  at  length  rushing 
with  great  impetuosity  into  the  bays  of  Minas  and  Chig- 
necto.  Fogs  cover  the  bay  when  the  wind  blows  from  iHe 
east  and  south-east,  or  from  the  Atlantic ;  and  during  their 
prevalence  many  vessels  are  cast  on  the  rocky  shores  by  tho 
violence  of  the  tides. 

The  Bav  of  Minas  has  been  united  with  Halifax  Har- 
bour, which  is  situated  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  Nova  Sootia» 
by  a  canal  fifty-four  miles  long,  and  capable  of  receiving 
vessels  which  draw  only  eight  feet  of  water.  It  is  called 
the  Shubenacadie  Canal.  Another  canal  was  projeeteda  few 
years  ago,  which  was  to  connect  the  most  northern  cor- 
ncr  of  Chignecto  Bay,  called  Cumberland  Basin,  with  Nor- 
thumberland Strait.  This  strait  separates  Prince  Edward 
Island  from  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Sootia,  and  one  of 
its  bays,  called  Bay  Vertc,  is  separated  firom  Cumberland 
Basin  only  by  an  isthmus  eleven  miles  across.  The  advan- 
tages of  such  a  canal  are  obvious ;  but  we  are  not  awaro 
that  it  has  been  executed.  (M'Gregor*s  Britieh  America  ; 
Bouchette's  British  Dominions  in  North  America,) 

FUNEN,  or  FUHNEN  (in  Danish  Fyen),  a  •  stiff  or 
province  of  Denmark,  consisting  of  the  islands  of  Fiiix'n, 
Langeland,  Taasing,  and  several  islets.  It  has  an  arta 
of  1286  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  about  160,000  ( in 
1801,  121,3*8),  and  is  divided  into  the  two  circles  or  baili- 
wicks of  Odense  and  Svendborg,  which  contain  3  earldoms, 
4  baronies,  9  towns,  and  201  parishes.  It  is  a  bishop's  ^ec•, 
and  is  subdivided  into  15  minor  circles  or  hcrredcr,  in 
which  there  are  180  s^eignorial  estates.  The  soil  is  a  layer 
of  rich  loam  on  a  substratum  of  clay  or  sand :  it  has  some 
hills,  but  no  streams  deserving  tho  name  of  rivers.  The 
produce  is  grain,  vegetables,  flax,  &c.,  and  great  numWrs 
of  horses  and  cattle  are  reared.  The  whole  of  the  to\vn^ 
are  in  the  island  of  Fiincn,  with  the  exception  of  Rudkici- 
bing,  in  the  island  of  lAngeland,  a  place  of  much  trailc,  with 
about  250  houses  and  1500  inhabitants. 

FUNEN,  or  FYEN.  an  island  situated  in  the  Baltic, 
between  the  eastern  coast  of  the  duchy  of  Schleswis  and 
of  Jiitland,  and  the  western  shores  of  the  island  of  Seelantl, 
from  which  parts  it  is  separated  by  the  Groat  and  Little 
Belts,  between  55'  2'  and  55"  47'  N.  lat.  and  9*  46'  and 
10*  51'  E.  long.  Its  area  is  about  1176  Si|uare  miles,  and 
its  population,  which  was  91,333  in  1769,  is  at  pre^fiit 
about  1 44,000.  The  surface  is  a  level,  varied  by  hills  in  the 
southern  districts,  but  they  never  rise  above  500  feet.  The 
north-east  of  the  island  is  deeoly  indented  with  bays  of  tho 
Kattegat,  particularly  the  '  Odense  (lord,*  and  is  more  uiii- 
form  and  less  wooded  than  the  south.  The  soil  is  in  gene- 
ral rich  and  productive.  Fiinen  abounds  in  small  streams, 
here  called  Aas,  and  lakes:  the  most  considerable  lakes 
are  those  of  Arreskov,  Brendegards,  and  Juulbyc.  Tlic 
canal  of  Odense,  which  commences  at  Odense  and  termi- 
nates at  Skibhusene,  on  the  Odense  fiord,  is  about  twj 
miles  and  a  half  in  length,  ton  feet  deep,  and  fifty  feet  in 
breadth  at  the  surface.  The  climate  is  damp  and  variable, 
but  milder  than  that  of  Sceland.  About  610,000  acres  are 
arable  and  meadow  land.  The  principal  crops  are  barley, 
oats,  and  buckwheat,  and  the  quantity  of  grain  annually 
exported  amounts  to  about  100,000  quarters.  Much  flax  and 
hemp  are  raised,  and  the  growth  of  hops  exceeds  2300  cwt& 
yearly.  With  the  exception  of  potatoes,  the  cultivation  of 
vegetables  is  limited,  but  the  orchards  are  numerous,  and  an 
iniorior  kind  of  cider  is  made.  About  78,600  acres  are 
occnnied  by  woods  and  forests,  which>  with  the  peat-moom, 
supply  fuel.  The  Fiinen  breed  of  horses  is  much  soui;bt 
after,  and  the  stock  of  the  island,  including  that  of  Langc- 
land,  is  upwards  of  42,000:  that  of  hom«l  cattle  it  about 


FUN 


17 


PUN 


81,000,  and  of  sheep,  mwtly  of  improTod  breeds,  90,000. 
Tt  is  estimated  that  upwards  of  20,000  swine  are  fed. 
Honey  and  wax  are  regular  articles  of  exportation.  There 
IS  no  game  besides  hares  and  rabbits,  but  a  great  quantity 
of  wild-ibwl  and  poultry,  especially  geese.  The  fisheries 
are  productive.  The  only  minerals  are  freestone,  chalk, 
and  limeftone.  There  are  no  manufiicturing  establish- 
ments ;  the  peasantry  however  are  industrious  operatives 
under  their  own  roo&,  and  make  their  own  woollen  and 
linen  yam,  stockings,  and  clothing.  The  townspeople  pre- 
pare leather  and  manufacture  brandy.  Gloves  are  made 
at  Odense,  and  woollens  and  linens  are  printed  at  Svend- 
borg. 

The  exports  of  Funen  consist  of  com,  peme,  brandy, 
apples,  horses,  oxen,  butter,  salted  meat,  tallow,  hides,  hops, 
linen,  honey,  and  wax.  Odense,  which  by  its  canal  lias  a 
direct  access  to  the  sea,  is  the  great  trading  mart  of  the 
island.  There  is  a  good  road  from  Middeuahrt  to  this 
town ;  but  the  roads  are  in  general  very  bad.  The  people 
of  Funen  are,  like  their  neighbours,  somewhat  indolent  and 
shy  of  work,  as  well  as  phlegmatic  :  they  are  however  an 
honest,  sound-hearted  race.  Their  religion  is  the  Lu- 
theran. 

The  principal  towns  in  Fiinen  are  Odense,  the  capital 
and  episcopal  residence,  pleasantly  situated,  and  reputed  to 
be  the  most  antient  town  in  Denmark ;  in  55**  25'  N.  lat., 
and  10°  22'  E.  long.  It  has  about  1100  houses,  and  8600 
inhabitants.  Here  are  a  royal  palace,  built  by  Frederick 
IV.,  a  townhall,  four  churches  (of  which  that  of  St  Canute 
is  a  noble  Gothic  pile,  erected  eight  centuries  ago,  and 
containipg  the  mausolea  of  St.  Canute,  Erichslaf,  John,  and 
Christian  HI.,  kings  of  Denmark  and  Norway),  a  chapter 
seminary,  gymnasium,  theatre,  two  public  libraries,  hospi- 
tal, house  of  correction,  &c.  Assens,  on  the  western  coast, 
at  the  entrance  into  the  Little  Belt,  another  old  town,  has 
an  indifferent  harbour,  a  townhall,  one  church,  about  350 
houses,  and  2330  inhabitants.  Bogense,  on  the  north 
coast,  the  smallest  town  in  the  province,  has  one  church, 
about  250  houses,  and  1000  inhabitants.  Kierteminde, 
beautifully  situated  on  a  bight  of  the  Great  Belt,  which  is 
crossed  by  a  large  wooden  bridge,  has  one  church,  a 
school,  two  hospitals,  about  260  houses,  and  1500  inhabit- 
ants. Middelfahrt,  on  the  Little  Belt,  has  a  townhall, 
church,  hospital,  school,  about  240  houses,  and  1300  inha- 
bitants, and  a  ferry  about  a  mile  across  to  Snoghoi  on  the 
Jutland  coast  Svendborg,  the  chief  town  of  tim  bailiwick 
of  this  name,  is  at  the  south-eastern  extremity  of  Fiinen, 
on  an  arm  of  the  Baltic  which  separates  that  island  from 
Taasing ;  in  55*"  5'  N.  lat  and  lO"*  38'  B.  long.  It  has  two 
churches,  a  townhall,  three  schools,  about  350  houses,  and 
3400  inhabitants,  and  exports  much  grain,  &c.  Nyeborg, 
a  fortified  town  on  the  eastern  coast,  contains  the  remains  of 
the  palace  in  which  the  kings  of  Denmark  held  Uieir 
courts  and  national  diets,  with  a  church,  townhall,  several 
schools,  a  hospital  and  an  infirmary,  about  300  houses,  and 
2900  inhabitants.  The  Swedes  were  totally  defeated  by  the 
Danes  under  its  walls  in  1659.  And  lastly,  Faaboig,  in 
the  south-west  is  a  small  town  with  about  260  houses  and 
1500  inhabitants,  a  handsome  church,  8cc.,  and  a  good 
harbour  on  an  arm  of  the  Little  Belt  protected  at  its  en- 
trance by  the  three  islands  of  Lyoe,  Avernaiiie,  and 
Biomoe. 

FUNERAL,  the  performance  of  the  rites  of  sepulture  or 
burial;  generally  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Latin 
funis,  a  torch*  because,  at  least  in  the  Roman  times, 
funerals  were  sometimes  performed  by  torch-light  Others 
derive  the- word  from  phonos  i^vog), '  slaughter,*  as  desig- 
nating death. 

The  Egyptians  are  among  the  earliest  people  of  whose 
religious  ceremonies  we  have  authentic  accouirts,  more  par- 
ticularly in  what  related  to  their  dead.  Upon  this  occasion 
the  pasents  and  friends  of  the  deceased  put  on  mourning 
habits,  and  abstained  from  gaiety  and  entertainments.  The 
mourning  lasted  from  forty  to  seventy  days,  during  which 
time  the  body  was  embalmed ;  and,  when  the  process  was 
completed,  placed  in  a  sort  of  chest,  which  was  afterwards 
preserved  either  in  their  houses  or  in  the  sepulchres  of  their 
ancestors.  Before  the  dead  were  allowed  to  be  deposited  in 
a  tomb,  they  underwent  a  solemn  judgment,  upon  an  un- 
&vourabIe  issue  of  wbich  they  were  deprived  of  the  rite  of 
burial. 

The  mourning  customs  of  tbe  antient  Jews  can  only  be 
collected  from  an  examination  of  the  Prophets  and  other  parts 
P.  C  No.  660. 


of  Scripture.  That  tbey  sometimes  burnt  the  body  is  clear , 
but  burial  in  a  sepulchre  was  the  more  general  fashion. 
The  circumstances  attending  the  burial  of  Uie  dead  among 
the  modem  Jews  are  minutely  detailed  by  D.  Levi,  in  his 
'  Succinct  Account*  of  their  Rites  and  Ceremonies,  p.  162- 
170. 

The  funeral  rites  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  have  been 
collected  vrith  great  research  by  Guichard  in  his  '  FunS^ 
railles,  et  diverges  Manidres  d'ensevelir  des  Romains,  Grecs^ 
et  aiitres  Nations,'  4to.,  Lyon,  1581 ;  by  Meursius,  m  his 
treatise  'De  Funere  Grrocorum  et  Romanorum,'  12mo., 
Hag.  Com.  1604 ;  by  Gutherius, '  De  Jure  Manium,  seu  de 
Ritu,  More,  et  Legibus  prisci  Funeris,'  12mo.,  Par.,  1615# 
reprinted  in  4to.,  1615,  and  again  in  8vo.,  Lips.,  1671 ;  and 
by  Kirchman,  *  De  Funeribus  Romanorum  Libri  IV.,' 
12mo.,  Hamb.,  1605,  and  Lugd.  Bat,  1672.  See  also  the 
'  Ceremonies  Fundbres  de  toutes  Nations,'  par  le  Sr.  Maret 
12mo.,  Par.,  1677. 

In  the  religious  creed  both  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
sepulture  was  peculiarly  an  act  of  piety  toward  the  dead, 
without  which  it  was  supposed  the  departed  spirit  could  not 
reach  a  place  of  rest  To  be  deprived  of  the  proper  rites 
was  considered  the  greatest  misfortune.  The  funeral  rites 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  in  many  respects  similar* 
and  among  both  nations  the  practice  prevailed  of  burning 
the  dead  and  collecting  the  ashes  in  urns.  In  the  case  of 
public  funerals,  according  to  Servius*s  Commentary  on 
Virgil,  the  deceased  was  kept  seven  or  eight  days,  and 
every  day  washed  with  hot  water,  or  sometimes  with 
oil,  that  in  case  he  were  only  in  a  slumber  he  might 
be  waked ;  and  at  stated  intervals  his  friends  meeting  made 
a  shout  with  the  same  view :  this  was  called  conclamatio. 
On  the  seventh  dav,  if  no  signs  of  life  appeared,  he  was 
dressed  and  placea  on  a  couch  in  the  vestibule,  with 
the  feet  outwards,  as  if  about  to  take  his  departure.  In 
the  course  of  these  seven  days,  an  altar  was  raised  near  the 
bed-side,  called  acerrat  on  which  the  friends  offered  incense. 
The  scene  here  described  is  frequently  represented  in  an- 
tient bas-reliefs.  (See  the  TowrUey  Marbles,  vol.  ii^  pp.  167, 
228,  &c.)  On  the  seventh  day  the  last '  conclamatio^  ended, 
when  the  couch  and  body  were  carried  to  the  rostra,  where 
the  nearest  of  kin  pronounced  the  funeral  oration,  and 
afterwards  to  the  funeral  pile.  The  body  having  been  con- 
sumed, the  ashes  were  gathered,  inclosed  in  an  urn,  and 
finally  laid  in  the  sepulchre  or  tomb.  An  apotheosis  or 
canonization  was  frequently  part  of  the  funeral  ceremony 
of  the  emperor. 

The  Magi  among  the  Medes  and  Persians  neither  burned 
nor  buried  their  dead,  but  left  them  to  birds  of  prey  or 
dogs.  (Herod,  i.,  140;  Strabo,  735,  746.)  Chardin,  in  his 
"Iravels,'  vol.  ii.,  p.  186,  has  given  a  full  description  of  a 
modem  Persian  cemetery;  and  Niebuhr  describes  the 
Parsees  near  Bombay  as  still  exposing  their  dead  after 
the  antient  fashion  mentioned  in  Herodotus.  (Niebuhr, 
Beisebeschreibung,  ii.,  50.) '  Tacitus,  in  his  treatise  '  De 
Moribus  Grermanorum,'  (c.  27)  notices  the  simplicity  of  the 
funerals  among  the  antient  Ciermans.  Like  the  Romans, 
they  burned  their  dead.  «The  things  which  a  German  va- 
lued most  were  his  arms  and  his  horse :  these  were  added 
to  the  funeral  pile,  with  a  persuasion  that  the  deceased 
would  have  the  same  pursuits  in  bis  new  state  of  existence. 

In  the  tomb  of  CSiilderic,  king  of  the  Franks,  his  spear, 
his  sword,  with  his  other  warlike  weapons,  and  even  his 
horse's  head,  were  found.  (See  Montifaucon,  Monumens 
de  la  MonarcMe  Franpoise,  tom.  i.,  p.  10.) 

Lafitau,  Charlevoix,  and  other  travellers  describe  the 
same  notions  of  a  future  state  and  the  same  funeral  cere- 
monies as  prevalent  among  the  savages  of  America.  Dr. 
Robertson  {Hist,  of  Amer.,  voL  ii.,  b.  4)  says,  as  they  ima- 
gine that  departed  spirits  begin  their  career  anew  in  the 
world  whither  they  are  gone,  they  bury  together  with  the 
bodies  of  the  dead,  their  bow,  their  arrows,  and  other  wea- 
pons used  in  hunting  or  war ;  they  deposit  in  their  tomb 
the  skins  or  stuffs  of  which  they  make  garments,  ludian 
corn,  venison,  domestic  utensils,  and  whatever  is  reckoned 
among  the  necessaries  in  their  simple  mode  of  life. 

For  the  funeral  rites  of  the  early  Christians,  the  reader 
may  consult  Gretser  '  De  Funere  Christiano,'  4to.,  Ingolst., 
1611 ;  and  he  may  learn  the  customs  of  a  later  period  from 
Durand,  who  wrote  his  '  Rationale  Divinorum  Otliciorum* 
in  the  twelfth  century. 

Brand,  in  his  '  Popular  Antiquities,*  vol.  ii.,  p.  139  to  212, 
has  much  upon  the  English  ceremonials,  beginning  with 

Vol.  XI. — D 


FUN 


18 


PUN 


•  Watching  vith  ihe  Dead/  eaDed  in  tbe  north  of  Sngstdd 
the  Lake- Wake;  he  then  prooeeda  with  'Layinfi^  ottt  or 
streaking  the  Body ;'  settiDg  salt  or  candles  upon  it ;  fune- 
ral entertainments;  sin-eatefs;  mortuaries;  allowing  the 
corpbe  to  the  grare.  and  carrying  e>crgreena,  torches  and 
li{(hts  at  funerals ;  hlack  used  in  mourning ;  the  pall  and 
ander-bearen ;  doles  and  donatk»ns  to  tbe  poor  at  lunerals ; 
ehurch-yards ;  garlands  in  churches;  and  strewing  flowers 
upon  grares. 

Strutt'ft  *  If  annere  and  Customs,*  and  Gougli's  '  Sepul* 
chral  Monumenu  of  Great  Brttain.'  are  other  works  to 
which  the  rsader  may  refer  for  the  antient  funeral  rites  of 
Bngland. 

Funeral  entertainments^  called  siliccmta  and  cceme 
feraUs  by  the  Romans,  are  of  very  antient  date.  They  are 
still  kept  up  in  the  north  of  England,  and  are  there  called 
arrals  or  arvils.  Among  some  extracts  from  the  Berkeley 
Manuscripts,  we  read  that  *  From  the  death  of  Maurice,  the 
fourth  Lord  Berkeley,  which  happened  June  8th,  1368, 
until  his  interment,  the  reeve  of  his  manor  of  Hinton  spent 
three  quarters  and  seven  bushels  of  beans  in  fatting  one 
hundred  geese  towards  his  fiineral.  and  divers  other  reeves 
of  manors  the  like,  in  geese,  ducks,  and  other  poultry.' 
Walsingham,  speaking  of  those  who  attended  Richard  II.*s 
funeral  at  Langley,  in  1399,  says,  'Nee  erat  qui  eos  in- 
vitaret  ad  prandium  post  laborcro.'  (Hi$t.,  p.  405.)  Shak- 
spearo  has  a  well-known  allusion  to  these  feasts  in  Hamlet, 
act  i^  sc.  2 : 

*  Th«  Amoral  biik4«d  mmtt 
Did  eoMly  fhrniah  furUi  lk«  marriage  tablet.* 

FUNERAL  ORATIONS,  discourses  at  funerals,  are  of 
great  antiquity.  The  second  book  of  Thucydides  (c.  35, 
&o.)  contains  the  laboured  harangue  delivered  by  Pericles 
at  the  solemn  funeral  ceremony  instituted  in  honour  of 
thotse  Athenians  who  fell  at  the  beginning  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war ;  and  other  similar  orations  are  extant  in  Greek. 
Augustus,  at  the  early  age  of  twelve,  performed  this  office 
for  his  grandmother,  and  afterwards,  wnen  emperor,  for  the 
young  Marcellus.  Tacitus  tells  us  that  Nero  pronounced 
a  funeral  oration  over  his  wife  Poppea.  Funeral  orations 
were  equally  common  over  Christian  martyrs ;  and  Durand, 
in  his  '  Rationale,'  already  referred  to,  says,  '  Ceterum 
priusquam  corpus  hnmo  injects  eontegatur,  defunctua 
oratione  funebri  laudabatur.'  Fuller,  in  his  'Appeal  of 
injured  Innocence,'  (part  iii.,  p.  75.)  and  Mu<son,  in  his 
'  Travels  in  England,'  show  the  continnance  of  this  practice 
to  the  close  of  tne  seventeenth  century.  Gay  alludes  to  it 
m  his  *  Dirge :' 

*  Twmty  irood  shilHoi^  in  a  raf  I  lalil. 
Be  Cm  Uie  panoo's  for  hie  aermoa  paid.* 

T%i  practice  of  delivering  what  may  be  properly  called 
funeral  orations,  that  is,  addresses  over  the  grave  or  at  tbe 
interment  of  the  dead  by  laymen,  is  common  among  the 
French,  and  is  not  unfreouent  on  great  occasions  among 
the  people  of  the  United  States. 

FUNERAL  SHOWS  or  GAMES  frequently  followed 
public  fUnerals  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  An  early 
example  of  this  occurs  in  the  funeral  games  celebrated  by 
Achilles  in  honour  of  Patroclus.  (Homer.  /A'oct.)  As  the 
dead  were  supposed  to  be  delighted  with  blood,  various 
animals,  especially  such  as  the  deceased  had  been  fond  of, 
were  slaughtered  at  the  pile,  and  thrown  into  it ;  and,  in 
still  ruder  times,  captives  or  slaves.  Among  the  Romans, 
trladiators,  called  buttuarii,  were  made  to  fight.  Junius 
B.utus  exhibited  gladiators  at  his  father's  funeral;  and  the 
*  Adelphi'  of  Terence,  at  a  later  period,  was  produced  for  tlie 
fiist  time  at  the  funeral  of  Lucius  ilSmilius  Paulus. 

FUNFKIRCHEN  (in  Hungarian  Pece,  and  in  the 
national  records  Quinque  Ecclesies),  an  old  town  in  the 
county  of  Baranya  in  Hungary,  and  the  seat  of  provincial 
admmistration,  consists  of  a  single  street  built  at  the  foot 
of  the  lofty  Mount  Metshek,  and  at  the  edge  of  a  rich  and 
extensive  valley,  in  46°  5'  N.  lat  and  IS**  16'  B.  long.  So- 
\  vman,  the  Turkish  sultan,  who  resided  here,  was  wont  to 
call  it '  the  Pamdise  of  the  Earth.'  The  number  of  houses 
is  about  2000,  and  the  population  is  about  1  l,d00.  This 
town  oontauia  several  handsome  buildings,  an  episcopal 
palace,  an  ecclesiastical  seminary,  a  gymnasium,  a  cathedral 
standing  on  high  ground  (the  bite  of  a  Roman  castelhma), 
and  said  to  be  the  oldest  in  Hungary,  a  fine,  massively- 
butlt  church  of  the  Jesuits,  several  churches,  some  of  which 
were  formerly  Turkibh  mosques,  a  public  library  and  cabi- 


Tieinity  at^  mttitfa  of  exeellent  ooal,  and  some  alum  and 
vitriol  works,  as  well  as  extensive  \-ineyards.  Large  quan- 
tities of  grain  and  tobacco  are  grown  about  Fiinfliirehir). 
and  much  rape-seed  is  raised  for  making  oiL  The  trade  </f 
the  town  is  chiefly  in  the  produce  of  the  country,  and  in 
leather,  which  is  manufectured  here,  and  in  great  request 
throughout  Hungary.  There  are  mineral  springs  and 
baths.  Some  have  supposed  that  the  Roman  colony  Ser« 
binum  was  planted  on  thia  spot  It  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  Tnrks  from  1543  to  1686,  and  is  the  place  of  aaiembly 
for  the  provincial  states. 

FUNGL  Under  this  name  botanists  comprehend  not 
only  the  various  races  of  mushrooms,  toadstools,  and  simi- 
lar productions,  but  a  large  number  of  microscopic  plants 
forming  the  appearances  called  mouldiness,  miloew,  smut, 
rust,  brand,  dry-rot,  &c.  Notice  has  been  occasionally 
taken  of  these  plants  under  their  respective  heads ;  in  this 
place  some  general  account  will  be  given  of  thomas  a  large 
natural  order. 

Nothing  can  well  be  more  different  than  the  extremes  of 
development  of  Fungi,  if  the  highest  and  the  lowest  fbrms 
are  contrasted ;  as  for  example,  the  large  fleshy  Boleti,  whicb 
inhabit  the  trunks  of  trees,  and  the  microscopic  mould' 
plants,  composed  of  threads  much  too  delicate  to  be  distin- 
guished by  the  naked  eye.  Nevertheless,  it  turns  out  upon 
inquiry  that  the  latter  is  only  a  simple  form  of  the  former, 
or,  in  other  words,  that  a  tioletus  is  merely  an  enormous 
aggregation  of  the  vegetable  tissue  constituting  a  Mucor. 
developed  upon  the  same  plan,  subject  to  the  same  iutlu- 
enoes,  possessing  a  similar  chemical  charaeter,  and  propa- 
gating by  means  which  are  altogether  analogoua. 

Viewed  with  relerenee  to  their  whole  extent,  the  plants 
of  this  order  may  he  described  as  cellnlar  or  filamentous 
bodies,  having  a  concentrio  mode  of  development,  often 
when  foil  grown  almost  amorphous,  absorbing  oxygen  ond 
exhaling  carbonic  acid,  and  propagating  either  by  means  of 
microscopic  granules,  which  are  lodged  in  particular  reccp 
tacles,  or  by  a  dissolution  of  their  whole  tissue. 

That  they  are  cellular  or  filamentous  may  be  easily 
ascertained  by  examining  them  with  even  an  indifferent 
microscope ;  perhaps  they  might  be  even  simply  described 
as  cellular,  for  their  filamentous  tissue  seems  nothing  but 
cells  drawn  out.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  genua  Uredo,  ihey 
consist  of  spheroidal  cells,  having  bttle  connection  with 
each  other,  each  cell  containing  propagating  matter,  and  all 
separating  firom  each  other  in  the  form  of  a  fine  powdrr 
when  ripe :  the  smnt  in  com  is  of  thk  nature ;  or,  as  in 
CylindroBporimn,  the  cells  are  truncated  cylindm  not 
adhering,  to  far  as  we  can  see,  and  separating  in  Uke  man- 
ner when  ripe.  In  plants  of  a  more  advanced  organiza- 
tion, as  the  genus  Monilia,  the  constituent  cells  are  con- 
nected in  series,  which  preserve  their  spherical  fomv  and  alsi » 
contain  their  own  reproductive  matter;  while  in  such 
plants  as  Aspergillas  the  cells  i>artly  combine  inter  thread-^ 
forming  a  stem,  and  partly  preserve  their  spheroidal  fonu 
for  the  fructification  (/jr.  24).  From  adhering  in  simplo 
series,  the  structure  of  Fungi  advances  to  a  combination  of 
such  series  into  strata,  whence  result  the  various  kindd  of 
dry-rot,  thick  leathery  expansions  developing  amidst  derat- 
ing timber ;  a  more  complicated  form  is  thence  produced 
in  the  form  of  puff-balls,  truffles,  sclerotiums,  andihc  like, 
in  which  a  figure  approaching  that  of  a  sphere  is  the  result, 
the  reproductive  cells  being  indiscriminately  confused  iii 
the  interior  of  such  plants;  and  finally,  the  organisation  i^ 
so  much  complicated,  that,  independently  of  a  mere  aggre- 
gation of  tissue,  we  find  envelopes  of  various  kinds  fur  the 
protection  of  the  propagating  mass,  as  in  Agaricns  and 
Geastrum,  and  special  receptacles  for  the  propagating^ 
matter,  as  in  Boletus  and  numerous  others. 

It  is  probable  however  that  in  all  Fungi,  and  oertain  that 
in  most  of  them»  the  first  development  of  the  plant  oonsi«ts 
in  what  we  here  call  a  filamentous  mattor,  wnich  rsdiatc< 
from  the  centre  formed  by  the  spore  (or  seed),  and  that  all 
the  cellular  spheroidal  appeamnces  are  subsequently  dr\e- 
loped,  more  especially  with  a  view  to  the  dispersion  of  il  t> 
s|M3cie8.  We  purposely  say  dispersion,  not  multiplicatK»n  ; 
for  it  is  certain  that  the  filamentous  matter  is  quite  a« 
capable  of  multiptyino' a  fiingus  as  the  cellolsrorspheKmlat. 
This  is  partly  proved  oy  the  common  miMtiroom  (A}>ariM.^ 
campestris),  whose  filamentous  matt^  is  commonly  sold, 
under  the  name  of  spawn,  for  tho  artificial  multiplication  «jf 
that  species  in  garoens;  aisd  mens  completely  by  some 


ttet  of  coins»  two  monasteries,  two  hospitals,  &c. ,  In  the  J  recent  experiments  of  M.  Audouin,  who  found  that  Usm 


PUN 


19 


PUN 


Botrytis  Basaiaaa  would  inoculate  catorfHllan  and  other 
larv»  as  readily  by  minute  portions  of  its  spawn  as  by  its 
spores  or  seedlike  spberoidid  particles.  Although,  however, 
there  seems  so  much  reason  to  ascribe  the  presence  of  a 
filamentous  spawn  to  all  Fungi,  yet  it  is  seldom  seen  by  the 
ordinary  observer;  for  it  dev^ops  out  of  sight,  under 
ground,  in  the  midst  of  the  decaying  matter  on  which  Fungi 
so  often  appear,  or  through  the  very  substance  of  living 
matter ;  and  it  is  only  the  aggregation  of  spheroidal  matter 
which  we  see.  It  would  appear  that  for  the  growth  of  the 
former  darkness  is  necessary,  and  that  the  latter  is  stimu- 
lated into  existence  by  the  action,  of  a  feeble  quantity  of 
light.  To  apply  to  these  parts  familiar  and  eouivalent 
names,  we  should  say  that  the  stalk  or  stem  radiates  in 
dark  damp  situations,  where  it  is  buried  from  sight,  and  that 
the  spheroidal  part  or  fructification  alone  is  able  to  develop 
beneath  the  light  of  day.  The  spawn  of  the  mushroom  is  its 
stem,  the  muwoom  itself  is  the  fructification  of  the  plant 

It  is  generally  believed  that  spiral  cells  are  unknown  in 
Fungi ;  Ckirda  however,  in  his  recent  microscopical  work  on 
these  plants  (leones  Fkmgorum  huciisque  cfjgniiorurn,  Prag. 
1837),  figures  them  in  the  senus  Trichia,  calling  them 
elaters,  and  thus  assigning  them  a  nature  analogous  to 
that  of  the  organs  known  by  the  same  name  in  Junger- 
manniaoes  and  MarohantiacesB. 

The  concentric  growth  of  the  filamentous  stem  or  spawn 
of  Fungi  may  generally  be  witnessed  in  damp  cellars,  when 
they  begin  to  grow  without  impediment  upon  the  walls  or 
decaying  wood.  Nothing  is  more  common  in  such  situa- 
tions than  to  see  a  beautiful  white  flocculent  matter,  which 
a  breath  almost  will  dissipate,  spreading  firom  a  centre 
ncariy  equally  in  all  directions ;  such  appearances,  formerly 
called  byssi,  nave  been  ascertained  to  be  the  spawn  of  va- 
rious kinds  of  Fungi^  the  fructification  of  which  is  probably 
never  developed.  Evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  similar 
mode  of  growth  may  be  found  when  the  spawn  itself  is  not 
visible,  as  in  fields  where  Fungi  so  often  spring  up  in  circles 
or  rings ;  this  arises  from  their  stem  having  originally 
spread  circularly  from  its  point  of  origin,  and  throwu  upits 
iVuL'tification  at  the  circuinference  of  the  circle  so  formed. 

Unlike  other  plants.  Fungi,  instead  of  purifying  the  air  by 
ribbing  it  of  its  carbonic  acid  and  restoring  the  oxygen, 
vitiite  it  by  exhaling  carbonic  acid  and  absorbing  oxy- 
pen.    This  has  been  proved  experimentally  by  Dr.  Marcet 
of  Geneva ;  and  (Lindley,  Intr.  BoL,  ed.  2,  p.  324)  will 
probably  explain  the  cause  of  Fungi  being  so  universally 
destitute  of  green  colouring  matter,  which  we  know  re- 
sults from  the  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid.    It  afibtds, 
no  doubt,  an  additional  argument  to  those  who  believe 
that  Fungi  are  an  intermediate  kingdom  between  plants 
and  animals ;  an  idea  which,  like  that  of  believing  them 
to  be  *  atoms  of  vegetable  matter  combined  by  the  ex- 
piring forces  of  nature,'  we  do  not  think  it  necessary 
seriously  to  discuss.    That  they  are  not  equivocally  gene- 
rated is  sufficiently  proved  by  each  species  having  its  own 
particular  kind  of  seed  or  spore :  a  provision  that  would  be 
perfectly  unnecessary  if  the  species  sprang  up  out  of  decay- 
ins^  matter  by  the  mere  action  of  particulu:  combinations  of 
external  forces.    To  assert  the  existence  of  fortuitous  crea- 
tions in  this  class  of  plants  is  contrary  not  onlv  to  analogy  but 
to  the  plainest  evidence.    The  experimental  observer  may 
indeed  discover  that  Fungi  will  regularly  develop  in  one 
kind  of  chemical  mixture  and  not  in  another :  Dutrochet, 
for  example,  found  that,  if  he  acidulated  a  weak  solution  of 
white  of  eg^,  different  species  of  Monilia  rapidly  formed 
upon  it ;  while,  i£he  rendered  such  a  solution  slightly  alka-- 
line,  the  genus  Botrytis  made  its  appearance,  and  that  the 
solution  in  its  simple  state,  neither  alkalescent  nor  acidulated, 
produced  no  Fungi — a  remarkable  circumstance  enough. 
But  it  would  be  too  much  to  infer  from  such  an  experiment, 
*  that  invisible  germs  of  a  filamentous  plant  may  be  created 
by  tb«  chemical  action  of  an  acid  or  an  alkali  on  organic 
matter  dissolved  in  water,  and  that  they  develop  by  virtue 
of  the  vital  action  which  would  be  the  necessary  attribute  of 
this  chernkxhorganic  molecular  eonyfwuad:*  on  the  contrary, 
the  experiment  only  showed  that  the  seeds  of  Fungi,  like 
those  of  oth«r  plants^  require  special  soils  in  which  to  grow ; 
that  Botrytis-will  not  grow  in  acid  mucilage,  nor  Monilia  in 
alkaline,  nor  either  in  mucilage  in  a  neuter  state.    This  is 
only  what  happens  ixx  plants  of  a  more  highly  organized 
nature.    Who  ever  saw  the  horned  poppy  of  the  sea-shore 
growing  spontaneously  m  an  inland  fiel^  the  marsh  mari- 
gold on  a  dry  heath»  or  the  reindoec  lichen  of  Lapland  on 


a  heath  in  Italy  ?  Let  any  one  take  a  few  different  kinds  o. 
seeds  and  commit  them  all  to  the  ground  in  the  same  place ; 
some  will  spring  up  and  flourish,  others  will  just  appear 
above  ground  and  then  perish,  others  will  make  an  attempt 
to  germinate.  This,  an  every-day  event, is  a  sufficient  explaim- 
tion  of  tlie  fact  elicited  by  M.  Dutrochet*s  experiment. 
Every  kind  of  seed  has  something  specific  in  its  nature,  in 
consequence  of  which  it  requires  particular  kinds  of  soil,  and 
some  special  combination  of  heat,  light  and  moisture,  to  be 
roused  into  a  state  of  vegetation.  As  to  the  presence  of 
the  seeds  of  the  Botrytis  and  Monilia  in  the  vessels  in 
which  M.  Dutrochet's  experiments  were  conducted,  it  is 
perfectly  easy  to  conceive  that  the  seeds  of  such  common 
plants  exist  everywhere  suspended  in  the  air  or  adhering  to 
the  cleanest  vessels ;  they  are  so  numerous  as  to  baffle  all 
powers  of  calculation ;  they  are  so  minute  as  only  to  become 
visible  when  aggregated  in  masses  of  many  thousands,  and 
so  generally  dispersed  that  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  a  place 
in  which  they  may  not  be  reasonably  supposed  to  exist. 
The  very  general  existence  of  dry-rot  is  no  weak  evidence 
of  this ;  but  upon  that  subject  we  have  already  made  what 
observations  we  have  thought  necessary.  [Dry-Rot.] 

Fungi  are  among  the  most  numerous  of  idl  plants  iu  re- 
gard to  genera  and  species,  so  abundant  indeed  that  no  one 
has  as  yet  attempted  to  form  an  estimate  of  their  numbers. 
Fries  somewhere  asserts  that  he  had  discovered  above  2000 
within  the  compass  of  a  square  furlong  in  Sweden ;  even  the 
European  species  of  microscopic  Fungi  are  but  little  known, 
if  we  are  to  judge  from  the  numerous  new  kinds  introduced 
into  Corda's  recent  work ;  and  as  for  those  which  inhabit 
the  tropics,  our  knowledge  of  them  amounts  to  little  or  no- 
thing. It  is  generally  asserted  that  they  are  uncommon  in 
tropical  countries,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  is  true,  and 
at  all  events  it  appears  from  the  evidence  of  a  recent  travel- 
ler in  that  island  that  they  are  extremely  abundant  in  Java. 
They  usually  prefer  damp,  dark,  un ventilated  places, such 
as  cellars,  vaults,  the  parts  beneath  decaying  bark,  the  hol- 
lows of  trees,  the  denser  parts  of  woods  and  forests,  or  any 
decaying  matter  placed  in  a  damp  and  shaded  situation ;  and 
are  most  especially  averse  to  dryness  and  bright  light.  Even 
when  they  appear  upon  the  live  leaves  of  trees,  the  stems  of 
com,  or  in  similar  situations,  it  is  either  at  the  damp  and 
wet  season  of  the  year,  late  in  the  autumn,  or  in  damp  and 
shaded  places ;  and  M.  Audouin  has  shown  experimentally 
that  when  live  insects  are  attacked  bv  them  it  is  only  when 
they  areoonfined  iti  damp  unventilated  places.  (See  Compter 
rendusj  2nd  half-year,  1837.)  In  stations  favourable  totneir 
multiplication  tliey  often  commit  extensive  ravages,  attack- 
ing and  destroying  timber,  and  producing  decay  in  all  kinds 
of  vegetable  matter  of  a  soft  and  succulent  nature ;  nor  is  it 
to  dead  matter  that  their  ravages  are  confined.  They  some- 
times fix  themselves  upon  live  insects,  producing  great  havoe 
among  the  silkworms  in  the  manufactories  of  Italy,  and  are 
probably  the  cause  of  a  more  extensive  destruction  of  such 
animals  than  we  at  present  have  any  idea  of.  Under  the 
name  of  mildew  and  blight  they  commit  excessive  damage 
among  living  plants,  as  the  farmer  and  orcbAirdist  know  too 
well  to  their  cost 

The  systematical  arrangement  of  these  plants  has 
long  exercised  the  ing^enuity  of  botanistSi  who  have 
contrived  various  schemes  of  classifying  them  according 
to  what  are  believed  to  be  their  natural  relations.  The 
most  celebrated  of  them  is  the  myoological  system  of  Fries. 
We  cannot  enter  at  any  lencrth  into  the  details  of  this 
arrangement;  but,  as  some  difficulty  attends  the  study  of  it, 
a  short  explanation  of  its  fundamental  principles  may  be 
useful.  We  shall  therefore  give  a  brief  explanation  of  the 
leading  features  of  this  author's  arrangement. 

Fries  in  the  first  place  divides  the  whole  order  into  fbiir 
Cohorts,  distinguished  by  the  following  characters : — 
Cohort  I.  Hymbnomycbtxs.    AHymenium  present;  that 
is,  the  fungus  opened  out  into  a  fructifying  membrane, 
in  which  the  spores  (seeds)  are  placed,  usually  in  the 
inside  of  asci  (transparent  simple  cases).    The  texture 
wholly  filamentous. 
Cohort  II.  Pyrenomycbtes.    A Perithecium present;  that 
is,  the  fungus  closed  up ;   then  perforated  by  a  hole 
or  irregular  laceration,  and  enclosing  a  distinct  kernel 
holding  ascL    Texture  obscurelv  cellular;  that  of' the 
sUt>ma  (receptacle)  somewhat  filamentous. 
Cohort  III.  Gasteromycstes.    APeridium  present;  that 
is,  the  fungus  at  first  closed  up  and  containing  loose 
spores,  having  no  asci.    The  texture  cellular. 


FUN 


20 


TUN 


CobortlV.  CoNioinrcrra*.  Spore*  naked;  that  is,  the 
ftingui  in  iU  elementary  itale,  evenluBllj'  haviiiK  Ibe 
xporei  quite  nakt-d,  although  they  may  have  Wn 
coTored  at  flnt.  The  texture  between  filamentoui  and 
cellular;  and  the  thollus  often  appoionlly  absent 
He  then  subdivides  these  cohorts  each  into  four  Ordora,  as 
foUowB : — 

Cohort  I.— HrMBIfOHYCBTH. 

Order  1.  Pileati.    The  HTmeDium  on  the  under  tide  and 

havine  aaci  (fig.  1,  Agaiieus). 
Order  i.  hlvellaeei.    The  Hymenium  on  the  upper  side, 

and  having  aaci  IJIg.  2,  Morchetla). 
Order  3.  Clavati.     The   Hymenium  on    both   sides    and 


founded  vith  the  Kceptacle.  Aaci  none.  Membranous 
or  gelatinous,  irith  »  fiUmenloiis  lexlura  ifigi.  4,  i, 
Dacrymyces). 


Ujnifiiinnjralcni  F^in^, 

1.  A(Vlcui>diitDi.ndiiFFJln  iiic;  3.  Murchvlln  riculeDU.  Irdiind  lu  llu: 

K;i«T»m  oinFiM.  mliiDpdtnilii,  V  Uuly'^y'*'  ■Ullilin.FOWlligiii  wnn}', 

Cohort  II,— Pyrbnoicycktes. 

Order  I.  SpPurriacei.  The  kernel  Blled  with asci,  and  deli- 
quescent {/igt.  6,  7,  Cucurbitoria). 

Order  S.  Phaadtacei.  The  kcrucl  QUed  with  asci,  aiid  dry 
(_fie*.  8,  9,  Cenangium). 

Order  3.  Cftigporei.  The  kernel  filled  iviih  naked  sj  ore- 
cases,  and  disintegrating  (J!g-  10.  Spha;ronema). 

Order  4.  Xylomatei.  The  kernel  filled  with  naked  spore- 
cates,  and  dry  (^t.  II,  12,  Acliaolhyrium). 


Cohort  ni.— Ga«tkboiitcbtbi. 
Order  I.  Angiogiutret.    Spore-caw*  immerttjd  in  a  rivfji. 

(acle  distinct  from  the  peridiun. 
Orders.   Triehotpermi.      Bpororasea   naked,   anions  liln- 

menls  distinct  from  the  peridiuin  (Jigs-  17,  IH,  SrUrti- 

derma:  fig.  13,  14,  Armia). 
Order  3.  tiiehodermaeei.    Spore'COMS  naked,  covered  by 

filaments  constituting  a  pendiuto  0^*.  IS,  16,  8i-u- 

Order  4.  ikUmliacei.  Spore-cases  immersed  in  a  niip- 
taclc  constituting  the  peridium  (J!gt.  19,  20,  Cliti'U' 
rainm). 


Coliort  IV.— CoNioHYCBTBB. 

Order  J.  Tubercuiarim.  Spore-cose*  plunged  in  an  en- 
tangled receptacle,  upon  a  free  receptacle  (jtg*.  21,  2'i. 
Fuwtrium). 

Order  2.  Mucorini.  Spore-cases  upon  a  filamentous  recep- 
tacle, at  first  enclosed  in  a  little  peridium  ifigt.  23,  'J6, 
Stilbum). 

Ordei'  3.  Mticedinti.  Spore-cases  at  flrat  concealed  by 
filaments  (Jiga.  23,  24,  Aspergillus). 

Order  4.  Hypodermi.  Spore-cases  spriDging  from  tindci 
the  cuticle  of  trees  (figi.  2^,  29,  Exosporium). 


PUR 


2i 


ThoM  who  wiah  to  beoome  acquainted  vitb  this  Bulycrt 
practiealljr  and  in  iti  details  ihould  consult,  not  any,  but  all 
of  Ilie  folloving  works : —Friea's  Syttema  Mycobtgicum ; 
Greville'i  Crypltvamic  Flora;  Netiet  Syttem  der  Pitz»; 
Cotda.'t  leonii ;  Kndlichar's  Genera  Fttmtarum;  uid  the 
last  part  of  Hooker's  Briluk  Hora.  Sowerby's  Ftttm  and 
BuUuud's  Hgure*  are  standard  trorks  of  reference  for  figure* 
of  these  plants. 

FU'NGIA.    mArwpKiatKB*.] 

FUNGIC  ACID,  en  acid  discovered  by  Braconnot  in 
the  juice  of  most  Fungi.  This  acid  exirts  partly  in  a  free 
state  in  the  perixa  nigra,  and  combined  witn  potash  in  the 
bokliu  jugiandis ;  it  may  be  obtained  &om  the  iuice  of 
either  of  these  vegetables  by  evaporating  it  to  tne  con- 
sistence of  a  syrup,  and  tieatinz  it  with  alcohol.  The  por- 
tion insoluble  in  alcohol  is  the  ningate  of  pota«h.  which  is 
to  be  decomposed  by  acetate  of  lead ;  the  fungate  of  lead 
is  to  be  daconipoaod  by  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  or  by  bydro- 
sulphurio  acid,  by  which  the  lead  is  separaled  in  tlie  stale  of 
■tilphate  OT  sulphuret,  and  Iha  fungic  acid  is  left  in  tmlution. 

This  acid,  wnen  pure,  is  colourless,  very  sour,  uncrys- 
tsliiuble,  and  deliquescsnl ;  with  Ume  it  forms  a  diffi- 
cultly soluble  salt,  and  with  potash  and  soda  deliquescent 
uncryitallinble  salts ;  in  these  and  some  other  properties 
it  resembles  impure  malic  acid.  Some  doubt  exists  as  to 
whether  it  is  a  distinct  acid. 

FUNGIN,  the  name  given  by  Braconnot  to  the  fleshy 
substance  of  mushrooms,  purifled  by  digestion  in  a  hot 
weak  solution  of  alkali :  it  is  whitish,  soft,  insipid,  and  but 
little  elastic  It  is  not  acted  upon  by  water,  alcohol,  eelher, 
dilute  sulphurio  acid,  potash,  or  soda ;  it  is  dissolved  by 
hydrochloric  acid  when  heated,  and  it  decomposes  and  is 
decomposed  by  nitric  acid ;  the  results  are  much  gas,  oxalic 
acid,  a  bitter  yellow  matter,  and  two  fatty  subatances,  ono  of 
which  resembles  wax,  and  the  other  suet ;  the  latter  is  most 
abundant  It  is  a  highly  nutritious  substance,  and  in  n^ny 
of  its  properties  it  strongly  resembles  lignin. 

FTTNICULAR  CURVE.     [Catbnahy] 

FUNNEL,  a  hollow  conical  vessel  with  a  small  nipe 
issuing  from  its  apex  ;  it  is  en  instrument  much  used  m 
common  and  domestic  life  for  conveying  fluids  into  vessels 
of  small  apertures,  and  in  chemical  operations  it  is  used 
not  onlv  for  this  purpose  hut  for  the  important  one  of  flller- 
JDg.  [Filter.]  For  the  mere  purpose  of  the  transfer  from 
one  vessel  to  another  of  such  fluids  as  do  not  act  upon 
metals,  funnels  are  commonly  made  of  Clipper,  pewter,  or 
tin  plate,  and  this  is  especially  the  case  when  they  arc  em- 
ployed for  convejing  powders  into  bottles.  When  how- 
ever they  are  employed  by  the  chemist  with  acid,  alkaUne, 
or  such  othnr  solutions  as  dissolve  or  corrode  the  metals, 
then  funnels  are  mode  of  earthen  or  stone  ware,  or  of  glass. 
When  used  for  filtration,  especially  in  smaller  and  nicer 
operations,  those  of  glass  are  always  to  he  preferred,  and 
of  that  kind  called  ribbed  funnels,  which,  on  account  of  the 
channels  that  their  construction  admits  of  between  the 
filter  and  the  ftinnel,  allow  of  tho  more  leady  passage  of 
the  filtered  fluid. 

FURIES.    [EnHBNiDBs.] 

FURLONG.    rMEAiuKHs.] 

FURNACE.  The  common  grate  is  the  most  famihar 
example  of  a  ftimace.  It  is  constructed  of  iron,  and  of  va- 
rious forms.  The  fuel  is  kept  in  it  only  bv  bars,  in  order  to 
throw  the  beatout  into  the  room.  Indeeo  this  is  its  princi- 
pal us«;  and  although  its  heat  is  barely  sufficient  to  melt 
thin  plate  silver,  yet  many  chemical  operations  may  be  per- 
formed  in  Iho  common  stove,  and  its  flat  sides  or  cheeks 
furnish  a  lower  dej^e  of  heat,  on  which  evaporation  and 
digestion  may  be  effected. 

For  the  smollw  operations  ia  ohomistry  a  groat  variety 
of  furnaces  have  been  invented :  these  it  would  be  quite 
t^eiesi  to  describe.  We  shall  therefore  mention  only  a  few 
of  the  more  important  and  generally  employed.  The  an- 
nexed flgiuierepresents  atrtna/umnce.*  in  this  a  very  high 
temperaluro  is  produced  without  the  use  af  bellows,  by 
means  of  a  powerful  draught.  The  chimney  of  a  wind  fur- 
nace should  be  luurow  and  high ;  the  Aimace,  represented 
ts  connected  with  and  pnyectins  fin)m  the  chimney,  should 
hoof  such  abeigbl  as  to  allow  the  operator  to  look  into  it ; 
it  should  be  btm  IS  to  15  inches  square,  and  furnished 
with  moveable  ban  and  a  cover ;  every  part  exposed  to  the 
Are  ohouU  be  constructed  of  the  most  refracloty  bricks. 
When  a  very  strong  beat  is  required  the  air  should  be  con- 
teyed  by  pipes  diiectly  Ihna  vithoutrdoor  to  the  ash-pit 


In  the  Bgure  a  crucible  is  represented  as  pieced  Li  the  fur- 
nace, and  its  cover  is  on. 

This  furnace  is  much  employed  in  the  reduction  of  me- 
tals, and  in  the  assaying  of  copper  and  various  other  ores. 
The  fiiel  used  is  either  coke  or  a  mixture  of  ooke  and 
charcoal. 

The  above  cut  represents  the  blatt  Jitrnaoe  which  Mr 
Faraday  states  in  his  Chemical  Manipulation  to  have  been 
for  some  years  in  use  in  the  laboratory  of  the  Royal  Iiisti- 

The  exterior  consists  of  a  blue  pot  eighteen  inchei  io 
height  and  thirteen  inches  in  external  diameter  at  the  top. 
A  small  blue  pot  of  seven  and  a  half  inches  internal  diame- 
ter at  the  top,  bad  the  lower  part  cut  off;  so  as  to  leave  an 
aperture  of  five  inches.  This,  when  put  into  the  lawerpot, 
rested  upon  its  lower  external  edge,  tho  tops  of  tne  two 
being  level.  The  interval  between  them,  which  gradually 
increased  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  part,  was  uled  with 

C'veriied  glass-blowers'  pots,  to  which  water  enough  had 
n  added  to  moisten  the  powder,  which  was  pressed  down 
by  sticks,  so  as  to  make  the  whole  a  compact  mass.  A  round 


space  beneath  it  therefore  constituted  the  air-chamber,  a 
the  part  above  it  the  body  of  the  furnace.  The  former  is 
7}-  inches  from  tho  grate  to  the  bottom,  and  the  latter  7( 
inches  from  the  grate  to  tbe  top ;  a  horizontal  hole,  conical 
in  fbrm,  and  1^  inch  in  diameter  on  tbe  exterior,  was  cut 
through  the  outer  pot,  forming  an  opening  into  the  air- 
chamber  at  the  lower  port,  its  use  being  to  receive  the 
noiile  of  tbe  bellows.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  fumaca 
is  perfectlv  dry  before  it  is  used. 

The  fiiel  employed  is  coke,  and  the  furnace  is  used  with 
a  pair  of  double  bellows  mounted  on  an  iron  frame,  tho  fur- 
nace being  raised  upon  an  iron  stool  so  as  to  bring  the  aper- 
ture of  the  air-chamber  to  a  level  with  the  nozzle  of  the 
bellows. 

This  furnace  is  sufficiently  powerful  to  raelt  pure  iron  in 
a  crucible  in  12  or  1 5  minutes,  the  fire  having  been  previously 
lighted.  It  will  effect  the  fusion  of  rhodium,  and  even 
pieces  of  pure  platinum  have  sunk  together  into  one  button 
in  a  crucinle  heated  by  it;  allkindsof crucibles,  including 
the  Cornish  and  the  Hessian,  soften,  fuse,  and  become 
fhilhy  in  it 

The  otny  or  eiq>eUing /itmace  is  a  small  ftirnace  made 
of  iron,  lined  with  relhiclory  ciny,  and  containing  a  muffle 


H^ 


FUR 


22 


FUR 


[MuTFLsl;  it  U  used  principally  for  the  cupeUation  of  gold 
and  silver,  which  is  placed  wpon  a  cupel  in  the  muffle,  pre- 
viously heated  to  redness.  Tne  interior  of  the  Airnaoe  con- 
tains merely  the  muffle  restins  upon  two  ban  of  iron ;  it  is 
pikt  about  two-thirds  into  the  rurnace,  and  there  is  conse- 

?uently  left  a  space  between  it  and  the  back  part  of  the 
urnace:  a  is  the  orifice  of  the  muffle,  which  maybe  closed 
by  iron  slides  placed  at  the  side.  The  opening  b,  placed 
below  the  grate,  and  which  is  also  provided  with  slides, 
serves  as  wdl  as  the  upper  opening  e  to  regulate  the 
draught    Charcoal  is  used  in  this  furnace. 

For  metidlurgic  operations  on  the  largo  scale,  as  well  as 
in  making  alkalis,  red  lead,  &c.,  the  reverberatory  fyr- 
nace  is  much  used.    This  is  shown  in  the  annexed  figure. 


u 


— -I  fi  jr_ 

IIJIIIIII.IM.IIlJlH!!,M'illK 


r 


x±i 


rri    \ ,  \  -i 


LL 


1      1      1      >    •  I      1      1 


A  is  the  space  furnished  with  a  grate  or  bars,  to  con- 
tain the  combustible,  which  is  either  coke,  coal,  or  wood, 
according  to  circumstances;  B£F  is  the  part  on  which 
the  Hame  acts,  £  F  is  the  roo^  BC  the  hearth  on  which 
the  substance  to  be  heated  is  placed,  and  this  is  either 
horizontal  or  inclined;  lastly,  C!  is  a  low  wall  or  the 
bridge  of  the  furnace,  which  retains  the  fuel  in  its  place, 
and  :>crves  to  direct  the  flame  towards  the  roof:  a  shows 
the  opening  of  the  furnace,  usually  placed  at  its  side: 
through  this  the  substance  to  be  heatea  is  introduced,  aim 


CmkM  rif -Iioa  Funwoe. 


f    --. 


t*.  7-  \., 


-1 

-31 


it  is  afUnraidA  cloted ;  ofUn  alio  then  u  an  opening  at 
B,  to  allow  of  a  melted  metal  to  flow  out  H  ia  a  very  hiKU 
chimney  that  produce!  the  draught,  and  which  may  bo 
closed  by  a  damper.  As  this  furnace  is  employed  for  a  va^l 
number  of  purposes,  it  is  evident  that  various  umohs  must  be 
used  ;  these  however  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  describe. 

The  coke  pig-iron  fumaee  (see  preceding  figure)  is  that 
used  in  South  Wales  in  the  making  of  pig-iron ;  the  height 
of  this  furnace,  from  the  bottom  at  A  to  the  flUing-place  at 
B,  is  dO  feet;  the  height  of  the  hearth,  firom  A  to  C.  h^ 
feet ;  from  C  to  the  top  of  the  boshes  at  D,  8i  feet  The 
diameter  of  the  hearth  from  A  to  C  increases  from  .3  feet  to 
3i  feet  The  extreme  width  at  the  top  of  the  boshes  D  is 
1 1  feet.    The  diameter  of  the  oharging-place  B  is  6  feet 

S  £  B  E,  the  lining,  is  composed  of  a  double  circle  of  fire- 
bricks, about  15  inches  longeach,  with  a  space  for  an  inttrr- 
mediate  packing  of  sand.  ¥  F,  the  hearth,  is  ooostructed  of 
largo  blocks  of  breccia,  or  plum-pudding  stone ;  G  6  ara 
tbo  twyres,  or  openings  by  which  the  blast  is  discharged  into 
the  furnace  from  the  blowing  cy Under,  which  is  worked 
by  a  steam-engine.  The  contents  of  this  furnace  are  6U  i  & 
feet;  and  it  is  capable  of  producing  100  torn  of  pig-iron 
weekly. 

FURNA'RIUS.    [Crebpbb,  vol.  viii.  p.  148.] 

FURNEAUX'S  ISLANDS.    [Bass'i  Straits.] 

FURNES,  or  VEURNE,  a  small  town  in  West  Flan- 
ders, within  three  miles  of  the  sea-coast,  between  NU>u- 
port  and  Dunkerque,  in  51°  5'  N.  lat.,  and  2°  42'  K. 
long.,  12  miles  east  fVom  Dunkerque,  and  26  south-wobt 
fi*om  Bruges.  The  town  was  antiently  close  to  the  m.m, 
but  having  been  destroyed  by  the  Normans  it  was  inbuilt 
on  its  present  site  by  Baldwin,  surnamcd  Iron-arm. 
A  battle  was  fought  on  the  plains  of  Furnes  in  1297,  be- 
tween Count  Robert  of  Artois,  commanding  the  troops  of 
Philip  the  Fair,  and  Count  Guy  of  Flanders,  who  ct)in> 
manocd  for  Edward  the  First  of  England.  Fumes  bun 
often  been  taken  by  the  French ;  it  was  carried  by  I^uis 
XV.  in  1744.  and  restored  by  him  in  1748»  under  tlie 
treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  It  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  French  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution,  and  £>rmed 
part  of  the  department  of  the  Lys  until  1814. 

The  town  is  well  built,  and  in  1830  contained  756  housci^, 
inhabited  by  954  families,  and  4253  individuals.  There  are 
a  cathedral,  two  churches,  a  chapel,  an  hospital,  a  college, 
and  several  convents.  A  brisk  trade  is  carried  on  in  various 
kinds  of  agricultural  produce,  and  the  town  contains  tan- 
neries, breweries,  ropewalks,  salt  refineries,  and  oil-mills. 

Furnes  was  a  place  of  some  importance  before  the  late 
peace,  on  account  of  its  fortifications,  which  have  since 
been  demolished. 

FURNES  CANAL.  This  work  begins  at  the  town  of 
that  name,  where  it  is  connected  with  the  canals  of  Ber- 

fues,  of  Loo,  and  of  Dunkerque,  and  is  carried  to  Nieuport,  a 
istance  of  five  miles  and  thi«e-quarters.  It  thus  forms 
part  of  the  canal  communication  between  Bruges  and  Dun- 
kerque, which  is  of  importance  to  the  trade  of  the  province, 
and  is  especially  useful  for  the  conveyance  of  eoals.  Some 
considerable  works  are  in  progress  at  Nieuport,  which  ^ill 
render  this  canal  further  useful  for  discharging  the  super- 
fluous  water  of  the  Yser  into  the  North  Sea. 
FURNESS  ABBEY.  [Lancashire.] 
FURRUCKAB AD,  a  district  in  the  province  of  Agra, 
forming  part  of  the  Doab  of  the  Jumna  and  Ganges,  an«l 
lying  between  27**  and  28"*  N.  lat.  This  district  is boundtd 
on  the  north  by  Bareflly  and  Alighur,  on  the  east  by  Bu- 
reilly,  on  the  south  by  Etawah  and  Caunpore,  and  on  the 
west  by  Alighur.  Previous  to  1801  Furruckabad  was  under 
a  Patau  chief,  who  was  tributary  to  the  king  of  Oude ;  but 
in  that  year,  by  an  arrangement  made  between  the  £ngU>!i 
and  that  monarch,  thcwtribute  was  transferred  to  the  £;i^t 
India  Company,  and  in  the  following  year,  by  a  further  ar- 
rangement  mado  with  the  nabob  of  Furruckabad,  the  Com- 
pany assumed  the  civil  and  military  government  of  the  dis- 
trict, making  a  fixed  annual  allowance  to  the  nabob  ot 
180,000  rupees  (18,000/.)  It  is  hardly  possible  to  give  too 
unftivourable  a  description  of  the  state  of  anarchy  and  law- 
less  violence  which  previous  to  that  time  reigneid  through- 
out  the  district.  There  did  not  exist  even  the  semblaiire  oc 
a  court  of  justice,  in  which  criminal  acts  co«ld  be  punished 
or  civil  wrongs  redressed.  No  well-disiposed  person  durst 
remain  abroad  after  night-fall ;  hous^  were  forcibly  entered 
by  robbers  even  in  the  day-tim&  and  murders  were  com- 
monly peipetmted  in  the  streets  in  the  ftoe  of  day.    Sinc« 


PUR 


29 


FUR 


tbe  BnglMh  hare  aasttmed  the  co^emment  tti^se  6f?ik  have 
been  r^reased,  the  persons  ana  prope^  of  the  inhabitanta 
have  been  effectually  protected;  gangs  of  robbers  have  been 
extirpated ;  and  as  toe  consequence  of  Ihie  alteration,  the 
value  ef  hoaset  and  land  has  increased  many  fold,  the 
aseessnent  has  been  punctually  paid,  and  cultivatioa  has 
been  greatly  extended.  According  to  a  statistical  return 
made  by  the  collector  of  the  distriet  in  1813,  there  were  then 
in  cultivatim  1,80^,383  snudl  bi^hs,  abool  600^00  acres  oi 
land,  tfaeiereime  assessed  upon  vhidi  was  10,28,485  rupees 
(102,848/.X  or  abotit  3i.  5dL  per  acre:  there  were  further  at 
that  time  3»97»350  begahs  fit  for  cultivation,  and  10,46,704 
begahs  of  waste  land  in  the  district,  the  extent  of  which 
appears  therefore  to  be  abotit  1640  square  miles. 

FURRUCKABAD,  the  capital  of  the  district,  is  situated 
at  a  short  distance  fiom  the  western  bank  of  the  Ganges, 
in  27''  24^  N.  l&t,  and  79**  27'  E.  long.:  this  is  one  of  the 
principal  towns  of  Upper  Hindustan.  It  is  inclosed  by  a 
wall ;  the  streets  are  wide,  and  in  the  best  parts  of  the  town 
the  houses  are  good,  and  surrounded  by  trees^  but  the 
greater  port  of  the  dwelhngs  within  the  waHs  are  wretched 
mud  hovels.  An  actual  survey  of  the  town  was  made  in 
1  SI  1,  at  which  time  it  contained  13,348  dwellings  and  1651 
shops.  Allowing  the  usual  number  of  five  persons  to  a 
dwelling,  the  population  must  then  have  amounted  to 
66,740  persons,  exclusive  of  the  floating  population,  visitors 
and  stcangers,  which,  as  Furruckabad  is  the  chief  emporium 
of  trade  in  the  ceded  and  conquered  provinces,  are  always 
present  there  in  considerable  numbers. 

FURS  and  FUR  TRADE.  The  use  of  furs  appears 
to  have  been  introduced  into  civilised  Europe  by  the 
northern  conquerors.  In  the  sixth  century  the  skins  of 
sables  were  brought  for  sale  from  the  confines  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean  to  Rome,  throueh  the  intervention  of  many 
diflerent  hands,  so  that  the  ultimate  cost  to  the  consumer 
was  very  great.  For  several  centuries  i^er  that  time  fhra 
could  not  have  become  at  dl  common  in  western  Europe. 
Marco  Polo  mentions  as  a  matter  of  curiosity  in  1252,  that 
he  found  the  tents  of  the  Cham  of  Tartary  lined  with  the 
skins  of  ermines  and  sables  which  were  brought  fVom 
countries  fiir  north,  from  the  land  qf  darkneis.  But  in 
less  than  a  century  from  that  ti|ne  the  fashion  of  wearing 
fVirs  must  have  become  prevalent  in  England,  for  in  1 337 
Edward  the  Third  ordered  that  all  persons  among  his  sub- 
jects should  be  prohibited  their  use  unless  theycmild  spend 
one  hundred  pounds  a  year.  Hie  furs  then  brought  to 
England  were  Aimished  by  the  traders  of  Italy,  who  pro- 
cured them  from  the  north  of  Asia. 

The  fur  trade  was  taken  up  by  the  French  colonists  of 
Canada  very  soon  after  their  first  settlement  on  the  St. 
Laurence,  and  through  the  ignorance  of  the  Indians  as  to 
the  value  of  the  skins  which  they  sold,  and  of  the  trinkets 
and  other  articles  which  they  took  in  payment,  the  traders 
at  first  made  very  great  profits.  The  animals  soon  became 
scarce  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  European  settlements, 
and  the  Indians  were  obliged  to  extend  the  range  of  their 
hunting  expeditions,  in  which  they  were  frequently  accom- 
panied by  one  or  other  of  the  French  dealers,  whose  object 
it  was  to  encourage  a  greater  number  ^  Indians  to  engage 
in  the  pursuit  and  to  bring  their  peltries,  as  the  unprepared 
skins  are  called,  to  the  European  settlements.  When  the 
hunting  season  was  over  the  Indians  came  down  the  Ottawa 
in  their  canoes  with  the  produce  of  the  chase,  and  encamped 
outside  the  town  of  Montreal,  where  a  kind  of  fair  was  held 
until  the  fiirs  were  all  exchanged  Ibr  trinkets,  knives, 
hatchets,  kettles,  blankets,  coarse  cloths,  and  other  articles 
suited  to  their  wants,  including  arms  and  ammunition.  A 
large  part  of  the  value  was  usually  paid  to  tlie  Indians  in 
the  form  of  ardent  spirits,  and  scenes  of  riot  and  confusion 
were  consequently  of  freauent  occurrence. 

The  next  stage  of  the  Canadian  fur  trade  was  when  some 
of  the  European  settlers,  under  the  name  of  Coureufs  des 
Bois,  or  wood-rangers,  set  out  at  the  proper  season  from 
Montreal  in  canoes  loaded  with  various  articles  considered 
desirable  by  the  Indians,  and  proceeded  up  the  river  to  the 
hunting-grounds.  Here  they  remained  for  an  indefinite 
time,  sometimes  longer  than  a  year,  carrying  on  their  traffic 
with  the  Indian  hunters,  and  when  their  outward  invest- 
ments were  exhausted,  they  returned,  their  canoes  in 
general  loaded  with  packs  of  beaver-skins  and  other  valu- 
able peltries.  While  engaged  in  these  expeditions  some  of 
them  adopted  the  habits  of  the  trQ)e  with  whom  they  were 
usoeiated,  and  formed  connexions  with  the  Indian  women. 


Tl^t  tride  Watf  Ibf  some  time  extramely  profitable;  the 
men  by  whom  it  was  oonducted,  the  Coureurs  de^  Bois, 
wore  usually  %itho«l  capital*  and  their  roveatments  of 
European  goods  were  fhrnished  by  the  storekeepers  of 
Montreal,  whe  drew  al  least  their  full  proportion  of  profit 
firom  the  adventnre.  The  return  cargo  was  generally  more 
valuable  than  the  mvestments;  in  the  pronortion  of  six  to 
one.  Thus  where  the  investment  amountea  to  one  thousand 
dollars,  and  the  peltries  returned  sold  for  six  thousand,  the 
storekeeper  first  repaid  himself  the  original  outlay,  and 
usually  secured  for  himself  an  equal  amount  for  interest 
and  commissions,  after  which  the  remaining  4000  dollars 
were  divided  between  himself  and  the  Coureur  des  Bois. 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  established  with  the  ex- 
press object  of  procuring  furs,  was  chartered  by  Charles  the 
Second  in  1670,  with  the  privilege  of  exclusively  trading 
with  the  Indians  in  the  vast  and  not  well  defined  region 
lying  to  the  north  and  west  of  the  great  inlet  from  which 
the  Company  takes  its  nameu  This  association  founded 
several  establishments,  and  has  ever  since  prosecuted  the 
trade  under  the  direction  of 'a  governor,  deputy- governor, 
and  a  committee  of  management  chosen  from  among  the 
proprietors  of  the  joint-stock,  and  resident  in  London.  The 
Company's  charter  never  having  been  confirmed  by  Act  of 
Parliament,  it  was  considered  that  all  British  subjects  were 
entitled  to  engage  in  the  trade  with  those  regions,  and  in 
confbrmity  with  this  notion  a  partnership  was  formed  in 
1783  under  the  name  of  the  North-West  Company,  which 
proved  a  powerful  competitor.  This  Company  consisted  of 
twenty-three  shareholders,  or  partners,  comprising  some 
of  the  most  wealthy  and  influential  British  settlers  in 
Canada,   and  employed   about   2000  persons  as  clerks, 

guides,  interpreters,  and  boatmen,  or  voyageurs,  who  were 
istributed  over  the  feee  of  the  country.  Such  of  the 
shareholders  as  took  an  active  part  were  called  agents , 
some  of  them  resided  at  the  different  ports  established  by 
the  Company  in  the  Indian  territory,  and  others  at  Quebec 
and  Montreal,  where  each  attended  to  the  affairs  of  the 
association.  These  active  partners  met  once  in  every  year 
at  Fort  William,  one  of  their  stations  near  the  Grand  Port- 
age on  Lake  Superior,  in  order  to  discuss  the  affairs  of  the 
(>»npany,  and  agree  upon  plans  for  the  fiiture.  The  young 
men  who  were  employed  as  clerks  were,  for  the  most  part, 
the  younger  members  of  respectable  families  in  Scotland, 
who  were  willing  to  undergo  the  hardships  and  privations 
accompanying  a  residence  for  some  years  in  these  countries, 
that  they  mi^t  secure  the  advantage  of  succeeding  in  turn 
to  a  share  of  the  profits  of  the  undertaking,  the  partners,  as 
others  died  or  retired,  being  taken  from  among  those  who, 
as  clerks,  had  acquired  the  experience  necessary  for  the 
management  of  the  business.  This  Company  had  a  settle- 
ment called  Fort  Chippewyan,  on  the  Lake  of  the  Hills,  in 
110^26'W.  long.,  and  some  of  the  Indians  who  traded 
with  the  persops  stationed  at  this  fort  came  from  beyond 
the  Rocky  Moimtains. 

A  great  degree  of  jealousy  and  hostility  arose  between 
the  respective  agents  of  the  Hudson*s  Bay  and  North-West 
Companies,  which  more  or  less  impeded  the  opemtions  of 
boUi  parties  for  several  years,  until  in  1821  a  junction  of  the 
two  was  effected,  and  the  trade  has  since  been  prosecuted 
peacefully  and  successfully ;  but  their  presumed  exclusive 
right  of  trading  throughout  the  vast  region  which  they 
have  made  the  scene  of  their  operations,  is  still  guarded 
with  extreme  jealousy.  All  the  furs  collected  by  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  are  shipped  to  London,  some  ftom 
their  factories  of  York  Fort,  and  on  Moose  River,  in  Hudson's 
Bay;  other  portions  from  Montreal,  and  the  remainder 
from  the  Columbia  River. 

The  fur-trade  is  prosecuted  in  the  north-western  terri- 
tories of  the  United  States  by  an  association  called  the 
North  American  Fur  Company,  the  principal  managers  of 
which  reside  in  New  York.  ,The  chief  station  of  this 
company  is  Michilimackinac,  to  which  are  brought  all  the 
peltries  oollected  at  the  other  ports  on  the  Mississippi, 
Missouri,  and  Yellowstone  rivers,  and  through  the  great 
range  of  country  extending  thence  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
This  Company  employs  steam-boats  for  ascendinff  the  rivers, 
which  penetmte  with  ease  to  regions  which  could  formerly 
be  explored  only  through  the  most  painful  exertions  in 
keel-boats  and  barges,  or  by  small  parties  on  horseback  or 
on  foot 

The  ermine,  called  by  way  of  pre-eminence  *  the  precious 
ermine/  is  found  almost  exclusively  ia  the  cold  regions  oa 


PUR 


24 


PUR 


Europe  and  Asia.  Tlie  stoat  (which  in  fhct  is  identical  with 
the  ermine),  but  the  fiir  of  which  is  greatly  inferior  to  that  of 
the  European  and  Asiatic  animal,  is  found  in  North  America. 
The  fiur  of  the  ermine  is  of  a  pure  whiteness  throughout,  with 
the  exception  of  the  tip  of  tne  tail,  which  is  black ;  and  the 
spotted  appearance  of  ermine  skins,  by  which  they  are  pe- 
culiarly known,  is  produced  by  fastening  these  black  tips 
at  intervals  on  the  skins.  The  animal  is  from  \A  to  16 
inches  long  from  the  nose  to  the  tip  of  the  tail,  the  body 
being  from  10  to  12  inches  long.  The  best  fur  is  yielded 
by  the  oldest  animals.  They  are  taken  by  snares  and  in 
traps,  and  are  sometimes  shot,  while  running,  wiUi  blunt 
arrows.  The  sable  is  a  native  of  Northern  Europe  and 
Siberia.  The  skins  of  best  quality  are  procured  by  the 
Sumuieds,  and  in  Yakutsk,  Kamtchatka,  and  Russian  Lap- 
land :  those  of  the  darkeiit  colour  are  the  most  esteemed, 
llie  length  of  the  sable  is  from  18  to  20  inches.  It  has  been 
runsidured  by  pomo  naturalists  a  variety  of  the  pine-marten. 
Martens  arc  found  in  North  America  as  well  as  in  Northern 
Abia  and  the  mountains  of  Kamtchatka :  the  American 
skins  arc  generallv  the  least  valued,  but  many  among  them 
are  rich  and  of  a  beautiful  dark-brown  olive  colour.  The 
fiery  fox,  so  called  from  its  brilliant  red  colour,  is  taken 
near  the  north-eastem  coast  of  Asia,  and  its  fur  is  much 
valued,  both  for  its  colour  and  fineness,  in  that  quarter  of 
the  world.  Nutria  skins  are  obtained  from  South  America, 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  importations  in  this  country  come 
from  the  states  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  [Coypou.]  These  skins 
are  of  recent  introduction,  having  first  become  an  article  of 
commerce  in  1810:  the  fur  is  chieliy  used  by  hat-manu- 
facturers, as  a  substitute  for  beaver.  Sea-Otter  skins  were 
first  sought  for  their  fur  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  when  they  were  brought  to  Western  Europe  from 
the  Aleutian  and  Kurile  Islands,  where,  as  well  as  in 
Behriug*s  Island,  Kamtchatka,  and  the  neighbouring  Ame- 
rican shores,  sea-otters  are  found  in  great  numbers.  The 
fur  of  the  young  animal  is  of  a  beautiful  brown  colour,  but 
when  older  the  colour  becomes  jet-black.  The  fur  is  ex- 
ccedini(Iy  fine,  soft,  and  close,  and  bears  a  silky  gloss. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  furs  had  become 
exceedingly  scarce  in  Siberia,  and  it  became  necessary  to 
look  to  fresh  sources  for  the  supply  of  China  and  other 
Asiatic  countries.  It  was  about  the  year  1780  that  sea- 
otter  skins  were  first  carried  to  China,  where  they  realised 
such  hi^h  prices  as  greatly  to  stimulate  the  search  for  them. 
Af^'ith  this  view  several  expeditions  were  made  from  the 
United  States  and  from  Eiigland  to  the  northern  islands  of 
the  Pacific  and  to  Nootka  sound,  as  well  as  to  the  north- 
west coast  of  America.  The  Russians  then  held  and  still 
hold  the  tract  of  country  most  favourable  for  this  purpose. 


to  procure  these  skins  from  the  Indians.  Fur-aeah  are 
found  in  great  numbers  in  the  colder  latitudes  of  the 
southern  hemisphere.  South  Georgia,  in  55^  8.  iat., 
was  explored  by  Captain  Cook  in  1771,  and  immediately 
thereiiter  was  resorted  to  by  the  colonists  of  British  America, 
who  eonyeyed  great  numbers  of  seal  skins  thence  to  China, 
where  very  high  prices  were  obtained.  The  South  Shet- 
land Isknds,  in  63*^  S.  lat,  were  greatly  resorted  to  by 
seals,  and  soon  after  the  disoovery  of  these  islands  in  1818, 
great  numbers  were  taken:  in  1821  and  1822  the  number 
of  sed  skins  taken  on  these  islands  alone  amounted  to 
320,000.  Owing  to  the  system  of  extermination  pursued 
by  the  hunters,  these  animals  are  now  almost  extinct  in  all 
these  islands,  and  the  trade  for  a  time  at  least  has  ceased. 
The  seal-fishery,  or  hunting,  in  the  Lobos  Islands,  is  placed 
under  restrictive  regulations  by  the  government  of  Monte- 
video, and  by  this  means  the  supply  of  animals  upon  them 
is  kept  pretty  regular. 

Bears  of  various  kinds  and  colours,  many  varieties  of 
foxes,  beavers,  racoons,  badgers,  minks,  lynxes,  musk-rats, 
rabbits,  hares,  and  squirrels,  are  procured  in  North  Ame- 
rica. Of  all  the  American  varieties,  the  fur  of  the  black 
fox,  sometimes  called  the  silver  fox,  is  the  most  valuable ; 
next  to  that  in  value  is  the  fur  of  the  red  fox,  which  is  ex- 
ported to  China,  where  it  is  used  for  trimmings,  linings^ 
and  robes,  which  are  ornamented  in  spots  or  waves  with  the 
black  fur  of  the  paws  of  the  same  animal.  The  fur  of  the 
silver-fox  is  also  highly  esteemed.  This  is  a  scarce  animal, 
inhabiting  the  woody  country  below  the  falls  of  the  Co- 
lumbia river.  It  has  long  thick  fur  of  a  deep  lead  colour, 
intermingled  with  long  hairs  white  at  the  top,  forming  a 
lustrous  silver-gray,  whence  the  animal  derives  its  name. 
The  hides  of  bisons  (improperly  called  bufifaloes),  of  the 
sheep  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  of  various  kinds  of  deer, 
form  part  of  the  fur-trade  of  North  America ;  and  some- 
times the  skin  of  the  white  Arctic  fox  and  of  the  Polar  bear 
are  found  in  the  packs  brought  to  the  European  traders  by 
the  most  northern  tribes  of  Indians. 

There  is  but  one  species  of  fur  which  is  peculiar  to  Eng- 
land, the  silver-tipped  rabbit  of  Lincolnshire.  The  ouluur 
of  the  fur  is  grey  of  different  shades,  mixed  with  longer 
hairs  tipped  with  white.  This  fiur  is  but  Uttle  used  in  Eng- 
land, but  meets  a  ready  sale  in  Russia  and  China;  the 
dark -colon  red  ^kins  are  preferred  in  the  former  country, 
and  the  lighter-coloured  in  China. 

The  fur-sales  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  are  held 
every  year  in  the  month  of  March,  and  being  of  great  mag- 
nitude, they  attract  many  foreign  merchants  to  Londuii. 
The  purchases  of  these  foreigners  are  chiefly  sent  to  the 
great  fair  in  Leipzig,  whence  the  furs  are  distributed  to  all 


but  tlie  trading  ships  which  frequent  the  coast  are  enabled  |  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe. 

Number  qf  Skins  qf  FUr-beanng  AnimaU  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  in  the  year  1835,  distinguishing  the 

Countries  whence  they  were  imported. 


.  I 


COrNTUlKS  WHBNCK 
IMPORTED. 

Germany  .         '. 

Russia 

Prussia 

Holland    • 

Belgium    . 

France 

British  North  Ame- 
rican colonies . 

United  States  of  Ame- 
rica 

British  West  Indies 

E.  I.  Compy.  Territo- 
ries 

ChiU 

Peru 

Guernsey.  Jersey,  &c. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope     . 

New  South  Wales 

Mauritius .  . ' 


Benr. 


1 

4,829 

10,184 
1 


9 
2 

14 


I       _ 


States    of  Rio   de   la 
PUU     . 

The  Whale  Fisheries  . 


15,041 


BetYer. 

Fitch. 

67 

37,799 

_ 

39 

— 

8,836 

— 

42 

— 

818 

85,933 

12 

2,316 

40 

... 

— M 

1 

— 

Marian. 


28,280 


2,741 

6 

10,488 

71,068 

47,253 


Mink. 


7,237 


83 


68,400  I  47,686 


MnM{aath.  Nutria. 


25,297 
82,950 


1,147,725 
23,232 


Otter. 


Seals. 


98 


117  16 


2 


700 


159,954  J115,50I 


1,171,659 


5 

284 

557,360 


17  989 
143 

1 


120 
20 


870 
1,030 


822,186 
3,081 


557.600  I   18,374 


2,813 

2,222 

4,455 
1,442 


•   43 

2,536 


339,683 


P  u  » 


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:  «»   a.  b    %.^\^tti^*'^   t:*^t^'j,       II  ft   *  UaUi^k    breakii.g  I 

:«;  '  i^iy   CfUViTUefi   atittu'to,   asd  be   (^Afiu  aa  tbotif^h   be  { 
»  .<!  1  rj  jr»t  h»4  '^'itii^*  ».:ii  c<ju'>ui»(%e  f:kw\m  IB  all    fiia  , 
r;  -^v  !«;«     lb  iUi  iMU*lraUori  to  Cow (ler'v  P^>tf|]lJ^a  K^btieiLAQ  \ 
.•  A/ra  (^l  at  a  Uuo«t)  t>r«aata.%t  t^b*^  «itbv»i.t  a  uai»lraal  and  I 
-«  'It  h.»    hal  on;    hu    le.'»,  vL^b  are  curiou9ly  crossed,  j 
'<«'/!  fjane^l  Uil  tbeftl;^bi  border  of  tbe  trouner  U  perceived.  | 
(ill  Hits  oiiuar  band,  thera  la  alvavt  life  and   action  in  bia  '• 
fj/uret,   »orae  event  guin^   (/nvard  in    tbe  de^iioi*      Hift  ' 
(.«ro|iie  M;i'fii  in  earnest,     in  dreamy  or  terrible  subjects  be  I 
u  often  grand  and  impre«»ive.     His  *  Ni^btmare'  is  ima- 
'^iria  ive  and  full  of  feeling.      His*  Sin  pursued  by  Death* 
M  truly  a  fine   picture.     Ueath   is  fitly  hideous,  and  the 
ft- male  is  a  flbaatl^  muture  of  spectral  paleness  and  volup- 
tuou*neiia.     r  useU  loved  bis  art  with  a  genuine  affect ioo, 
and  tbe  bold  and  original  thoughts  of  bis  vigorous  if  not 
exalted  mind  were  impreMel   upon  the  canvass  without 
roi^t^ivin^.     He  only  wanted  a  better  training  of  bis  hand, 
and  a  more  temperate  habit  of  thinking,  to  bare  made  a 
gri*at  painter.     As  it  is.  he  has  helped  to  vindicate  the  su- 
pifMna^'y  of  design  (including  invention)  and  expreaaion  over 
I  lie  iiifurior  parta  of  the  art,  and  has  done  mucn  to  advance 
a  bolter  ta«te  in  this  country.    (Knowlea.) 

FUSION.  Tlie  different  temperatures  al  which  certain 
s<»hds  are  rendered  fluid  have  been  already  mentioned. 
[FuKKZiNO  Points.]  In  addition  it  may  be  merely  le- 
marked  that  fusion  is  some  timet  uaod  with  the  prefix  of 
watrry^  and  at  other  times  if^neouM.  Watery  fusion  is  that 
wlach  occurs  when  a  salt,  such  as  solpbate  of  soda  for  ex- 
ample,  containing  much  water  of  crystalliiation  fuses  or 
melts  in  its  water  by  exposure  to  a  moderate  heat ;  it  mav 
afterwards  undergo  igneous  fusion  by  ezpoauie  to  a  much 
higher  temperature. 

JKU8T,  or  FAU8T«  JOHN,  an  opulent  citizen  of  May. 
•nee,  a  goldsmith  by  trade,  whose  name  appears  aa  one  of 
tbe  inventors  of  the  art  of  printing,  in  the  manner  in  which 
that  art  ia  eflectod  bv  movable  metal  t)7ws.  Gutenberg 
nnd  Schoefl^er  were  the  two  others.  Schoeffer,  by  invent- 
ing the  puncheon,  ia  supposed  to  have  given  completion  to 
Um  discoterx.    It  t«  nol  howeTer  quite  eertain  that  Fust  | 


t.  The  Pnl'O'  of  1459:  with  snae  Taiarii  fiaai  the  pre- 
aed.^«.  V«t2athe«MWBzea»dknB.  X  IW*RalioBale 
d.-r^:,r.A  Ofooffwm '  U Duiaad.  14^i.  U.  ma^\  the  ftnt 
S9er.=>ea  of  tb«  ur^Wrr  tvpe  of  Fwel  aaA  SdMdfar.  4. 
T^ie  Caez^tzAisx  G:{i«:.t^t.j=^  I4€i'.  fo;.  H9.  &.  Jeannis 
&k:V.  de  Ja;:=a  Cau..l^->^a.  U€v%  isA,  md.    €.  TVe  Latin 


Vt^te  B.~:.>.  i  vo^  U^A  f.-^  cau  Copeiof  thisBibie 
are  of.cr«er  ifMxA  pnaied  t;p'>a  Te.i  ja  than  on  M[ar,  but 
b.tb  are  rare.  7.  T:«e  Ger^aan  Bu>je,  is»L  mai.  ^nown 
to  have  been  prnted  ia  1 462,  or  thewhom.l  Kefhnted  m 
14^  >.  ^.  '  BuIU  Pap«  Pj  U.'  Germ.  14«3.  foL  ^.  9. 
'  L:  j«r  lextui  Decre'.^.^m  Boc  Ucu.  Vlll.  Post.  Max/ 
14^5,  UL  maj. :  a  fiecxfDd,  or  at  least  a  vmrying  tMpressiua 
of  this  work  appeared  m  tbe  saoe  year.  To.  Geero's  Offi- 
ces ar.d  '  Par^'juu*  1463.  hxn.  f  ^  :  the  fint  edition  cf 
CVen>  With  a  dale.  11.  Oceru's  Otteei  and  Buadoxa, 
14^6.  sra.  ttV  Copies  of  th^  edjt:on  aiw  mere  eammoa 
niypik  vel«um  than  00  paper:  that  of  146d  is  very  tare  upon 
veuum.  ii.  *Grammaiiea  rhitmica,'  I4ii»  §oL  min.  It 
c<HUi»u  of  ekveo  leaves  in  lira  miiaUfwt  iMini  of  type  of 
tbcaM  printen,  and  is  of  extreme  mrity ;  two  or  thme  copies 
ocilv  are  knoan. 

m 

The  following  works  without  date,  from  the  doee  feeem- 
bianco  of  tbeir  t^p^jgraphy.  are  awignrd  without  acniplo 
by  our  beat  btbHo^rapbers  to  tbe  press  of  Fuat  and 
Schoeffer.  1.  *  Bulhi  Cniciata  sanctiasiai  Donuoi  iM»tri 
Papa)  contra  Tureus,*  luL  ia  six  printed  leaves.  It  has  no 
place  or  name.  Tbe  type  ia  like  the  Dunnd.  2.  *  Laua 
Virgin  is,'  folio,  nine  leaves.  The  devioe  of  the  shields  in 
red,  at  the  end,  sees  in  so  many  of  theee  piinteia*  works, 
decidedly  justifies  ito  being  placed  as  the  produelian  of  Fust 
and  Sohoe tier's  press.  3.  '  8.  Aurelii  Augustini  de  Arte 
pnedicondi  Traetatua,'  foLo :  suppoaed  to  have  been  printed 
a>K>ut  1466.  It  consists  of  twenty-two  leavee.  4.  'ifiUus 
Donatus  de  Octo  partibna  Oraftionia,'  4lo. ;  the  type  of  the 
smaller  sise,  resembling,  the  Latin  BiUe  of  1462  and  the 
Cicero  of  1465. 

With  an  exception  cr  two,  the  whole  of  Fnst  and 
Schoeffer's  produotiona  are  in  the  collection  at  the  British 
Museum. 

Fust,  whose  name  appean  with  Schoeffer's  for  the  last 
time  in  1466,  is  supposed  to  have  died  in  th^  or  at  latest 
in  the  next  year,  of  the  phigue»  al  Paris.  Schoeflbr  eonti* 
nned  to  print  in  his  own  name  for  a  long  time. 

(Panzer,  ^flot  Typo^r.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  UM17;  B  Mini 
SpencerianOt  [>assim ;  Biogr.  Umi>erteUe,  torn.  xvi.  p.  2v^ ; 
Psignot,  FdrietSs,  Noticett  et  RmrttCM  BAlu^^rtfikifmeM^ 
8vo.  Par.  1822,  p.  78.) 

FUSTIAN,  a  descriptkin  of  cotton  fiihriea  aimilar  in  the 
mode  of  tbeir  manufacture  to  velvet,  having  in  addition  lo 
the  warp  and  weft  common  to  all  woven  good^  a  pUt  coo* 
sisting  of  other  threacb  doubled  under  the  wefk»  and '  thiown 
in'  at  intervals  so  close  together  that  when  the  goeda  are 
finished  the  interlacing  of  the  warp  and  weft  are  concealed 
by  them.  [Vblvbt.]  While  in  the  loom  the  pile  forms  a 
scries  of  lo6ps«  which  are  aflerwarda  cut  and  absared.  The 
cutting  is  performed  by  running  a  knife  through  each  aertiea 
of  loops  as  they  occur  in  the  weft;  this  givea  an  unevwn 
and  hairy  appearance  to  the  doth,  whiah  it  alterwda  re- 
medied first  bv  the  shearing  proceed  and  afbnmtda  bf 
singeing  and  liruihmg»  which  lattar  eywitiOBi  «•  tm^ 


PUS 


27 


P  YZ 


1>emt6d  until  thd  Ibstiail  has  acquired  a  smooth  and  po* 
ished  appearance.  The  shearing  of  Aistians  is  a  separate 
art ;  and  several  hundred  persons  are  engaged  in  it  in  the 
town  of  Manchester  alone.  Until  lately  the  operations 
were  conducted  by  hand,  but  the  aid  of  machinery  has  now 
been  obtained,  and  instead  of  the  tedious  operation  of  cut- 
ting open  only  one  set  of  loops  at  once,  a  series  of  knives 
are  brought  to  act  together  and  continuously,  until  the 
whole  piece  is  finished,  by  which  means  the  work  is  not 
only  done  more  quickly,  but  is  also  better  performed  than 
when  its  excellence  depended  upon  the  uniform  precision 
of  the  human  hand. 

Various  kinds  of  fiistians  are  made,  and  are  known  by  dif- 
ferent names,  according  to  their  form  and  fineness.  The  best 
kinds  are  known  as  cotton  yelvet  and  velveteen;  besides 
these  there  are  beaverteens,  moleskin,  corduroy,  and  cords. 
Different  patterns  are  ijroduoed  by  different  dispositions  of 
the  pile  tnreads.  Fustians  are  woven  both  in  the  hand- 
loom  and  with  the  power-loom ;  they  are  made  of  different 
widths,  some  pieces  being  18  and  others  27  inches  wide :  a 
piece  of  velveteen  of  medium  quality,  90  yards  long  and  18 
inches  wide,  weighs  about  24  or  25  lbs.  The  yam  for  the  warp 
is  made  of  New  Orleans  cotton,  or  of  Upland  Georgia  and 
Brazil  cotton  mixed,  of  the  fineness  of  32  hanks  to  the 
pound ;  the  weft  and  pile  are  usually  spun  from  Upland 
mixed  with  East  India  cotton,  and  the  yarn  is  commonly 
of  the  fineness  of  24  hanks  to  the  pound.  [Cotton  Spin- 
ning.] 

FUSTIC.  This  name  appears  to  be  derived  fmm  fttsteif 
the  French  name  of  a  yellow  dye-wood,  the  produce  of 
Venetian  sumach.  A  wood  similar  in  colour  and  uses,  but 
larger  in  size,  having  been  subsequently  imported  from  the 
New  World,  had  the  same  name  applied  to  it  with  the 
addition  of^ld,  while  the  other,  being  smaller,  is  called 
young  JUsticj  but  these,  so  fiir  from  being  the  produce  of 
the  same  tree  at  different  ages,  do  not  even  belong  to  the 
same  genus. 

Yovng  fkittic,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  Zante  Fkutie, 
is  the  produce  of  Rhus  Cotinus  (tribe  Anaccardiaceee\  a  native 
of  Italy,  the  south  of  France,  and  of  Greece ;  much  of  it  is 
exported  from  Patras  in  the  Morea ;  and  it  also  extends 
into  Asia.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  Cotinus  of  Pliny,  being 
still  called  Seotino  near  Valcimara,  in  the  Apennines,  where 
it  is  cultivated  on  account  of  its  uses  in  tanning.  The  root 
and  the  wood  of  this  shrub  are  both  imported,  deprived  of 
their  bark,  and  employed  for  dyeing  a  yellow  colour  ap- 
proaching to  orange,  upon  wool  or  cottons,  pr'epared  either 
witli  alum  or  the  nitio-muriate  of  tin  with  the  addition  of 
tartar.  The  colour  is  a  beautiful  bright  yellow,  and  per- 
manent when  proper  mordaunts  are  employed.  Only  small 
quantities  of  tnis  kind  of  fustic  are  imported; 

Dr.  Sibthoip  was  of  opinion  that  Rhammu  ii\fectoria  or 
oleoides,  of  whieh  the  berries  are  called  French  and  Per- 
sian berries,  yielded  the  Jktstic  of  commerce,  and  informs 
us  that  its  yellow  wood  is  called  by  the  Greeks  ehry- 
soxylon.  He  tJso  thought  that  it  was  the  Lycium  of 
Dioscorides,  but  this  has  been  shown  by  Dr.  Royle  to  be 
a  species  of  Berberis,  of  which  genus  all  the  species  have 
yellow  wood. 

Old  Fustic,  the  '  bois  jaune*  of  the  French,  is  on  the  con- 
trary the  produce  of  a  large  tree,  Morus  tinctoria,  dyer*s 
mulberry,  of  the  natural  ftimily  of  Urticess,  a  native  of 
Tropical  America  and  the  West  India  Islands.  The  tree 
attains  a  height  of  60  feet ;  the  wood  is  yellow  coloured, 
hard,  and  strong,  but  easily  splintered,  and  is  imported  in 
the  form  of  large  logs  or  blocks.  The  yellow  colour  which  it 
affords  with  an  aluminous  base,  though  durable,  is  not 
very  bright  M.  Chaptal  discovered  that  glue,  by  precipi- 
tating its  tannin,  enabled  its  decoctions  to  dye  yellow  almost 
as  bright  as  those  of  weld  and  quercitron  bark.  Tne  fustic 
from  Cuba  is  preferred,  and  fetches  the  highest  price,  vary- 
ing from  10/.  to  12/^  while  that  from  Jamaica  or  Columbia 
varies  from  6/.  to  9/.  a  ton.  The  tree  is  figured  by  Sloane, 
and  notioed  by  Marcgrave  and  Piso.  Browne  describes  it 
as  a  native  of  Jamaica,  aftd  deserving  the  attention  of 
planters,  as  it  is  only  propagated  by  bir£i^  who  are  fond  of 
its  sweet  roundish  fruit. 

Fustic  is  admitted  into  England  at  the  nominal  duty  of 
three  shillings  per  ton  from  British  Possessions,  and  four 
slnllings  andsix-pence  from  oth^r  countries.  The  annual  im- 
port for  each  of  the  ten  years,  ending  with  1836,  was — 1827, 
4U1  tona;  1828,  7597;   1829,  7364;  1830,  5111;    1831, 


6334;  1832,4350;  1883,9851;  1834,14.047;  1835,9930 
1836,  4917. 

The  several  countries  fh>m  which  fristic  was  imported, 
and  the  respective  quantities  received  from  ea^h,  were,  in 
1836— 

Tons. 

Ital^  and  the  Italian  Islands  •          4 

Ionian  Islands    .             •  •                72 

Morea  and  Greek  Islands       .  .         18 

British  North  American  colonies  103 

British  West  Indies   .             .  «     2053 

United  States  of  America  •              226 

Mexico          ,             •             •  .172 

Columbia  .            •         •  .            1913 

Brasil            •             •             «  •       356 


Total 


4917 


FUSU  S.     [SlPHONOSTOMATA.1 

FUTTEHGHUR.  a  town  in  the  district  of  Furruckabad 
distant  3  miles  from  the  city  of  Furruckabad,  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  Ganges,  in  27**  21'  N.  lat.  and  79'  30' 
E.  long.  Futtehghur  was  formerly  an  important  military 
station  of  the  British  government ;  but  since  the  district 
has  become  more  subject  to  the  dominion  of  the  law  than 
it  was  when  under  the  government  of  the  nabob  of  Fur- 
ruckabad, the  number  of  the  soldiers  has  been  diminished, 
and  is  now  quite  inconsiderable.  This  town  is  the  residence 
of  the  civil  ofllcers  entrusted  with  the  management  of  the 
conquered  and  ceded  provinces,  and  several  European  mer- 
chants  reside  and  carry  on  their  business  within  its  walls. 
During  the  dry  season  the  Ganges  is  here  reduced  to  two 
or  three  narrow  channels  winding  slowly  through  a  bed  of 
sand,  and  at  this  time  the  town  is  hardly  habitable  because  of 
the  clouds  of  dust  which  are  continually  fiying.  The  town 
contains  an  arsenal  which  is  protected  by  a  strong  mud  fort. 
The  chief  industry  carried  on  within  the  town  is  the  manu- 
facture of  tents,  which  are  made  of  good  materials  and  ex- 
cellent workmanship.  Futtehghur  is  distant  90  miles 
north-west  from  Lucknow,  travelling  distance. 

FUTTIPORE,  a  town  situated  19  miles  south-west  from 
the  city  of  Agra,  and  within  the  province  of  that  name,  in 
26''  6'  N.  lat.  and  77''  34'  E.  long.  The  walls  by  which  it 
is  surrounded  are  of  great  extent.  The  inclosed  space  ap- 
pears for  the  most  part  to  have  been  always  unprovided 
with  buildings.  The  stone  of  which  the  walls  are  formed 
is  Airnished  oy  quarries  in  the  neighbourhood,  which  have 
also  supplied  the  materials  for  building  the  houses,  which 
are  not  numerous.  The  town  was  inclosed  and  fortified  by 
the  Emperor  Akbar,  whose  favourite  residence  it  was.  It 
contains  an  extensive  tomb,  also  built  by  Akbar,  in  which 
several  members  of  the  imperial  family  were  buried :  the 
palace  which  he  inhabited  has  long  been  in  ruins,  while  a 
small  house,  which  is  said  to  have  been  the  residence  of  his 
fovourite  minister,  is  still  in  good  preservation. 

FUTURE.    [TiMB.] 

FUZE,  a  short  tube,  made  of  well-seasoned  beech,  and 
fixed  in  the  bore  of  a  shell.  It  is  filled  with  a  composition, 
which,  being  fired  by  means  of  a  small  piece  of  quick-match 
inserted  for  the  purpose,  the  shell  is  made  to  explode  in 
consequence  of  tne  fire  communicating  with  the  powder 
with  which  it  is  charged.  The  length  of  a  fuze  is  regulated 
by  the  intended  range  of  the  shell  or  by  the  intended  time 
of  its  flight. 

For  the  ingredients  which  enter  into  the  oomposition, 
and  for  the  manner  of  '  driving*  the  fuze,  see  Spearman's 
British  Qunner. 

FYZABAD,  a  town  in  the  kingdom  of  Oude,  situated 
on  the  south  side  of  the  €U)ggra  river,  in  26^  47'  N.  lat. 
and  82°  3'  E.  long.,  2  miles  west  from  Oude,  the  antiont 
capital  In  the  reign  of  Shuja  ud  Dowlah,  Fyzabad  was 
made  the  capital,  but  the  s^at  of  government  was  trans- 
ferred to  Lucknow,  in  1775,  by  his  son  and  successor  Azoph 
ud  Dowlah.  Shoja*s  palace  is  already  in  ruins.  At  the 
time  just  mentioned,  the  bankers  and  superior  merchants 
accompanied  the  court  to  Lucknow,  but  the  population  is 
still  numerous.  The  widow  of  Shuja  ud  Dowlah,  known 
in  history  as  the  Bhow  Be^um,  continued  to  reside  in 
Fyzabad  to  the  time  of  her  death.  She  was  possessed  of 
great  wealth,  the  amount  of  which,  as  is  usual  in  the  East, 
was  much  exaggerated.  She  wished  to  bequeath  the  whole 
of  her  property  to  the  English  government,  but  the  offer 
was  declined:  and  after  providing  fn  her  other  relatioiis 


28 


INDEX. 


and  dependants,  the  bulk  of  her  fortune  detoended  to  her 
grandson  Ohazi  ud  Deen,  king  of  Oude.  It  required  a 
bum  equal  to  about  680,000iL  to  provide  for  the  pajrment  of 
the  various  le^peies  and  pensions  bequeathed  oy  the  Be- 
gum's  will,  alter  which  the  king  of  Oude  succeeded  to 


landed  property  (jaghuvs)  yielding  80,000A  per  annum  and 
money  to  tne  amount  of  270,000/.,  besides  )tfWels,  shawls, 
and  cattle,  the  value  of  which  was  very  great,  but  wa»  ngt 
ascertained.  Fyxabad  is  78  miles  east  from  Lucknow,  tra- 
velling distance. 


INDEX  TO  THE  LETTER  P. 


VOLUME  X. 


F,  pags  151 

F,  m  music,  151 

Fab4ce«  [Legumtii^sa] 

Fibiut  Maumui,  161 

FibtuH  Pictor,  152 

Fable,  152 

F^bratti,  152 

Fabri&ao  [H«ceiita] 

Fabrlcius,  Caiui,  153 

Fabrfcius,  J.  A.,  153 

Fabridusi,  J.  C,  153 

Fabrfao,  Gcrdnimo,  151 

Fabyan,  154 

Facade,  154 

Facciol4ii,  154 

Ficia[CiTil  Architect uie;  Co- 

lomnl 
Factor  (in  algebra),  155 
Factor  (in  coninierce),  155 
Factory,  Factory  Sysrem,  156 
FacuUien  [Uniwrsity] 
Fs'cula  rStarch] 
Fa^nsa,  158 
FagiM,  158 
FaKlore,  158 
Fahlunite,  158 
Fahrenheit  [Thermometvr] 
FAintiug  [Syncope] 
F^ioum,  158 
Fttir,  159 

Fairfax,  Edward,  160 
Fiurfjx.  Sir  lliomas,  160 
Faiiies,  161 
Faith,  161 

Fakeuham  [Norfolk) 
Fakir,  16i 
Falii^'c,  162 

Falajaa  f  Abytsinia,  p.  58] 
Falcu  [Falconula*] 
Falcon  [Fuleonida] 
Falconer,  William,  162 
Falcon«:t,  162 
Fdlcouids.  162 
Falconry,  188 
Falcunculuii  [Lauiadas] 
Falkirk,  18S  , 
Falkland,  Ueury  Cur}-,  V'Ucouut, 

lb9 
Falkland  Iftlaads.  IS'J 
FaII  of  Bo<iie«,  190 
Fallacy,  190 
Falltug  Start  [Aerolites] 
FaiIo]itan  Tidxrs,  190 
F  .il6ppio,  191 
Fallow,  191 
Falmouth,  192 
Falae  F««tition,  193 
FalM-tto,  193 
FaUter,  193 
Falun,  194 
Fam  ^lisXvL  fCyprus] 
Fun  Ptilm  [Cham»rope] 
Finnnoteii,  194 
Fanc>,  195 
Fandan)^!.  195 
Fano  [Urbino  e  Peaaro] 
Fanoe  [  Denmark,  teL  viii.,  p. 

39i]  ^ 

Fanahawe,  J  95 
F.incers,  195 

Farce  fKagliah  Diama,  toL  Ix. 

p.  417. 

Faria  e  Souaa,  195 
P.ifoafStaich] 
Farm,  196 


Fanner,  Dr.  Richard,  200 

Farmen-Genend,  200 

Famaby,  201 

Famete,  201 

Famham,  202 

Fani^202 

Faroe  Islands,  202 

Farquhar,  203 

Farrant,  203 

Farringdon,  203 

Fars,  or  Farsistan  [Persia] 

Farthing  [Money] 

Farthingale,  204 

Fasces  [Consul ;  Dictator] 

Favcicle,  204 

Faicicul4ria  [BiadrephyUioa] 

Fascines,  204 

Fasciolaria  [Siphonostomata] 

Fast.  204 

Fasti,  204 

Fastiiijr  [Abitinencel 

Fat,  204 

Fata  Morg/'»na,  205 

Fatalism,  205 

Father  [Piirent  and  Child] 

Fathen  of  the  Church,  206 

Fathom  [Mvasures] 

Fatimides,  207 

Fault  [Mining] 

Fawn,  208 

Fausse-Braye,  208 

Faust,  Tit.^  208 

FAUstiua,  Annia,  209 

FAustiua,  the  younger,  209 

Fauvirtte  [Svlviada] 

Favastraaa  [Madastrsea] 

Faversham  [Kent] 

Fuvdnia  [Medusa] 

Fuvorhnts  [  PhavorinuN] 

Favosites  [  Milli>])oridK] 

F.iwkeh,  Guy,  209 

Fawn  I  Deer,  vol.  viii.,  n.  3581 

Fayal.  21 1 

Fayette,  CcnmtcsJi  de  la,  211 

F«iyi'tte,  Marquis  du  In,  211 

Fayette* ilk'  [Carolina,  North] 

Fayoum  I  Kaiouiii] 

Ft-alty  [Distress,  p.  29;  feudal 

Syatem] 
Fear,  212 

Fear,  Ca]>e  [Carolins,  North] 
Fear,    Cape,    River   [Carolina, 

North] 
Feast,  or  Festival,  213 
February,  213 
F^amp,  213 
Fecialis,2]3 

F^cula,  or  Fv  cula  [Starch] 
Fecundation  of  Plants  [Imprvg- 

nit  ion  ol  Plants] 
Federation,  214 
Fedor,  Ivanovich,  215 
Fedor,  Alexeyewich,  215 
Fee  Simple  (£state] 
Fee  Tail  [Estate] 
Feeling  [Touch] 
Fees,  216 

Fehme,  or  Fehmgericfat|  216 
Feleg)haa,  217 
Felipe,  San,  217 
Felis.F61id»,217 
Felix  I.,  II.,  III.,  224 
FeUx  V.  [Amadeus  VHI.] 
Fvtiowihij  (in  arithmetic),  224 
FellowBhip  QoL  a  college),  224    | 


Feltham,  224 

Felo-deSc,  224 

Filony,  225 

Fe1so-Ban\a  [Ssathmarj 

Felspar,  225 

Felt,  Felting  [Hat] 

Ftolton  [Buckmgham,  Duke  of] 

Feltre  [BelluooJ 

Felucca,  225 

Feme-sole  [Wife] 

Femern  [Schleswig] 

Feminine  [  Gender] 

Fences,  225 

Fenelon,  226 

Fennee  [Fox] 

Fennel  [Faniculum] 

FentoD,  227 

Fenugreek  [Tri^onella] 

Feod  [Feudal  Syktem] 

Feod6sia  [Kafia] 

Feoffment,  227 

Fers,  228 

Ferdinand  I.,  II.,  III.,  of  Aus- 
tria 22  S 

Ferdiiiud  I..  11.,  Ill ,  IV.,  of 
Naples.  229 

Ferdinand  I.,  II.,  III.,  IV.,  V., 
VI.,  VII.,  of  Spain,  231 

Ferdbsi  [FirduaiJ 

Ferguson,  James,  233 

Ferguson,  Adam,  234 

Ferguson,  Robert,  234 

Fergusonite,  235 

Feri»hta,  235 

Fermanagh,  235 

Fermat.  236 

Fenrieutation,  237 

Fermo  ed  .\scoli,  238 

Fermoy,  238 

Fernandez,  Jonn,  238 

Fernandez,  Deips,  238 

Ft^rnaiidez,  Navarretc,  238 

Fernandez,  FraDcixco,  239 

Fernandez,  Antonio,  239 

Fernandez,  Antonio  [Telles] 

Fernandez,  Juan,  23'J 

FeniRiido  Po.  239 

Fernev  ,  Ain] 

Ferns  2 19 

Ferns  [Filicra] 

Fvrrtfra,  Legazione  di,  239 

Ferrara  (town),  240 

Ferrei  and  Ferrari,  240 

Ferreira,  Antonio,  240 

Ferr^ras,  241 

Ferret  [Maatelida] 

Feno,  or  HicRo,  241 

Ferrocyanic  Acid,  241 

FerhSJ,  241 

Ferry,  241 

Firula,^41 

Ferussfna,  242 

Fescennine  Vertet,  242 

Fescue  [Festuca] 

Festfica,  242 

Festuff,  Sextus  Pompeioi,  242 

Feud  [Feudal  Syitetn] 

Feudal  System,  243 

Ffeuerbach,  248 

Fever,  Continued,  249 

Fevenham,     or     Faverdiam 

[Kent] 
Fivre,  Le  [Dacier] 
T^%  [Marocco] 
Feiian,  263 


Fil)er  (^Beaver,  voL  iv.,  p.  121 ; 

Munda] 
Fibre  and  Fibrous  tissue,  2^3 
Fibre,  Vegetable,  254 
Fibrin,  254 

Fibula  (in  anatomy),  255 
Ff  bula,  255 
Fibuliria   [Echinida^  vol.    ix.. 

pp.  260,261] 
Fic6dula  [Beccafico,  vol.  tr.,  p. 

125;  Sylviada] 
Fichte,  256 
Fichtelgebiige,  257 
Ficfno,  257 

Ficofdev  [Mesembryaces J 
Fiction  [Novel ;  Romance  j 
Fictions  (in  law),  257 
Ficus,  258 
Fiddle  [Violin] 
Ftdei  Commiss,  259 
Fideicommiasum,  259 
Fief  [Feudal  System] 
Field  of  View  rreletcoiic  t 
Fieldfare  IMemlidsl 
Field-Marshal,  259 
Fielding,  Henry,  260 
Fieri  F&ciaa.  261 
Fieschi  [Docia] 
Fi^hs  [Etruria ;  Florence] 
Fife,  261 
Fifeshire,  261 
Fifteenth  (in  muucV  2.* 7 
FiOh  (in  music),  267 
Fifth  Monarchy  Men.  267 
Fig,  267 
Fi^eoc  [Lot] 

FiguerHsf  Catalonia,  p.  3C2j 
Ftgiihis   [Cre«i»er,  vol.   vin ,  i>. 

148] 
Figtirate    Numben   [NumUr^ 

rigurate  and  Polyg4»naI  ] 
Figure  (in  geometry),  2Crt 
Figure  of  the  Karth  [Ge««dc«\  \ 
Fi^ired  Base,  268 
Filament  [Anther  | 
Filaugi^ri,  20^ 
Ft '  u I  ia  f  Kii^ozoa] 
Fdbert,2C8 

Fdicea  [GleicheniaceaeJ 
Fillet  (in  architixltiiv),  269 
Filter,  269 

Fimbria  (zoology)  [VeiH-r.d*] 
Fin  I  Fish] 
Fin4le,  270 
Finch  [BoUfioch;    Chaffinch: 

Fringillidsi] 
Finch  rNottingham,  Lord] 
Fine  of  Lands,  270 
Fingal  [Ossian] 
Finger  [Hand] 
Finger-Board,  271 
Fingering,  271 
Finutire,  271 
Finite,  273 
Finland,  273 

FinUnd,  Gulf  of  [Battle  Sea] 
Finmark  [Norway] 
Fma.  275 
Fir  [Abiflii 
FirdCisi 
Fire  [Heatl 

Fire-Arms  [Anna  s  Aitilltr)'] 
Fii«-Eugine,  277 
Fire-BscaM,  279 
Fiit-Fly  f  Slatarid* ;  Lampfria] 


I 


30 


INDEX. 


Fret,  472 

Frtybuig  _ 

Freyburg,  cantoOi  472 

FreyburfF,  towOt  473 

Frian,  473 

Friction,  474 

Friction  Wheels  [Wheels] 

F'idav  [W«ek] 

FriedUnd  [Bonaparte] 

Frivndly  or  Tonga  Islandsy  476 

Frimdly  Societies,  476 

Friends  [Quakers] 

Friesland,  480 

Frieslood,  Sast  [Aurieh] 


VOL.  X, 
Friese  [Civil  Arehiteciure ;  Co- 
lumn! 
FriKateTShip] 

Frigate  (soolo^y)  [Peleeanidtt] 
Frigid&hiini  [Bath] 
Fringe  7^-0,481 
FringfllidsB.  481 
Frisches  Haff,  484 
Fnachlin,  484 
FriHiann,  484 
Frit  (Olassl 
Frith,  or  Firth,  484 
FriiUi,  484 
Frobeu^  or  Frobiaiui,  485 


voux. 

Frobither,  485 

Frodkham  [C:heshireJ 

Frog^,  Frog  Tribe,  486 

Frostbit,  496 

FroiM^arf,  496 

Frome,  497 

Fromet  river  [Somersetshiit] 

Frnnil,  497 

Frondf,  497 

Frondteul&ria  [Fonminifefa] 

Frond ipora  [Milleporid*] 

Frontignan  f  Henult] 

FroDtfnus,  498 

Frontispiece,  498 


FroiiUH498 

Frosin6ne,  498 

Fr»st  [Freesingl 

Froet^Bearer,  498 

Froxen  Ocean,  499 

Fruit,  499 

Fniitii,  Preservation  of,  501 

Fram^ntius  ( Abrssimai 

tians;  AxumJ 
Frustum,  502 
Fiicinus  [Crlanol 
FucoMea  [Pacudotoefia] 
Fucus  rSea  Weed] 
Fiiego  L^<>xunbiqut] 


VOLUlif  E  XI. 


Fuego,  Tiena  del,  page  1 

Furl.  2 

Fueiite  Rabia,   or  Foniarabfa 

[Giiipuxcoa] 
Fuerta  Ventuia  [Canaries] 
Fuggar,  2 
Fu,;ue«  2 
Fulcrum  [Lever] 
Fulda,  river  [Wiser] 
Fulda,  province,  3 
Fulda,  town,  4 
Fulgentius,     Fabtus    Claudins 

Ciordianun,  4 
Fu1g£ntiu«  Ferrandus,  4 
Fulg^ntia<(,  Fabius  Planciades,  4 
FulgiiritcH.  4 
Fulham  [Middlesex] 
F61ica  f  lUlUds] 
Fuligulfn«j  5 


Fuller,  Thomas,  12 

Fullers  Earth,  13 

Fulling  [Woullcn  Manufac- 
tures] 

Fulminating  Powders  [Detona- 
tion] 

Fulroinic  Acid,  13 

Fulton,  Robert,  13 

Fumari4c«ra,  14 

Fumigatiun,  14 

Funchal  [Madeira] 

Functions  Calculus  of,  15 

Functions,  Theory  of,  15 

Fundamental  Base,  16 

Funds  and  Funding  System 
[National  Debt] 

Fundy,  Bay  of,  16 

FUnen,  province,  16 

Fttnen,  island,  16 


Funeral,  17 

Funeral  Orations,  18 

Funeral  Showi  or  Gamesy  18 

Fdnfkirchen,  18 

Fungi,  13 

Fungia  [  MadrephyllicBa] 

Fuugic  Acid,  21 

Fungin,  21 

Funicular  Curve  [Catenary] 

Funnel,  21 

Furies  [Kumenides] 

Furlong  [Measures] 

Furnace,  21 

Furnarius   [Creeper,  vol.   viii., 

p. 148] 
Furneanx's     Islands     [Bass*s 

Straits] 
Fumei,  22 
Fumes  CaiaI,  23 


Fumess  Abbey  [  Lancashire  | 

Furruckabad,  district,  22 

Furnickabad,  town,  23 

Furs  and  Fur  Trade,  23 

Furstenberg,  25 

Ftirth,  25 

FuNcin,  25 

Fusee  [  Horology  | 

F6seli,  35 

Fusion,  26 

Fust,  or  Faust,  26 

Fustian,  26 

Fustij,  27 

Fusus  [Siphonoetomata] 

Futtehghiir,  27 

Futtijiorw,  27 

Future  [Time  J 

Fuse,  27 

F)  sabad,  27 


G. 


G.  This  letter  is  derived  from  the  Latin  alphabet>iii  which 
it  first  appears.  In  the  Greek  alphabet  its  place  is  sup- 
plied hy  zet(U  If»  as  seems  probable,  the  sound  of  this 
Greek  letter  was  the  same  as  the  consonantal  sound  at  the 
beginning  of  the  word  judge  (see  Z),  it  may  perhaps  be 
inferred  that  the  hissing  sound  now  given  to  the  letter  g 
existed  already  in  some  dialect  of  antient  Italy.  The  sound 
at  any  rate  is  fhmiliar  to  the  modern  Italian.  The  sonndof 
the  letter  g  in  theSnglish  language  is  two-fold.  Before  a,  o, 
and  f«,  and  occasionally  before  t  and  e,  it  is  the  medial  letter 
of  the  guttural  order.  The  other  sound,  which  it  possesses 
only  beiure  t  and  e,  is  one  of  the  medials  of  the  sibilant 
series,  and  is  also  represented  by  the  letter  j  as  pronounced 
by  the  £nglish.  [Alphabbt,  p.  379.]  The  sibilant  sound 
is  written  in  Italian  by  two  letters,  gi,  asGiaoomo»  Jacob,  or 
by  gg,  as  oggi,  to-day.  The  two-fold  nature  of  the  sound 
corresponds  to  the  double  sound  of  the  letter  e,  which  is 
sometimes  a  A,  sometimes  an  t.    [See  C.] 

The  guttural^  is  liable  to  many  changes  in  different  dia* 
lects  or  languages. 

1.  g  and  A  areoonTertibie.  Thus  the  Greek  and  Latin 
forms  genu,  ymm;  gen,  ytv,  as  seen  in  genius,  yiv^oc, 
gi|g(6)n/>,  yt|7(i)V|eiiaA;  gno,  yvw,  as  seen  in  gno^oo, 
yt^yvw^wM ;  severally  correspona  to  the  German  and  Eng- 
lish kmcknee;  kind,  kim  kenn^M,  know. 

2.  g  and  an  aspirated  guttural:  as,  Greek,  xnv;  German, 
gam ;  English, j^oof«  and  gander.  Perhaps  x^*'*^  may  be 
related  to  the  German  gaffen  and  Englisn  gape,  Tiiere 
can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  connexion  between  the  Greek 
X^cc.  the  Latin  he9-ternus,  and  the  German  ges-tem.  The 
close  connexion  of  the  two  sounds  may  also  be  seen  in  the 
pronunciation  of  .the  final  g  in  high  German  like  cA,  as 
Ludmg,  &c. 

3.  g  and  A.  As  the  letter  A,  when  pronounced  at  all,  is 
only  a  weak  aspirate,  this  interchange  strictly  belongs  to 
the  last  head.  As  an  additional  example,  we  may  refer  to 
the  Latin  word  galltu,  which  has  all  the  appearance  of 
being  a  diminutive,  like  b^liua,  tslitsi,  dieilus,  from  benus, 
until,  asinui.  If  this  be  admitted,  the  primitive  was  pro- 
oably  ganu$;  and  we  see  its  corresponding  form  in  the  Ger- 
man AoAn,  a  cock. 

4.  g  often  disappears :  First,  at  the  beginning  of  a  word, 
as  in  the  Latin  anter,  a  goose,  oompar^  with  the  forms 
given  above,  and  in  the  English  enrmgh  compared  with  the 
German  genug.  A  large  number  of  examples  of  this  may 
be  seen  in  the  poetical  participles  of  the  English  lan|;uage, 
commencing  with  a  y,  as  ffclepit  ychtd,  &c. ;  also  m  ago 
for  agone;  in  all  of  which  the  fuller  ibrm  began  with  ge, 
as  is  siill  seen  in  German.  The  loss  of  ^  is  particularly 
common  before  /  and  n,  as  Eng.  Hke^  Germ,  gleich;  Lst 
noico,  noMcoTt  from  gnoteo,  gncuear.  Secondly,  in  the 
middle  of  words  between  vowels.  This  may  be  seen  in 
French  words  derived  fh>m  the  Latin,  as:  iegere,  /trtf, 
read;  magister,  maiitre,  master;  Ligerts,  Loire,  &c.; 
also  in  English  words  connected  with  German;  as,  nagel, 
nail;  teg^  eail;  regen^  rain^  &c.  In  such  cases  the 
vowel  is  generally  lengthened.  Lastly,  at  the  end  of  words, 
as,  tof^ent  eay;  mag,  may;  tag,  day:  here  ag^in  the  syl- 
lable is  strengthened. 

6.  g  and  y  are  convertible :  as,  yeiter-day,  compared  with 
the  Germ,  geeiem  ;  yawn  with  g^hnm  ;  yeUow  inihgelb. 
In  our  own  language  we  find  related  Wids  showing  this 
difference:  yonl  and  garden ;  tfate,  a  dialectic  variety  of 
gate ;  yave  for  gave  (Percy's  fleliques,  i,  p.  294,  note) ; 
and  yode\  a  perfect  of  to  go  (Glossary  of  same). 

6.  g  with  gu  and  tr.  In  the  Latin  language  there  co-ex* 
ut  the  forms  tinguo,  ttngo  ;  unguo,  ungo ;  urgueo,  urgeo, 
&c.  In  the  French  language  gu  is  presentea  to  the  eve, 
but  ^  to  the  ear,  in  the  following :  guerre,  gv^pe,  guaraer, 
&c. ;  while  in  English  we  have  war,  waep,  ward  or  guard. 
Under  this  head  it  may  be  observed,  first,  that  a  final  w  in 
the  English  language  often  corresponds  to  a  guttural  in 
other  Teutoato  dialects,  as  eaw,  raw,  crow,  row,  maw,  &c. ; 
secondly,  that  we  often  have  two  letters,  ow,  where  the  Ger- 
man has  a  guttural  g,  as  friUow,  eorrow,  morrow,  JUrrow, 
gaiiowe,  marrow,  borrow,  barrow, 

7.  g  and  A.    This  is  generally  confined  to  those  casea  at 


the  beginning  of  words,  when  an  r  or  /  follows,  as  in  the 
^olio  forms,  yXtfapov,  yXnx**^^  yaXayoc,  in  place  of 
pXtfapov,  pXfixf^p,  paKavoe,  Hence  the  Latin  gldhe.  So 
the  Turks  have  given  to  Prussia  the  name  of  Gharandaberk, 
L  e.  Brandenburg, 

8.  g  and  d:BB  in-utirnp  for  yit-Mifnjp.  Examples  of  this 
interchange  may  be  neard  from  tne  mouth  of  nearly  every 
child  in  its  first  attempts  to  speak,  as  Dy  Plot  fat  Ouy 
Fawkee,  doodboy,  do  away,  &c.  This  change,  as  in  the  last 
case,  is  common  before  /;  hence  the  Latm  duicie  by  the 
side  of  the  Greek  yXvcvc. 

9.  The  guttural  a  and  the  sibilant  g.  It  was  stated  in  C 
that  the  hard  souna  of  that  letter  in  the  Western  languages 
of  Europe  often  corresponded  to  a  hissing  sound  in  the 
Eastern.  So  too  the  hard  g  belongs  to  Europe,  the^  sound 
to  Asia.    Thus  reg,  a  king,  is  in  the  East  rc^ak. 

10.  Hie  sibilant  jF  and  di  or  bi  before  a  vowel.  For  ex- 
amples see  D  and  S. 

11.^  appears  to  attach  itself  to  the  letter  r  at  the  end  of 
roots :  aa,  mergfi,  spargfi,  compared  respectively  with  the 
Latin  mare  and  the  Greek  omtp^.  This  outgrowth  corre- 
sponds to  the  addition  of  d  at  the  end  of  roots  ending  in  n. 
[See  D.]  The  two  liquids  take  as  an  addition  the  medial 
consonants  of  their  own  order,  the  dental  n  preferring  the 
dental  d,  while  r  takes  to  it  the  guttural  g. 

G  (in  music),  the  fifth  note  or  degree  of  the  diatonic 
scale,  answering  to  the  eol  of  the  Italians  and  French.  It 
is  also  a  name  of  the  treble  clef.    [Clxf.] 

GABION,  a  hollow  cylinder  of  wicker-work,  resembling 
a  basket,  but  having  no  bottom.  It  is  formed  by  planting 
slender  stakes  vertically  in  the  ground,  at  intervals  from 
each  other  on  the  circumference  of  a  ci^e,  and  interweav- 
ing with  them  osiers  or  other  flexible  twigs. 

The  most  usual  kind  of  gabion  is  about  20  inches  in 
diameter,  and  2  feet  9  inches  in  height,  but  the  stakes, 
whose  extremities  are  pointed,  project  beyond  the  basket- 
work  about  3  or  4  inches  at  eacn  end.  The  lower  ends  of 
the  stakes,  by  entering  the  ground,  serve  to  keep  the  gabion 
in  its  place  when  set  up ;  and  as  it  is  usual  to  increase  the 
height  of  a  row  of  gabions  by  placing  along  their  tops  a 
triple  line  of  fascines,  the  upper  ends  of  the  stakes  retain 
the  fascines  in  their  places  bv  entering  between  the  rods. 

Such  gabions  are  used  during  a  siege  in  executing 
trenches  oy  the  process  of  sapping;  for  this  purpose  they 
are  placed  on  end,  with  their  sides  inclining  a  little  out- 
war^  on  that  side  of  the  line  of  approach  which  is  nearest 
to  the  fortress ;  and,  being  filled  with  earth  obtained  by  the 
excavation  of  the  trench,  they  form  a  protection  against  the 
fire  of  the  enemy.  After  the  gabions  are  filled,  the  required 
thickness  is  given  to  the  parapet  of  the  trench  by  throwing 
the  earth  beyond  the  line. 

Gabions  of  the  same  kind  are  sometimes  used  to  form  a 
revetment  for  the  interior  of  the  epaulement  of  a  battery ; 
being  then  placed  on  end  in  two  or  more  horizontal  rows, 
one  above  the  other,  and  leaning  against  the  mass  of  earth. 
Four  or  five  gabions  line  each  side  or  cheek  of  the  embra- 
sure at  the  neck  or  interior  extremity  of  the  latter. 

What  is  called  a  sap-roller  consists  of  a  gabion  placed 
within  a  larger  one,  so  that  their  a&es  are  coincident ;  each 
is  about  8  feet  long,  but  the  diameter  of  the  exterior  gabion 
is  4  feet,  and  that  of  the  other  2  feet  9  inches,  and  the 
interval  between  the  two  is  filled  with  brushwood  or  any 
light  material  by  which  the  whole  may  be  rendered  mus- 
ket-proof. This  is  used  to  cover  the  sappers  in  Aront,  while 
employed  in  excavating  the  approaches  near  the  fortress, 
being  rolled  forward  as  the  work  advances. 

It  lias  been  recommended  to  place  a  row  of  small  gabions^ 
in  the  form  of  frustums  of  cones,  along  the  crest  of  a  para- 
pet, Jn  order  to  cover  the  heads  of  the  defenders :  bags  of 
earth  are  usually  employed  for  this  purpose ;  but  if  gabions 
should  be  preferred,  their  large  ends  must  be  placed  up- 
wards, so  as  to  leave  between  every  two  at  bottom  a  loop- 
hole for  musketry 

A  gabionnade  is  any  lodgment  oonsistmg  of  a  parapet 
hastify  formed  by  placing'  on  the  ground  a  row  of  gabions, 

I  and  nlUng  them  with  earth  obtained  by  digging  a  trench 
parallel  to  the  tine,  in  their  rear.  • 


6  A  E 


32 


O  A  E 


OABRES.    rO0BBSK9.1 

GADEBUSCH,  FREDERIC  CX>NRAD,  a  learned 
Oerman*  born  in  1 7 1 9,  in  the  island  of  Rugen.  After  having 
■tudied  at  different  universities  of  Germanv,  he  went,  in 
1750,  to  Livonia,  where  he  remained  till  his  death  in  1788. 
He  was  a  very  laborious  writer,  and  left  several  works  in 
German,  which  throw  considerable  light  on  the  history  of 
the  Baltic  provinces  of  Russia.  His  principal  works  are: 
*  Memoir  on  the  Historians  of  Livonia,'  Riga,  1772; 
'Ltvonian  Bibliotheca,'  Riga,  1779;  'Essays  on  the  His- 
tory and  Laws  of  Livonia,*  Riga,  1777-1785;  *  Annals  of 
Livonia,  from  1030  to  1761,'  8  vols,  in  8vo.,  Riga,  1780-1783. 

GADES.    [Cadiz.] 

GADFLY.    [CEsTRiD«.] 

GADID^,  a  family  of  fishes  of  which  the  common  cod- 
fish may  serve  as  the  type.    [Abdominalbs;  Malacop- 

TERYOIl.] 

GAEU  GAELIC.  Although  the  language  spoken  by 
the  Scottish  Highlanders  is  famHiarly  known  among  the 
Lowlanders  by  the  name  of  the  Erae^  or,  according  to  the 
more  usual  pronunciation,  the  Ersh,  that  is,  plainly,  the 
Birish  or  Irish,  the  people  themselves  are  never  called  by 
that  name.  Among  the  Hic^hlanders  the  name  Erso  is  un- 
known, either  as  that  of  the  nation  or  of  the  language. 
They  call  themselves  only  the  Gadhel^  also  sometimes  writ- 
ten and  always  pronounced  GaeU  and  their  lan&cuage  the 
Oaedheilgt  pronounced  Gaeilfi^,  or,  nearly  Gaelic.  The  name 
Gaelic  is  also  in  familiar  use  among  the  Lowlanders  as  that 
of  the  language.  Further,  the  only  name  by  which  the 
Irish  are  known  to  the  Scottish  Highlanders  is  Gael;  the 
latter  call  themselves  Gael  Albinnim,  or  the  Gael  of  Albin, 
and  the  Irish  Gael  Erinnich,  or  the  Gael  of  Krin.  The  Irish 
also  call  themselves  the  Gadhel,  or  Gael,  and  their  language 
the  Gaelic,  Finally,  the  Welsh  call  the  Irish  Gtct/ddel, 
which  is  evidently  the  same  word  with  Gadhel,  or  Gael. 

This  is  nearly  all  that  can  be  stated  as  matter  of  fact  in 
regard  to  the  name  Chel,  The  rest  is  all  speculation  and 
conjecture :  of  that,  however,  few  words  have  given  rise  to 
so  much.  We  shall  not  here  attempt  to  do  more  than  to 
indicate  and  arrange  the  various  points  as  to  which  many 
volumes  of  philological  and  historical  controversy  have 
been  written. 

1.  It  has  been  generally  assumed  and  admitted  that  the 
modern  Gael  are  a  portion  of  the  Gallic  or  Gauls,  of  anti- 
qmty,  the  people  wno  gave  its  former  name  to  the  country 
DOW  called  France,  and  who  were  principally,  though  by  no 
means  exclusively,  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  as 
the  inhabitants  of  that  region.  Although  however  this 
opinion  has  been  commonly  adopted,  the  grounds  upon 
which  it  has  been  taken  up  do  not  appear  to  be  very 
oondusive.  They  are  principally  the  similarity  of  the  two 
names-^some  historical  and  traditional  testimony^  to  the 
fiiot  that  South  Britain  was  originallv  peopled  firom  Gaul — 
some  traces,  rather  faint  and  disputable,  ox  identity  of  insti- 
tutions and  customs^and  what  would  be  the  strongest  ar- 
gument, if  it  were  well  made  out,  the  evidences  of  identity 
of  language  conceived  to  be  established  by  the  comparison 
of  the  names  of  places  in  France,  and  a  few  other  remains 
of  the  old  language  spoken  there,  with  the  modem  Gaelic  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland.  But  the  supposition  is  not  unattended 
with  difficulties,  and  if  adopted  it  does  not  clear  up  the  ques- 
tion of  how  the  Gauls  got  either  to  Scotland  or  to  Ireland. 

9.  Supposing  the  Gael  to  be  the  Galli  of  the  Roman 
writers,  and  the  Galatai  {VaKarai)  of  the  Greeks,  a  ques- 
tion arises  as  to  whether  these  names  are  the  same  with 
the  CeUm  or  Celtic  or  Keltai  (KcXraOi  sometimes  spoken 
of  by  the  antients  as  a  general  name  for  the  Gauls,  some- 
times as  the  name  of  only  a  certain  portion  of  the  Gauls. 
[CiLTJB.]  And  if  the  Gauls  and  the  Celte  were  distinct 
names,  it  remains  to  be  settled  which  was  the  general  name 
of  the  nation,  and  which  the  name  only  of  the  division  or 
tribe.  Several  antient  writers  have  represented  the  Celts  to 
be  the  most  antient  name  of  the  nation,  and  the  Gauls  to 
be  a  name  substituted  at  a  comparatively  late  period ;  but 
it  has  been  contended  in  modern  times  on  very  plausible 
grounds  that  this  notion  is  a  mistake,  and  that  the  Celts 
were  only  a  section  of  the  Gauls,  which  was  always  the  ge- 
neric name. 

3.  Then  there  has  been  a  world  of  controversy  about  the 

origin  and  meaning  of  both  Gael  and  Celt  (antiently,  it  is 

■^membered,  pronounced  Kelt) ;  the  confusion  here 

being  increased  by  the  difference  of  opinion  as  to 

IT  theae  are  different  words  or  only  different  forms  of 


the  same  word.  Of  Gaol,  taken  by  itself  and  assumed  (o  lie 
different  from  Celt,  it  cannot  be  said  that  anything  ha«b<ri) 
made;  all  the  derivations  suggested  are  puerile.  On  xUr 
assumption  that  it  is  the  same  with  Celt,  it  lias  In^en  rouLti 
perhaps  somewhat  less  intractable  :  but  this  cannot  W  r^- 
ceivea  as  a  proof  that  that  assumption  is  correct.  The  ni .  - 1 
probable  account  of  Celt  is  that  which  connects  it  wiih  tiio 
Gaelic  Caoill,  a  wood — ^perhaps  the  same  with  the  Grci  L 
Kalon  (KoXoy)  wood-~ whence  Cadltich,  a  people  inhabit  1 1  < 
a  woody  country.  This  is  also  the  origin  commonly  a&Ki«^ni  <l 
to  the  name  Caledonii;  which  is  supposed  to  be  Cofiildantn' . 
literally '  wood-people,'  or  people  or  the  woods.  The  inqu)i> 
into  the  meaning  of  the  wora  Gitel  has  been  greatly  imi; 
barrassed  by  its  similarity  to  another  word  still  used  in  ihc 
Gaelic  both  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  which  curiou»ly 
enough  seems  to  have  the  very  opposite  meaning  to  Ga**!. 
Thus, while  the  Scottish  Highlanders  call  thraa«elve4»  Gml, 
they  call  all  the  rest  of  the  Scotch,  who  do  not  speak  Gurlic, 
by  the  name  of  Gaoill,  or  in  the  singular  Gaoll,  which  ih<  > 
understand  to  mean  strangers  or  foreigners.  Thus  GiUili- 
dock  is  tlie  country  of  the  scots  who  speak  Englisli :  Gad- 
doehtWie  country  of  the  Highlanders  who  speak  Gaelic.  In 
the  same  manner  Gall  is  the  Irish  term  for  a  stranger,  or 
one  speaking  a  different  language  ;  but  it  is  very  remaik- 
able  that  this  fact  should  have  been  advanced  by  Mr.  Moon* 
in  his  late '  History  of  Ireland'  (i.  3)  as  a  proof  that  the  Irish 
do  not  consider  themselves  as  being  of  Graulish  origin,  wh  le 
he  must  have  known  that  they  at  tne  same  time  eaX\  them* 
selves  Gael — a  fact  however  to  which  he  has  not,  as  far  a« 
we  can  find,  adverted  in  any  part  of  his  work.  Then,  after 
all,  comes  to  be  considered  the  possible  connection  between 
cither  Grael  or  Gaoll  and  the  fVealh  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 
whence  our  modem  Welsh  and  Wales,  and  which  seetu<  to 
be  the  same  with  the  Walsh,  applied  generally  to  foreii;ncr» 
by  the  modern  Germans.  Were  the  Cymry  called  Wealh  by 
the  Saxons  (whence  the  French  have  made  Galles,  as  t»c 
have  made  JVeUh)  because  they  were  considered  to  be  Gael  or 
Gauls,  or  because  they  were  held  to  be  strangers,  foreigners, 
aliens  ? — or  is  it  possible  that  the  two  words  which  appiMi 
in  the  modem  Gaelic  and  Irish  in  the  slightly  distinguiNh- 
able  forms  of  Gael  and  Gaoll  or  Gall,  notwitlistanding  their 
apparently  opposite  significations,  may  after  all  be  only  dii* 
ferent  forms  of  the  same  word  ? 

4.  The  last  class  of  disputed  points  we  shall  mention 
are  those  arising  out  of  the  history  of  the  various  nations 
and  languages  which  are  either  Gaelic,  or  have  by  sotuo 
been  assutned  to  be  Gaelic.  What  was  the  real  amouui  «it 
the  connection  or  distinction  between  the  antient  Gauls  and 
Germans?  In  what  relation  to  either  stood  the  Iberians' 
in  what  the  Celtiberians  ?  in  what  the  Aquitaniaus  ?  Were 
the  Cimbri  Gauls  or  Germans  ?  Were  the  Belgn  GauU  or 
Germans  ?  Whether  or  in  what  degree  is  the  Gaelic  tongue 
related  to  what  have  been  called  the  Indo-Germanic  lan- 
guages ?  Is  there  any  connection,  and  to  what  amount. 
between  the  Gaelic  and  the  Semitic  languages?  Tbei<« 
are  the  principal  questions  that  have  been  a?itat(\l 
with  regard  to  tne  Gael  or  supposed  Gael  of  the  antient 
world.  Their  modern  history  nas  afforded  fully  as  m:in> 
more.  Was  Britain  originally  peopled  by  a  Gallic  or  Ger- 
manic race?  Were  tlie  Picts  Gauls  or  Germans  ?  Were  the 
Caledonians  GauLs  or  Germans?  Were  the  more  recetulv- 
settled  colonists  whomCoMar  found  in  the  South  of  Britain 
of  Gallic  or  Germanic  stock,  and  did  they  speak  a  Gaelic 
or  Teutonic  language  ?  What  is  the  deeree  of  affinity  between 
the  Welsh  tongue  and  that  spoken  by  the  native  Irish  an<l  t  le 
Highlanders  of  Scotland?  Is  it  a  dialect  of  the  same  tongue, 
or  (as  has  lately  been  strenuously  maintained)  a  language  v\ 
altogether  a  distinct  family?  Is  the  Basque  a  Celtic  dialei : .' 
Whence  came  the  Irish,  supposing  them  to  be  Gael  -  U\^n 
India?  or  Persia?  or  Phosnicia?  or  Spain?  or  Frauee" 
or  England?  or  Scotland?  Were  the  ScoUor  Milebi:in««  .f 
Ireland  a  Gallic  or  Germanic  people?  What  is  tlieongtn  ••!' 
the  present  Highlanders  of  Scotland?  Are  they  the  prop^nv 
of  a  comparatively  recent  Irish  colonization,  as  has  of  late 
been  generally  agreed,  and  as  their  own  traditions  h^\K 
always  asserted  ?  or  are  they  the  descendants  of  the  auucnt 
Caledonians,  assumed  on  that  supposition  to  be  GauK.  an  i 
to  have  been  the  original  population  of  the  whole  islan*!. 
who  were,  probably  a  short  time  before  the  commencement 
of  the  Christian  nra,  driven  from  South  to  North  Bniain 
before  a  new  immigration  from  the  continent?  All  or  m«.»^t 
of  these  may  be  considered  as  questions  stiU  doubtful  and 
disputed. 


OAF 


33^ 


G  A  I 


It  woQ\ti  occujfv  much  more  space  than  we  can  afford  to 
enumerate  even  the  more  important  works  in  which  these 
various  controverted  points  have  been  discussed  in  our  own 
and  other  languages.  We  shall  only  mention  that  the  most 
rec^^nt  publication  which  has  appeared  on  the  subject  of 
the  Gael  in  English  is  'The  Hignlanders  of  Scotland,  their 
Origin,  History,  and  Antiquities,'  by  W.  F.  Skene,  2  vols. 
8vo.  London,  1837,bein^  an  essay  to  which  a  prize  had  been 
awarded  by  the  Highland  Society  of  London.  Mr.  Skene's 
views  and  reasoning's  are  of  very  considerable  inge- 
nuity as  well  as  novelty ;  but  whatever  may  be  thought  of 
the  part  of  it  which  relates  to  the  origin  of  the  Gael,  the 
work  is  undoubtedly  in  other  respects  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant contributions  to  early  Scottish  history  that  modem 
research  has  furnished. 

GAE^IA,  a  strongly  fortified  town  and  a  bishop's  see  in 
the  province  of  Terra  di  Lavoro  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
is  situated  on  a  lofty  promontory  which  projects  into  the 
Mediterranean,  and  forms  one  side  of  the  gulf  of  the  same 
nutne,  the  antient  Sinus  Formianus,  which  almost  rivals  in 
beauty  of  scener}'  the  neighbouring  Bay  of  Naples.  The 
islands  of  Ponza,  Vandotena,  and  Ischia  are  seen  at  a  dis- 
tance. Inland  to  the  northwards,  the  Apennines  rise  above 
the  wide  unwholesome  plains  extending  to  the  sea-coast : 
through  these  plains  Hows  the  Garigliano,  or  Liris,  near  the 
mouth  of  which  stood  the  antient  Mintumo},  of  which  few 
traces  remain  except  some  arches  of  its  aqueduct.  In  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  Gaeta  the  Formian  hills  are 
covered  with  vineyards,  olives,  oranges,  and  other  fruit- 
trees,  and  at  the  foot  of  them,  in  the  innermost  recess  of  the 
gulf,  is  Mola,  near  the  site  of  the  antient  Formise,  which 
was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  in  the  ninth  century.  Cicero's 
Formianum  was  in  this  neighbourhood,  about  half-way  be- 
tween Mola  and  Gaeta,  at  a  place  called  Castellone  ('  Anti- 
chita  Ciceroniane  ed  Iscrizione  esistenti  nella  villa  Formiana 
in  Castellone  di  Gaeta,'  by  the  Prince  of  Caposele,  Naples, 
1827,  with  plates).  The  monument  near  Mola,  which  is  vul- 
garly called  Torre  di  Cicerone,  is  not  the  tomb  of  the 
orator. 

Gaeta  with  its  suburbs  has  a  population  of  about  10,000 
inhabitants,  exclusive  of  the  garrison.  It  has  svistained 
several  sieges,  the  last  of  which  was  in  1806  against  the 
French.  It  has  a  harbour,  and  carries  on  some  trade  by 
sea.  Caieta,  which  appears  to  have  been  an  old  Greek 
colony,  was  not  a  place  of  great  importance  under  the  Ro- 
mans'  it  has  however  some  remains  of  antiquity,  among 
others  the  circular  monument  called  Torre  di  Orlando, 
which  is  the  mausoleum  of  L.  Munatius  Plancus,  a  friend 
of  Augustus ;  and  another  tower,  called  Latratina,  which 
was  once  part  of  a  temple.  In  the  cathedral  is  a  baptismal 
vase  of  Parian  marble  with  highly  finished  rilievos,  be- 
sides other  remains.  Gaeta  is  the  head  town  of  a  district 
which  extends  from  the  Garigliano  to  the  frontier  of  Rome. 
[Terra  di  Lavoro.] 

GAFFURIUS.    [Gaforius.] 

G  AFOOIIUS.  FRANCHl'NUS,  or  FRANCHINO  GA- 
FORI,  a  very  learned  writer  on  music,  was  bom  of  humble 
parents,  at  Lodi,  in  1451.  In  his  boyhood  he  was  devoted  to 
the  sei*vice  of  the  church,  and  among  other  branches  of 
knowledge  to  which  he  applied  himself  with  marked  dili- 
gence, he  studied  music  under  a  Carmelite  friar  named 
Godcndach,  of  which  science,  both  theoretically  and  prac- 
tically, he  became  a  complete  master.  It  does  not  seem 
certain  that  the  sacerdotal  dignity  was  ever  conferred  on 
iiim,  though  it  has  been  confidently  stated  that  he  entered 
into  holy  orders.  He  first  went  to  Verona,  publicly  taught 
music  there  dunng  some  few  years,  and  also  wcote 
his  work.  Muncee  Institutiones  Collocutiones.  The  repu- 
tation ho  thereby  acquired,  procured  him  an  invitation 
from  the  Doge  to  visit  Genoa,  which  he  accepted,  but  soon 
after  proceeded  to  Naples,  where  he  met  Tinctor,  Gamerius, 
Ilycart,  and  other  celebrated  musicians,  and,  according  to 
the  usage  of  the  time,  held  public  disputations  with  them. 
At  Naples  be  also  produced  his  Theoricum  Opus  Harmo- 
niea?  Dtsciplin€&.  But  the  Turks  having  brought  war  and 
the  plague  into  tlie  Neapolitan  territory,  he  was  driven  from 
that  part  of  Italy,  and  by  the  persuasion  of  Pallavicini, 
bishop  of  Monticello,  returned  to  Lodi,  gave  lectures  on 
music,  and  began  his  PracHca  Mu*%C€e  lUriusque  Cantus, 
his  greatest  work,  which  was  first  printed  at  Milan  in  1496. 
Of  this.  Sir  J.  Hawkins  has  given  a  copious  abstract,  an 
honour  to  which  it  was  entitled,  not  only  on  account  of  it 
intrinsic  merit,  but  because  it  is  the  first  treatise  on  the  ar 
P.  C,  No.  662. 


that  ever  appeared  in  print.  It  is  full  cf  that  kind  of  infor- 
mation which  was  called  for,  and  proved  eminently  ui^efulat 
the  period  in  which  it  was  published,  quickly  spreading  the 
author's  fame  throughout  Europe.  6ut,  touched  by  the 
pedantic  spirit  of  the  age,  he  invented  terms  that  must  have 
cost  him  infinite  labour  to  compound,  and  which  doubtless 
exacted  no  less  from  his  readei-s  before  they  could  understand 
them.  His  work  lying  before  us,  we  are  tempted  to  give  a 
specimen  of  the  language  of  art  adopted  in  the  flfteemlih 
century,  as  it  appears  in  the  heading  of  one  of  his  chapteis : 
De  Proportione  Sitbquadruplasupertripartientiquarta, 

Gaforius  (erroneously  called  Grafi'urius  by  Hawkins, 
Burney,  &c.)  wrote  other  works,  which  were  held  in  high 
estimation.  It  is  supposed  that  he  died  in  or  about  the 
year  1620. 

GAGE,  any  apparatus  for  measuring  the  state  of  a  phe- 
nomenon. But  the  term  is  usually  restricted  to  some  par* 
ticular  instruments,  such  as  the  gage  of  the  air-pump, 
which  points  out  the  degree  of  exhaustion  in  the  receiver, 
the  wind-gage  [Anemometer],  the  tide-gage,  &c.,  &c.,  all 
of  which  are  mentioned  in  connexion  with  their  several 
subjects. 

GAHNITE,  a  mineral  so  called  from  the  name  of  its 
discoverer,  Grahn;  it  is  sometimes  also  called  automalite 
and  zinciferous  spinel.  It  occurs  crystallized  in  regular 
octohedrons  and  varieties.  Sp.  gr.  from  4*1  to  4*8.  Hard- 
ness 8.  It  is  of  a  dark  bluish-green  colour,  nearly  opaque ; 
may  be  cleaved  parallel  to  all  its  planes.  Before  the  blow- 
pipe it  is  unalterable  alone,  and  nearly  so  with  fluxes. 

It  occurs  at  Fahlun,  in  Sweden,  and  Franklin,  in  Ame- 
rica ;  both  varieties  have  been  analyzed  by  Abich,  with 
the  annexed  results  * — 


Sweden. 

America. 

Alumina     .     • 

.      55*14 

57-09 

Silica     .     •     . 

.       3-84 

1-22 

Magnesia    .     . 

.        5-25 

2-22 

Oxide  of  Zinc  . 

.     30-02 

34"80 

, ,       Iron    . 

5-85 
inn 

4-55 

•1     _          ..0 

99*88 

GAIL,  JEAN  BAPTISTE,  born  at  Paris  in  1753,  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  study  of  Greek,  and  was  made,  in 
1 791,  Professor  of  Greek  Literature  in  the  College  de  France. 
In  1 794  he  married  Mademoiselle  Sophie  Garre,  who  after- 
wards became  celebrated  as  a  musical  composer.  Her  hus- 
band has  written  a  number  of  works,  chiefly  translations 
from  the  Greek ;  a  Greek  grammar,  1799,  with  a  supple- 
ment, or  '  Essai  sur  les  Prepositions  Grecques  consid^rees 
sous  le  rapport  G^o^aphique,'  1821 ;  and  '  Cours  de  Langue 
Grecque,  ou  Extraits  de  differens  Auteurs,'  in  four  parts, 
1797-99.  He  wrote  also  'Observations  sur  les  Idylles  de 
Th^ocriteet  les  Eclogues  de  Virgile,'  1805;  and  lastly  ho 
furnished  the  materials  for  the  *  Atlas  eontenant  par  ordre 
de  temps,  les  Cartes  relatives  k  la  Geographie  d'Herodoto, 
Thucyaide,  Xenophon,  les  plans  de  bataille,'  &c.,  4to. 
Paris;  to  which  are  added  'Observations  Pr^liminaires,* 
and  an  Index,  by  Gail.  Grail  was  made  Knight  of  the  Le- 
gion of  Honour  by  Louis  XVIIL,  and  Knight  of  St  Wladi- 
mir  by  the  Emperor  Alexander. 

GAILLAC.    [TarnJ 

GAILLARD.  GABRIEL   HENRI,  a  celebrated  mo- 
dern French  historian,  was  bom  in  1 726.    After  receiving 
a  good  education,  he  was  admitted  advocate  at  an  early  age, 
but  he  soon  left  the  bar  in  order  to  devote  himself  entirely 
to  literature.    In  1 745,  when  he  was  only  1 9  years  old,  he 
wrote  a  treatise  on  rhetoric  for  the  use  of  young  ladies.    In 
1757   he  published   the  History  of  Mary  of  Burgundy, 
daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold  and  wife  of  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  I.    This  work  had  great  success.    In  1766  was 
published  his  'History  of  Francis  I.  of  France.'    It  is  the 
general  opinion  that  he  did  full  justice  to  this  subject, 
though  he  presented  it  in  a  rather  uninviting  form  for  the 
generality  of  readers,  having  divided  the  history  of  that 
celebrated  reign   into  separate  parts,  such  as  civil,  poli- 
tical, military,  ecclesiastical,  and  literary  history,  the  private 
Ufe  of  the  king,  &c.    The  author  adopted  the  same  plan  in 
his  *  History  of  Charlemagne,'  1 782,  in  4  vols.  4to.    Besides 
the  objection  to  his  mode  of  dividing  the  subject-matter,  it 
was  further  objected  to  the  '  History  of  Charlemagne'  that 
he  had  sunk  the  biography  of  his  hero  between  two  long 
dissertations  on  the  first  and  second  races  of  the  Frencli 
kings.    Notwithstanding  these  defects,  the  work  met  with 
great  success,  and  received  tlte  praises  of  Gibbon  and  of 

Vol.  XI.-F 


G  A  I 


34 


G  A  I 


the  oelebratad  German  lustomn  Hegewiielu  who 
wrote  a  history  of  Charlemagrie  in  German.  The  best 
vork  of  Gaillard  is  his  *  History  of  the  Rivalry  between 
France  and  England,*  of  which  the  first  three  volumes  ap- 
peared in  1771,  the  four  following  in  1774,  and  the  four 
concluding  volumes  in  1777.  This  work  embraces  not  only 
the  political  and  military  relations  between  the  two  coun- 
tries, but  also  the  internal  history  of  both,  so  arranged  as  to 
S resent  a  constant  parallelism.  His  *  H  istory  of  the  Rivalry 
etween  France  and  Spain,*  8  vols,  in  12mOn  a  work  highly 
appreciated  in  France,  is  written  on  the  same  plan. 
Gaillard  was  the  author  of  the  *  Historical  Dictionary'  in 
the  *  Encyclopedic  M6thodique,*  6  vols,  in  4to.,  and  many 
other  minor  works,  the  most  valuable  of  which  ai^  a  '  Life 
of  Malesherb^,*  his  personal  friend,  1605,  1  vol.  8vo. ;  and 
•  Observations  on  the  History  of  France,*  by  Velly,  Villaret, 
and  Gamier,  4vols.  l2mo,  1606.  Gaillard  died  in  1606,  in 
consequence  of  his  severe  application.  His  moral  character 
stood  very  high. 

GAINSBOROUGH,  an  antient  market-town  and  parish 
situated  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Trent,  in  the  county  of 
Lincoln,  149  miles  N.  by  W.  from  London.  Gainsborough 
is  noted  as  being  the  place  whera  the  Danes  anchored  at 
the  period  when  the  surrounding  country  was  devastated  by 
their  sanguinary  tyrant  Swejrne,  and  where  he  was  stabbed 
by  an  unknown  hand  when  ou  the  point  of  re-embarking. 
It  is  also  the  birth-place  of  Simon  Patrick,  the  learned  and 
pious  bishop  of  Ely,  who  died  in  1707.  The  town  is 
well  paved  and  lighted,  and  consists  principally  of  one  street 
running  paurallel  to  the  river,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a 
fine  stone  bridge  of  three  elliptical  arches.  The  townhall, 
wherein  the  sessions  were  formerly  held,  is  a  substantial 
brick  building,  beneath  which  is  the  gaol.  The  living  is  a 
vicarage  in  the  diocese  of  Lincoln,  and  in  the  patronage  of 
the  bishop  of  that  see,  with  an  annual  net  income  of  529/. 
Gainsborough  is  advantageously  situated  both  for  foreign 
and  inland  trade.  By  means  of  the  Trent,  which  fells  into 
the  H  umber  about  20  mQes  below  the  town,  vessels  of  200 
tons  are  enabled  to  come  up  to  the  wharfs,  and  by  the 
Readley,  Chesterfield,  and  other  canals  a  communication  is 
kept  up  with  the  interior  of  the  country.  The  market-day 
is  Tuesday,  and  the  fairs  for  cattle,  &c.  are  held  on  Easter* 
Tuesday  and  the  20th  of  October.  In  1831  the  entire  narish, 
including  the  hamlets  of  Morton,  East  Stockwith,  and  Wal- 
kerith,  contained  7635  inhabitants.  There  is  a  charity 
school  at  which  the  children  of  the  poor  are  taught  reading, 
writinfr,  and  the  elements  of  arithmetic 

GAINSBOROUGH,  THOMAS,  bom  in  1727,  at  Sud- 
bury, in  Suffolk,  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  English 
landscape  painters  of  the  last  century.  His  father  bein?  a 
person  in  narrow  circumstances,  the  education  wl\ich  ^is 
son  received  was  very  scanty ;  and  it  is  probable  enough 
that  in  his  boyish  days  he  passed  much  less  time  at  school 
than  in  the  woods  of  Suffolk,  where  he  acquired  that  relish 
for  the  beauties  of  quiet  nature  and  that  intimate  acquaint^ 
ance  with  them  for  which  his  early  pictures  are  so  peculiarly 
distinguished.  Having  almost  from  his  childhood  amused 
himself  with  sketching  any  object  that  struck  his  fancy, 
ail  old  tree,  a  group  of  cattle,  a  shepherd  and  his  dog,  &c., 
he  ventured  on  colouring,  and  had  painted  several  land- 
scapes before  he  was  twelve  years  of  age,  when  he  was  sent  to 
I^ndon.  There  he  was  for  some  time  with  Mr.  Gravelot, 
the  engraver,  and  Hayman,  the  painter,  with  whom  he  did 
not  remain  long,  but  setting  up  as  a  portrait-painter,  sup- 
]>orted  himself,  till,  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  he  married  a 
young  lady  who  had  a  fortune  of  200/.  per  annum.  On  his 
marrtage  he  went  to  Ipswich,  where  he  resided  till  1758, 
when  he  removed  to  Bath.  Having  practised  portrait- 
painting  with  increasing  success,  he  removed  in  1774  to 
London ;  and  having  painted  portraits  of  some  of  the  royal 
family,  which  were  much  admired,  he  soon  acquired  ex- 
tensive practice  and  proportionate  emolument  But  though 
his  )M>rtraits  were  much  valued  at  the  time  as  striking  like- 
nesses, this  was  too  frequently  their  only  merit :  they  were 
oflen  painted  in  a  rough  careless  manner,  in  a  style  of 
hatching  and  scumbling  entirely  his  own,  producing  in- 
deed an  effect  at  a  distance,  but  undetermined  and  indis- 
tinct when  viewed  near.  At  times  he  would  take  more 
pains,  and  show  what  he  could  do.  But  Gainsborough,  in 
fact,  considered  this  loose  manner  as  peculiarly  excellent, 
1  desirous  that  his  pictures  in  the  Exhibition  might 
ing  as  to  be  within  reach  of  close  inspection.  With 
hit  feme  rests  on  his  landscapes,  and  what  might 


be  called  feninr-pieees,  mieh  ta  the  celebrated  'Cotta^ 
Door,*  now  in  the  collection  of  the  Marquis  of  Westminster. 
There  is  however  a  wonderftil  difference  between  his  early^ 
and  his  later  performances.  In  the  former  every  feature  m 
copied  flrom  nature  in  its  ipeatest  detail,  and  Vet  without 
stiffness ;  so  that  thev  look  like  nature  itself  reflected  in  a 
convex  mirror.  In  his  latter  works  striking  effect,  great 
breadth,  and  judicious  distribution  of  light  and  shade,  pnv 
duee  a  erand  and  even  a  solemn  impression.  Both  have 
their  admirers,  as  tastes  differ ;  but  though  he  mav  not 
deserve  to  be  ranked  as  some  would  have  him,  with  Van- 
dyck,  Rubens,  and  Claude,  in  portrait  and  in  landscape,  all 
will  assent  to  the  opinion  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds — *  that 
if  ever  this  nation  should  produce  genius  sufficient  to  ac- 
quire to  us  the  honourable  niistinction  of  an  English  schcv^I, 
tne  name  of  Gainsborough  will  be  transmitted  to  posterity 
as  one  of  the  very  first  of  that  rising  name.* 

Gainsborough  died  of  a  cancer  in  the  neck,  in  August, 
1788,  in  the  sixty-first  year  of  his  age. 

GAIUS,  or  CA1U8,  one  of  the  Roman  classical  jurists 
whose  works  entitle  him  to  a  place  among  the  great  writon 
on  law,  such  aa  Papinian,  Paulus,  and  Ulpian.  Nothin?  ii 
known  of  the  personal  historv  of  Craius  beyond  the  probaMe 
fact  that  he  wrote  under  Antoninus  Pius  and  AureiiiN. 
His  works  were  largely  used  in  the  compilation  of  the  *  Di- 
gest,* or  *  Pandect,'  which  contains  extracts  from  the  writ]ni:H 
of  Gains  under  the  following  titles : — *  Res  Ck)ttidian»  sue 
Aureorum,'  (Dig.  xl.  9,  10,  &c.) ;  'De  Casibus,'  (xii.  6,  G.{, 
&c.);  'Ad  Edictum^dilium  Curuliura,'(xxi.  1,  18,  &r.): 
•  Liber  ad  Edictum  Prwtoris  Urbani,*  xl.  12,  6,  &c.) ;  *  Ad 
Edict um  Provincial e,*  (xiv.  4,  9,  &c.),  which  consisted  of 
thirty  books  at  least ;  *  Fidei  Commissorum,'  (xxxii.  1,  U, 
&c.) ; '  Formula  Hypothecaria,'  (xx.  1,  4,  &c.);  *  Institti- 
tiones,*  (i.  6,  1,  &c.) ;  '  De  V erborum  Obligationibus,*  (xUi. 
1,  70).  There  are  also  extracts  from  several  other  works  of 
Gains  in  the  '  Pandect* 

The  '  Institutions*  of  Gains  were  probably  the  earliest  at- 
tempt to  present  a  sketch  of  the  Roman  law  in  the  form  of 
an  elementary  text-book.  This  work  continued  in  general 
use  till  the  compilation  of  the  'Institutions'  which  bearthr 
name  of  Justinian,  and  which  were  not  only  mainly  basd 
on  the  'Institutions*  of  Gaius,  but,  like  this  earlier  work,trcre 
divided  into  four  books,  with  the  same  general  distribution 
of  the  subject  matter  as  that  adopted  by  Gaius. 

The  '  Institutions'  of  Gaius  appear  to  have  been  neglected 
after  the  promulgation  of  Justinian's  compilation,  and  wcrv 
finally  lost.  All  that  remained  was  the  detached  pieces 
collected  in  the  *  Digest,'  and  what  could  be  gathered  from 
the  '  Breviarium  Alaricianum,'  as  the  code  of  the  Visigoths 
is  sometimes  called.  But  in  1816,  Niebuhr  discovered  a 
MS.  in  the  library  of  the  chapter  of  Verona,  which  he  s^- 
certained  to  be  a  treatise  on  Roman  law,  and  which  Sa>  igny, 
founding  his  opinion  on  the  specimenpublisbed  by  Niebuhr, 
conjectured  to  be  the  '  Institutions'  or  Gains. 

This  conjecture  of  Savigny  was  soon  fUlly  confirmed, 
though  the  MS.  has  no  author's  name  on  it  Goescben, 
Bekker,  and  HoUweg  undertook  to  examine  and  copy  this 
MS.,  an  edition  of  which  appeared  at  Berlin  in  1 820,  editi'^l 
by  Goeschen.  To  form  some  idea  of  the  labour  necessary 
to  decipher  this  MS.,  and  of  the  patient  perseverance  of  tiic 
scholara  who  undertook  this  formidable  task,  the  reader 
must  refer  to  the  report  of  Groeschen  to  the  Academy  of 
Berlin,  November  6,  1817.  The  MS.  consists  of  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-seven  sheets  of  parchment,  the  oricmal 
writing  on  which  was  the  four  books  of  the  'Institutions'  «>f 
Gaius.  This  original  writing  had  on  some  pages  bi*en 
washed  out,  so  far  as  was  practicable,  and  on  others 
scratched  out ;  and  the  whole,  with  the  exception  of  two 
sheets,  had  been  re- written  with  the  epistles  of  St  Jerome. 
The  lines  of  the  original  and  of  the  substituted  writing  run 
in  the  same  direction,  and  often  cover  one  another;  a  cir< 
cumstance  which  considerably  increased  the  difficulty  of  deci- 
phering the  text  of  Gaius.  In  addition  to  this,  sixty -three 
pages  had  been  written  on  three  times :  the  first  writing  ^  a^ 
the  text  of  Gains,  which  had  been  erased ;  and  the  second, 
which  was  a  theological  work,  had  shared  the  same  fate, 
to  make  room  for  the  epistles  of  St.  Jerome. 

A  second  examination  of  this  MS.  was  made  by  Blubme 
(Preefatio  Nova  Bditi(mu\  and  a  new  edition  of  the  *  In- 
stitutions'was  published  by  Goeschen,  at  Berlin,  in  IS24. 
which  presents  us  with  an  exact  copy  of  the  MS.  with  all 
its  deficiencies,  and  contains  a  most  copious  list  of  the  ab- 
breviations  used  by  the  oopyist  of  Gains. 


GAL 


96 


GAL 


The  discovery  of  a  work*  tfae  Ion  of  wluu^  had  «a  long 
been  regretted,  produced  a  most  lively  sensation  among 
continental  jurists,  and  called  forth  a  great  number  of  essays. 
In  England  it  has  yet  attracted  little  attention  beyond  a  su- 
perficial notice  in  the  'Edinburgh  Review'  (vol.  xlviii.,  p. 
385),  and  an  occasional  allusion  to  it  elsewhere,  though  it  is 
undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  valuable  additions  that  have 
been  made  in  modern  times  to  our  knowledge  of  Roman  Law. 
The  fourth  book  of  the  '  Institutions '  is  particularly  useful 
for  the  information  which  it  contains  on  actions  arid  the 
forms  of  procedure.  The  style  of  Craiua,  like  that  of 
all  the  classical  Roman  jurists,  is  perspicuous  and  yet 
concise. 

One  of  the  most  useful  editions  of  Gkdus  is  that  by  Klenze 
and  Bocking  (Berlin,  1029),  which  contains  the  *  Institutions' 
of  Gains  and  Justinian,  so  arranged  as  to  present  a  parallel- 
ism, and  to  furnish  a  proof,  if  any  were  yet  wanting,  that  the 
MS.  of  Verona  is  the  genuine  work  of  6aius. 

In  addition  to  the  references  already  made,  the  reader 
may  consult  an  ingenious  essay  by  Goeschen  on  the  '  Res 
Quotidianse,'  of  Gaius  {2^ischrift  fur  Geschichtliche 
JRechtswissenschqfty  Berlin*  1815);  Hugo,  'Lehrbuch  der 
Geschichte  des  R^mischen  Rechts ;'  Dupont, '  Disquisit.  in 
Commentarium  iv.  Instit.  Graii,'  &c.,  Lugd.  Bat.  1822. 
GALACZ.  [Moldavia-] 
GALA'GO.    [LbmuridA.] 

GALANGA,  or  GALANGAL,  is  usually  supposed  to 
have  been  introduced  by  the  Arabs,  but  it  was  previously 
mentioned  by  iStius.  Ilie  Arabs  call  it  Kholingan,  which 
appears  to  be  derived  from  the  Hindu  Koolinjan,  or  San- 
scrit Koolimjtma,  indicating  the  country  whence  they  de- 
rived the  root,  as  well  as  the  people  from  whom  they 
obtained  their  information  respecting  its  uses.  The  plant 
which  yielded  this  root  was  long  unknown,  and  it  was 
supposed  to  be  that  of  a  pepper,  of  an  iris,  of  Acorus 
Calamus,  or  to  be  the  Acorus  of  the  antients.  Ksempferia 
Galanga  was  so  called  from  its  aromatic  roots  being  sup- 
posed to  be  the  true  Galangal.  The  tubers  of  Cyperus 
longta  were  sometimes  substituted,  and  called  English  Go- 
l<mgai.  Two  kinds,  the  large  and  the  small  galan^l,  are 
described ;  these  are  usually  considered  to  be  derived  from 
the  same  plant  at  different  stages  of  its  growth,  but  Dr. 
Ainslie,  in  his  '  Materia  Indica,'  insists  upon  the  greater 
value  of  the  lesser,  as  this  is  warmer  and  more  fragrant, 
and  therefore  highly  prized  in  India.  It  is  a  native  of 
China,  and  the  plant  producing  it  is  unknown.  Dr.  Ainslie 
does  not  prove  that  it  is  the  Galanga  minor  of  Europe. 

The  greater  Gtdan^l  has  long  been  known  to  be  the 
produce  of  a  Scitammeous  plant,  the  Galanga  mijjor  of 
Kumphius  (Herb.  Amb,  5.  t.  63),  which  is  the  Alpittia  Ga- 
langa of  Wildenow,  and  a  native  of  China  and  the  Malayan 
Archipeli^o.  It  is  fully  described  by  Dr.  Roxburgh,  in 
his  Flora  Indica^  vol.  L  p.  28,  ed.  WalL  The  roots,  peren- 
nial and  tuberous,  like  those  of  the  ginger,  were  ascer- 
tained by  Sir  Joseph  Banks  and  Dr.  Comb  to  be  identical 
with  the  Galan^  major  of  the  shops.  This  is  cylindrical, 
often  forked,  thick  as  the  thumb,  reddish  brown  externally, 
marked  with  whitish  circular  rings,  internally  lighter  co- 
loured, of  an  agreeable  aromatic  smell,  and  a  hot  spicy 
taste,  like  a  mixture  of  pepper  and  ginger,  with  some  bit- 
terness. The  stem  is  perennial,  or  at  least  more  durable 
than  those  of  herbaceous  plants ;  when  in  flower,  about  six 
or  seven  feet  in  length;  its  lower  half  invested  by  leafless 
sheaths.  Xlie  leaves  are  two-ranked,  laneeolar,  from  twelve 
to  twenty-four  inches  long,  and  from  four  to  six  broad. 
Panicle  terminal,  crowned  with  numerous  branches,  each 
supporting  from  two  to  five  pale  greenish-white  and  some- 
what fragrant  flowers  in  April  and  May  in  Calcutta,  where 
the  seeds  ripen,  though  rarely,  in  November. 

Several  species  of  this  genus  have  roots  with  somewhat 
similar  properties.  Thus  Alpinia  alba  and  Chinensis  are 
much  used  by  the  Malays  and  Chinese;  the  former  has 
hence  been  called  Galanga  alba  of  Kcsnig ;  and  the  latter 
has  an  aromatic  root  with  an  acrid  burning  flavour.  The 
fragrant  root  tif  A,  nutans  is  sometimes  brought  to  England, 
according  to  Dr.  Roxburgh,  for  Gralanga  major.  Its  leaves, 
when  bruised,  have  a  strong  smell  of  cardamums,  and  the 
Cardamomum  plant  is  frequently  placed  in  this  genus,  but 
has  been  described  under  Elettaria. 

GALANTHUS,  a  genus  of  Amaryllidaceous  plants  con- 
sisting of  the  Snowdrop  and  another  species.  The  former 
plant  is  a  native  of  subalpine  woods  in  various  parts  of  Eu- 
rope ;  the  seoond,  which  is  the  G,  plicatus  of  TOtanists,  in- 


hatbits  the  Asiatio  provmcea  of  the  RuanaxL  and  Torkldi 
empires. 

GALAPAGOS  are  a  group  of  islands  in  the  Pacifiop 
about  700  miles  from  the  continent  of  South  America,  near 
the  equator.  They  lie  between  1°  N.  lat.  and  2**  S.  lat., 
and  between  89^  and  92**  W.  long.,  and  consist  of  six  larger 
and  seven  smaller  islands.  The  largest  is  Albemarle 
Island,  which  is  60  miles  in  length,  and  about  15  broad. 
The  highest  part  is  4000  feet  above  the  sea.  Charles  Island, 
now  called  La  floriana,  is  20  miles  long  from  north  to 
south,  and  about  15  miles  wide. 

There  are  few  islands  in  the  world  whose  volcanic  origin 
is  more  incontestable  than  that  of  the  Galapagos.  They 
consist  of  enormous  masses  of  lava,  rising  abruptly  from  a 
iathomless  sea.  Along  the  shores  nothing  but  black 
dismal-looking  heaps  of  broken  lava  meet  the  eye ;  but  in 
the  interior,  valleys  and  plains  of  moderate  extent  occur, 
which  are  covered  with  shrubs  and  that  kind  of  cactus  which 
is  called  prickly  pear.  This  cactus  supplies  with  food  the 
land  tortoises,  which  are  called  the  great  elephant-tortoises, 
their  feet  being  like  those  of  a  small  elephant.  These 
animals  grow  to  an  enormous  size,  and  frequently  weigh 
300  or  400  pounds.  There  are  also  iguanas  and  innumer- 
able crabs.    Pigeons  also  abound. 

The  climate  is  not  so  hot  as  would  be  expected  from  the 
geographical  position  of  the  islands,  which  is  partly  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  elevation  of  their  suriface  (the  settlement  on 
La  Floriana  being  1000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea),  and 
partly  to  the  cold  current  which  sets  along  the  south- 
south-western  side  of  the  group  to  the  north-north-west. 
The  dry  season  occurs  in  our  summer,  when  most  of  the 
water-pools  dry  up ;  but  at  the  setting-in  of  the  rains,  in 
November,  they  are  again  filled.  Between  May  and  De- 
cember the  thermometer  ranges  between  52^  and  74^  and 
flrom  January  to  May  between  74°  and  84°.  Captain  Hall 
found  that  it  rose  to  93°,  but  this  may  have  been  the  effect 
of  local  circumstances. 

These  islands  were  long  considered  as  sterile  rocks,  and 
were  first  visited  towards  the  end  of  the  last  century  by  the 
whalers  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  especially  for  the  elephant- 
tortoises,  which  were  caught  in  great  number,  and  served 
the  crews  for  fresh  provisions.  In  1 832  a  settlement  was 
formed  by  one  Bilamil,  an  inhabitant  of  Guayaquil,  who 
obtained  a  grant  of  the  island  of  La  Floriana  from  the  go- 
vernment of  Ecuador.  The  inhabitants  cultivate  bananas, 
sugar-cane,  sweet  potatoes,  and  Indian  corn  in  such  quan- 
tities, that  they  can  provide  with  these  articles  the  whalers, 
who  frequently  resort  to  the  island.  (Captain  Basil  H  all's 
Extracts  from  a  Journal,  &c. ;  London  Geographical  Jour- 
nal, vol.  vi. ;  Reynolds's  Voyage  of  the  U.  S,  frigate  Poto- 
mac, &c.) 

GALATHE'A  (Zoology),  GALATHEA-TRIBE,  GALA- 
THEIDiS,  a  group  of  Crustaceans  corresponding  with  the 
genus  GakUhea  of  Fabricius,  and  establishing,  in  the  opinion 
of  M.  Milne  Edwards,  a  passage  between  tne  Anomurous 
and  Macrurous  Crustaceans,  being  more  particularly  ap- 
proximated to  the  Porcellanee,  [Porcell  ANiDiB.]  Dr.  Leac;h 
divided  the  genus  established  by  Fabricius  into  four :  viz. 
the  true  GaTathece,  Munidea,  Grimothea,  and  JSglea.  M. 
Milne  Edwards  thinks  that  three  of  these  genera  should  be 
preserved,  but  agrees  with  M.  Desmarest  in  coming  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  genus  Munidea  has  not  sufiicient  cha- 
racteristics to  admit  of  its  adontion  in  a  natural  classifica- 
tion. With  regard  to  Mglea,  M.  Milne  Edwards  considers 
it  as  approximating  more  to  the  PorcellantB  than  to  the  Ga- 
lathe^e,  and  as  occupying  a  place  in  the  section  of  the  Ano- 
mura. 

The  Galatheidee,  then,  according  to  the  revision  of  M. 
Milne  Edwards,  are  thus  distinguished.  Carapace  depressed 
and  wide,  but  still  longer  than  its  width,  terminating  ante- 
riorly by  a  rostrum  more  or  less  projecting,  which  covers  the 
place  of  the  ocular  peduncles,  and  presents  on  its  upper 
surface  many  furrows  or  wrinkles,  among  which,  one  deeper 
than  the  rest  defines  the  posterior  part  of  the  stomachic 
region.  Antennis  inserted  on  the  same  transversal  line; 
internal  antennse  but  Uttle  elongated,  placed  under  the 
ocular  peduncles,  and  terminated  by  two  small,  multiarti- 
culate,  very  short  filaments;  external  antennse  with  no 
trace  of  palpiform  appendages  at  their  base,  but  with  a 
cylindrical  peduncle  and  a  long  and  slender  terminal  fila- 
ment. External  Jaw-feet  (pates-mdchoires)  always  pedi- 
form,  but  varying  a  little  in  their  conformation.  Sternal 
plate  (plastron  sternal)  widening  a  good  deal  posteriorly, 

F2 


GAL  a 

•nd  tbe  ImI  tbormcK  niis  otinarily  dirtinct  Ajnterior 
S(  large  «nd  tem.in»l«d  by  a  well  fonned  ctaw ;  th™»  of 
Ibe  Ihree  (oUowing  p»i«  of  limbs  mlier  .tout,  and  toraw- 
n.te<i  bv  »  ooniwl  t.r.us ;  flft  h  pair  very  .lendar,  »nd  folded 
■bo%«  tte  others  in  ll*  brancbi.1  cavity  ;  thew  Iwt  do  not 
»s«>t  the  locomotion,  and  are  terminated  by  a  rudinjeotajT 
hMid.  Abdomen  neurlv  as  wide  as  Ihe  thorax,  and  longer. 
VBUlied  above  and  armed  on  each  side  wilh  a  row  of  four  or 
five  IwvB  t«!th  formed  by  tbe  lateral  angle  of  the  superior 
arch  of  the  different  rings  composins;  it,  and  terra inBled." 
in  the  Brealer  part  of  the  Macrurous  Crustacean*,  «ilh  a 
laiee  fui-shaped  lamelHform  fin.  The  number  of  abdominal 
fitUefft  varies ;  in  Iho  ma]e  there  are  five  paini.  the  two 
firat  of  which  arc  slender  and  elonEttWd.  and  the  three  last 
arc  temiinale.1  by  an  oval  lamina  ciliated  on  the  edge;  in 
Ihe  femak'.  the  first  abdominal  ring  is  without  appendages, 
but  the  four  followini  scgmenla  have  each  a  pair  of  taise 
feet  composed  of  three  iomts  placed  end  to  end  and  fringea 
wilh  haim  fur  Ihe  otiachroent  of  the  eggs. 
Genera.  Galalliea. 
Getierw  CAiwocfm— The  whole  surface  of  the  Carapaa 
covL-red  with  transverse  furrows  fringed  wiih  small  brush^ 
like  hairs.  Hepatic  rcgioin.  in  f^nerol,  well  distinguished 
from  Ihe  branohisl.  ani  occupying  with  tbe  glomachic  re- 
gion nearly  half  of  the  space  of  ihe  Carapace.  Eottrimi 
projectinz  and  spiny;  •ryetXvf^  and  directed  downwards; 
no  trace  of  an  orbit.  A  spine  above  the  insertion  of  tha 
external  antcnnw,  and  two  others  on  tlie  anterior  part  of  the 
BtomBPhic  region.  Bnsilary  joint  of  the  iniemat  antenna 
cylindrical  and  aimeil  at  its  anterior  extremity  with  many 
sirong  spines ;  the  two  lollowin'^i  joints  slender  and  nearly 
as  long  an  the  ^rst.  Pcdunt-le  of  ihe  exUmnt  antemti^ 
composed  of  three  sranll  cvlindricaljoints,  ihelaat  of  which 
ia  much  smaller  than  the  others.  External  JatD-feet  mo- 
derate, the  two  last  joints  neither  fuliaceou*  nor  even  en- 
larged. Anterior  feet  long  and  depressed.  (Milne  Ed- 
wards.) 

Species  whose  estemal  jaw-feet  present  a  row  of  teeth 
on  the  internal  edge  of  their  aecond  joint. 


Example.  Galathea  ttngota ;  Galatkea  ipinisfra.  Leach 
Cancer  ilrigoma,  Linn.  Description.— Roslr inn  triangular 
and  armed  with  seven  strong  projecting  spimform  teeth. 
Lateral  edges  of  Ihe  carapace  with  strong  spinifona  teeth. 


■^ 


GAL 

Three  loiw  spmet  at  the  antenomtremity  of  (be  llnl  ioM 
of  the  external  antennai ;  a  great  spine  under  the  aud^ilorf 
tubercle,  two  smaller  ones  on  the  first  joint  of  the  external 
antentUE,  and  one  on  their  second  joint.  External  jaw-feei 
short,  harfly  overpassing  the  rostrum  when  they  arc  et- 
tended,  their  third  joint  much  shorter  than  the  second,  ana 
armed  beneath  with  two  strong  spines.  Anterior  feet  luiit?. 
depressed,  and  very  spiny ;  the  hand  very  large,  edged  a  ilh 
spines  and  ornamented  above  wilh  small  piha-rous  furrows 
resembling  imbricated  acales.  claws  nhort.  large  and  Willi  a 
spoon.bhaped  termination.  Keel  of  the  second  and  ihird 
pair  of  the  same  length.  Abdomen  furrowed  trans vemcly. 
but  without  a  spine ;  the  seventh  sezment  a  liate  widened 
and  rather  narrower  behind  than  beifore.  Colour  rcd.liiJv 
wilh  some  blue  line*  on  the  carapace.  Length  about  five 
inchea     Loeaiity,  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Ocean. 

Third  joint  of  the  external  jaw-feet  much  longer 
than  the  second. 
Example.  Galathea  tquami/era      lfl<*lity.  the  coasts  uf 
Euglana  and  France. 

Species  whose  external  jaw-feet  have  no  deutilation  on 

the  internal  edge  of  their  second  joint. 
Example,  Galathea  Manodon.    Loeaiity,  tbe  ooasii  of 
Quie. 

Grimolbea. 
Differing  but  little  from  GtUalhea,  and  hardly  fufficicnllt 
distinct  for  separation.  General  form  of  both  eascntnllt 
the  same,  but  the  basilary  joint  of  their  internal  antennc 
is  clayiform  and  hardly  dentated  at  its  extremity,  and  xhe 
external  jaw-feet  are  very  long  and  have  Iheir  three  U-r 
joints  enlarged  and  folinceous.  {Milne  Edwards.) 
Example.  Grimothea  gregaria. 

M.  Milne  Edwards  observes  that  the  Crustu^ean  fii(ur»il 
by  M.  Gufirin  under  Ihe  name  alGrimothie  tocialt  C  V.>i  a^;.' 
of  LaCoquille:'  Crust,  pi.  3.  fig.  1)  differs  from  G.  i'rr 
garia  in  the  form  of  the  caudal  fin,  tbe  middle  lamiiin  if 
which  is  less  than  the  lateral  ones.  M.  Edwards  prnpi-- 
therefore  to  name  it  Grimolhea  Duptrreii  in  honoto'  of  iho 
naviiratiir  irhose  voyage  made  the  specie*  known. 

N^B.  The  student  should  bear  in  mind  that  (he  leno 
Galathea  was  employed  by  Bruguii-res  (who  died  in  l:9''i 
10  disUnguish  a  genus  of  Conchifen  which  M.  Hang  il.inls 
mikiht  as  well  perhaps  be  united  to  Cyrnta. 

M.  Desmarest  is  of  opinion  that  M.  Riwo's  genus  Ciilvj  '■ . 
afterwards,  according  to  M.  Desmarest,  named  by  M-  R.-"-' 
Jiinira  (a  designation  sllotted  by  Dr.  I-each  to  a  genii-  '■: 
Ifrr-nda),  approximates  closelv  to  Galathea. 

CALA'TIA,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor,  which  oriem>l> 
formed  part  of  Phrjgia  and  Cappadocia.  It  is  diHicull  t..  d.- 
termiiieits  exact  boundaries,  as  they  differed  ai  various  iimf- 
It  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  I'hr^gia  and  Cappadocia,  oa 
the  east  by  Pontus,  on  the  north  by  l^pblagoina,  and  •"i 
the  went  by  Bilhynia.  It  obtained  the  name  of  OmliM 
ft-om  the  settlement  of  a  lai^  body  of  Gauls  in  this  part  f 
Asia.  The  first  hoide  that  appeared  in  Asia  (b,c.  iV-'i 
formed  part  of  the  army  with  which  Brennus  invaded  Grcefc. 
In  consequence  of  some  dissensions  in  the  array  of  Breiuiuv 
a  considerable  number  of  his  troope,  under  the  comminJ  ;! 
Loonoriosand  Lutarius,  left  their  counlrj  men  and  mar^'-.fl 
into  Thrace;  thence  they  proceeded  to  Byianlium.  *■'■'■ 
criis.<ed  over  inio  Asia  at  tbe  invitation  of  Nioomedet  kiui: 
of  Bilhynia,  who  was  anxious  to  secure  their  assnl:i;u-- 
against  bis  brother  Ziboetas.  (Livy.  xxxviiL  16.)  With  ih.  ..- 
aid  Nicomedes  was  successful ;  but  his  allie*  now  b<caii;i- 
his  maslcrs,  and  he,  as  well  as  the  other  monarchs  of  A>.i 
Minor  to  the  west  of  Mount  Taurus,  wa* exposed  for  nii:i> 
years  to  tbe  ravageaof  these  barbarians,  and  obliged  to  pur- 
chose  safely  by  the  pay-menl  of  tribute,  Kncoutasi'd  i ' 
the  success  of  their  countrymen,  fresh  horde*  passed  •■■■  r 
into  Asia,  and  their  numbers  became  so  great  that  Ju^'... 
informs  us  (XXV,  2)  "that  all  Asia  swarmed  with  them  ;  J-ii 
that  no  Eastern  monarchs  carried  on  war  without  a  mctn' 
nary  army  of  Gauls."  In  on n form ily  with  this  slalen:'-"!. 
we  read  of  their  assisting  Ariobarianes  and  UilbirUt<'-. 
kings  of  Pnntua  (about  B.C.  166),  against  Piolem*  kii-.:  ■■! 
Kgvpt  (Clinton's  Ptuli  Hrllenim.  vol.  iiu  p.  43J  i.  and  " 
their  supporting  Aniiochns  Hiemx  in  his  Bmb^timl^  »*> 
against  hi*  brother  Seleucus  CBlliniciis(S*leociis  i\-i-f  I 
H.  c.  ■H6-i26).  They  arc  also  said  in  the  second  buoi  ■' 
Maccabees  (viii.  80)  to  have  ai^vancedaefc*  as  Babyloo,  »f  i 


a  A  b  a 

hema  by  calling  to  uoonnt  thow  fkVoniilM  of  Nan  «bo 

lua  enriched  Ihanuelve*  by  proicriplioiu  biicI  oon&tcation*, 
and  by  ibo  tciuclesi  prudiguity  of  tbU  princs ;  but  it  vai 
Touad  that  most  (if  them  bad  alre&dy  duiipMed  their  ill- 
SDllGD  wealth.  G!Llba,ar  ralhcr  his  confidants  who  Eovemed 
Lim,  tben  proceeded  agaimt  the  purcbuen  of  tAeir  pro- 
perly, and  confiscatians  biKame  a^n  the  older  of  the  day. 
At  the  Mme  time  GaLba  exerciited  great  panimony  in  the 
admin  ist  ml  ion,  and  endeavoured  to  enforce  a  alrict  disci- 
pline among  the  soldiera,  who  had  been  utted  to  the  prodi- 
gality and  licence  of  the  previous  reign.  The  emperor, 
vho  was  past  suveuty  years  of  age,  soon  became  the  object 
of  popular  diiJikc  and  ridicule,  his  favourites  were  hatod,  and 
revolts  against  bim  broke  out  in  various  quarters,  several  of 
wbit'h  were  put  down  and  puniiibed  severely.  Galba 
thought  of  stren|i|;tbeuing  himself  by  adopting  Piso  Licinia- 
nus,  a  yount;  patrioian  of  I'onsidersble  penmual  merit,  as 
Cssaraod  his  successor;  upon  whicbOtho.  who  had  expected 
tu  be  the  object  of  bis  choice,  formed  a  conspiracy  among  the 
guards,  who  proclaimed  bim  emperor.  Galba,  unable  to 
walk,  caused  himscLf  to  be  curried  in  a  littir,  hoping  to  sup- 
Dress  the  mutiny  ;  but  at  the  appearance  of  Ol bo's  armed  par- 
tisans bis  foUowurs  left  bitn,  and  even  I  be  litter-bearers  threw 
the  old  man  down,  and  ran  away.  Some  of  the  legionaries 
came  up  and  put  Galba  lo  itealh,  after  a  reign  of  only  seven 
months,  counting  from  the  time  of  Nero's  death,  a.d.  6(1. 
Galba  was  seveniy-two  yeurd  of  ugo  at  the  lime  of  liis  death. 
He  WHS  succeeded  by  Olho,  but  only  for  a  abort  time,  as 
VitcUiut  Huporscdcd  him,  and  Vespa:ilanus  soon  afler  super- 
seded  VitelliuB.    (Tacitus,  Histor.  i.— iv.) 


GA'LBANUM.  Though  this  drug  is  one  of  those  which 
have  been  the  longest  known,  Ihe  plant  which  yields  it  still 
remains  undeicrmined,  though  it  ia  slated  by  old  writers  to 
be  a  native  of  Syria.  Tlie  Greek  name  chdlbane  <xa>^a>'T)) 
u  evidi-nily  the  same  as  the  Hebrew  chelbenak,  by  which 
the  same  substance  is  supposed  to  be  alluded  tn  in  Ifae  Book 
of  Exodus.  Arabian  authors  describe  it  under  the  name 
biinad.  The  Persians  call  it  bir^ud,  and  give  birceja  as  its 
llindii  ^yiionyme.  That  the  same  substance  is  inlendcd, 
is  evident  from  Madyaa  and  metonyon,  as  slated  by  Dr. 
Rujlu  miuMtr.  Himid.  But.  p.  2i),  being  i;iven  as  its  Greek 
Kyiioiiymcs.  whirh  arc  evident  corruptions  of  chalbane  and 
mel'i]  I'm.  the  names  of  iliis  substance  in  Dioscoridcs.  The 
plant  yielding  this  substance  is  called  kinnek  and  nafeel  by 
Arabian  and  PcrHian  authors,  by  whom  it  is  described  as 
being  jointed,  iliorny,  and  fnu^ranL  Under  the  first  name 
it  IS  noticed  in  ihe  original  of  Aviccnna,  but  omitted  in  Ihe 
Latin  Iranslaliuu.  D'Hcrbclot  (Bibt.  Orienf.)  buwever 
stales,  that  the  plant  yielding  galbanum  is  called  gliiarltust 
in  Persia.  Tnese  names  are  interesting  only  as  showing 
that  Uilh  lite  pbuit  aitd  gum  -resin  appear  to  have  been  (a- 
luiliarly  knuwa  to  bolh  Arabians  and  Persimis,  and  that 
'^re  Iba  former  ia  probably  a  native  of  these  countries. 
uausUy  lUud  to  bo  only  «  native  of  Syria.    But  if 


i  OA  L 

MS  it  Mold  hirily  bare  escaped  the  notioa  of  th*  nunerom 
tiavellers  who  have  Tisited  tnat  oonntnr. 

The  pUnt  usually  described  as  yieloing  this  long-known 
a|um'resin  is  Bubon  Galbanum,  a  native  of  the  Cape  of 
Ouod  Hope,  which  Hermann  described  as  yielding  spon- 
taneously, by  incision,  a  gummy,  resinous  juice,  similar  to 
Galbanum ;  but  Mr.  I>)n  bas  otMer^ed  that  this  plant  pni- 
■esse*  neither  Ihe  smell  nor  the  taste  of  Galbanuoi,  but  in 
these  particulars  agrees  better  with  fennel:  and  its  A-uit 
has  no  resemblance  whatever  to  that  found  in  the  gum. 
The  fruit,  commonly  called  seed,  was  early  ascertained  by 
Lobel  te  be  that  of  an  umbelliferous  plant,  broad  and  fulia- 
ceous,  which  he  picked  out  of  Galbanum,  and,  having  sowed, 
obtained  a  plant,  whi<^  he  has  figured  under  t^  namo 
of  Ferula  galbant/era.  This  has  been  lost  or  become  con- 
founded with  other  species;  but  it  is  probable  that  it  vn 
the  plant  yielding  Galbanum,  as  Mr.  Don  has  recently  nli- 
lained  fruit  in  like  manner,  and  something  similar,  wh^h 
be  has  determined  to  be  allied  to  the  genus  Siler ;  but  dif- 
fering in  the  absence  of  dorsal  re»iniferous  canals,  and  the 
commissure  being  furnished  with  only  two.  The  corji^U 
are  about  nine  bnes  in  length  and  four  btoad,  flat  iuliT- 
nally  and  somewhat  converse  externally.  As  the  plaut  u 
sidl  unknown,  it  is  well  worthy  the  investigation  of  tra- 
vellers in  the  East,  who  might  otherwise  suppose,  from  iIil' 
name,  assigned  from  the  seed,  having  been  adopted  in  il,i: 
'  London  Phartnocopteia,*  that  the  plant  was  as  well  known 
as  its  product 

Three  torts  of  Galbanitu  are  distinguished:  l,galbsniini 
in  grains  or  tears ;  2,  galbanum  in  mosses ;  and  3,  Persiun 
galbanum.  The  two  former  come  from  Africa,  espcciiUj 
from  Ethiopia;  tlie  third  sort  from  Persia.  Galbaumn 
in  tears  is  most  likely  the  spontaneous  exudation  from  i],t 
plant ;  and  that  in  masses,  obtained  by  incisions.  Tlic  first  ><rrt 
occurs  in  irregular,  generally  oblong  grains,  mostly  disliiu-i, 
but  sometimes  agglutinated  together,  about  the  siieofa 
lentil  or  small  pea,  of  a  colour  verging  from  whitish  iniu 
yellowish  brown,  more  or  less  diaphanous,  opakc,  or  ehiuin,; 
with  a  resinous  lustre.  The  odour  is  strongly  balsamic,  diiJ 
disagreeable.  The  taste  is  resinous,  sharp,  bitter,  and  dis- 
agreeable.    Specific  gravity  r212. 

It  is  partiallv  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  the  solution,  as  veil 
as  [he  strong  white  smoke  which  is  evolved  when  galbanum  ii 
melted  in  a  platinum  spoon,  reddens  litmus  paper.  It  conalsU 
chieflyof  resin,  gum,  volatile  oil,  and  a  trace  of  malic  acid. 

Galbanum  in  masses  consists  of  irregular  pieces  of  a 
yellowish  or  dark  brown  colour ;  Ihe  odour  is  stronger  than 
that  of  the  preceding  kind,  which,  in  ils  general  charactiirv, 
it  much  resembles,  except  that  it  can  be  powdered  only  dur- 
ing the  low  temperature  of  winter.  Gciger  ^ays  that  whoa 
this  variety  is  pure,  it  is  not  to  be  reckoned  inferior  lo  iliv 
former.  Persian  galbanum,  being  very  soft  and  tenacious, 
is  sent  in  skins  or  chests.  It  often  contains  many  firagmtuti 
of  plants. 

Galbanum,  like  otner  umbelliferous  gum-resins,  is  anii- 
sposmoilic,  expectorant,  and  externally  rubefacient.  It  ii 
inferior  in  power  to  assaftBtida,  but  usually  associatt;d  with 
it  in  pills  and  plaslers. 

GA'LBULA  (Zoology).     [Halcyonidjb;  Jacamab.] 

GA'LEA  (Zoology).     [Echinid«,  vol.  ix.,  p.  239.1 

GALENA.    [Lkad.] 

GALE'NA.    [Illinois.] 

GALE'NUS,  CL'AU'DfUS,  one  of  the  most  colebwed 
and  valuable  of  Ihe  anlient  medical  writen,  was  bom  at 
Pergamum,  a.d.  131.  The  exact  lime  of  his  death  is  nit 
known,  but  as  he  speaks  of  Perlinax  and  Sevcrus  as  em- 
perors, we  may  conclude  that  Soidas  (v.  TaXiii^)  is  not  fir 
from  the  truth  in  stating  that  he  lived  to  the  ageof  sei-enii. 
He  was  early  instructed  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Aristotelian 
and  Platonic  philosophy,  and  appears  also  to  have  dovoiwi 
some  time  to  the  study  of  the  peculiar  tenets  of  Ihe  i-lhiT 
sects;  for  while  yet  very  young,  he  wrote  commentaries  ob 
tlia  Dialectics  of  the  Stoic  Chrysippus. 

His  anatomical  and  medical  studies  were  commeocol 
under  Satynis.  a  celebrated  anatomist ;  Slnionicns,  a  di. 
ciple  of  Iho  Hippocralic  school ;  and  ^sthrion,  a  follower 
of  the  Empirics.  Afler  the  death  of  his  father,  be  travcllcl 
to  Alexandria,  at  that  time  the  most  famous  school  if 
medicine  in  ibe  world.  His  studies  were  so  zealously  anri 
successfully  pursued,  that  he  was  publicly  invited  lo  reluro 
to  hid  native  country.  At  the  age  of  34, 'he  settled  him«-lf 
in  Rome,  when  his  celebrity  became  so  great  from  ihe 
success  of  his  practice,  and  more  especially  bom  his  gnat 


GAL 


39 


GAL 


knowledge  of  anatomy,  that  he  quickly  drew  upon  himself 
the  jealousy  of  all  the  Roman  physicians.  At  the  solicita- 
tion of  many  philosophers  and  men  of  rank,  he  commenced 
a  course  of  lectures  on  anatomy ;  hut  by  the  jealousy  of  his 
rivals  he  was  quickly  compelled  to  discontinue  them,  and 
eventually  to  leave  Rome  entirely. 

The  instruction  which  Galen  had  received  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  various  sects  of  medical  philosophy,  had  given 
him  an  acquaintance  with  the  peculiar  errors  of  each,  and 
he  speaks  of  them  all  at  times  in  the  language  of  no  mea- 
sured contempt.    The  school  which  was  founded  by  himself 
may  justly  merit  the  title  of  Eclectic,  for  its  doctrines  were 
a  mixture  of  the  philosophy  of  Plato,  of  the  physics  and 
logic  of  Aristotle,  and  of  the  practical  knowledge  of  Hippo- 
crates.   On  many  occasions  he  expresses  himself  strongly 
on  the  superiority  of  theory  to  mere  empiricism ;  but  upon 
those  matters  which  do  not  admit  of  being  objects  of  ex- 
perience, such  as  the  nature  of  the  soul,  he  confesses  his 
ignorance  and  inability  to  give  any  plausible  explanation. 

But  in  order  to  form  a  correct  estimate  of  the  merits  of 
this  physician,  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  mention  particularly 
some  of  his  contributions  to  medical  science.  Anatomy 
was  at  all  times  the  fkvourite  pursuit  of  Galen,  but  it  does 
not  appear  that  he  had  many  opportunities  of  dissecting  the 
human  subject  This  we  may  infer  with  certainty  from  the 
gratification  he  expresses  at  having  discovered  a  human 
skeleton  at  Alexandria,  and  having  been  enabled  tamake 
observations  on  the  body  of  a  criminal  which  had  remained 
without  burial.  His  dissections  were  principally  confined 
to  the  apes  and  lower  animals ;  and  it  is  to  this  circum- 
stance that  many  of  the  errors  in  his  description  are  refer- 
rible ;  for  from  the  examination  of  these  animals  he  at- 
tempted to  infer  analogically  the  structure  of  the  human 
body.  He  describes  the  sternum  as  consisting  of  seven 
pieces  instead  of  eight  He  supposes  the  sacrum  to  consist  of 
three  pieces  instead  of  five,  and  looks  upon  the  coccyx  as  a 
fourth,  whereas  it  is  a  distinct  bone  in  men  till  twenty  or 
twenty-five,  and  in  women  as  late  as  forty-five. 

His  descriptions  of  the  muscles  appear  to  be  more  gene- 
rally correct.  He  described  for  the  first  time  two  of  the 
muscles  of  the  jaws,  and  two  which  move  the  shoulder.  In 
addition  to  these  he  discovered  the  popliteal  museles  and 
the  platysma  myoides.  He  denied  the  muscular  texture  of 
the  heart  on  account  of  the  complicated  nature  of  its  func- 
tions, but  he  gave  a  good  description  of  its  transverse 
fibres  and  its  gener^il  structure.  The  knowledge  of  the 
vascular  system  which  Galen  possessed  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  greater  or  more  accurate  than  that  of  his  prede- 
cessors. He  supposed  the  veins  to  originate  in  the  liver, 
and  the  arteries  to  take  their  rise  from  the  heart.  He  like- 
wise showed  by  experiment,  in  opposition  to  Erasistratus, 
that  the  arteries  contained  blood,  and  not  merely  the  ani- 
mal spirits,  as  that  physician  maintained.  He  had  observed 
the  structure  and  use  of  the  valves  of  the  heart,  and,  arguing 
^rom  their  evident  intention,  concluded  that  a  portion  of 
the  blood  passed  with  the  animal  spirits  from  the  pulmonary 
artery  into  the  pulmonary  vein,  and  so  to  the  left  side  of 
the  heart  He  was  also  aware  of  the  connection  between 
the  veins  and  arteries  by  means  of  the  capillary  vessels. 
The  existence  of  the  ductus  arteriosus  and  foramen  ovale 
during  the  stage  of  foetal  life  was  not  unknown  to  him, 
and  he  had  sUso  noticed  the  changes  which  they  undergo 
after  birth. 

Galen  understood  generally  the  distinction  between  nerves 
of  sensation  and  nerves  of  motion,  but  his  knowledge  upen 
this  noiat  does  not  appear  to  have  been  great ;  for  lie  sup- 
poseu  that  the  former  proceeded  only  from  the  brain,  and 
that  the  latter  had  their  origin  exclusively  in  the  spinal 
marrow.  This  opinion  is  the  more  remarkable,  as  he  him- 
self describes  the  third  pair  of  cerebral  nerves,  or  principal 
motor  nerve  of  the  eye.  In  his  description  of  the  cerebral 
nerves,  he  notices  the  olfactory,  though  somewhat  indis- 
tinctly, the  optic,  the  third  pair,  two  branches  of  the  fifth, 
the  two  divisions  of  the  seventh  pair,  and  some  branches  of 
the  par  vagum  and  hypoglossal  nerves,  but  he  appears  to 
have  confounded  these  together  very  much  in  his  descrip- 
tion. He  detected  the  mistake  of  those  anatomists  who 
thought  there  was  an  entire  crossing  of  the  optic  nerves, 
but  fell  himself  into  the  error  of  supposing  that  no  deeussa- 
tion  at  all  takes  place. 

In  order  to  form  correct  physiological  views,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  employ  many  and  varied  experiments,  and  to  mo- 
dify them  m  different  ways,  that  we  may  be  able  to  satisfy 


the  nnmeroue  conditions  whieh  every  problem  in  physiology 
presents.    To  this  mode  of  inquiry  Galen  sometimes  had 
recourse,  and  it  were  to  be  wished  that  he  had  more  fre- 
quently made  use  of  it    To  prove  the  dependence  of  mus- 
cular motion  upon  nervous  influence,  he  divided  the  nerves 
which  supply  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder,  and  found  that 
after  the  division  all  power  of  motion  ceased.    But  he  does 
not  seem  to  have  noticed  that  the  nervous  influence  is  only 
one  of  the  many  stimuli  which  call  the  muscles  into  action. 
As  he  considered  the  heart  to  be  devoid  of  nerves,  be  might 
have  avoided  tliis  error,  had  he  not  fortified  himself  against 
the  truth,  by  assuming  that  its  structure  is  not  muscular. 
He  also  deprived  animals  of  their  voice  by  dividing  the 
intercostal  muscles,  by  tying  the  recurrent  nerve,  or  by 
injuring  the  spinal  cord.    In  theoretical  physiology  his  ar 
rangement  of  the  vital  phenomena  deserves  to  be  particu  • 
larly  recorded,  as  it  forms  the  groundwork  of  all  the  clas 
sifications  which  have  since  been  proposed.    It  is  founded 
upon  the  essential  differences  observed  in  the  functions 
tnemselves.    Observing  that  some  of  them  cannot  be  in- 
terrupted without  the  destruction  of  life,  and  for  the  most 
part  are  unconsciously  performed,  whilst  another  class  may 
be  suspended  without  injury,  are  accompanied  by  sensation, 
and  subject  to  the  power  of  the  will,  he  divided  the  func- 
tiona  into  three  great  classes.  The  vital  functions  are  those 
whose  continuance  is  essential  to  life ;  the  animal  are  those 
which  are  perceived,  and  for  the  most  part  are  subject  to 
the  will ;  whilst  the  natural  are  performea  without  conscious- 
ness or  control.    He  then  assumed  certain  abstract  princi- 
ples upon  which  these  functions  were  supposed  to  depend. 
He  'conceived  the  first  to  have  their  seat  in  the  heart,  the 
second  in  the  brain,  and  the  third  in  the  liver.    Thus  the 
pulsations  of  the  heart  are  produced  by  the  vital  forces,  and 
these  are  communicated  to  the  arteries  by  the  intervention 
of  the  pn&tima— this  is  the  more  subtle  part  of  the  air, 
which  is  taken  in  by  respiration,  and  conveyed  from  the 
lungs  to  the  left  side  of  the  heart,  and  from  thence  to  the 
different  parts  of  the  body.    In  the  brain  the  pneuma  forms 
the  medium  by  which  impressions  from  external  objects  are 
conveyed  to  the  common  sensorium.    The  same  principle  is 
applied  to  the  explanation  of  the  natural  functions  also. 
Observing  that  these  forces  are  not  sufficient  for  the  expla- 
nation of  the  different  vital  phenomena,  Galen  had  recourse 
to  the  doctrine  of  elements,  of  which,  after  the  example  of 
Aristotle,  and  before  him  Plato  in  the  '  Tiraesus,'  he  admits 
four,  and  from  the  mixture  of  these  deduces  the  secondary 

Sualities.  It  may  be  worth  while  to  observe  how  he  employs 
lis  hypothesis  in  his  treatise  '  De  tuend^  Valetudine'  (£d. 
Johan.  Caii,  Basil,  ap.  Froben.  1549),  in  the  explanation  of  the 
phenomena  of  health  and  disease.  The  injurious  influences 
to  which  animal  booies  are  liable  are  of  two  kinds :  innate 
or  necessary,  and  arquired.  The  former  depend  upon  their 
original  constitution.  They  are  formed  of  two  substances : 
the  blood,  which  is  the  material  (SiXij) ;  and  the  semen,  the 
formative  principle.  These  are  composed  of  the  same  ge- 
neral elements,  '  hot  cold,  moist  &nd  dry,  four  champions 
fierce,'  or,  to  express  them  in  their  essences  instead  of  their 
qualities,  fire,  air,  water,  and  earth.  Their  differences  de- 
pend upon  the  proportions  in  which  these  elements  enter 
into  their  composition.  Thus  in  the  semen  the  fiery  and 
aeriform  essences  predominate ;  in  the  blood,  the  watery  and 
earthy ;  and  in  the  blood  the  hot  is  superior  to  the  cold, 
and  the  moist  to  dry.  The  semen  again  is  drier  than  the 
blood,  but  yet  upon  the  whole  is  of  a  moist  nature ;  so  that 
in  the  original  formation  of  the  body  there  is  a  predominance 
of  the  moist  principle.  After  birth  therefore  there  is  a  ne- 
cessity for  an  increase  of  the  dry  principle.  This  is  obtained 
not  from  the  earth  itself,  but  through  the  medium  of  fire. 
From  the  increasing  influence  of  this  principle,  the  changes 
which  take  place  in  the  body  during  life  are  to  be  explained  : 
as  for  instance,  the  softness  and  flexibitity  of  the  limbs  in 
childhood  compared  with  their  rigidity  in  old-age.  By  eat- 
ing and  drinking  we  obtain  a  fresh  supply  of  the  dry  and 
moist  principles.  By  respiration  and  the  pulsations  of  the 
heart  a  due  supply  of  the  cold  and  hot  principles  is  kept 
up.  But  as  they  cannot  be  obtained  in  a  fit  state  for  the 
different  uses  of  the  animal  economy,  organs  are  necessary 
to  digest  separate,  and  remove  the  unsuitable  portions. 

Health  consists  in  the  perfect  and  harmonious  admixture 
of  these  various  elements.  But  we  must  assume,  in  addi- 
tion, that  the  body  is  free  from  pain,  and  that  there  is  no 
obstacle  to  the  due  performance  of  the  functions.  From 
this  idea  of  heydth  ve  OAy  easily  form  the  conception  of 


GAL 


40 


O  A  L 


disease.  It  is  that  state  of  body  in  which  the  functions  are 
in  any  woy  intorruptcd.  It  depends  upon  some  dispropor- 
tion in  the  constituent  elements,  or  some  unnatural  con- 
dition of  the  organs.  The  causes  of  disease  are  divided  by 
Galen  into  occasional  and  predisposing.  The  latter  are 
supposed  to  depend  upon  some  degeneration  of  the  hu- 
mours. This  degeneration  was  callra  by  him  a  putrefac- 
tion. Thus  the  quotidian  fever  is  referred  to  putrefiic- 
tion  of  the  mucus ;  tertian,  to  that  of  the  yellow  bile :  and 
quartan,  to  that  of  the  black  bile — this  last  humour  being 
slow  of  motion,  and  requiring  a  greater  time  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  paroxysm.  It  was  upon  this  theory  of  the 
putrefaction  of  the  numours  that  the  practice  of  phy- 
sicians was  founded  for  centuries  after  the  death  of  Galen, 
and  their  remedies  were  directed  to  the  expulsion  of  the 
supposed  offending  matter.  Inflammation  depends,  ac- 
cording  to  Galen,  upon  the  passage  of  the  blood  into  those 
part«  which,  in  their  normal  condition,  do  not  contain  it. 
If  the  bloud  be  accompanied  by  the  spirits,  the  inflamma- 
tion is  spirituous;  if  the  blood  penetrates  alone,  it  is  phleg- 
monous. Krj'sipelatous  inflammation  is  caused  by  the 
admixture  ofbilo;  oDdematous,  by  that  of  mucus;  andschir- 
rous,  by  the  addition  of  black  bile.  The  same  divisions  of 
intlammatiou  are  still  retained  by  systematic  writers,  but 
we  are  content  to  abstain  from  referring  them  to  these 
asMimed  causes. 

The  reputation  of  Galen  was  established  upon  the  ge- 
neral reception  which  his  theories  met  with ;  and  his  pas- 
sion for  theorizing  was  so  great  that  he  has  left  us  but  few 
l^)o<l  descriptions  of  disease.  In  these  his  principal  object 
hrenu  to  have  been  to  display  his  own  talent  for  prognosis. 
From  a  character  like  this  we  are  not  to  expect  much  in- 
formation in  the  application  of  particular  remedies,  but  the 
general  principles  which  he  lays  down  in  respect  to  indica- 
tions of  treatment  are  worthy  of  notice.  He  directs  us  to 
draw  our  indications  especially  from  the  nature  of  the  dis- 
ease ;  but  if  this  be  unaiscovered,  from  the  influence  of  the 
i»ea»ons  and  the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  from  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  patient,  his  manner  of  living,  or  his  strength,  and 
in  some  few  instances,  from  the  accession  of  the  disease. 
Ho  is  said  to  have  occasionally  performed  surgical  operations, 
but  during  his  stav  in  Rome  he  commonly  refused  to  do  so, 
in  compliance  with  the  custom  of  the  Uoman  *|>hysicians. 

llio  unbounded  influence  which  the  authority  of  this 
great  and  lenrned  physician  exercise<l  over  the  minds  of  his 
NiictuMHort,  unquestionably  contributed  to  retard  the  nro- 
grcks  iif  medicine.  For  while  physiciaus  were  occu)uea  in 
tlic  Mudy  of  his  Works,  and  in  vain  attempts  to  reconcile  the 
>hnnonicua  of  nature  with  the  dicta  of  their  master,  they 
;iiul  little  time  and  Icntt  inclination  to  interrogate  Nature 
nerself,  and  pursue  the  study  of  medicine  in  those  fields  in 
which  alone  it  can  be  followed  with  succo.4!^. 

Oalpti  wan  a  most  voluminous  writer.  Though  many  of 
ni«  Wfirks  are  said  to  have  been  burnt  in  his  house  at  Rome, 
ond  others  in  the  nourse  of  time  have  been  lost,  there  are 
ftttll  i««tAnt  one  hundred  and  thirty -seven  treatises  and 
frffffmciits  of  treatises,  of  which  eighty-two  are  considered 
mid'MiblcdIy  genuine.  From  thirty  to  flf^v  treatises  are  still 
in  MN. ;  and  one  hundred  and  si'xty-eiglit  arc  mentioned 
n«  thi*  QMcertainod  number  of  those  that  are  lost.  The 
wriiiit((ft  of  Gnhm  are  valuable,  not  only  for  the  history  of 
M»««liiuiii«  but  the  K>^*^^  variety  of  mi!>cellaneous  matter 
whuh  ih4iy  conlatn. 

Numerous  e<titions  of  his  works  have  been  published, 
and  M*vrrul  f«atin  translations  since  the  di>cover>'  of  print- 
in  ('.     Ktve  l^tin  editions  of  the  collected  works  of  Galen 
nfifo   ptililtftlied   before   the  Greek  text:   the  first  Latin 
inIiiioii   is   that  by  Bonardus,  Venice,    1490,  2  vols.,   foL 
Jlis   '  llistnria    Philohophica*  was    printed   by  Aldus    in 
Nil 7,  loKctlier  iiome  treatise's  of  Aristotle  and  Theophras- 
tus:  and   in    15'JA   the  same  printer  published   the  first 
r<im|plfi4)  edition  of  the  Greek  text  at  Venice,  in  5  vols, 
foi.,    which    wan    edited    by    And.    and    Fr.    Asulanus, 
mid  »u«  dedicated  to  Clement  the  Seventh.    The  text  of 
tl)i«  e()iiii>ii  was  by  no  means  corre<*t;  but  the  impressions 
on  lar((e  i>a|>er  are  scarce  and  ^-uluahle.     An  edition  was 
iiubliilifd  at  Haitle,  Mfti'i,  in  A  vols,  folio,  with  nrolegomena, 
b%  thi«  naliirah»t  Oesner.     II m  treatiftCM,  *  l)e  Methodo  Me- 
dendi,'  *  De   Nalurali    Facilitate.'    *  IX*  Sanitate  Tuendi,* 
were  translated  h\  our  rountrymun  Linacre,  and  an  edition 
u(  his  treuiue,  '  i>e  Hanitale  Tuendd,*  and  of  some  ether 
was  puhliihed  by  Catus.    More  r<K*ently  an  c<lition 
\  and  Latin  has  been  ptiblislio<l  by  C.  G.  Kiihn  (19 


vobi.  8vo.,  Lipiiir,  1821-1830).    Most  of  the  writings  of 

Galen  exist  also  in  Arabic,  and  some  in  Hebrew  translaUon>. 

The  reputation  of  this  great  writer  was  for  a  long  time  a<» 

unbounded    and   his  authority  as    absolute    among    the 

Arabs  as  among  the  physicians  of  Europe. 
(Harvey,  Exercit,  Anatom. ;  Spreneers  HUt»  of  Mtdt 

cine;    Clark's  Report  on  Animal  Physiology,  /roni  tf*e 

Trans,  of  Brit.  Assoc.,  1834.) 
GALE'OLA.    [EcRiNiD^B,  vol.  ix^  p.  239.] 
GALEOLA'RIA.    [Diphydes,  vol.  ix.,  p.  10;   SEan- 

GALEOPITHE'CUS  (Zoology).    [Plkuroptbra.] 

GALEOT'ES.    [louANiDA.] 

GALERl'TES.     [Echinida,  vol.  ix.,  pp.  2j9.  261.] 

GALERIUS.    [Maximianus.] 

GA'LG U LITS  (Zoology).    [Rollers.] 

GALIA'CEifi,  a  natural  order  of  Exogenous  plants  calh  <X 
Stellatai  by  Linnsus,  and  merged  in  Cinchonacca*  by  the 
school  of  Jussieu.  It  consists  of  herbaceous,  usually  siiuaic- 
stemmed  plants,  with  a  scabrous  surface,  verticillate  luave-^ 
and  monopetalous  flowers  with  an  inferior  didymous  fruit 
enclosing  a  couple  of  seeds  containing  an  embryo  lying  in  il 
great  quantity  of  horny  albumen.  Some  yield  a  dyeing  sub- 
stance  in  their  roots,  as  the  various  species  of  Madder,  biit 
the  greater  part  are  useless  weeds.  One  of  our  common 
British  species  of  Galium,  viz.,  G.  verum,  is  astringent,  an.l 
was  foftnerly  used  by  farmers  to  curdle  milk. 


1.  Sberardi*  arrpnuif  :  9.  a  fH^rfc^t  fl.>«>*r.  maffiitScs] :  3.  a  Tfrtiral  teriutn 
of  lb«  mnr,  without  tbecorvlia  ;  4.  a  UjtDs%«nc  McUuaof  a  rip*  fruit. 

GALIA'Nl.  FERDINANDO,  was  born  at  Chicli.  m 
the  Abruzzo,  in  17*28,  and  studied  at  Naples,  when.-  he 
first  attracteil  attention  by  some  humorous  composition* 
which  he  published  under  an  assumed  name,  to  ridicule 
certain  pedantic  academicians  (*  Componimenti  varii  {ler  la 
morte  di  Domenico  Jannaccone  carneftce  della  Gran  Corte 
della  Viraria,' 1749).  In  the  following  year  his  important 
work,  'Delia  Moneta,*  on  the  'coin,'  or  'currency,'  waaals.^ 
published  under  an  assumed  name.  In  this  work  he  esta- 
blisbe<l  tiiC  principle,  which  ^  as  then  far  from  being  ar- 
knouleiL'cd,  that  money  is  a  merchandize,  and  that  its  value 
and  intenrst  ought  to  be  left  free  like  other  goods.  He  con- 
tended also  that  abundance  of  money  and  consequent  hiirh 
prices  are  not  an  evil,  as  vvas  supposed  by  many,  and  ihai 
in  countries  where  low  prices  prevail  the  people  are  geno  - 
rally  most  miserable.  This  work  produced  a  great  sen- 
sation on  the  Continent,  and  especially  at  Naples,  when, 
the  government  adopted  its  principles,  and  left  il»o 
trade  in  bullion  free.  It  is  generally  belie^-ed  th.i: 
Bartolommeo  Intieri  and  the  Marquis  Rinuccini,  tuo 
Tuscan  economisU  of  that  time,  furnished  Galiani«  who 
was  then  a  young  man  scarcely  twenty-one  years  of  apv. 
with  their  ideas  on  the  subject,  which  Galiani  extend«.^«i 
and  produced  in  a  readable  shape.  He  published  a  second 
edition  of  this  work,  30  vears  after,  in  1 780,  with  additions. 
In  the  I  St  lx>ok  he  examines  the  intrinsic  %*alue  of  the  pre- 
cious metals,  independent  of  their  use  as  currency;  in  the 
second  he  treats  of  the  use  of  a  metallic  cunrWicv  a&  a 


Q  Ah 


41 


GAL 


medium  of  exchange ;  and  in  the  third  he  discusses  the  re-* 
lative  value  of  the  three  metals  used  for  coin,  the  conyen- 
tional  value  of  the  coined  currency  of  a  country  in  relation 
to  the  prices  of  goods,  and  the  occasional  expeoient  adopted 
hy  some  governments  to  raise  the  value  of  the  currency,  as 
the  Romans  did  after  the  first  Punic  war,  and  as  Louis  XIV. 
did  in  France. 

In  1759  Galiani  was  sent  to  Paris  as  secretary  of  lega- 
tion,'* and  his  vivacitv,  wit  and  repartee  rendered  him 
a  favourite  among  the  fashionahle  and  literary  coteries 
of  that  capital.  He  remained  in  Paris  several  years» 
visited  England  and  Holland,  and  on  his  return  to  France 
wrote  his  *  Dialogues  sur  le  Commerce  des  Bl£s,'  which  was 
his  second  work  on  political  economy.  He  did  not  publish 
this  essay  himself,  but  left  the  MS.  in  the  hands  of  Uiderot, 
who  had  it  printed  in  1670.  The  French  economists  were 
then  divided  into  two  parties,  one  of  which  advocated  a  free  | 
trade  in  corn,  and  the  other  was  opposed  to  it.  An  edict, 
published  ia  1 764,  permitting  the  free  exportation  of  corn, 
was  followed  by  a  rise  of  prices  and  a  scarcity,  which  by 
some  were  considered  as  the  effects  of  that  measure,  whilst 
others  denied  the  inference.  Galiani  supported  neither  of 
the  two  systems  absolutely :  he  contended  that  the  laws 
concerning  the  corn-trade  must  vary  according  to  the  situa- 
tion of  various  states,  the -nature  and  cultivation  of  the 
respective  soils,  the  relative  position  of  their  com  districts 
or  provinces,  and  also  the  form  of  their  governments.  In 
a  letter  to  Suard,  dated  1770,  he  explains  himself  more 
clearly  on  this  last  topic,  saying,  *  that  under  a  despotic  go- 
vernment a  firee  exportation  of  corn  might  prove  dangerous, 
as  it  might  be  followed  by  a  famine,  which  would  rouse  the 
people  against  its  rulers;  that  in  a  democracy  the  same  free- 
dom is  a  natural  result  of  the  political  institutions ;  whilst  in 
mixed  and  temperate  governments  the  freedom  of  the  corn- 
trade  must  be  modified  by  circumstances.'  Galiani  cen- 
sured the  free-exportation  edict  of  1 764,  and  he  proposed 
instead  of  it  certain  duties  on  the  exportation  of  corn,  and  a 
lesser  duty  on  the  exportation  of  flour,  and  a  duty  likewise 
on  the  importation  of  foreign  com.  He  notices  in  his  work 
the  small  manufacturing  states  with  little  territory,  like 
Geneva,  and  surrounded  by  powerful  and  occasionally  hos- 
tile neighbours,  in  which  bethinks  well-stored . granaries 
are  as  necessary  as  in  a  garrison-town ;  and  the  states 
with  a  territory  unproductive  in  com,  such  as  Genoa,  in 
which  he  contends  that  the  corn-trade  ought  to  be  perfectly 
free. 

On  his  return  to  Naples,  Galiani  was  appointed  by  the 
king  to  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  afterwards  to  the  Board  of 
Finances,  and  to  the  superintendence  of  the  crown  domains. 
His  health,  naturally  weak,  suffered  from  constant  applica- 
tion, and  he  died  in  October,  1787,  at  the  age  of  59  years. 
He  left  in  MS.  a  commentary  or  series  of  disquisitions  on 
the  life  and  character  of  Horace  and  the  spirit  of  his  poems, 
parts  of  which  he  showed  to  several  of  his  friends,  who 
spoke  highly  of  the  work,  extracts  of  which  are  found  in 
the  Correspondence  de  Galiani  avec  Madame  d^Epinay, 
Paris,  1818  ;  in  the  notes  to  the  TVaduzione  d'Orazio  cU 
T,  Garfrall^},  Naples,  1820;  in  the  Vita  deW  abate  Ferdi- 
nando  GcUtemi,  scritta  da  Luigi  DiodaH^  Naples,  1788 ;  and 
in  the  MSlmnges  de  rabb6  Siiord^  tires  de  la  Gazette  lit- 
teraire  cT Europe  :  see  also  Ugoni,  della  Letteratura  Ita- 
lianay  vol.  ii,  art  •  Galiani.* 

GALICIA,  the  Kingdom  of,  is  the  north-eastern  province 
of  the  Austrian  dominions,  and  lies  between  47**  lO^and  50** 
50'  N.  lat.,  and  18'  54'  and  26**  37'  E.  long.  It  includes 
the  country  formerly  called  the  Buckowine,  and  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  republic  of  Cracow,  Poland,  and  Rus- 
sia ;  on  the  east  by  Russia ;  on  the  south-east  by  Moldavia ; 
on  the  south  and  south-west  by  Transylvania  and  Hun- 
gary ;  and  on  the  west  by  Hungary,  Austrian  Silesia,  and 
Prussian  Silesia.  Galicia  derives  its  name  from  the  former 
principality  of  Haliczia  or  Galiczia,  which,  together  with  a 
considerable  portion  of  Red  Russia,  once  formed  part  of 
Hungary,  but  was  incorporated  with  Poland  in  the  year 
1374.     Its  antient  connexion  with  Hungary  ser>'ed  as  a 

f>retext  to  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa,  m  1772,  when  Po- 
and  was  enfeebled  by  intestine  divisions,  to  claim  its  restora- 
tion ;  a  claim  which  the  Poles  were  forced  to  concede  by 
the  treaty  of  the  18th  September,  1773,  in  conseauence  of 
which  that  part  of  the  republic,  now  termed  Galicia,  was 
surrendered  to  Austria,  and  annexed  to  its  dominions  under 
the  name  of  the  kingdom  of  Galicia  and  Lodomeria.  Its 
area  is  variously  computed ;  but  that  of  the  Austrian  quar- 1 
P.  a.  No.  663.  " 


ter-master-general's  department,  which  states  it  to  be  32,50§ 
square  miles,  is  considered  the  most  accurate.  Liesganig 
however,  who  completed  his  triangular  survey  in  1821,  es- 
timates it  at  32,949  square  miles.  The  population  rose  from 
3,695,285  in  1816  to  4,293,488  in  1825;  and  from  the  last 
numbers  to  4,548,334  in  1834  The  present  population  is 
estimated  at  nearly  4,600,000. 

Gralicia  spreads  out,  in  its  whole  length  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  Carpathian  mountains,  into  extensive  plains: 
those  mountains  extend  their  arms  deep  into  the  kingdom, 
and  on  the  west,  the  Beskide  branch  of  them  stretches  as 
far  as  the  banks  of  the  Vistula,  rising  almost  abmptly  out 
of  the  lowlands  into  heights  of  2000,  and  sometimes  of  4600 
feet  The  most  elevated  summit  in  this  quarter  is  the  **  Ba- 
bia  Gora,"  (Women's  Mount),  which  Staszic  estimates  at 
5410,  and  Hacquet  at  5850  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
In  ^e  south-west,  the  Patra  or  central  range  of  the  Carpa- 
thians, with  their  peaked  summits  and  desolate  naked  as- 
pect, rise  to  still  greater  elevations ;  the  great  Kry  van  to 
about  8300,  and  the  Rohicz  to  7230  feet.  The  branches  of 
this  range  penetrate  much  deeper  into  the  country  than 
those  of  the  Beskides.  The  Buckowine,  now  the  circle  o 
Czemovitz,  is  covered  with  offsets  of  the  Carpathians,  anc 
is  altogether  a  mountain  region.  The  mountains  are  ful . 
of  small  lakes,  which  are  here  called  Sav,  Plesse,  or  "  Eyes 
of  the  Sea  ;**  the  largest  of  them,  which  lies  to  the  north  of 
the  Great  Kryvan,  is  called  the  Fish  Lake ;  it  is  at  an  ele- 
vation of  about  4550  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  but 
does  not  exceed  1600  paces  in  length,  or  500  feet  in  breadth ; 
it  has  a  depth  of  192  feet,  and  forms  an  almost  perfect 
oval. 

The  northern  part  of  Galicia  is  an  extensive  plain,  in 
some  parts  intersected  by  low  ranges  of  hills ;  ana  in  the 
western  part  also  a  dead  level  be^;ins  at  Skavina  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Vistula,  and  varymg  in  width,  extends  to 
the  banks  of  the  San.  The  soil  of  the  plains  consists  almost 
universally  of  loam  and  sand;  the  most  remarkable 
accumulation  of  the  latter  is  in  what  is  called  the  Sand 
Mountain  (Sandberg)  near  Lemberg. 

The  rivers  of  the  western  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Galicia 
belong  to  the  basin  of  the  Vistula ;  and  those  of  the  eastern,  to 
the  basins  of  the  Danube  and  the  Dniester.  The  Vistula  forms 
the  western  boundary  next  to  Poland  for  about  180  miles, 
flowing  north-eastwards  from  the  spot  where  Austrian  and 
Prussian  Silesia  and  Galicia  converge  to  a  point,  and  Quit- 
ting the  kingdom  at  Popowicze,  a  village  opposite  Zavichost 
at  its  northern  extremity ;  this  river  increases  in  breadth 
along  this  frontier-line  from  about  120  to  nearly  200  paces, 
and  nas  a  rapid  current  until  below  Cracow,  the  difference 
in  the  elevation  of  its  bed  from  the  point  just  mentioned 
and  that  city  being  about  200  feet  The  tributaries  of  the 
Vistula,  on  the  side  of  Galicia,  are  the  Dunayeo  or  Da* 
nayez,  which  flows  down  from  the  Carpathians,  is  naviga 
ble  in  the  low  country,  receives  the  Poprad,  also  a  navigable 
stream,  and  other  rivers  in  its  course,  chiefly  northwards, 
through  the  circles  of  Sandecz,  Bochnia,  and  Tarnof,  and 
fsX\&  into  the  Vistula  near  Novopole,  opposite  Opatoviec, 
after  a  course  of  about  1 05  miles.  This  river,  like  all  those 
which  flow  from  the  Carpathians,  overflows  its  banks  in 
rainy  seasons,  does  much  damage  and  is  dangerous  to  navi- 
gate. The  Wysloka  is  formed  at  Yaalo  out  of  the  junction 
of  the  Dembowka,  Ropa»  and  Yasielka,  flows  through  the 
circles  of  Yaslo  and  Tarnof^  and  after  a  northern  course  of 
about  70  miles,  joins  the  Vistula  near  the  village  of  Ostr6f, 
in  the  north  of  Galicia.  The  San  or  Saan,  the  most  im- 
portant tributary  of  the  Vistula  in  this  quarter,  rises  in  the 
south-western  extremity  of  the  circle  of  Sambor  near  Sianki, 
a  village  on  one  of  the  most  northerly  dechvities  of  the  Car- 
pathians, takes  a  north-westerly  .direction  to  Sanok  and 
Bynof,  whence  it  runs  eastwards  to  the  town  of  Przemysl, 
and  thence  flows  north-westwards  through  a  low  country 
past  Yaroslaf  until  it  falls  into  the  Vistula  near  Lapissof. 
Its  whole  length  is  about  180  miles,  and  its  chief  tributaries 
are  the  Wyslek  and  Tanc^.  The  Bug,  which  has  its  efflux 
in  the  Vistula  also,  does  not  become  a  considerable  stream 
until  it  has  quitted  Gralicia ;  it  rises  near  Galigory  to  the 
east  of  Lemberg,  flows  westwards  when  above  the  latitude  of 
that  town,  and  before  it  reaches  Busk  turns  northwards  and 
afterwards  north-westwards,  and  leaving  GaUcia  below  Sokal, 
enters  Poland.  The  Dniester,  another  of  the  cx>nsiderable 
rivers  in  this  kingdom,  through  which  it  flows  for  a  distance 
of  about  310  miles,  has  its  source  in  the  Carpathians  in 
the  western  part  of  the  circle  of  Sambor,  winds  through 
^  Vol.  XL-^^ 


O  A  L 


42 


OA  L 


that  mnle,  Brseiaiiy,  Stry,  StaniBlatof;  end  Kolomea,  and 
having  formed  the  boundary-line  between  Galicia  and 
Ruaaia  from  Ciortkof  to  Orkop  beyond  Ciemovitz»  enters 
the  Rusaian  territory.  Eastern  Galicia  has  three  other 
large  rivers:  the  Pruth,  which  rises  in  the  Carpathians 
within  the  circle  of  Stanislavof,  flows  through  that  circle 
as  well  as  Kolomea  and  Czernovits  in  the  Buckowine, 
and  passes  over  into  Moldavia  below  Pentuluy;  the 
Sered,  which  has  its  source  near  Pursuka  and  leaves  the 
Buckowine  below  Sereth;  and  the  Moldava,  which  rises 
in  the  circle  of  Czernoviiz  and  soon  afterwards  quits  the 
Buckowine.  whence  it  enters  Muldavia.  The  south-eastern 
distiicts  of  Galicia  are  also  watered  by  the  Golden  Bistriza, 
a  tributary  of  the  Sereth.  There  are  no  canals.  According 
to  an  enumeration  made  some  years  ago,  the  mineral  springs 
consisted  of  11  sulphuretted  springs,  12  chalybeate,  and  6 
acidulous.  The  most  frequented  are  the  chalybeate  waters 
of  Kiynieza,  and  the  sulpnuretted  springs  of  Sklo,  Lubien, 
and  Konopkof^ki. 

The  climate  of  Galicia  is  colder  than  that  of  any  other 
possession  of  Austria,  in  consequence  of  the  proximity  of 
the  Carpathians.  The  summer  in  generally  short,  and  the 
grape  never  ripens :  the  winter  is  very  severe  for  six  months 
at  least,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  deep  snow  lying  in 
the  middle  of  April,  or  an  oat-crop  buried  by  the  snow,  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Beskide  and  other  Carpathian  mountains. 
The  moist  and  swampy  plains  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
kingdom  render  that  quarter  also  very  chilly  and  raw. 

Ine  soil  is  of  a  very  varied  character.  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  Carpathians,  where  sterile  rocks  or  cold 
clay  abound,  the  husbandman  has  difficulty  in  raising  even 
sufficient  barley,  oats,  and  potatoes,  fifc  his  own  consump- 
tion. But  towards  the  plains,  the  soil  becomes  richer  and 
more  productive :  the  most  fertile  parts  are  those  perhaps 
about  Yaroslaf,  such  districts  in  the  circle  of  Zloezof  where 
limestone  forms  the  substratum,  the  groater  portion  of  the 
circles  of  Stanislavof  and  Kolomea,  and  the  newly  cleared 
lands  in  the  Buckowine.  In  many  parts  the  soil  is  so 
light,  that  the  grass,  underwood,  and  even  trees,  quickly 
wither  under  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

Galicia  abounds  in  sandstone,  granite,  sand  of  a  very 
superior  grain,  ouartz,  slate,  yellow  and  common  clay, 
potter's  earth,  yellow  ochre,  marble,  gypsum,  &c.  Moun- 
tain crystals,  agates,  jaspers,  ordinary  opal,  alabaster,  ^c, 
are  found  in  several  spots.  The  Carpathians  are  rich  in 
metals,  particularly  iron,  which  is  found  along  the  whole 
line  of  the  Carpathians,  from  the  circle  of  Sandecz  to  the 
frontiers  of  the  Buckowine;  but  the  produce  does  not 
exceed  more  than  fifteen  or,  at  the  utmost,  eighteen  pounds 
of  metal  in  every  hundred-weight  of  ore.  Bog- iron  likewise 
is  met  with  in  the  circles  of  S  try  and  Zolkief.  Gold  is 
obtained  in  small  quantities  in  the  circle  of  Sandec,  and 
gold-dust  in  the  vicinity  of  Kirlibaba.  Veins  of  silver  are 
niund  in  the  lead  of  Mount  Dudul,  near  that  place,  and  it 
is  also  extracted  from  the  calamine  obtained  near  Truska- 
wicze.  Poszorita,  in  the  Buckowine,  produces  good  copper 
ores  in  the  proportion  of  three,  and  sometimes  five  pounds 
per  hundred-weight  of  mica  slate.  Native  sulphur  occurs 
at  Svoszovioe,  in  the  circle  of  Bochnia,  and  Sklo,  in  that  of 
Praemysl.  Coal  is  found  near  Moszyn,  Kuty,  and  Skwarczva. 
The  northern  side  of  the  Carpathians  contains  enormous 
masses  of  rock-salt,  and  the  country  is  full  of  salt-springs, 
especially  the  Buckowine. 

The  population  of  Galicia  are  indolent  and  igno- 
rant, oppressed  by  the  Frohndienste  (ser\'ircs),  which  for 
Galicia  alone  amount  to  31,246,464  days  in  the  year,  and 
the  system  of  husbandry  is  lamentably  defective  and  imper- 
fect. Independently  of  the  Buckowine,  the  land  available 
for  nsefVil  purposes  is  about  16.394,900  acres ;  but  including 
that  province  the  quantity  converted  to  use  is  not  more  than 
about  6,211,900  acres  in  arable  land;  garden  ground, 
395,780;  ftdlows,  97,970;  converted  into  ponds,  &c., 
131.650;  meadow-land,  1,876,940;  and  employed  for  feed- 
ing sheep,  cattle,  &c.,  1,682,360;  amountin*;  altogether  to 
10,396,600  acres,  to  which  must  be  added  4,998,870  of  forest 
bnd  woodland.  The  husbandry  of  Galicia  is  in  a  low  state ; 
the  farmer's  waggons  are  made  without  iron,  his  horses  are 
never  or  seldom  used  at  the  plough,  and  he  can  scarcely 
afford  to  lay  manure  on  his  ground.  The  principal  grain 
produced  is  wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  barley,  and  the  yearly 
's  estimated  at  about  7,200,000  quarters  of  corn,  of 
V)ut  1,560,000  quarters  are  of  rye;  2,071,000  of 
t,900>000  of  oats;  670,000  of  wheat,  and  22,220  of 


maiso.  Tlie  erop  of  hay  is  said  to  be  about  979,000  tons. 
Rye,  buckwheat,  pease  and  beans,  potatoes  and  other  com- 
mon vegetables,  succory,  clover,  flax  and  hemp,  tobacco, 
aniseed,  rape  and  otlier  seed  for  making  oil,  a  few  hops.  &:c. 
are  also  grown.  The  supply  of  fruit  is  very  scanty.  The 
forests  consist  priitcipally  of  pine-wood,  and  there  are  large 
tracts  of  underii'ood.  The  beech  was  fbrmeriy  much  more 
abundant  on  the  Carpathians  than  at  th^present  day,  other- 
wise the  Buckowine,  from  '  buk,*  which  signifies  the  rt*d 
beech,  would  scarcely  have  been  the  patronymic  of  that 
province.  In  some  parts  the  oak  attains  to  a  majestic 
growth.  Tar  and  potashes  are  made  in  considerable 
quantities. 

The  population  has  increased  since  the  year  1776,  when  it 
amounted  to  2,480,885,  to  its  present  amount  of  nearly 
4,600,000.  The  cholera  alone  m  1831  carried  off  9C,(»*«l 
individuals,  which  is  upwards  of  2  in  every  100  souls.  In 
1823  the  number  of  deaths  was  106,929  ;  in  1829,  I48,24(i; 
and  in  1830,  155,155.  Among  the  latter  were  those  of  37os 
persons  between  the  ages  of  80  and  100,  and  220  above  the 
age  of  100.  Of  the  inhabitants  about  2,900,000  are  of  Po- 
lish descent,  chiefly  located  in  the  Western  provinces,  and 
1,900,000  are  Ruthenes  or  Russniaks,  a  rude,  uncivil izi-d 
race  of  men,  who  have  spread  into  the  centre  of  Ru>sia, 
and  are  also  numerous  on  the  Hungarian  side  of  the  Carpa- 
thians :  they  inhabit  the  circles  of  Galicia  east  of  the  Sun. 
The  remaining  part  of  the  population  consists  of  abuut 
270,000  Moldavians  in  the  Buckowine,  250,000  Jews,  who 
are  scattered  throughout  the  kingdom,  and  a  mixed  race  of 
Germans,  Hungarians,  &c 

The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  ore  Roman  Catholics: 
there  are  besides  about  1,800,000  who  conform  partiuMv 
to  the  rites  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  270,000  Grwk 
non-conformists,  4000  Armenians,  and  5000  Prote^tanih. 
The  Roman  Catholics  are  in  ecclesiastical  matten>  m 
charge  of  the  Archbishop  of  Lemberg  and  the  bishops 
of  rriemysl  and  Tarnof.  Their  dioceses  contain  7 ;  4 
benefices,  38  monasteries,  13  nunneries,  and  a  collc.'e 
of  Jesuits.  The  Armenians,  though  so  few  in  nuiiiU  r, 
have  an  archbishop  at  Lemberg,  and  compose  b  curei 
of  souls.  The  Gr»co- Catholics,  mostly  Russniaks,  ha\i' 
also  their  own  archbishop  at  Lemberg,  and  a  bi^Ilop  ui 
Przemysl,  and  their  establishment  consists  of  148m  bene- 
fices, 14  monasteries,  and  3  nunneries.  The  Greek», 
wholly  Moldavians,  are  under  a  Greek  bishop  at  Czerno- 
vitz  in  the  Buckowine,  and  compose  274  cures  of  s^ouU: 
they  have  3  monasteries.  The  Protestants  are  under  a 
su^rintendent  at  Lemberg. 

The  number  of  benevolent  institutions  is  considerable, 
and  comprises  eighteen  Christian  and  three  Jewish  hos])itul) 
or  asylums  for  the  sick  or  diseased,  a  hospital  of  the  Bene- 
volent Brothers,  six  hospitals  conducted  by  the  Benevolent 
Sisterhood,  312  infirmaries  and  refuges  for  the  indigent,  and 
twenty-seven  poorhouses. 

The  government  of  Galicia  is  on  the  same  footing  ns  that 
of  the  other  hereditary  possessions  of  Austria.  The  highest 
authority  in  civil  affairs  is  the  Board  of  Provincial  Admiuiv 
tration  at  Lemberg  (dqfi  Latides  GuberrtiumJ,  to  which  the 
whole  nineteen  circles  of  the  kingdom  are  subordinate. 
The  court  of  appeal  and  chief  criminal  court  are  in  the 
same  town,  where  also  are  the  head-quarters  of  the  com- 
mander-in-chief for  Galicia. 

The  scholastic  establishments  are  very  inadequate  to  pn>- 
vide  for  the  general  education  of  the  people.  The  whole 
number  scarcely  amounts  to  1400,  among  which  are  a  uni- 
versity and  an  academy  at  Lemberg,  three  philosophical 
seminaries  at  Przemysl,  Czernovitz,  and  Tarnopol,  thirtivo 
gymnasia,  attended  by  about  1400  pupils  two  schools  fur 
merchants*  sons,  mechanics,  &C.,  at  Lemberg  and  B rex! v, 
a  normal  school  at  Lemberg,  thirty-one  head  national  scho.  d-. 
1303  parochial  and  twenty- two  girls*  schools.  It  hai>  be^  n 
calculated  that  not  more  than  one  in  every  eight  children 
capable  of  receiving  instruction  attends  any  school. 

There  are  seventy-two  public  establishments  for  the  pro- 
pagation of  improved  races  of  horses  and  militar>'  hai.i- 
at  Radantz  in  the  Buckowine,  andOlchowek  in  the  circle  ..t 
Sanok.  The  best  native  horses  of  the  Polish  breed  arc  brrd 
in  the  western  circ  Ics.  The  increase  has  been  cunsidemblo 
throughout  Gal:<ia.  for  in  1810,  the  stock  was  214,9fi.i ;  lu 
1823,  407,662:  and  in  1830,  497,808.  Large  droves  ..f 
horned  cattle  aie  fed,  the  finest  being  brought  ftom  M.d- 
davia:  in  18^3,  the  stock  was  499,226  oxen  and  bullae k.>, 
and  926,569  cows;  and  in  ld30,  562,865  and  98^*3,5.!. 


O  A  L 


44 


GAL 


Is  tbeir  babiU  thev  reMnble  their  neighboam  the  Portu* 
inieee,  rather  than  tne  rest  of  the  Spaniards.  They  speak  a 
dialect  which  haa  conbidcrablo  reKcmblance  to  the  rortu- 
guete  liuiguage.  Many  of  them  visit  Pottugal,  and 
numbert  may  be  seen  in  the  streets  of  Lisbon  and  Porto 
employed  as  porters  and  water-carriers;  and  they  have 
•n  established  reputation  for  honesty.  The  principal  manu- 
fiicture  of  the  country  is  linen,  which  is  made  in  ^reat 
auantity  and  of  very  good  quality,  and  chiefly  in  private 
nmilies;  besides  supplying  their  domestic  wants,  it  is 
exported  to  other  provinces. 

The  population  of  Galicia  is  almost  entirely  agricultural ; 
landed  property  is  much  subdivided,  and  the  great  majority 
of  the  people  do  not  live  in  towns  and  villages,  as  in  most 
other  provinces  of  Spain,  but  in  detached  dwellings  on 
their  lands  and  fields.  The  parishes  contain  each  a  certain 
number  of  lugares,  and  each  lugar  consists  of  a  certain 
number  of  houses,  not  at  a  great  distance  from  each  other. 
There  are  but  few  towns  or  large  villages ;  the  principal 
towns,  which  are  at  the  same  time  heads  of  districts,  are  as 
follows: — I.  La  Coruna  [Coruna],  which  is  the  residence 
of  the  captain-general ;  2.  St.  I  ago  de  Compostela  [Com- 
postbla],  where  is  the  high  court  of  justice  for  the  whole 
province ;  3.  Betanxos,  witn  5000  inhabitants,  on  the  river 
of  the  same  name,  in  a  fine  country  and  mild  climate,  has 
a  few  manufactories,  and  carries  on  some  trade  in  wine  and 
pickled  sardines,  which  arc  fished  all  along  this  coast;  4. 
Mondonodo,  withGOOO  inhabitants,  and  a  bishop's  see,  has  a 
royal  coUefice,  and  a  seminary  for  clerical  students ;  5.  Lugo, 
the  antiont  Lucus  Augusti,  a  Roman  colony,  has  now 
7200  inhabitants,  irt  a  bishops  see,  has  some  fine  old 
buildingn,  and  fcoroe  remains  of  Roman  walls.  It  lies  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Mifio,  nearly  in  the^centre  of  the 
province,  and  on  the  high  road  from  Coruna  to  Madrid: 
Its  climate  is  among  the  coldest  in  Galicia.  6.  Orense,  with 
4O0O  inhabitants,  a  bishop's  see,  a  fine  bridge  on  the  Miiio, 
and  hot  mineral  waters,  is  situated  in  a  district  abounding 
with  good  wine.  7.  Tuy,  a  firontier  town  on  the  side  of 
Portugal,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Miiio,  has  6000 
inhabitants,  is  a  bishop's  see,  has  a  fine  cathedral,  and  is  in 
a  fertile  district  The  otlier  principal  towns  are :  8.  Viffo, 
ou  the  fine  Bay  of  the  same  name,  forming  one  of  Uie 
largest  and  safest  natural  harbours  in  Spain.  Vigo  carries 
on  a  considerable  trade  with  America,  exporting  wine,  sar- 
dines, linen  cloth  and  stockings,  and  other  articles  of  native 
industry.  It  has  5700  inhabitants,  and  is  defended  by  two 
castles.    9.  Ferrol. 

Upon  the  whole  Galicia  is  one  of  the  most  important 
uovuices  of  Spain,  and  not  one  of  the  least  industrious ;  its 
lartfe  population,  being  chiefly  of  a  rural  character,  is  much 
under  the  influence  of  the  parochial  clergy. 

The  antient  name  of  the  country  was  GallsDcia ;  it  was 
partly  conquered  by  Decimus  Junius  Brutus  (Livy's  Efn- 
iome^  56)  and  afterwards  entirelv  subjugated  by  Augustus, 
when  it  became  a  part  of  the  Tarraoonensis  province.  It 
was  afterwards  conquered  by  the  Visigoths ;  at  a  later 
period  the  Moors  invaded  it,  but  it  was  soon  reconouered 
oy  the  Christian  princes  of  Asturias,  to  whose  kingdom  it 
was  annexed.  (Minano,  Diocionario  Geogrqfico  de  EspaHa.) 

GALICTIS.    [GmsoN.] 

GALILEE.    [Palkstinx.] 

GALILEL  VINCENTIO.  a  noble  Florentine,  and  father 
of  the  illustrious  Galileo  Galilei,  was  born  in  the  early  half 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  studied  music  under  Zarlino, 
though  he  did  not  hesitate  to  attack  the  opinions  of  his  mas- 
ter, in  a  IMieorMo  intomo  alP  Of^re  del  Zarlino^  and  aifter- 
wards  in  his  fljeat  work,  the  Diaiogo  delta  Mutica  antica  e 
modema,  a  folio  volume,  printed  at  Florence  in  1581.  This 
work,  which  displays  ^-a^t  erudition  and  laborious  research, 
hat  afforded  much  assistance  to  the  musical  historians  of 
later  days :  but  the  author  occasionally  betrays  a  hardiness 
in  assertion,  of  which  his  more  philosophic  son  was  never 
guilty.  He  was  an  exquisite  pertbrmer  on  the  lute,  an  in- 
atrument,  he  tells  us,  that  was  better  manufiictured  in  £ng> 
land  than  in  any  other  part  of  Europe.  He  was  a  rigid 
Aiistoxenian,  and  his  nrejudices  in  favour  of  the  antients 
were  strong;  nevertheless  his  Diaiogo  is  well  worth  the 
notice  of  the  curious  inquirer  into  musical  history. 

GALILEI,  GALILk'O,  who  is  most  commonly  known 
under  the  latter,  which  was  his  Christian  name,  was  the  son 
of  Vineentio  Galilei,  lie  was  bom  at  Pisa,  in  Tuscanv, 
•njlie  15th  of  February,  1564. 

acquiredt  during  his  boyhood*  and  under  adverse 


circumstances,  the  rudiments  of  claasical  and  polite  Utera> 
ture,  he  wss  placed  by  his  father  at  the  University  i>f  Pus 
in  his  19th  year.  Galilei  was  designed  fur  the  medical  pn>- 
fession,  but  that  genius  for  experiment  and  deroonstratiua* 
of  which  he  exhibited  the  symptoms  in  his  earlier  vouth. 
having  found  a  more  ample  scope  in  the  university  under  the 
kind  auspices  of  Guide  uboldi,  with  whom  he  had  become  ac- 
quainted through  his  first  essay  on  the  Hydrostatic  Balann*, 
he  determined  to  renounce  the  study  of  medicine  and  purj»uc 
geometry  and  experimental  philosophy.  This  reftoluti«>n. 
to  which  his  father  reluctantly  agreed,  was  highly  approvc-l 
by  those  who  had  witnessed  nis  extraordinary  talents,  otkI 
was  perseveringly  followed  up  by  him  through  the  rest  uf 
his  life. 

His  first  important  discovery  was  the  isochroni^m  of 
the  vibrations  of  a  simple  pendulum  sustained  b v  a  fixol 
point  This  property  is  not  rigorously  true  where  the 
arcs  of  oscillation  are  considerable  and  unequal,  nor  d<x'> 
Galilei  ever  seem  to  have  adopted  any  contrivance  similar 
to  a  fly-wheel,  by  which  these  arcs  may  be  rendered  cH^ual. 
His  knowledge  too  of  the  force  of  gravity,  of  the  decomfM- 
sition  of  forces,  and  of  atmospheric  resistance,  was  too  im- 
perfect to  conduct  him  to  any  valuable  improvement  of  ihv 
instrument,  and  hence  the  fair  claims  of  his  8uccess<.)r. 
Huyghens,  so  well  supported  by  his  treatise  '  De  Horolo^.o 
QscilTatorio,'  cannot  with  huy  justice  be  transferred  to 
Galilei,  whose  merits  are  sufficiently  abundant  and  conspi- 
cuous to  need  no  borrowed  attributes.  This  equality  or  near 
equality  of  the  time  of  vibrations  Galilei  recognised  by 
counting  the  corresponding  number  of  his  own  nulsati<mi. 
and  having  thus  perceived  that  the  pendulum  oscillated  more 
slowly  or  rapidly  according  to  its  less  or  greater  Icngtli,  bv 
immediately  applied  it  to  Uie  medical  purpose  of  disGoventt^ 
the  state  of  the  pulse ;  and  the  practice  was  adopted  by  many 
Italian  physicians  for  a  considerable  time. 

Through  tlie  good  offices  of  Ubaldi,  who  admired  his  ta- 
lents and  foresaw  their  future  development,  Galilei  became 
introduced  to  the  grand-duke  Ferdinand  I.  de'  Medici,  uKo 
appointed  him  mathematical  lecturer  at  Pisa (1589),  tliuu:li 
at  an  inconsiderable  salary.  Here  he  commenced  a  <!tct .« • 
of  experiments  on  motion,  which  however  were  not  publi&hcii 
until  long  after,  and  then  only  a  scanty  portion.  This  cir- 
cumstance is  probably  not  much  to  be  regretted,  sinci;  Lis 
inferences  on  the  relation  of  velocity  to  space  were  ineorrv:  t 
at  first;  but  he  had  learned  enou^  from  his  experitnental 
course  to  perceive  that  most  of  the  scholastic  assumed  la>) » 
of  motion  were  untenable. 

The  mind  of  Gralilei  becoming  thus  unfettered  from  the 
chain  of  authoritv,  he  resolved  to  examine  the  rival  systems 
of  astronomy — the  Ptolemaic,  with  its  cumbrous  ma- 
chinery of  cycles  and  epicycles,  eccentrics  and  primum 
mobile,  ond  the  Copernican,  which,  from  its  simplicit) 
and  gradually-discovered  accordance  with  phenomena,  vss 
silently  gaining  proselytes  amongst  the  ablest  observers 
and  mathematicians.  He  soon  discovered  and  prnxcd 
the  futile  nature  of  the  objections  then  usually  ma^lo 
against  it,  which  were  founded  on  a  complete  ignorance 
of  the  laws  of  mechanics,  or  on  some  misapplied  qu.>- 
tations  from  Aristotle,  the  Bible,  and  the  Fathers:  aii<i 
having  also  observed,  that  many  who  had  at  first  belieM*d 
the  former  system,  had  changed  in  fevour  of  the  latter,  \\  h\> 
none  of  those  attached  to  the  latter  changed  to  the  Ptulemait 
hypothesis — that  the  former  required  almost  daily  some  ne« 
emendation,  some  additional  crystalline  sphere,  to  acconi- 
modate  itself  to  the  varying  aspects  of  the  celestial  pha*no- 
mena — that  the  appearance  and  disaj)pearance  of  new  stars 
oontradicted  the  pretended  incorruptibilitv  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  together  with  other  reflections  which  he  has  coUeoieil 
in  his  dialogues,— he  became  a  convert  to  the  Copornican 
system,  and,  in  his  old  age,  its  most  conspicuous  martyr.  S'> 
strong  however  were  the  religious  prejudices  on  the  subjc't 
of  the  quiescence  of  the  earth,  that  Galilei  thought  it  pru- 
dent to  continue  to  lecture  on  the  hypothesis  of  Ptoleim , 
until  time  should  afford  a  favourable  opportunity  to  desiro> 
the  visionarv  fabric  bv  incontestable  facts. 

One  of  the  false  doctrines  which  he  first  combated  via» 
that  bodies  of  unequal  weights  would  fall  through  the  samt* 
altitude  in  unequal  times:  thus,  if  one  body  were  ten  tiin«.^ 
as  heavy  as  another,  it  should  fall  through  100  yardi>  while 
the  lighter  had  onW  fallen  tlirough  ten.  But  though  the 
experiment  wns  performed  from  the  leaning  tower  at  Pt»a^ 
and  both  bodies  reached  the  ground  at  almost  the  same 
instant  (the  small  difference,  as  Galilei  rightly  observed. 


\ 


GAL 


46 


GAL 


c)tang«  of  the  position  of  the  ring,  which  so  much  asto- 
nished Galilei,  had  not  suggested  to  him  the  correct  nature 
of  the  phfpnomenon :  we  must  however  rememher  the  great 
imperfections  of  the  ftrst-constructed  telescopes. 

His  next  discovery  he  also  concealed  in  the  same  enig- 
matical manner;  the  transposed  letters  signify,  in  their 
proper  order— 

*  CyntiilB  Sgnrai  vmoUtor  mater  ainonun  f 
(^VeoDt  riralt  Um  mooD't  phtaet ;} 


alluding  to  the  crescent  form  of  this  planet  when  in  or  near 
conjunction.  Hi»  discovery  of  spots  on  the  sun's  disc,  which 
were  evidently  attached  to  that  luminary,  was  a  severe  blow 
to  the  imaginary  perfection  of  the  schoolmen. 

The  Jesuits  haa  alwavs  entertained  a  cordial  hatred  for 
Galilei,  as  he  had  joined  the  party  by  whom  they  had  been 
expelled  from  Padua ;  the  progress  of  his  discoveries  was 
therefore  reported  to  the  Inquisition  at  Rome,  as  dangerous 
to  religion,  and  he  was  openly  denounced  from  the  pulpit 
by  Ciu:cini,  a  friar.  In  his  own  iustiflcation  he  wrote 
letters,  one  to  his  pupil  Castelli,  and  another  to  the  arch- 
duchess Christina,  in  which  he  repudiates  any  attack  upon 
religion,  and  states  that  the  object  of  the  Scriptures  was 
to  teach  men  the  way  of  sah*ation,  and  not  to  instruct  them 
.*n  astronomy,  for  the  acquiring  of  which  they  were  en- 
dowed with  sufficient  natural  tacuUies.  Nevertheless  the 
Inquisition  was  implacable,  and  ordered  Caccini  to  draw  up 
depositions  against  Galilei ;  but  his  appearance  in  person 
at  Rome  in  1615,  and  his  able  defence  of  his  conduct,  for  a 
momimt  silenced  his  persecutors. 

In  March,  1616,  the  pope  (Paul  V.)  granted  Galilei  an 
audience,  and  assured  him  of  his  personal  safety,  but  posi- 
tively required  him  not  to  teach  the  Copemican  doctrine  of 
the  motion  of 'the  earth:  Galilei  complied,  and  left  Rome 
in  disgust  He  had  soon  occasion  to  turn  his  attention 
ai^ain  to  Astronomy,  for  in  1618  there  appeared  no  less 
than  three  comets,  on  which  occurrence  Galilei  advised  his 
friends  not  to  conceive  too  hastily  that  comets  are  like  pla- 
nets, moving  through  the  immensity  of  space,  but  that  tney 
may  be  atmospheric ;  his  reasons  for  this,  though  ingenious, 
are  fallacious,  as  are  those  which  he  aftcr>»'ards  gave  for  the 
causes  which  produce  tides,  which  ho  attributes  to  the  un- 
equal velocities  of  different  parts  of  the  sea  by  reason  of  the 
combination  of  the  rotatory  and  progressive  motions  of  the 
earth,  which  at  some  points  conspire  together  and  at  others 
are  opposed.  Wallis  afterwards  soems  to  have  adopted  the 
same  opinion,  which  could  never  have  been  entertained  had 
either  of  them  reflected  on  the  complete  independence  of 
the  rotatory  and  progressive  motions  of  bodies.  The  motion 
of  the  whole  solar  svstem  too  would,  on  their  supposition, 
have  affected  the  tides ;  but  Dynamics  had  as  yet  no  ex- 
istence, and  Galilei  of\en  frankly  confes'^es  that  he  is  more 
a  philosopher  than  a  mathematician.  He  afterwards  went 
to  Rome,  and  was  received  with  great  kindness  by  the  next 
pope  (Urban  VIII.) :  his  enemies  wore  silenced  for  awhile, 
and  ho  was  sent  home  to  Tuscany  loaded  with  favours  and 
presents;  and  though  his  patron,  Cosmo  II.  de'  Medici, 
was  dead,  his  successor,  Ferainand  II.,  showed  him  strong 
marks  of  esteem  and  attachment 

In  1630  he  finished,  and  in  1632  completed  his  celebrated 
work,  *  Dialogue  on  the  Ptolemaic  and  Copemican  Systems,' 
which  he  dedicated  to  Ferdinand  U.  By  giving  the  work  this 
form,  his  object  seems  to  have  been  to  evade  his  promise  not 
to  teach  the  Copemican  doctrines.  Three  fictitious  persons 
conduct  the  dialogue :  Salviati,  a  Copemican  ;  Sagredo,  a 
hantcrer  on  the  same  side ;  and  Simplicio,  a  Ptolemaist,  who 
gct«  much  the  worst  both  by  jokes  and  argument.  The  pope, 
who  had  been  personally  friendly  with  Gkililei,  fancied  that 
he  was  the  person  held  up  to  ridicule  in  the  lost  character, 
ns  some  arguments  which  he  had  used  had  been  put  into 
Simnlicio*s  mouth ;  he  was  therefore  mortally  offended,  and 
the  Inquisition  resolved  not  to  allow  the  attempted  evasion 
of  Oalilei*s  solemn  promise.  Galilei  was  acconlingly  sum- 
moned to  Rome,  though  he  was  70  years  of  age  and  over- 
w  helmed  with  infirmities ;  he  had  however  all  the  protec- 
tion and  comforts  which  the  Grand  Duke  could  confer  on 
him,  being  kent  at  the  Tuscan  ambassador's  house,  and  this 
spirited  man  (Nicoliiii)  even  wished  to  maintain  him  at  his 
own  expense  when  be  perceived  a  penurious  disposition  in 
Ferdinand's  minister. 

After  some  montlis' residence  in  Rome  he  was  again  sum- 
moned before  the  Inquisition,  and  on  the  20th  of  June  ap- 
peared before  the  assembled  inquisitors  in  the  Convent  of 


Minerva.  The  whole  of  his  sentence  is  too  long  to  be  tran- 
scribed  here,  but  a  portion  of  it  is  too  curious  to  be  omitted. 

'  By  the  desire  of  his  Holiness  and  of  the  most  erainout 
Lords  Oirdinals  of  this  supreme  and  universal  Inouisition, 
the  two  propositions,  of  the  stability  of  the  sun  anu  motmr. 
of  the  earth,  were  qualified  by  the  Theological  QualificTs  a>» 
follows  :— 

1st  The  proposition  that  the  sun  is  the  centre  of  the 
world  and  immoveable  from  its  place,  is  absurd,  philo«opl.i- 
cally  false,  and  formally  heretical ;  because  it  is  express y 
contrary  to  Holy  Scripture. 

2ndly.  The  proposition  that  the  earth  is  not  the  centre  ('f 
the  world,  nor  immoveable,  but  that  it  moves,  and  also  wiih 
a  diurnal  motion,  is  absurd,  philosophically  false,  and  theo- 
logically considered  at  least  erroneous  in  faith.' 

After  a  long  and  declamatory  expos^,  fVom  one  po.ssncri^ 
in  which  it  has  been  suspected  that  Galilei  was  put  tu  the 
torture,  it  concludes  thus— 

•  We  decree  that  the  book  of  the  Dialogues  of  Gohlro 
(Jalilei  be  prohibited  by  edict ;  we  condemn  you  to  the  pri- 
son of  this  oflice  during  pleasure ;  we  order  you,  for  t  ho 
next  three  weeks  to  recite  once  a  week  the  seven  peniten- 
tial psalms,  &c.  &c.' 

To  obtain  so  mild  a  sentence  Galilei  was  obliged  to  al>- 
jure,  on  the  Gospels,  his  belief  in  the  Copemican  doctrine. 
We  Quote  a  part  of  his  abjuration: 

*  With  a  smccre  heart  and  unfeigned  faith  I  abjure,  cursr, 
and  detest  the  said  errors  and  heresies  (viz.  that  the  earth 
moves,  &c.) ;  I  swear  that  I  will  never  in  future  kuv  i»r 
assert  anything,  verbally  or  in  writing,  which  may  givv  n>e 
to  a  similar  suspicion  against  me.    .    .    . 

'  I  Galileo  Galilei  have  abjured  as  above 
with  my  own  hand.' 

Rising  from  his  knees  after  this  solemnity,  he  whispered 
to  a  friend,  *  E  pur  se  muove :'  '  It  moves,  for  all  that.' 

This  sentence  and  abjuration  having  been  generally  pr>- 
mulgated,  the  disciples  of  Galilei  found  it  necessary  to  act 
with  prudence,  but  their  esteem  for  their  master  was  n*U 
diminished  by  this  compulsory  abjumtion. 

Afflictions  followed  quickly  the  old  age  of  Galilei.  In 
April,  1634,  he  lost  a  beloved  daughter  who  was  his  oiilv 
stay.  He  was  allowed  to  return  to  Arcetri,  where  ^\\v 
breathed  her  last,  but  he  was  still  kept  in  strict  confinement. 
After  two  years  spent  in  this  unhappy  condition  his  confine- 
ment became  more  rigorous  through  some  new  suspicions 
entertained  by  the  pope,  so  that  afier  havine  been  alhj^t  d 
to  remove  to  Florence  fortlio  benefit  of  his  declining  beaitij 
he  was  onlered  to  return  to  Arcetri.  In  1636  he  became 
totally  blind,  about  which  time  he  finished  his  '  I>iali>gtir> 
on  Motion,'  which  were  remarkable  enough  for  the  time  ur 
for  any  other  man,  though  not  perhaps  commensunto 
with  the  high  ideas  associated  with  the  name  of  GahitM; 
and  though  he  believed  this  work  could  not  annoy  the  boh 
office,  yet  the  terror  was  so  great  and  universal  that  he 
could  not  get  it  published  until  some  years  after,  when 
it  was  undertaken  at  Amsterdam. 

Amonst  the  most  celebrated  pupils  of  Galilei  are  Viviani 
and  Torricelli,  the  former  of  whom  in  particular  bore  a 
strong  attachment  for  his  master.  While  Torricclli  was 
arranging  a  continuation  for  the  'Dialogues  on  Motic.n/ 
Galilei  was  suddenly  taken  ill  with  a  palpitation  of  the 
heart,  and,  having  lingered  two  months,  ne  died  on  the  Mh 
January,  1642. 

He  appears  to  have  been  'of  a  sprightly  temperament, 
easily  crossed  and  easily  reconciled ;  his  kindness  to  h> 
relatives,  which  dis^tinguished  him  from  his  chddhorxl  to 
old  age,  and  which  went  frequently  to  such  an  extent  a>  tn 
embarrass  himself,  forms  a  noble  trait  in  his  domestic  cIm- 
ractcr;  he  was  somewhat  attached  to  the  bottle  and  mk 
considered  a  good  judge  of  wine;  he  contrived  to  have  ln-< 
son  Vinoentio  legitimized,  but  afterwards  had  the  misfor> 
tune  to  find  his  hopes  in  this  lad  rather  disappointed,  (ts- 
lilei  was  also  acknowledged  to  have  an  excellent  taste  lur 
music,  painting,  and  poetry,  and  the  style  of  his  'Dialogui'd' 
is  still  much  praised  by  his  countrymen. 

His  works  have  been  collected  in  13  vols.  8vo.,  Milan, 
1811;  there  have  been  also  several  other  collections  of  the 
same,  and  they  have  been  published  in  separate  tracts. 

Viviani,  his  disciple,  wrote  his  life  and  left  a  legacy  to 
raise  a  monument  to  his  memory.  Newton  was  bom  one 
vear  af^er  Galilei's  death. 

One  of  the  best-written  biographies  of  Galilei  tliat  has 
yet  appeared  is  by  Mr.  Drinkwater. 


GA  L 


GAL 


eiteot  vlucfc  it  nfldto.  la  tike  tMatliwiir  of  iSbt  UliDBi 
disjTlMBa,  freqinent  in  dan^  agtuniTW  in  thk  countyr,  after 
prup«r  evactiantfi,  it  is  tif  the  most  derided  utilitT.  Is 
invu  Eii^b»ii  ebui«r«  Ukrmiiie.  and  aligfatfT  eaM»  of 
fikuWra.  U  i»  the  mud  bexMsficuJ  areut  which  can  be 
v^iUsd  Vjs  li  u  b«9ftl  ^'en  id  the  fuzin  ctf"  inf  unan,  and  mm 
either  he  adauDisUsred  alone*  ur  vith  the  addniaa  frf*  ~ 


irift  fiv  and  valcB'-'^iMPd. 
itt  GuoaoiANirr :   and  mmh  mot 
dtftncste.    Maniifccnw 
■feamAi  of  mdustrr.     Evtsr  atnoe  the  'Ui 
town  of  Sl  Gall  waft  knows  f tor  il»  lautm 
niudi  sow  baape  haes  leplaoed  h«  thwe  f^* 

in    ibii^  i^^Uli» 


an/1 

af  miuUn«i 

tiitrie  »cid  and  lii&etur«;  tif  upium.  which  last  mar  be  di»-  '  and  o^Mr  euCion  ^utids  were  iiiainifafUr^  a  the  caatoo. 
t^Mitmuieid  after  a  ie>w  doMs^  (Ahancnanfaie,  Om  iH^mtet  Tht  wanwn  are  aku  eBBpkin>«d  n  ma^ewAe^,  §a€  karaing 
c/nAe  St'/morJi,  6^  t  J  which  there  s  a  grainitous  fRshuol  for  pMr  ^.ffla.    The  tan- 

GALL,  STATUE  CANTON  OF,  cme  of  the  canton  of  *Mrw6hifrf>  fi^nen  off  tiflaie3«aca.  the  |m^tt»wpvc^ 
tl^  SwiM^Cuufederalion.  Miuated  at  the  northnnifn  extremin  !  to  ex:pun  raw  hidea.  About  3tH>l-hi^.«du'  fades  and  2Q0U 
"f  S«itxerl&ud«  i»  hotmded  on  the  north  hy  the  canicm  erf  ^Datt^*  tikin^  aie  cxjioriad  anncLlrT.  neia^va  of  Sl  Gall 
TiiurgcLu  and  the  liJbe  of  Coostanoe :  ead  h\  the  Anslrum  ^  a  jilaoe  uf  great  ti^de.  ec^ieciaL^  wch  Gi  i  ■■■iij  and  Ital>, 
}ir'^\ui''e  c«f  the  Vumrlber:^:  buuth  hj  the  cautimi-  of  Gn-  j  oiid  cuntaxnt  bome  weahh}  mercijan:^  aaaiAclwm»  and 
ft-j'ift  and  Glun»,  aud  west  h^-  timae  uf  Schwrz  and  Ziirich.  j  banken  or  bHi-hitikeia. 

iu  area  i» rotk'^ned  at  T»U  aquare  x&iiea.  and  its  popuhiiiaik.  The  eantcm  is  dmded  inia  JkftaeB  ^litiirtv  Mcairiy :  St. 
which  has  been  rapidiy  inrreabing  fur  the  last  tweut}  TearK  GalU  Tahlat.  tUaaAaek  cm  ^le  ha:nks  tf  tkt  bke  of  Con- 
amuuuTed  is  1^3  J  to  J{  ;^w4(>  mtOLbitauts,  of  whom  tii^OO  I  ftasee,  Unter  RheinthaA,  Obv  Rnescr^BJ.  Werdenberz, 
aere  Prutestauu  and  the  remainder  weie  Calhuhc^  &l  |  Ssxraas,  Gatitei,  See  BcEirk  on  lint  teaks  «f  the  lake  of 
Gtiil  ifr  a  new  eantcm,  which  wu  formed  at  the  be^innin^  uf  I  Zunrh.  Oiter  Tog^Dbnn^  UmerTeQpBnhvrCp  Alt  Toj:^en' 
the  preitent  centurr  b}-  the  imi.»s  of  the  temtunes  of  tbe  hui^  Neu  Tci^geDbaz:^  iHTrl.  GoBsa.  The  fncst  di9tncU 
Abbut  of  St.  GkU  wr  1j  the  free  town  '.€  St.  Gsui.  and  berera.  _  -    _ 

di^lrir^s  furmerjv  subjwl  to  the  old  caiiiuniw  nunehr,  tne 
Kheinihal.  Su*gau%.  Werdenbeq:,  Utrnach,  Gas*.«ri  anc 
Sax,  and  the  to-sa  of  Ra;»perwLwyL  By  the  a^iomeraijox. 
of  bO  maor  ran-.'-Ji  districts  aLj'h  hEppeiied  to  he  smiated 
ail  rjuMd  the  cid  cai.i'.»!:  of  Appeniel:.  that  caDt'JD  a  now 
encl'j*ed  on  ererr  Bide  by  the  ternt.-ry  of  St.  Gfcl  (Ar- 
Tt,%zzLL.)  The  sp.kezi  laL^-^-^iife  cf  Sl  Gali  ifc  a  dialeet  of 
tht'  German,  resemtl  Ji?  the  Swabian. 


are  the  BhHmhal,  RorKhavdi.  &  GaL  WyL  the  gnsater 
fort  of  the  Ti«:erenbiiz;g.  and  the  See  Bcork ;  theremaiaing 
or  BOTxthem  dioncts  are  moimtxmciua. 

St.  GalL  the  capital  «f  the  cantun.  eoee  a  free  hnperial 
citT,  and  aftervards  an  ally  of  the  o^d  Swis  eamons.  is  »i> 
tnated  in  a  |»leaaBi  TaDer/is  well  ho^t.  wcil  f^pbed  with 
water,  and  **int:aWic  shore  4(»&  hoaaea  withm  the  walls,  and 
^9i*i»  iziiahiianta.  of  whom  ]i:3*  are  CadK^liCih  The  prm- 
r2pal  bcHdings  are,  the  oid  Abber  Cbnrch,  one  of  the  finest 


Tixr  canton  of  St.  Gil*.}  u  in  great  part  a  moui.ta:n->xi£  ccun-  in  Switzerland,  with  handsoone  pamunes ;  the  former  ron- 
try.  being  intersected  by  Tarious  offi^eis  of  the  AipCL.  the  vent,  now  a  grmnasium:  the  CaKSirvo  or  asMiably-nKmi,  the 
hi'j:he«t  of  which  are  oontinuiLU'jn^  of  the  great  cbsin  vb:«^i.  tDwn-h:n2se,  sercral  hof^nals  and  as^xmiw  and  the  puMic 
bounds  on  the  north  the  valley  of  the  Upper  RhizM;  in  tbe  i  granajie&  The  cCd  Abbey  Lbmy  has  above  \$90  MSS., 
Ghsonb  countiT,  and  wh.ch  on  eiiterms:  the  temtorr  of  St.  |  many  of  thesa  Taluahle;  scvtxal  df  the  Hawin  which  wt^re 
GtiU  at  the  summit  caDed  Scheibe  <<<vh»0  feet  |  diTxles  into  '       '        ''  *  *  ^ 

three  branches,  one  nmning  north  alv*nz  the  frontiers  of 
Glanis  as  far  as  the  south  bimk  of  the  lake  of  WallenMadt. 
another  eastwards  between  Sl  Gall  and  the  Gnsons,  form- 
ing the  summit  called  Galanda  (%&00  feet  his^b>  and  the 
third  extending  north-east  into  the  canton  of  St.  GalL,  be- 
tween the  rivers  Tamina  and  Seex.  North  of  the  lake  of 
Wallenstadt  is  another  chain  ruDiiin^  in  a  north-west  direc- 
(ion,  which  divides  the  basin  of  the  Linth  from  that  of  the 
Thur,  and  contains  sereral  hummits  between  6<K*0  and  7(K»<i 
feet  high.  North  of  the  Thur  and  between  it  and  the  lake 
of  Conslanee  is  another  extensive  group  of  mountains,  known 
by  the  name  of  Alpstein,  abich  rover  nearly  the  whole  of 
Appenzell,  and  extend  al»o  into  the  adjacent  districts  of  Sl 
GalL  The  general  ^Iutm?  of  iLe  s^urface  is  towanU  iLe  norih 
and  north-mest,  the  Ureariis  running  in  those  direciKinsw 
The  I  rinripil  rivers  are:  I.  the  Rhir^,  which  cmiig  from 
the  G:*v>ns  touches  thecinton  of  St.  Gail  near  Pfaffers,  and 
11  iwr.^j  ii^rihwanU  fornix  its  eastern  :»oandary  for  a  lenzth 
ii  ah  Jt  fifty  inJes,  ihiidjn?  it  first  frc»m  the  Gfisons,  and 
af  erwards  frjm  the  Vorar'.*»erp,  unt:l  it  enters  the  lake  of 
OKi'rfarj^-e  Wl  jwRheinek.  It»  principal  affluent  in  the  canton 
ol  St.  Gall  i«  the  Tamina.  a  rap:d  AJpine  stream  which  rues 
in  the  Scbeibe,  err^st^si  the  »o*::h  part  of  the  cant<m,  pa&-es 
by  Pfiflers,  and  eDlen  the  Rh.ne  below  Ragaz.  2.  The 
S'-ez,  »h:':h  rises  al*o  in  the  south  part  of  the  canton,  runs 
fir*t  n^>nb-*SL%t  and  tb^-n  north-west,  and  enters  the  lake 
of  Wailen-^tadt.  X  The  Thur,  which  rises  in  the  central 
part  of  the  car.toa  n^-ar  Wudhaus,  Znin^U^s  birth-f^ace, 
run*  northward*  thn>u-h  part  of  the  Aae  dutrict  of  Toziren- 
burg.  paAMS  by  Ucbterxsteg.  receives  the  Neekeron  its  nght 
bank,  and  afier  a  cfjuxu:  of  aV'Ut  forty  mii&  enters  the  cau- 
t/>n  of  TLu'^au  near  B^w-tr^fuelL  4l  The  Sitter,  which 
r<,ai:r.g  frr/ia  X'Jt  car.tvn  '^  AppenxeU,  passes  near  the  town 


ccmsidemd  as  lost,  were  disnc^ered  in  the  nuddle  ages  tn 
this  l:t>ia3T  by  Posrio  BracnoLni  and  other  philologista.  Sl 
Gall  IS  one  of  the  mast  oommerciia]  towns  of  Switaeriuid ;  but 
Its  in  habitants  are  hkewae  food  otf  the  acienfcsaDd  lileratiue, 
as  appears  from  the  exis3cooe  of  ncmerous  aociefies,  privata 
Lbranes,  ool^cticms  of  natxual  hxstoxr,  and  other  similar 
establishments  wiihin  the  town.  TVa  cuiiiCMis  are  em- 
belli«-hed  with  nnmeroos  oountry-hoBaea  and  prameoades, 
Sl  Gail  is  fjrty  mi)es  east  of  ZurKh,  and  fof^-ive  miles 
north  of  Cose  m  the  Gnan&  Rappertsnyl  is  prettily  si- 
tuated oo  a  pTT*^^^^)»  projectiqg  into  the  lake  of  Zunch, 
with  a  brid^  Abvit  leet  ko^  arhich  croaMi  ofvr  to  the 
south  bank  of  the  lake;  it  has  some  maDnftdories  and 
ab^ut  15C«0  inhabitanta.  Alf<tiitVw  in  the  upper  Rfaemthal, 
in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  eoontiT,  is  a  ^ee  of  tome  trade, 
with  about  60(^)  inhabitants,  inclnding  ita  commercial  ter- 
ritory. Rheinek  m  the  lower  Rheinthal,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  which  separates  it  from  the  Aostnan  territory 
has  about  )4i'U  inhabitants:  the  red  wine  mada  in  the  net  ^h- 
bourhood  is  am:*ng  the  best  in  Switserland. 

71m  government  of  SL  Gall  is  a  democtacy.  Tlie 
members  of  the  Great  CoudciI  or  Legislatme  are  chosen  in 
their  respective  districts  by  all  the  citiaens  above  twent}- 
one  years  of  age,  except  thoae  who  axe  supported  by  the 
public  dsarities,  bankrupts,  and  thoae  whose  immoral 
conduct  is  atte^ed  by  legal  prooC  The  members  a.e 
elected  for  two  years.  The  Gnat  Couadl  appoints  from 
amone  its  body  the  membeis  of  the  Little  Council  or  Em.-- 
cuiive  for  f.>ur  years.  It  aLo  appoints  thote  of  the  Criminal 
Court  and  of  tne  Court  of  AppoL  The  citizens  of  each 
d^stnct  appoint  every  year  their  own  amman  or  prefect, 
and  other  local  authohtieis.  All  the  laws  emanatiii|r  fn>m 
the  Great  Council  are  subject  to  the  anrtinii  of  the  dectors 
of  the  various  communes,  xf  thev  choose  to  exercise  theii 


</  St  G*::  a*'.d  eii'^  Tnur^faa,  vhere  it  joms  the  Thur.  |  rurhl  within  forty-five  days  after  the  parsing  of  the  law: 
y  The  G'y.daAa,  '•.-..'•h  ns^s  a.AO  :n  Appenzell,  and  mns  into  :  that  period  bem?  expired  without  any  objection  maile 
tU  Ujli?  of  0>r.*ta-','e-  Ti*  north  and  north-west  districts  •  by  the  majority  of  the  communes,  the  law  becomes  in 
of  the  ca.',t'.n  f/y«ark  the  h.rdtrrs  of  Thunran  are  mostJv  :  force.      All   absent  electors  are  considered  as  voting  in 


J^-.'-l  as  »ei,  as  th*  bi.ia»  of  the  Linth,  between  the  lako 
U  Wa.  ^..♦/i'it  a'.d  Z/jry-h,  where  an  extensive  marsh  has 
h^*.  dfa.r.«.'i  */y  u«ean%  of  the  faiAi  «jf  the  Lmth 


favour  of  the  law.  The  eonstitutioo  of  SL  Gall  is  one  oi 
the  most  democrUic  among  the  representative  cantons  of 
Switzerland:  it  approaches  nearly  to  that  of  the  lantU 


we  r.xx».,*rf»....^  f^e*u  ui  \i^  s.  -.ir^erTi  p»rt  of  the  ruiMn,  •  citizens  havine  the  right  of  voting  being  32,980,  it 
a^i  mtt'*i  w.jfA  u  exp^rUsd.     Ti^  dome»tJc  animaU  are  i  negatived  by  11,097,  and  approved  of  by  9,253,   to  which 
•heep^  g«ati»  pi^  and  horsca ;  the  nseo  and  kU^  J  latter  Daaher  was  added  thai  oil  2,630.  who  vera  abaeot,  and 


GAL 


49 


GAL 


'who  were  coiiBidered,  accordinff  to  a  claiue  in  the  project  of 
the  conatitution  itself,  among  the  ayes. 

The  revenues  of  the  state  derived  from  the  income-tax, 
licenses  for  shops,  puhlic-houses,  and  sporting,  stamp- 
duties,  tolls,  monopoly  of  salt,  post-office,  and  national 
domains,  amounted  in  1835  to  305,597  florins,  and  the  ex- 
penditure of  the  same  year  was  274,054  florins.  Each  of 
the  two  reliffious  communions  in  the  canton  administer 
their  own  affairs.  The  Catholics  have  a  Board  of  Admi- 
nistration ;  the  property  of  their  church  is  1,627,776  florins, 
and  they  have  four  convents  of  monks  and  ten  nunneries. 
They  were  formerly  under  the  diocese  of  the  bishop  of 
Coire  and  St.  Gall ;  hut  in  1833,  on  the  death  of  the  last 
bishop,  the  Catholics  of  St.  Gall  refused  to  acknowledge 
his  successor,  appointed  by  the  pope ;  the  Orisons  likewise 
demanded  the  separation  of  their  diocese  from  that  of 
St.  Grail;  and  after  much  discussion,  tbe  pope,  in  1836, 
decreed  the  dissolution  of  the  double  bishoprick,  and  ap- 
pointed an  apostolic  vicar  to  superintend  the  ecclesiastical 
affairs  of  St.  Gall  and  AppenzelL  The  abbot  of  St.  Gall 
has  long  since  lost  all  his  domains  and  revenues,  and  the 
convent  has  been  suppressed.  A  pension  was  offered  to 
the  last  abbot,  Pancratiu9,  in  1814,  which  he  refused,  and 
claimed  the  restoration  of  his  former  rights.  Having  endea- 
voured in  vain  to  interest  the  Allied  powers  in  his  favour, 
he  retired  to  the  convent  of  Miiri,  in  the  canton  of  Lucerne. 
(Leresche,  Dictiomudre  Gbographique  Statistique  de  la 
Suisne;  Walsh,  Voyage  en  Suisse;  Franscini ;  Dandolo.) 

GALL,  Dr.  FRANZ  JOSEPH,  the  founder  of  the  sys- 
tem of  phrenology,  was  born  at  Tiefenbrunn,  in  Suabia,  on 
the  9th  of  March,  1757.    He  seems  at  a  very  early  age  to 
have  evinced  habits  of  accurate  observation,  for  it  is  said  that, 
when  a  boy  at  school,  he  often  amused  himself  with  re- 
mai'king  the  differences  of  character  and  talent  among  those 
educat^  alike,  among  his  brothers  and  sisters,  and  his 
playmates  and  schoolfellows.    He  saw,  too,  that  these  cha- 
racters seldom  changed— that  education  rarely  altered  the 
good  or  bad  temper  of  a  child,  or  gave  the  talent  which  he 
exhibited  in  one  subject  a  direction  towards  another.    He 
observed  that  the  boys  who  were  his  most  formidable  com- 
petitors were  all  distinguishable  by  a  peculiar  expression  of 
countenance,  the  result  of  unusual  protrusion  of  the  eye- 
ball, which  seemed  to  him  a  certain  sign  of  talent.    On  nis 
removal  to  another  school  he  still  found  himself  invariably 
beaten  by  his  '  bull-eyed'  companions*  as  he  called  them, 
and  making  the  same  observations  as  before,  he  found  all 
his  playmates  still  distinguished  for  some  pecuhar  talent  or 
temper.    He  next  went  to  the  university  of  Vienna  to  pur- 
sue Lis  studies  for  the  medical  profession,  and  at  once  began 
to  search  for  prominent  eyes  among  his  fellow-students ;  all 
that  he  met  with  were,  as  he  found,  well  known  for  their 
attainments  in  classics,  or  languages  generally,  or  for  powers 
of  recitation ;  in  short,  for  talent  in  language ;  and  hence 
the  sign  of  a  prominent  eye,  which  he  had  first  thought  in- 
dicated talent  generally,  he  became  convinced  marked  a 
facility  for  acquiring  a  knowledge  in  words,  which  was  the 
principal  study  in  the  schools  of  his  boyhood.    This  coin- 
cidence of  a  peculiar  talent  with  an  external  physiognomic 
sign,  led  him  to  suspect  that  there  might  be  found  some 
other  mark  for  each  talent,  and  remembering  that  at  school 
there  were  a  number  of  boys  who  had  a  singular  facility  in 
finding  birds'  nests,  and  recollecting  where  they  had  been 
placed,  while  others,  and  especially  himself,  would  forget 
the  spot  in  a  dav  or  two,  he  began  to  search  among  his 
fellow-students  for  all  who  indicated  a  similar  knowledge 
and  memory  of  places,  that  he  might  see  in  what  feature 
that  would  be  indicated,  and  he  soon  thought  he  found  them 
all  marked  by  a  peculiar  form  of  the  eye-brow.    He  now 
felt  convinced  that  by  accurate  observation  of  the  shape  of 
the  head  in  different  persons,  he  should  find  a  mark  for 
eveiy  kind  of  talent,  and  he  lost  no  opportunity  of  exa- 
mining the  forms  of  the  head  in  poets,  painters,  mechanics, 
musicians,  and  all  distinguishea  in  art  or  science.    He 
found  external  signs  in  each  class  that  separated  them  from 
the  rest,  and  he  thought  he  could  now  clearly  discern  the 
character  of  each  by  their  cranial  formation  before  he  in- 
cvuired  into  their  pursuits  or  reputation.    He  had  observed 
that  persons  remarkable  for  determination  of  character  had 
one  part  of  their  heads  unusually  large,  and  he  was  there- 
fore led  to  seek  whether  there  were  not  signs  of  the  moral 
affections  similar  to  those  which  he  believed  he  had  dis- 
covered to  indicate  the  intellectual  powers.    After  some 
time  he  found  that  these  affections  also  might  be  ascer-  I 
P.  C,  No.  664,  * 


tained  by  discerning  how  far  one  portion  of  the  head  sur- 
passed the  others  in  size.  His  mind  was  so  completely 
engrossed  with  the  purs\iit  of  facts  to  support  his  belief 
that  he  should  find  a  complete  key  to  the  human  character, 
that  his  academic  career  was  marked  by  no  particular  suc- 
cess, though  his  talents  might  certainly  have  secured  it 

To  further  his  pursuit,  he  now  resorted  to  the  works  of 
the  most  esteemed  metaphysicians  of  antient  and  modern 
days,  but  here  he  found  little  besides  unsatisfactory  theories, 
and  conti-adictions  of  each  other,  and  certainly  nothing  that 
at  all  favoured  the  view  which  he  had  been  led  to  take  of 
the  human  mind.  Ho  therefore  gave  them  up,  and  resorted 
again  to  the  observation  of  nature  alone,  and  he  now  ex- 
tended his  field.  Being  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  Dr.  Nord, 
physician  to  a  lunatic  asylum  in  Vienna,  be  carefully  ex- 
amined all  the  insane  there,  observing  the  peculiar  character 
of  the  insanity  in  each,  and  the  corresponding  forms  of  their 
heads :  he  freciuented  prisons  and  courts  of  justice,  and 
made  notes  of  the  crimes  and  appearance  of  all  the  prisoners. 
In  short,  wherever  there  was  any  person  made  remarkable 
by  good  or  bad  qualities,  by  ignorance,  or  by  talent^  Dr.  Gall 
lost  no  opportunity  of  making  him  a  subject  of  his  study. 
With  the  same  views  he  was  constant  in  his  study  of  the 
heads  and  characters  of  both  wild  and  domesticated  animals. 
He  had  always  felt  sure,  that  the  form  of  the  skull  in  itself 
alone  could  stand  in  no  relation  to  the  intellect  or  disposition, 
but  it  was  not  till  late  in  his  pursuit  that  he  resorted  to 
anatomy  to  confirm  his  views.  Having  obtained  his  diploma, ' 
he  made  it  his  care,  as  far  as  possible,  to  ask  for  leave  to 
examine  the  brains  of  all  whose  characters  and  heads  he 
had  studied  during  life,  and  soon  found  that,  as.  a  general 
rule,  the  exterior  of  the  skull  corresponds  in  form  with  the 
brain  contained  within  it. 

At  length,  after  unremitting  exertion,  and  constant  study 
for  upwards  of  twenty  years,  Dr.  Gall  delivered  his  first 
course  of  lectures,  in  1796,  at  his  house  in  Vienna.  Sup- 
ported by  a  vast  accumulation  of  facts,  he  endeavoured  to 
prove  thut  the  brain  was  the  organ  on  which  all  external 
manifestations  of  the  mind  depended ;  that  different  portions 
of  the  brain  were  devoted  to  particular  intellectual  faculties 
or  moral  affections ;  that,  ccBteris  paribus^  these  were  deve- 
loped in  a  degree  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  part  on 
which  they  depended ;  and  that,  the  external  surface  of  the 
skull  corresponding  in  form  with  the  surface  of  the  brain, 
the  character  of  each  individual  was  clearly  discernible  by 
an  examination  of  his  head. 

A  doctrine  so  new,  and  so  subversive  of  all  that  had  been  pre- 
viously taught  in  psychology,  produced  no  little  excitement. 
To  some  the  number  of  simple  facts,  the  apparently  clear  and 
necessary  deductions  from  them,  and  the  ease  with  which  the 
new  system  seemed  to  lead  to  the  knowledge  of  a  science 
hitherto  so  obscure,  were  sufficient  to  secure  at  once  their 
assent,  while  others  said  that  Gall,  be^nning  with  a  theory, 
had  found  at  will  facts  to  support  it ;  that  a  plurality  of 
powers  in  the  same  organ  was  too  absurd  to  be  imagined, 
and  that  tbe  doctrine,  leading  on  the  one  hand  to  fatalism, 
on  the  other  to  materialism,  would,  if  received,  be  subversive 
of  all  the  bonds  of  society,  and  opposed  to  the  truths  of  reli- 

fion.  It  was  argued  with  all  the  anlour  with  which  new 
octrines  are  so  generally  assailed  and  defended,  but  Gall 
took  little  part  in  these  disputes,  and  still  continued  to  lec- 
ture and  collect  more  facts. 

He  gained  disciples  daily,  and  in  1800  Dr.  Spurzheim  be- 
came his  pupil.  In  1804  this  gentleman  was  associated  with 
him  in  the  study  of  his  science,  and  to  this  fortunate  event 
phrenology  probably  owes  much  of  its  present  clearness  and 
popularity.  Spurzheim  possessed  a  mind  peculiarly  adapted 
for  generalizing  facts,  of  which  the  science  at  that  time  almost 
entirely  consisted,  and  besides  being  most  ardent  and  indus- 
trious in  the  pursuit  of  additional  support  for  the  doctrines, 
he  had  a  suavity  of  manner  and  a  brilliancy  of  conversation 
which  prepossessed  all  in  favour  both  of  himself  and  his 
science.  It  is  from  him  indeed  that  nearly  all  the  knowledge 
of  phrenology  at  present  current  in  England  has  been  derived ; 
for  till  his  arrival  here  in  1814,  arui  the  publication  of  his 
'Physiognomical  System*  in  1815,  nothing  was  known  of  the 
science  except  from  a  smnll  translation  of  a  German  treatise 
in  1807,  and  some  very  unfavourable  notices  of  it  in  periodi- 
cals. Since  that  time  too  the  smaller  size  and  more  popular 
style  of  his  books  have  made  them  far  more  generally  known 
than  those  of  his  preceptor,  and  a  large  majority  of  the  phreno- 
logists of  this  country  are  entirely  of  the  school  of  Spurzheim. 
Soon  after  their  aasociatioD,  Drs.  Gall  and  Spurxheim 

Vol.  XI.— H 


GAL 


50 


Q  A  L 


Gommenoed  a  tour  through  theprinciiMkl  towns  in  Germany 
and  Switzerland,  diffusing  their  doctrines,  and  collecting 
everywhere  with  the  most  assiduous  industry  fresh  evidence 
in  their  favour.  In  1 80  7  they  arrived  at  Pahs,  which  hecame 
at  once  the  field  of  their  principal  labours,  and  of  the  most 
vehement  discussion.  Amongst  many,  it  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  Napoleon,  probably  from  the  extensive  practical 
benefits  which  it  was  urged  would  flow  from  it  At  first  he 
is  said  to  have  spoken  in  no  measured  terms  of  the  savans  of 
his  country,  for  *  suffering  themselves  to  be  taught  chemistry 
by  an  Englishman  (Sir  H.  Davy),  and  anatomy  by  a  German.' 
He  afterwards  however  expressed  his  disbelief  in  it,  and  hence 
the  reason  (say  the  most  ardent  supporters  of  the  doctrine), 
why  in  1809  the  commission  appointed  by  the  Institute  on 
the  Memoir  presented  by  Gall  and  Spurzheim,  in  March  1 808, 
returned  a  report  highly  unfavourable  to  the  science  and  its 
author.  Undaunted  however  by  this  severe  check  to  their 
rising  popularity,  thev  continued  to  study  and  to  teach  both 
by  lectures  and  by  voluminous  publications  till  1813,  when  a 
dispute  arising,  partly  as  to  the  degree  of  credit  which  each 
merited  for  the  condition  at  which  the  science  had  then 
arrived,  partly  from  private  motives,  they  separated.  Dr.  Gall 
remained  in  Paris ;  Dr.  Spurzheim  soon  after  proceeded  to 
England,  where  he  continued  for  several  years  lecturing  in 
London  and  the  principal  towns  of  the  kingdom,  and  whence 
he  ultimately  proceeded  to  America. 

Dr.  Gall  continued  in  Paris  till  his  death,  which  occurred 
on  the  22nd  of  August,  1828. — He  had  sufifered  for  nearly  two 
years  previously  from  enlargement  of  the  heart,  which  pre- 
vented him,  except  at  intervals,  from  pursuing  his  lectures, 
and  at  length  produced  a  sUght  attack  of  paralysis,  from 
which  he  never  recovered.  At  the  post-mortem  examination 
his  skull  was  found  to  be  of  at  least  twice  the  usual  thickness, 
and  there  was  a  small  tumour  in  the  cerebellum :  a  fact  of 
some  interest,  from  that  being  the  portion  of  the  brain  in 
which  he  had  placed  the  organ  of  amativeness,  a  propensity 
which  had  always  been  very  strongly  marked  in  him. 

Whatever  may  be  the  merits  of  the  phrenological  system, 
Dr,  Gall  must  always  be  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable men  of  his  age.  The  leading  features  of  his  mind 
were  originality  and  independence  of  thought ;  a  habit  of  close 
observation,  and  the  most  invincible  perseverance  and  in- 
dustry. Nothing  perhaps  but  a  character  hke  this  in  its 
founder,  and  the  very  popular  and  fascinating  manners  of  his 
chief  supporter,  could  have  upheld  the  doctrine  against  the 
strong  tide  of  rational  opposition  and  of  ridicule  with  which.it 
was  assailed.  Whether  the  system  be  received  or  not,  it  will 
bo  granted,  that  both  in  the  collection  of  psychological  facts 
which  they  had  formed,  and  have  published,  and  by  the 
valuable  contributions  which  they  have  made  to  the  study 
of  the  structure  of  the  brain,  to  which  their  later  labours  had 
been  particularly  directed,  they  have  conferred  very  great 
benefits  on  medical  science.  The  character  of  Dr.  Gall's 
writings  is  singularly  vivid  and  powerful ;  his  descriptions, 
though  slight,  are  accurate  and  striking,  but  his  works  are 
too  voluminous  to  be  acceptable  to  the  majority  of  readers, 
and  have  therefore,  in  this  country,  been  almost  entirely 
superseded  by  those  of  Dr.  Spurzheim,  to  which  however, 
in  substantial  value,  they  are  far  superior.  They  comprise 
'  Philosophisch-Medicinische  Untersuchungen  iiber  Natur 
und  Kunst  im  Kranken,  und  Gesunden  Zustande  des 
Menschen,'  Bvo.  Leipzig,  1800;  'Anatomic  et  Physiologic 
du  Systt^mo  Nerveux  en  g6n6ral,  et  du  Cerveau  en  particu- 
lior :  M6moire  present^  a  Tlnstitut,  Mars,  1808 ;'  and  under 
the  same  title  his  great  work  in  4  vols.  4to.,  and  atlas  foUo, 
published  in  Paris,  from  1810  to  1819,  of  which  the  1st  and 
naif  the  2nd  volume  were  written  in  conjunction  with  Dr. 
Spurzheim  ;  and '  Sur  TOrigine  des  qualitds  morales  et  des 
Facull£s  intellectuelles  de  THomme,'  6  vols.  8vo.,  Paris, 
1825.  An  English  translation  of  them  has  lately  been 
published  in  America  by  Nahum  Capin,  and  another  of  the 
4to.  work  is  said  to  be  in  progress  in  England. 

GALL.    [BiLs.] 

GALL  STONES.    [Calculus.] 

GALLATES.    [Gallic  Acid.] 

GALLEON  (gahion  in  French,  galen  in  Spanish)  was 
the  name  given  to  very  large  ships,  with  three  or  four  decks, 
which  the  court  of  Spain  used  to  send  at  fixed  periods  to 
the  coasts  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  to  receive  on  boara  the  gold 
and  silver  bullion  extracted  firom  the  mines,  and  bring  it  to 
Spain*  Commodore  Anson  intercepted,  and  captured  after 
a  abort  engagement^  one  of  these  galleoni  on  ita  way  from 
^Q^pnlootolfaiuUa.   [AiraoK.] 


GALLERY,  m  ita  most  extended  aenae,  is  used  synony 
mously  with  corridor.  [Corridor.]  In  England  however 
it  is  understood  to  be  either  a  long  narrow  passage-way,  or 
an  open  space,  generally  longer  than  wide,  raised  above  the 
floor  of  a  building,  and  usually  supported  on  column-*. 
Such  salleries  are  met  with  (among  other  places)  in  Engli»^h 
churcnes,  in  some  courts  of  justice,  and  In  theatres.  The 
long  external  wooden  passage-ways,  formed  something  like 
a  balcony,  such  as  are  occasionally  seen  in  old  inns,  arc 
called  galleries.  The  antients  also  had  their  galleries  m 
their  basilicsa  [Basilica]  and  in  their  agorss.  [Forum.] 
The  civpto-porticus  was  a  gallery.  The  term  gallery  is  also 
appliea  to  a  Ion?  room,  or  a  series  of  rooms  containing  pic- 
tures, as  the  gauery  of  the  Louvre  at  Paris. 

GALLERY,  in  militarv  mining,  is  a  subterranean  trench, 
or  passage,  leading  to  tne  place  where  the  powder  is  de- 
posited for  the  purpose  of  producing  an  explosion. 

Of  the  galleries  which  appertain  to  a  fortress,  the  principal 
one,  denominated  the  magistral  gallery,  surrounds  tne  place 
under  its  covered- way;  and  the  entrances  to  it  are  in  the 
counterscarp  of  the  ditch.  A  second  gallery,  designated 
the  envelope,  is  formed  under  the  foot  of  the  glacis,  so  as 
either  wholly  or  partially  to  circumscribe  the  works ;  and 
galleries  of  commufiication  under  the  glacis  lead  to  it  from 
the  former  gallery.  Small  galleries,  sometimes  called  listen- 
ers, are  also  carried  towards  the  country,  from  the  envelope ; 
in  order,  as  the  name  implies,  that  the  defenders  in  them  may 
discover,  by  the  sound,  where  the  enemy's  miner  is  at  work. 

The  galleries  of  a  fortress  are  at  least  six  feet  high  and 
four  feet  wide,  and  are  lined  and  vaulted  with  brick  work : 
they  are,  or  should  be,  so  disposed  as  to  ensure  complete 
drainage ;  and  means  must  be  provided  to  afford  them  pro- 
per ventilation.  At  the  places  where  thev  intersect  one 
another  are  formed  enlargements  in  which  tools  may  be 
deposited,  and  the  miners,  with  their  baxrows,  be  enablefl  to 
pass  each  other:  vertide  grooves  are  also  cut  down  the 
sides  of  a  gallery  for  the  reception  of  the  ends  of  timbers 
which  may  serve  to  barricade  it ;  and  at  the  places  when* 
the  galleries  of  communication  fall  into  the  envelope  are 
placed  strong  doors,  with  loop-holes  through  them,  for  mus- 
ketry, in  order  to  arrest  the  progress  of  an  enemy,  should 
he  force  an  entrance  into  the  latter. 

The  most  proper  place  for  the  magistral  gallery  does  not 
appear  to  be  precisely  determined.  Some  engineers  form 
it  close  to  the  counterscarp,  so  that  the  wall  of  the  latter 
serves  for  one  side  of  the  gallery;  hy  this  disposition  con- 
siderable expense  is  saved,  and  complete  ventilation  may  be 
easily  obtained  by  means  of  loopnoles  opening  into  the 
ditch.  But  as,  in  this  situation,  the  enemy,  having  pene- 
trated into  the  gallery,  might  direct  a  fire  throush  the  liK>p- 
holes,  and  might  easily  form  a  passage  into  tne  ditch  by 
destroying  the  counterscarp  wall,  others  prefer  that  it  should 
be  executed  under  the  banquette  of  the  covered-way. 

A  continuous  gallery  surrounding  the  place  under  the 
foot  of  the  glacis  is  objectionable  on  account  of  the  certaint} 
that,  in  some  part  of  its  length,  it  will  be  met  and  destroyed 
by  the  working  parties  of  the  besiegers:  it  is  therefore 
preferable  that  at  the  extremities  of  the  galleries  of  com- 
munication before  mentioned  there  should  be  executed 
short  portions  only  of  an  envelope  gallery;  from  which  por- 
tions the  listeners  may  be  earned  towards  the  front.  The 
galleries  leading  from  the  magistral  to  the  envelope  are 
nearly  parallel  to,  but  they  ought  not  to  be  immediately  un- 
der, the  ridges  and  gutters  of  the  glacis,  lest  those  lin<.» 
should  serve  the  enemy  as  indications  of  the  positions  of  the 
galleries,  and  enable  him  easily  to  find  them;  and  as  a 
man  working  under  ground  may  be  heard  at  a  distance  ut 
ninety  feet  from  him,  it  follows  that  the  listening  galleries 
ought  not  to  be  more  than  twice  that  distance  nom  each 
other,  lest  the  enemy's  miner  should  pass  between  them 
unpcrceived. 

The  roofs  of  galleries  may  be  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  natural  ground. 

The  galleries  executed  by  the  besie^rs  are  usually  car^ 
ried  out  from  a  shaft  sunk  vertically  m  the  ground :  an«l 
they  are  either  parallel  or  inclined  to  the  horixon,  according 
to  circumstances.  When  the  soil  is  loose  the  sides  and 
roof  are  lined  with  planks,  which  are  retained  in  their  places 
by  rectangular  frames  of  timber  placed  at  intervals  fh>m 
each  other  across  the  gallery ;  and  it  is  recommended  that 
the  frames  should  be  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  the 
length  of  the  gallery,  even  when  the  latter  ia  inclined  to  the 
horixon. 


GAL  ! 

•  Docinti  shepherd  originally,  but  a  brave  soldieri  was  pro- 
clBimed  emperor  bv  the  troops  in  lllyricum,  ontoroil  Italy, 

took  possession  of  Milan,  anil  ere n  marched  against  Rome 
vhile  GaUiciius  nas  absent.  Gallicnus  returned  quickly, 
repulsed  Aureolus,  and  defeated  him  in  a  f^eat  battle 
tlic  Adda,  after  which  the  usurper  shut  himself  up  in  M 
where  he  was  besieged  by  Gallienus,  but  during  the  siege 
the  etntioror  was  murdered  by  some  conspirators,  a-I 
368.  He  was  succeeded  by  Claudius  II,  TrobelliuH  Polli 
has  written  a  history  of  the  roit;n  of  Gallienui.  [Aitoiist 
HiSToniA.]  See  also  Zonaros,  Aurelius  Victor,  and  Bv 
Iropiuf. 


Coin  ora>iiitii». 

ntiiiih  Muienn.    Actual  liH.    Cojiper  eIIl    Wfl«hl.!I3  paJi 

QAl.LlliJE,  Gallinaceous  Birds,  the  Qfth  order  of  the 
I'law  Atvt,  nccotdinff  to  Linnsus,  who  thus  characterizes 
JliU  (a  rca]iiiis  sickle,  Harpa  colli "fni)  convex ;  the  upper 
uiandible  arched  over  the  lower ;  Nostrils  overarched  by 
eariilaginous  membrane.     Feet  formed  fur  running,  the  ' 


crop  Ungluvia).     KesI  arllcss  and  placed 

eggs  numerous;  food  pointed  out  to  1hcyount>  by ,._ 

rent.     Polygnmous.     Analogous  to  the  order  Pecora,  in  the 
class  Maaanalia.     [Rasores] 

GALLINSECTA  <Latrcillo),  Coccid.k  (Leach),  a  family 
of  insects  placeil  by  LalrciUe  and  others  at  the  end  of  the 
IlouiDptcra.  Tbesi;  insecis  apparently  have  but  one  joint 
to  the  tarsi,  and  this  is  furnishL-d  wilb  a  single  cliiw.  The 
males  are  dcslilule  of  rostrum,  and  liavo  two  wings,  which 
when  closed  arc  laid  horizontally  on  the  body :  the  apex  of 
llie  abdoroeji  is  furnished  with  two  selto.  The  females  are 
aplurous.  and  provided  with  n  rostrum.  The  anlcnuie  aru 
generally  niiform  or  setaceous. 

The  insects  belontjing  to  this  family  live  upon  trees  or 
planU  of  various  kiiiils:  they  are  of  small  eizo,  and  in  the 
larva  stale  have  the  appearance  of  oval  or  roinid  scales, 
which  are  closely  atiaihed  to  thu  plant  or  bark  of  the  tree 
they  mhabit,  and  exhibit  no  distinct  cMernal  oi^ans.  At 
certain  seasons  when  about  to  undcffO  Ihoir  Iransfurma- 
tion,  tliev  become  flxcd  to  the  plant,  and  asiiuine  the  puiia 
state  within  the  skin  of  the  larva.  Tiic  pupa  of  tlio  males 
huve  Ihoir  two  anterior  le;f>  directed  forwards,  and  the  ro- 
luainiiiK  four  backwards;  whereas  in  the  ilmales  the  whole 
*ix  are  directed  backwuils.  When  the  males  have  assumed 
the  winged  or  imago  stale,  they  are  said  to  Lisuo  from  the 
posterior  c.ilrcmity  of  their  cocuon. 

In  the  spring  time  the  body  of  the  female  becomes  greatly 
enlai^ed.  and  approaches  more  or  less  to  a  spherical  form. 
In  some  the  skin  is  smooth,  and  in  others  transverse  inci- 
sions or  vesti^'cs  of  segments  are  visible.  It  is  in  tltis  slate 
that  the  female  iceeives  ihe  embraces  of  the  male,  after 
which  sbe  deposits  her  e^irs.  which  are  extremely  nume- 
rous.  In  sotne  the  egcs  aro  deposited  by  tile  in-<eet  beneath 
her  own  body,  after  which  she  dies,  and  thu  body  hardens 
and  forms  a  scale-like  eotcring,  which  senes  to  protect  the 
eggs  until  the  following  season,  wht-n  they  hatch.  The  fe- 
males of  other  species  cover  their  eggs  with  a  white  cotton- 
Jike  substance,  which  answers  the  tame  end. 

Upward>  of  thirty  species  of  the  familv  Cuccidio.  or  Gal- 
Lntecla.  are  enumerated  in  Mr.  Stephen's  UataluKUC  of 
Mntiali  Insi-cls;  several  oftlinso  howuvur  havo  undoubtedly 
been  introduced  with  the  plants  they  inhabit,  and  to  which 
they  aro  )>cen1iar. 

Many  of  tlic  exotic  Cocci  Iiavo  long  been  eclcbrated  for 
the  beautiful  dyes  they>iLia.  The  Coccus  Cacti  of  Lin- 
ntpua  may  be  m^'ntioned  as  an  in-lance.  llio  female  of  this 
Mjiccies  IS  of  n  du-ep  brown  colour,  covered  wiib  a  wbiic 
Powd.-r.  and  evhil.iis  tcansverse  incisions  on  the  aUlomen. 
l.'ie  male  is  ola  deep  rod  i'ulour,  and  has  white  wing.. 
This  insect,  which  when  properlv  prepared  yields  the  ilic 


>  GAL 

called  oocliineRl,  is  a  native  of  Mexico,  and  feedi  upon  « 
particular  kind  of  Indian  flg,  which  is  cultivated  v»  Um 
express  purpose  of  rearing  iL     [Cochidsal.] 

Cocoa  Jlieit,  an  Insect  found  abundantly  upon  a  inull 
■pecin  of  evergreen  oak  (Quereiu  coeeiferaX  common  in 
tue  south  of  Franco,  and  many  other  parts,  has  been  em- 
ployed to  import  a  blood  red  or  crimson  dye  to  oloth  from 
the  earliest  a^ei.  (Introduction  to  Entomology,  by  Kirbj 
and  Spence,  vol.  i.,  p.  319.) 

C'occut  Polmtiea*  is  another  speeJM  which  ii  ttted  in  dye- 
ing, and  imparts  a  red  colotir.  It  is  now  chieflv  employed 
by  the  Turks  for  dyeing  wool,  silk,  and  hair,  ana  tbr  stain- 
ing the  nail*  of  women  s  fingers.  (Kirby  and  Spcooe,  vol 
i..  p.  .■120.) 

But  we  are  not  only  indebted  to  the  Coccus  tribe  fbr  the 
dyes  they  yield ;  the  substance  called  iac  is  sUo  procured 
fh>m  one  of  these  insects  (the  Coceiu  Laeea).  Thu  ^lecii-^ 
inhabiu  India,  where  it  is  found  on  various  trees  in  Kr«at 
abundance.  '  When  the  females  of  this  Coccus  have  fixnl 
themselves  to  a  part  of  the  branch  of  the  trees  on  which 
they  feed  (Fiau  religiosa  and  Indica,  Butea /hmdoia,  »iid 
IihamniuJnJu6a),a  pellucid  and  glutinous  substance  begia-^ 
to  exude  from  the  margins  of  the  body,  and  in  the  end 
covers  the  wholo  insect  with  a  cell  of  this  substance,  whieli 
when  hardened  by  exposure  to  the  air  becomes  lac  Su 
numerous  are  these  insects,  and  so  closely  crowded  together. 
that  they  often  entirely  cover  a  branch ;  and  the  groups 
take  difierent  shapes,  as  squares,  hexagons,  be,  accordinE 
to  the  apace  lefl  round  the  insect  which  first  began  to  funn 
Its  cell.  Under  these  cells  the  females  deposit  tbetr  c^-g\ 
which  afler  a  certain  period  are  hatched,  and  the  young 
ones  eat  their  way  out.'  (Kirby  and  Spence,  vol.  iv.,  t: 
142.) 


a.lhinidi.     i,lb 

GALLI-NULA.    [Rallid*.] 

GALLIOT,  a  alronij-built  tbt-bottomed  vessel  of  a 
peculiar  construction,  used  as  a.  bomb-ship  lo  fire  agam-t 
forts  or  batteries  on  the  coast.  The  largest  are  of  ilic 
burthen  of  400  or  5D0  Ions,  and  above  100  feet  In  lenglh 
See  account  and  plate  of  the  same  in  the  Diclionnairf  d' 
Marine,  in  the  Enq/clopcdie  Mlthodique.  an,  '  Gatiollr  ' 
Galliot  is  also  a  kind  of  small  galley  or  large  felucca,  us.il 
■chiefly  in  the  Mediterranean,  especially  by  the  Barban 
iorsaira.  [Gallky.]  The  Dutch,  Swedes,  and  uIIk'.- 
nortbern  twtions  have  a  sort  of  merchant-ship  which  ilui 
call  Galliot,  heav?  and  clumsily  buill,  but  strong  of  timUr 
rounded  both  fore  and  aft,  anil  of  the  butthen  of  from  d  ■> 
to  300  tons. 

GALLITOLT,  the  antient  Callipolis,  in  Ihe  Chersoncv.., 
ot  1  hrace,  a  town  of  European  Turkev,  situated  at  lb- 
ciitranre  of  the  Hellespont,  now  called  the  Straits  .  f 
Oalijpoli,  on  Ihe  side  of  the  Pwponiia.  It  lies  m-iti. 
opposite  to  Lampsaki.  the  antient  Lampsacus.  on  I' 
Asiatic  side  of  the  channel,  which  is    hero  abeut    twj 


GAL 


54 


«A  L 


Ibmd  in  1762,  and  his  fitme  had  flo  for  increased  tiiat  he 
received  the  appointment  of  Lecturer  on  Medicine  at  the 
Institute  ofhis  native  town.  In  the  *  Memoirt'  of  this  hody 
we  find  contrihutions  on  various  medical  subjects  by  Gal- 
He  also  published  separately  *  Observations  on  the 


vam. 


Urinary  Organs,'  and  '  On  the  Organs  of  Hearing  in 
Birds ;'  but  an  accidental  circumsUnoe,  of  which  he  availed 
himself  with  acuteness  and  much  judgment,  introduced 
him  to  a  novel  subject,  the  announcement  of  which  at  that 
time  excited  deep  attention  throughout  Europe,  and  gave 
birth  to  a  new  and  fruitful  branch  of  Physics,  which  yet 
retains  in  Sil  countries  the  name  of  its  first  observer. 

During  his  temporary  absence  from  his  house,  his  wife, 
who  was  about  to  prepare  some  soup  from  frogs,  having 
taken  off  their  skin^  laid  them  on  a  table  in  the  studio  near 
the  conductor  of  an  electrical  machine  which  had  been 
recently  charged.  She  was  much  surprised,  upon  touching 
them  with  the  scalpel  (which  must  have  received  >  spark 
from  the  machine),  to  observe  the  muscles  of  the  frogs 
strongly  convulsed :  she  acquainted  him  with  the  fkcts  upon 
his  return ;  Galvani  repeated,  the  experiment,  and  found 
that  it  was  necessary  to  pass  a  spark  or  communicate  elec- 
tricity through  the  metallic  substance  with  which  the  ftt)gs 
were  touched.  After  having  varied  the  experiment  in  seve- 
ral ways,  he  was  led  to  conclude  that  there  existed  an  Ani- 
mal Electricity  both  in  nerves  and  muscles,  and  some  future 
experiments  appearing  fiivourable  to  that  erroneous  infer- 
ence, he  seems  to  have  cluns  to  that  opinion  during  the 
remainder  of  his  life,  notwithstanding  the  experiments  of 
VolU  and  others,  which  showed  at  least  that  the  moisture 
on  the  sur&ce  of  the  frog  acted  as  a  conductor. 

The  following  circumstance  was  that  on  which  Galvani 
most  relied  for  the  accuracy  of  his  opinion.  Having  seen 
the  effects  of  the  direct  electricity  of  the  machine  on  the 
muscles  of  frogs,  and  that  by  exposing  only  the  spine,  legs, 
and  connecting  nerves  to  the  electrical  action  a  very  small 
charge  was  sufficient  to  produce  the  convulsive  motions ;  he 
imagined  that  the  atmospheric  electricity,  though  of  feeble 
tension,  might  be  sufficient  to  produce  like  results.  He 
therefore  suspended  some  frogs  thus  prepared  by  metallic 
hooks  to  iron  railings,  when  he  observ^  that  the  convulsed 
motions  depended  on  the  position  of  the  frog  relative  to  the 
metals.  The  same  phenomenon  led  Volta  to  an  opposite 
conclusion,  and  a  war  of  opinion  for  some  time  divided  phi- 
losophers ;  into  this  dispute  it  will  not  be  necessary  now  to 
enter.  Ultimately  Volta  triumphed  over  Galvani,  but  failed 
to  convince  him. 

The  work  in  which  Galvani  developed  his  views  relative 
to  this  new  class  of  phenomena  was  published  in  1 791,  under 
the  title  *  Aloysii  Galvani  de  viribus  Electricitatis  in  Motu 
Musculari  Commentarius,'  in  which  he  infers  that  the 
bodies  of  animals  possess  a  peculiar  kind  of  electricity,  by 
which  motion  is  communicated  by  nerve  to  muscle,  and  in 
these  experiments  he  regarded  the  metals  acting  only  as 
conductors  between  these  substances,  which  he  thought  ac- 
counted for  the  observed  contractions  of  the  muscle,  in  the 
same  manner  that  the  dissimilar  electricities  on  the  interior 
and  exterior  surfaces  of  a  Leyden  jar  reunite  with  explosion 
through  a  metallic  conductor.  If  the  reader  is  desirous  to 
make  an  experiment  of  this  kind,  let  him  separate  the  head 
and  upper  parts  of  the  body  of  a  frog,  remove  the  skin  fit)m 
the  legs,  clear  out  the  abdomen,  separate  the  spine  below 
the  origin  of  the  sciatic  nerves,  that  they  alone  may  form 
the  connection  with  the  legs ;  then  envelop  the  spine  and 
nerves  with  tinfoil,  and  placing  the  legs  on  silver,  complete 
the  circuit  by  making  the  two  metals  touch :  the  convulsive 
motions  will  be  instantly  produced. 

Philosophers  in  other  countries  hastened  to  repeat  and 
vary  these  experiments.  Fowler  found  that  when  the  cir- 
cuit was  completed  by  the  eye,  the  contact  of  the  metals 
produced  the  sensation  of  a  flash  of  light ;  and  Robinson 
remarked  the  acid  taste  when  tlie  tongue  was  used  between 
the  metals,  to  which  he  also  attributed  the  peculiar  taste  of 
porter  when  drank  from  a  pewter  vessel.  It  may  be  added 
that  SuUer,  as  early  as  1767,  described  the  influence  upon 
taste  caused  by  the  contact  of  different  metals  with  each 
other  and  with  the  tongue ;  results  of  this  kind  were  pur- 
sued with  more  eagerness  than  nature  seemed  willing  to 
gratify,  and  the  influence  of  Galvanism  on  the  senses  of  smel- 
ling and  hearing,  which  Cavallo  thought  he  had  observed, 
have  not  been  verified,  or  rather,  have  been  disproved. 

The  interesting  researches  of  Galvani  having  aocjuired 
-"-h  extensive  notoriety  (Sec  Phil.  Tram.  1793),  intro- 


r 

duced  him  to  the  pleaaures  and  the  troubles  of  ta  exten* 
sive  correspondenoe.  In  1797  Galvani  made  a  voyage 
alone  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic  for  the  purpose  of  eonflrm- 
ing  nis  notbns  on  animal  electricity  by  experiments  on 
the  Gymnotus,  from  which  he  concluded  that  the  brain  con- 
tributed to  produce  the  observed  effects.  His  wifb,  who 
had  proved  herself  a  sensible  and  an  affectionate  woman, 
died  soon  after  his'  return,  a  loss  which  be  seems  to  have 
felt  very  severely.  His  afflictions  were  increased  during  the 
French  occupation  of  Italy;  he  was  expelled  firom  the 
ofllces  which  he  held,  because  he  refhsea  the  prescriberl 
oaths,  when  Bologna  formed  a  part  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic. 
His  pecuniary  circumstances  at  this  time,  as  well  9»  his 
health,  were  in  a  very  low  state,  and  shortly  after  his  re- 
storation  to  his  former  offices  he  died,  in  1 798. 

In  two  years  after  the  death  of  Galvani,  his  nephew  Aldini 
produced  convulsive  motions  of  the  kind  above  nottoed  in 
the  body  of  a  convict  who  was  hanged  at  Newgate. 

GALVANISM.  This  department  of  electricity  Ukes 
its  name  from  Galvani ;  but  its  infknt  progress  was  due  in 
a  much  greater  degree  to  his  contemporary  Volta,  by  whom 
piles  were  first  constructed  for  increasing  the  intensitv  of 
the  electricity  produced  by  a  single  pair  of  plates.  Ylie 
production  of  electricity  in  this  case  arises  from  the  action 
of  the  acid  in  the  cell  between  two  plates  of  dissimilar  me- 
tals, that  which  is  the  more  oxidable  giving  out  positive 
electricity,  as  explained  under  Elbctro-Dtnamics.  Tho 
forms  in  which  the  piles  have  been  constructed  are  various 
and  the  number  of  plates  is  adapted  either  to  the  Quantity  or 
intensity  of  electricity  which  ma^be  desired.  Wnen  Quan- 
tity with  a  feeble  tension  is  requisite,  a  single  pairof  plat<>s, 
such  as  zinc  and  copper,  with  extensive  surfaces,  separalt'd 
by  verv  dilute  acid,  will  answer ;  but  with  a  system  of 
pairs  of  plates,  where  the  copper  of  the  first  pair  conducU  itn 
electricity  to  the  sine  of  the  second,  and  so  on,  the  quantity 
and  intensity  are  increased  with  the  number  of  the  plati*%. 
In  some  constructions,  as  Ritter*s  dry  piles,  the  plates  are 
simply  laid  on  each  other,  those  of  each  pair  being  sepa- 
rated by  moistened  paper;  in  others  the  plates  lie  parallel 
in  a  trough  of  baked  wood,  by  which  means  the  cells  an? 
easily  filled  and  emptied.  In  the  couronne  des  tasse*  of 
Volta  the  plates  are  placed  circularly  or  in  a  bowl  shape ; 
while  in  Hare's  Calonmotor  there  is  merely  one  sine  plate 
and  one  copper  twisted  into  a  great  number  of  coils,  which 
form  increases  the  intensity,  as  may  be  seen  fh)m  the  article 
Electro- Dynamics.  This  construction  has  been  much 
employed  by  Pepys,  Faraday,  and  others. 

The  electricitv  thus  produced  is  of  the  same  nature  as 
that  given  by  the  common  machine ;  the  only  difTerenco 
bein^  that  the  mode  of  producing  galvanism  is  continuous, 
that  IS,  when  in  an^  way  discharged  it  is  immediately  re- 
product  by  the  oxidation  of  the  zinc ;  and  hence  many 
galvanic  phenomena  have  been  sucoessf\illv  imitated  by  a 
series  of  sparks  of  ordinary  electricity.  When  the  positive 
and  negative  wires  are  made  strictly  to  communicate  by 
metallic  conductors,  the  combination  of  the  opposite  electn- 
cities  causes  all  phenomena  analogous  to  those  produced  by 
Mhe  ordinary  machine  to  cease,  but  gives  birth  to  the  elec- 
tro-dynamic and  electro- magnetic  phenomena.  [Electriv 
Magnetism.]  But  when  the  wires  from  the  opposite  ])ole< 
of  the  battery  are  only  brought  sufficiently  near  that  tiie 
current  may  pass  through  an  interposed  substance,  or  when 
the  circuit  is  completed  by  imperfect  conductors,  the  ph^i* 
cal  changes  which  the  interposed  substances  underg-u  nm- 
stitute  the  phenomena  of  galvanism.  It  may  be  obM*r>iHl 
that  the  relative  conductibility  of  substances  for  Voltaic 
electricity  is  nearlv  the  same  as  for  common,  but  the  wier- 
ations  produced  bv  the  former  in  the  temperat*«te  aivl 
internal  nature  of  the  substances  through  which  the  current 
is  admitted  interfere  in  some  degree  with  that  order  of  con* 
ductibility. 

The  deflagration  of  metals  is  effected  by  beating  them 
into  thin  leaves,  which  are  then  interposed  between  the  c\ 
tremities  of  the  positive  and  negative  wires  of  the  battery, 
brought  within  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  each  other :  thr> 
will  then  burn  with  a  beautiful  light,  but  which  is  of  differ- 
ent colours  in  different  metals.  Thus— sine  gives  a  while 
light  with  a  reddish  border ;  copper,  a  bluish  m  bite  h^hu 
and  throws  out  red  sparks;  lead,  a  purple  light;  g^ld  leaf, 
a  beautiful  white  light  tinged  with  blue. 

But  if  the  interposed  substances,  instead  of  being  laminn, 
be  of  small  irregular  forms,  or  wire-shaped,  their  temperature 
rises  rapidly  as  the  electric  current  pomeates  them.  ^  Steel 


6  A  t 


GAL 


burns,  iron  wire  dissolves  in  globules,  while  charcoal  pro- 
duces a  light  of  Huch  daxzUng  brilliancy  as  to  fatigue  the 
eye,  a  property  which  has  been  happily  seised  by  employing 
it  in  the  solar  microscope;  yet  this  neat  and  light  are  inde- 
pendent of  the  ambient  mediumi  no  oxygen  is  consumed, 
and  the  attenuation  of  the  air  rather  a^  to  than  dimi- 
nishes the  light.  As  for  the  apparent  diminution  of  this 
intense  liffht  when  the  charcoal  is  immersed  in  water,  it  is 
attributable  to  the  imperfect  conductibility  of  the  latter 
medium:  a  thermometer  placed  in  water,  in  which  the 
wires  are  immersed,  will  rise  even  to  the  boiling  point 
Mr.  Children  has  given  a  list  of  Uie  order  of  facility  in 
which  substances  thus  acquire  a  red  heat,  and  has  suc- 
ceeded in  l\ising  the  oxides  of  molvbdenum,  tungsten,  ura- 
nium. &0.,  but  found  ruby,  sapphire,  silex,  quarts,  &c., 
more  intractable.  It  is  obvious  that,  in  the  estimation  of 
such  an  order,  we  must  take  an  account  of  the  mass  heated, 
and  of  the  extent  of  its  surface  which  is  liable  to  cool  by 
contact,  radiation,  or  both ;  and  lastly,  of  the  loss  of  con- 
ductibility due  to  the  increase  of  temperature  of  the  sub- 
stance interposed,  ^ther,  alcohol,  &c.,  may  be  inflamed, 
and  gunpowder  exploded,  by  making  the  discharge  through 
charcoal  points. 

Sir  Humphry  Davy  avoided  the  increase  of  temperature 
in  the  wires  through  which  the  current  was  discharged  by 
taking  them  of  a  length  sufficient  to  discharge  the  number 
of  pairs  of  plates  employed  in  the  pile,  and  £u8  found  that 
the  length  of  wire  in  this  case  is  inversely  pioportional  to 
the  number  of  double  plates.  The  diminution  of  conducti- 
biUty  due  to  increase  of  temperature  he  exhibited  bv  a  pla- 
tinum wire  made  red-hot  by  the  galvanio  current ;  for  wnen 
he  raised  one  part  of  it  to  a  white  heat  by  means  of  a  blow- 

Sipe,  the  heat  in  the  other  parts  of  the  wire  became  imme- 
iately  reduced.  The  order  of  heating  in  metals,  beginning 
from  that  most  susceptible,  which  hehas  given,  is  as  follows : 
— ^iron,  palladium,  platinum,  tin,  zinc,  gold,  copper,  silver. 

The  decomposition  of  water  by  the  battery  is  effected  by 
bringing  the  points  of  the  positive  and  negative  wires  very  near 
each  other  under  water,  inverted  glasses  being  placed  over 
them  to  collect  the  gases  which  are  evulved.  If  tne  wires  be 
not  oxidable,  then  oxygen  gas  will  be  formed  at  the  extremity 
of  the  positive  wire,  and  hydrogen  at  the  negative,  in  l^e 
same  proportions  in  whieh  they  constitute  that  liquid ;  but 
if  oxidable,  then  the  positive  wire  will  be  covered  with  an 
oxide,  while  the  negative  wire  still  produces  hydrogen  gas. 
In  general  oxyeen  and  chlorine  are  found  at  the  positive 
pole,  and  the  other  gases  at  the  negative ;  but  we  are  not  to 
suppose  that  oxygen  only  is  disengaged  by  one  wire,  and 
hydrogen  only  by  the  other ;  for  the  particles  of  water  in 
contact  with  the  ends  of  either  wire  are  strictly  decomposed 
into  their  oonstituent  gases,  but  the  oxygen  formed  at  the 
negative  wire  is  transferred  to  the  positive,  and  the  hydro- 
gen at  the  positive  is  transferred  to  the  negative. 

The  chemical  analysts  were  at  first  somewhat  puzzled  at 
finding  foreign  products,  when  producing  decomposition  by 
ealvanism  ;  soda,  which  was  sometimes  fi>und,  was  due  to 
the  decomposition  of  small  portions  of  the  glass  in  which 
the  experiments  were  made,  and  muriatic  gas  to  vegetable 
substances  employed  occasionally,  as  wet  cotton-thread, 
when  the  liquid  was  contained  in  separate  vessels  having 
only  this  mutual  communication. 

When  neutral  salts  were  held  in  solution  and  exposed  in 
the  same  manner  to  the  galvanic  action,  their  alkaline 
bases  were  fi)und  at  the  negative  wire,  and  the  acid  at  the 
positive :  thus  zeolite  was  decomposed  into  soda  and  lime ; 
common  salt  into  solution  of  soda  and  sulphuric  acid ; 
while  the  metallie  solutions  gave  their  crystaiis  and  oxides 
to  the  positive  pole,  and  transferred  the  acids  to  the  nega- 
tive. Davy  made  the  remarkable  discovery  that  this  trans- 
fer, took  plane  without  any  combination  beine  effected  with 
the  parts  of  the  medium  traversed,  even  wnen  the  latter 
had  a  great  affinity  for  the  elements  which  passed  through 
it.  He  arranged  three  cups,  in  the  firat  of  which  was  a 
solution  of  Utmus  (a  well-known  chemical  test),  in  the 
second  a  similar  solution,  and  in  the  third  sulphate  of  soda. 
The  positive  wire  was  immersed  in  the  firat  cup,  the  ne^- 
tive  in  the  third ;  and  the  intermediate  was  connected  with 
the  two  extreme  cups  by  a  moistened  thread,  so  as  to  com- 
plete the  circuit :  tne  resvdt  was,  that  the  solution  of  litmus 
in  the  positive  cup  became  red,  indicating  the  transfer  of 
the  acid  from  the  third  cup,  while  the  similar  solution  in 
the  intermediate  oup  underwent  no  change,  dearly  showing 
that  the  aeid  in  iti  tians&r  did  notoommne  with  the  solu- 


tion through  which  it  passed.  Similarly,  upon  reversing 
the  ooles,  a  green  was  produced  in  the  firat  cup,  while  the 
midale  still  remained  unaffected.  But  he  soon  recognised 
that  there  was  an  exception  to  this,  namely,  when  the 
transmitted  substance  and  the  medium  combine  so  as  to 
form  an  insoluble  compound ;  for  when  it  has  thus  acquired 
a  greater  specific  gravity  than  the  medium,  it  is  necessarily 
drawn  out  of  the  Ime  of  transference ;  and  if  by  mechanical 
means  it  should  be  preserved  in  it,  the  transfer  will  go  on  as 
before. 

It  may  be  observed  generally,  with  respect  to  chemical 
decompositions  effected  by  galvanism,  that  it  is  quantity 
rather  than  intensity  which  is  requisite,  and  that  the  metals, 
alkalies,  and  earthy  bases  are  transferred  to  the  negative 
pole ;  the  acids,  oxides,  and  chlorides  to  the  positive.  By  the 
successive  labours  of  Davy,  Wollaston,  Brande,  Gay-Lussac, 
Berzelius,  &c.,  different  substances  which  had  before  been 
supposed  simple,  as  soda,  potash,  lime,  barytes,  strontytes, 
magnesia,  zircon,  &c.,  were  analyzed  by  this  powerful  in- 
strument ;  and  though  silex,  alumina,  &c.,  offered  great 
resistance  to  its  application,  and  the  metallic  bases  were 
with  difficulty  restrained  from  again  combining  with  oxygen^ 
still  in  the  maiority  of  cases  the  analysis  has  been  successfuL 
The  same  method  was  applied  by  Brande  to  fluids  containing 
albumen,  when  albumen  and  alkali  were  found  at  the  ne- 
gative pole,  albumen  and  acid  at  the  positive ;  he  also  found 
that  though  it  remained  fluid  with  a  weak  battery,  when  a 
stronger  one  was  employed  it  was  separated  in  a  coagulated 
form. 

Experiments  of  the  same  nature  have  been  recently  made 
by  Mr.  Golding  Bird,  whose  results  do  not  agree  with  those 
obtained  by  Brande.  He  used  for  his  battery  the  Voltaic 
form,  a  '  Couronne  de  Tasse,*  of  thirty  small  plates,  excited 
only  by  a  weak  solution  of  salt,  and  first  onerated  on  liquid 
albumen  in  a  state  of  non-combination.  Putting  serum  of 
blood  into  a  glass  vessel,  and  having  introduced  the  wires 
of  the  battery,  a  cloudy  deposition  took  place  near  the 
positive  wire  without  adhering  to  it  The  experiment  being 
next  made  with  two  vessels  connected  by  moistened  cotton, 
coagulation  took  place  in  the  positive  vessel,  while  none 
occurred  in  the  negative ;  after  a  time  the  contents  of  the 
former  had  an  acid  taste,  and  of  the  latter  a  caustic  alkaline 
flavour:  when  all  in  the  positive  vessel  was  coagulated 
by  the  galvanic  action,  he  found  there  hydrochloric  acid 
mixed  with  chlorine,  and  the  alkali  in  the  negative  vessel. 
He  has  given  also  an  explanation  of  the  causes  of  the 
difference  in  Brande*s  results. 

An  interesting  ckss  of  exneriments  are  due  to  Mr. 
Crosse  on  the  employment  of  electricitv,  in  a  state  of 
high  tension,  to  form  mineral  and  other  suMtances.  There 
is  a  cavern  near  Broomfield,  of  which  the  vault  is  covered 
with  arragonite  and  carbonate  of  lime  and  fine  crystals. 
The  water  which  drips  fh>m  this  vault  holds  in  solution  ten 
grains  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  a  little  sulphate  of  the  same 
to  each  pint  A  glass  filled  with  this  water  was  submitted 
to  the  action  of  a  battery  consisting  of  200  paira  of  plates, 
and  at  the  expiration  of  ten  days  the  negative  pole  was 
found  to  have  formed  rliomboidal  crystals  of  carbonate  of 
lime,  accompanied  by  some  gas-bubbles,  and  in  less  than  a 
month  after  the  wire  was  covered  with  reeular  and  irregular 
crystals,  whence  it  follows  that  the  bi-carbonate  was  decom- 
posed into  carbonate  and  carbonic  acid  gas.  He  also  let 
the  water  drop  on  a  piece  of  brick  subjected  to  a  ciurrant 
from  100  five-inch  plates,  the  brick  being  supported  by  a 
funnel  which  conducted  the  water  into  a  vessel  below : 
after  four  or  five  months  the  brick  near  the  negative  pole 
of  the  battery  was  covered  with  carbonate  of  lime,  while 
near  the  positive  pole  were  disposed  prismatic  crystals  of 
arragonite ;  and  the  same  experiment  being  repeated  with 
fluonlicic  acid,  regular  hexahedral  pyramids  similar  in  all 
respects  to  quartz  were  obtained ;  those  which  were  left  in 
a  dry  place  acquired  sufficient  hardness  to  scratch  glass ; 
the  otnera  had  not  that  power,  and  gradually  lost  their 
transparency.  In  his  varied  experiments  of  this  nature 
he  has  succeeded  in  forming,  by  means  of  the  galvanio 
battery,  the  following  minerals : — carbonate  of  lime ;  arra- 
gonite ;  Quartz ;  protoxide  of  copper ;  arseniate  of  copper, 
and  its  blue  and  green  carbonates ;  phosphate  of  copper ; 
carbonate  of  lead ;  chalcedony,  &c.,  upon  which  Becquerel 
remarks,  in  Uie  last-published  volume  of  his '  Experimental 
Electricity/  '  Nearly  all  these  substances  we  have  obtained 
these  doien  years  with  the  nmple  electro-chemical  appa- 
ratus/ 


C  A  L 


56 


GAL 


ExperimcnU  on  tbe  increase  of  tbe  cbemical  power  of 
the  (2:alvanic  apparatus,  compared  with  the  increase  of  the 
number  of  nlates,  have  been  made  by  Davy,  Gay-Lussac, 
and  Th6nara ;  but  they  disagree.  We  shall  therefore  now 
pass  on  to  a  brief  notice  of  the  physiological  effects  produced 
by  galvanism,  from  which  we  must  exclude  any  account  of 
tbe  animalcuIsB  observed  by  Mr.  Crosse  in  the  solutions 
employed  in  his  recent  experiments,  pending  tbe  further 
protrress  of  those  highly  interesting  researches,  and  in  the 
absence  of  any  similar  result  in  the  experiments  which 
Mr.  Faraday  has  made  with  the  same  object. 

In  the  life  of  Galvani  there  is  an  account  of  the  convul- 
sive motions  to  which  denuded  frogs  are  subject  when  the 
nerve  and  muscle  form  part  of  the  galvanic  circuit.  In 
order  that  an  individual  may  receive  a  shock  from  a  batterv, 
it  is  advisable  to  moisten  the  hand,  because  the  dry  cuticle 
is  a  bad  conductor  of  electricity :  then,  on  touching  one  of 
the  wires  of  the  battery  with  a  metallic  rod,  the  shock  will 
be  received  and  felt  in  the  wrists,  arms,  or  shoulders,  ac- 
cording to  the  intensity  of  the  current ;  or  a  continued  sen- 
sation, resembling  the  piercing  of  a  very  fine  needle,  will 
be  perceived  by  dipping  the  finger  in  a  dish  containing  a 
little  water  in  which  the  wires  of  the  battery  are  inserted  in 
the  same  line  with  the  finger.  In  both  cases,  if  the  nerves 
are  denuded  by  a  cut,  the  sensation  is  nainful,  and  the 
pain  will  remain  some  time  before  it  subsiaes.  In  some  ex- 
periments of  this  kind  Humboldt  broufrbt  on  an  inflam- 
mation by  applying  tbe  current  to  a  cut  Volta  has  asserted 
that  the  negative  wire  communicates  the  greater  pain. 

A  flash  of  light  is  perceived  by  covering  tbe  bulb  of  the 
eye  with  tinfoil  ana  forming  a  metallic  communication 
thence  with  the  mouth,  for  instance,  with  a  silver  spoon ; 
also  Berzelius  found  an  acid  taste  on  dipping  the  tongue 
into  a  zinc  vessel  containing  water,  which  was  placed  on  a 
silver  stand,  by  touching  the  silver  with  his  hand  so  as  to 
complete  the  circuit.  When  the  negative  current  is  com- 
municated to  the  taste,  it  is  caustic  and  alkaline. 

When  the  battery  is  applied  to  a  nerve  of  a  person 
recently  dead,  and  the  circuit  is  completed,  several  violent 
motions  ensue,  dependent  on  the  relative  position  of  the 
nerve  and  muscle  *  thus,  when  the  wire  communicates  with 
the  phrenic  nerve,  the  muscles  of  respiration  are  set  in 
motion ;  when  from  the  ulnar  nerve  to  the  spinal  marrrow 
is  included  in  the  circuit,  tbe  fingers  are  set  in  quick  motion, 
and  so  on.  Fishes  are  still  more  susceptible  of  this  electric 
action  than  animals,  and  strong  convulsive  motions  will  be 
exhibited  by  a  live  flounder  placed  on  a  zino  dish  and 
having  a  piece  of  copper  or  silver  on  its  back,  as  soon  as 
the  two  metals  come  in  contact :  similar  effects  take  place 
with  leeches,  worms,  and  amphibious  animals. 

It  was  thought  by  Volta  that  the  involuntary  muscles, 
such  as  the  heart,  could  not  be  thus  excited,  but  experi- 
ment has  decided  against  him. 

When  the  secretion  was  suspended  by  cutting  the  eighth 
pair  of  nerves.  Dr.  Philip  ana  several  French  anatomists 
iiavc  restored  it  by  establishing  a  galvanic  current  through 
the  divided  part  of  the  nerves  next  the  stomach. 

Intermittent  currents  have  been  employed  in  the  experi- 
ments of  Masson,  Peltier,  and  Delarive.  To  effect  this, 
M.  Masson  used  a  toothed  wheel  rotating  by  a  cord  round 
it ;  its  axis,  supporter,  and  itself  being  all  metallic :  a  com- 
munication is  formed  between  this  wheel  and  a  battery  in 
the  form  of  a  helix :  the  object  of  the  teeth  of  the  wheel  is 
occasionally  to  suspend  the  action  of  the  current  by  making 
the  connecting  roa  of  too  great  a  length ;  hence,  when  the 
wheel  is  maae  to  revolve,  the  ^Ivanic  current  acts  and  is 
suspended  alternately.  By  a  series  of  intermitted  discharges 
produced  in  this  manner,  M.  Masson  had  the  cruel  pleasure 
of  killing  a  cat. 

P.  Santi  Linari  drew  the  electric  spark  from  the  gym- 
notus  in  the  following  manner: — he  took  a  ^lass  tube  of  the 
sha|>e  of  a  capital  U,  which  he  partly  filled  with  mercury ; 
at  each  end  was  fixed  an  iron  wire  through  a  wooden 
button,  antl  which  reached  very  near  the  mercury.  The 
apparatus  being  fixed  with  mastic  on  varnished  wood,  the 
end  of  the  wires  were  made  to  touch  short  platina  wires 
terminated  by  laminto  of  the  same  metal,  intended  to  make 
a  good  communication  with  the  different  parts  of  the  elec- 
trical fish.  When  the  circuit  was  formed,  a  spark  \isible 
even  in  the  daylight  appeared  at  the  place  where  the  con- 
ductors were  interrupted.  This  experiment  he  has  re- 
peated in  different  forms.  {Biblioth.  Univ.  de  Geneve,) 
M.  Dekrive  has  lately  Dotioed  a  remarkable  difference 


of  effects  in  the  action  of  Voltaic  and  of  mtgneto-^leetrie 
currents.  When  the  wires  of  the  latter  were  used  for  decom- 
positions, but  in  the  form  of  thin  leaves  or  lamtnaa,  then* 
was  but  little  disengagement  of  gas,  and  the  more  the 
lamina  was  plunged,  the  less  was  the  gas  evolved,  which  niui 
not  the  case  in  the  common  form  of  tne  wire :  this  does  not 
occnr  in  Voltaic  electricity ;  the  same  experimentalist  ha% 
sought  the  ({uantity  of  electricity  necessary  to  decompose  a 
given  quantity  of  water,  and  his  result  is  that  the  produ<-i 
of  the  time  multiplied  by  the  intensity  of  the  current  i» 
constant. 

(PAs7.  Tram.  1815,  1834,  &e.;  Thomson's  ilfiMolff,  vi.; 
Wilkinson's  Ga/ram>m;  Nicholson's  Jbtima/ ;  Bdintur:::\ 
Med.  Journal:  Annates  de  Chimie ;  Journal  dePhynqu  . 
64 ;  Puffendorf,  Annalen. ;  Bccquerel,  Traite  Exftrrt- 
menial;  Pouillet,  Physique;  Reports  f^  the  British  A^h* 
dation^  &c.) 

GALVANISM,  in  its  action  on  the  human  system,  re- 
sembles electricity,  yet  it  is  distinguished  by  certain  yv- 
culiarities.  In  its  application  it  can  be  rendered  more 
continuous  and  uniform,  and  may,  like  electricity,  be  admi- 
nistered either  in  shocks,  or  in  a  regular  flow  of  galvanic 
influence  through  the  body.  It  possesses  more  power  over 
the  chemical  actions  of  the  body  than  electricity,  and  pru- 
motes  more  completely  those  processes  of  decomposition 
and  recomposition  which  take  place  in  the  living  frame*  &% 
well  as  the  functions  of  organic  life,  than  common  elcctn 
city.  But  the  chief  distinction  consists  in  the  difference  ot 
action  of  the  two  poles.  Each  pole  excites  peculiar  phena 
mena  in  tbe  orcrans  to  which  it  is  applied,  xhis  difference 
is  less  perceptime  when  mere  shocks  are  administered,  than 
when  a  continuous  stream  of  galvanic  influence  is  trans- 
mitted from  one  point  to  another  of  the  body.  The  po»iti\e 
pole  more  particularly  influences  the  muscular  and  vascular 
system,  while  the  negative  pole  more  especially  affects 
the  nervous  system.  At  the  positive  pole  there  is  felt 
the  shock,  strong  movements,  a  feeling  of  concentration 
and  contraction,  increased  warmth  and  mobility  of  Uir 
part,  with  gradual  diminution  of  the  secretion  and  sen- 
sibility. At  the  negative  pole  the  pain  and  sensibility  arc 
stronger  and  more  acute,  tbe  organ  expands,  is  more 
irritable,  while  the  muscular  action  and  mobility  are  l€&* 
sened.  The  difference  of  their  action  on  the  secreting 
powers  is  best  seen  by  applying  tbe  respective  poles  to  a 
surface  which  has  been  recentlv  deprived  of  its  cuticle,  such 
as  where  a  blister  has  been.  The  positive  pole  change  tbe 
serous  secretion  into  that  of  lymph,  which  at  last  becomes 
thready ;  the  part  dries  and  is  inflamed.  The  negative  pole 
causes  an  abundant  secretion  of  a  dark-coloui«d,  highly 
acrid  fluid,  which  excoriates  the  skin  over  which  it  flow^' 
the  part  also  experiences  an  enduring  irritation.  Atonic 
sweliings  are  rendered  harder,  should  they  not  become  in- 
flamed  by  the  positive  pole,  while  frequently  by  the  nega- 
tive pole  they  are  dispersed  and  resolved.  Notwithstanding 
the  possession  of  such  powerful  properties,  galvanism  Iuia 
not  produced  so  valuable  results  in  medicine  as  misht  haie 
been  anticipated.  This  comparative  failure  is  no  aoubt  lo 
be  attributed  to  errors  in  the  mode  of  applying  it.  As  ih« 
diseases  in  which  it  has  been  recommended  are  those  already 
enumerated  under  electricity  [Electricity,  Mbdical  t-sss 
of],  it  is  not  necessar}*  to  repeat  them  here.  It  may  be 
proper  however  to  remark,  that  it  was  urgently  recommended 
during  the  prevalence  of  the  Asiatic  cholera,  but  the  results 
were  not  satisfactory.  Like  many  other  powerful  agents,  ii 
was  not  used  till  a  very  late  stage  in  the  complaint,  when 
recovery  was  almost  impossible.  It  is  also  to  be  doubtoi 
whether  galvanism  be  at  all  applicable  to  cholera,  since  tt 
appears  that  the  continued  application  of  it  causes  deatli. 
by  inducing  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  in  cases  of  animals 
where  the  eighth  pair  of  nerves  have  been  divided,  mor« 
speedily  than  where  the  same  nerves  have  been  divideii  in 
animals  to  which  the  galvanic  power  was  not  applied  a«  a 
substitute  for  the  nervous.  Inflammation  is  the  invsriiibU 
consequence  of  the  application  of  the  positive  pole ;  whiW 
the  negative  pole  would  cause  a  flow  of  acrid  secretion  wbirh 
could  not  benefit  the  patient.  The  identity  of  electnctt>. 
whether  common  or  galvanic,  with  the  nervous  power,  is 
much  to  be  questioned.  (See  controversy  between  Dr.  W. 
Philip,  Dr.  Williams,  and  others,  in  Medical  Gazette,  vol. 
xvii.) 

GALVANOMETER,  or  MULTIPLIER,  is  an  instni- 
roent  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  detecting  the  presence 
of  feeble  electro-chemical  currents.  The  nerves  and  mutolcs 


GAL 


67 


GAL 


of  newly  killed  frogs  were  at  first  used ;  but  the  discovery  of 
electro -magnetiBm  has  furnished  a  more  delicate  and  mea- 
surable criterion :  the  instrument  founded  on  this  principle 
has  been  succefisively  improved  in  the  hands  of  Schweigger, 
Cumming,  Nobili,  and  Melloni,  to  a  most  remarkable  de- 
gree of  delicacy. 

The  principle  of  the  construction  depends  on  the  property 
possessed  by  electrical  currents  of  acting  on  magnetised 
needles ;  for  if  the  conducting  wire  be  placed  on  tne  mag- 
netic meridian  above  or  below  the  needle,  the  latter  wul 
suffer  a  deviation  to  the  right  or  left  according  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  current. 

Tho  action  of  terrestrial  magnetism  tending  to  restore 
the  needle,  after  its  derangement  by  the  current*  to  its  ori- 
ginal position,  is  almost  entirely  corrected  by  employing  two 
similar  needles  supported  parallel  to  each  other  by  a  light 
piece  of  straw  or  other  substance,  and  placed  with  the  poles 
of  one  in  an  inverse  position  to  those  of  the  other.  This  appa- 
ratus being  suspended  by  a  fine  silk  thread,  is  placed  in  a 
wooden  box  of  the  form  of  a  parallelepiped  of  small  width, 
round  which  the  conducting  wire  is  passed  in  a  great  number 
of  coils,  which  are  kept  from  communicating  by  being  doubly 
wrapped  in  silk  or  other  non-conducting  substance;  the 
number  of  coils  in  some  such  instruments  has  been  more 
than  500,  by  which  the  effect  produced  on  the  needle  by  a 
single  current  is  multiplied  twice  as  many  times,  since  the 
opposite  sides  of  each  coil  double  the  action  of  either  side ; 
and  the  terrestrial  polarity  of  the  needle  being  counteracted 
in  the  manner  above  mentioned,  this  simple  instrument 
BCQuires  a  very  great  sensibility. 

Modifications  of  the  above  construction  have  been  made 
by  Person,  Peltier,  and  others,  and  a  moveable  index  has 
been  attached,  particularly  when  weak  thermo-electric  cur- 
rents are  to  be  examined.  Four  needles  have  been  used  by 
some  instead  of  two,  but  the  principle  of  the  construction 
in  all  cases  is  the  same  as  that  which  has  been  described. 

On  the  construction  of  electroscopes  and  galvanometers, 
the  reader  may  consult  Annalea  de  Physique,  t.  xvi.,  p.  91, 
by  Bohnenberger ;  t.  xxii.,  p.  358,  by  Oersted ;  t.  xxxiii., 
p.  62,  by  Colladon;  t  xxxviii.,  p.  225,  by  Nobili;  t.  xlviii., 
p.  113,  by  Nobili  and  Melloni.  Also  Bibiioth.  Univ., 
t.  xxxviii..  p.  79,  by  Nobili;  Phil.  Trans,  1823,  by  Pepys; 
also  Annals  qf  Philosophy,  1824,  &c. 

GALWAY,  a  maritime  county  of  the  province  of  Con- 
naught,  in  Ireland ;  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  county  of 
Mayo ;  on  the  north-east  by  the  county  of  Roscommon, 
from  which  it  is  separated  for  the  most  part  by  the  river 
Suck ;  on  the  east  by  parts  of  the  counties  of  Westmeath, 
Kind's  County  and  Tipperary,  from  which  it  it  separated 
by  *he  riv€r  Shaimon;  on  the  south  by  the  county  of 
ClaLo  and  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  extends 
from  52°  57'  to  53°  42'  N.  lat,  and  from  7°  53'  to  10°  15' 
W.  long.,  being  about  164  English  miles  in  length  from 
east  to  west,  and  52  in  breadth  fi?om  north  to  south.  The 
extent  of  coast,  which  is  very  irregular,  has  been  estimated 
at  400  miles ;  and  the  Shannon  and  Suck,  both  navigable 
rivers,  nearly  surround  the  rest  of  the  county.  The  area, 
according  to  the  Ordnance  Survey,  consists  of—  cultivated 
land,  955,7 13  acres ;  unprofitable  bog  and  mountain,  476,957 
acres;  water,  77,922  acres;  or  2360  statute  square  miles. 
The  population,  exclusively  of  the  county  of  the  town  of 
Galway,  w^as,  in  1831,  381,564. 

Physical  Character^  Rivers,  Coast,  <J«.— With  the  excep- 
tion of  a  spur  of  the  Slievc  Boughta  mountains,  running 
from  the  Clare  boundary  on  the  south-east  towards  Louglireo, 
and  a  similar  extension  of  the  Burriu  range  [Clajie]  on  the 
Muth-west  of  the  same  district,  the  whole  of  that  part  of 
Galway  which  lies  east  of  Loch  Corrib,  being  nearly  of  the 
same  extent  with  the  county  of  Tipperary,  is  comparatively 
fiat,  and  although  to  a  great  extent  encumbered  with  bog, 
is  pretty  generally  improved  and  productive.  A  low  table- 
land runnmg  nortn  and  south  separates  this  part  of  Galway 
into  two  nearly  equal  districts,  the  waters  of  one  of  which 
run  eastward  into  the  Suck  and  Shannon,  and  those  of  the 
other  westward  into  the  head  of  Galway  Bay  and  Loch 
Corrib.  The  district  of  the  Suck  is  most  encumbered  with 
bogs;  nevertheless  it  contains  much  well-improved  land, 
particularlv  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ahascragh  and  Balli- 
naslue.  The  district  bordering  on  the  Shannon  also  con- 
tains a  largo  portion  of  bog  on  that  side  next  the  river,  but 
has  a  good  share  of  cultivation  and  improvement  towards 
the  interior.  The  district  extending  eastward  from  the 
head  of  Galway  Bay  is  the  richest  part  of  the  county.  The  ^ 
P.  C,  No.  665. 


country  east  of  Loch  Corrib  is  more  diversified  with  hill  and 
dale,  and  is  generally  in  a  ^ood  state  of  improvement    The 
'  centre  of  this  eastern  district  of  Galway  is  a  bare  flat  tract, 
not  equal  in  fertility  to  any  of  the  other  portions. 

The  whole  district  west  of  Lochs  Corrib  and  Mask  is 
known  by  the  general  name  of  Connamara,  and  has  latterly 
attracted  much  attention  by  its  capabilities  of  improvement, 
as  well  as  by  the  uncommon  wildness  and  beauty  of  its 
scenery.    Tlie  bay  of  Galway  bounds  it  on  the  south,  the 
Atlantic  on  the  west,  and  a  deep  inlet  of  the  sea,  called  the 
Killery  harbour,  separates  it  on  the  north  from  the  moun- 
tainous district  of  Murrick,  in  Mayo.    From  the  head  of 
Loch  Corrib  on  the  east  to  Achris  Head  on  the  west,  this 
district  extends  40  English  miles ;  and  from  the  head  of 
Killery  harbour  on  the  north,  to  tho  shore  of  the  bay  of 
Galway  on  the  south,  30  miles.  The  most  prominent  object 
is  a  group  of  conical  mountains  called  the  Twelve  Pins, 
(probably  Bins,  synonymous  with  the  Scotch  Ben),  of  Bun- 
nabola,  rising  abruptly  from   a  table-land  of  moderate 
elevation  which  stretches  south  and  west  from  their  bases 
to  the  sea,  and  forms  the  chief  habitable  portion  of  the 
district.    Hound  their  bases  are  numerous  lakes,  of  which 
the  chief  are  Loch  Ina,  under  the  eastern  front  of  the  group; 
the  upper  and  lower  lakes  of  Ballinahinch  skirting  them 
on  the  south,  and  Lochs  Kylemore  and  Foe  lying  between 
their  northern  decUvities  and  the  opposite  range,  which  rises 
along  the  southern  shore  of  the  Killery.  The  average  height  of 
these  mountains  is  about  2000  feet ;  some  rise  to  2400  feet, 
and  as  the  table-land  from  which  they  rise  is  only  of  mode- 
rate elevation,  their  appearance  is  very  striking.    North- 
ward and  eastward  from  the  Twelve  Pins  a  range  of  equal 
altitude,  but  not  of  so  picturesque  a  character,  covers  an 
area  of  about  200  square  miles,  between  the  head  of  Killery 
harbour  and  the  western  shore  of  Loch  Mask.    About  mid- 
way between  these  waters  lies  the  lake  of  Loughnascoy, 
north  of  which,  to  the  boundary  of  Mayo,  the  country  is 
entirely  uninhabited.    The  chief  elevations  of  this  group, 
on  the  west,  are  Shanafola,  at  the  fiead  of  Loch  Corrib ; 
Ben  Leva,  the  declivities  of  which  form  the  isthmus  between 
Lochs  Corrib  and  Mask ;  and  the  range  of  Maam  Trasna 
overhanging  the  western  shore  of  the  latter  lake.     On  the 
north  the  range  of  Furmnamore  extends  along  the  Mayo 
boundary,  and  on   the  west  and  south  Maam  Turk  and 
Mameam  rise  over  Loch  Ina  opposite  to  the  eastern  part  of 
the  group  of  Bennabola.    Although  this  entire  tract  of 
country  is  generally  known  by  the  name  of  Connamara,  it 
is  properly  divided  into  three  districts:  the  portion  last 
described,  between  the  head  of  the  Killery  and  Loch  Corrib, 
being  termed  Joyce  Country ;  that  lying  south  of  the  Pins 
and  range  of  Shanafola  and  Mameam  being  lar-Connaught, 
or  Western  Connaught;  and  the  remainder,  extending 
westward  from  the  Pins  to  tho  Atlantic,  constituting  Con- 
namara Proper.    The  islands  off  the  coast  of  Galway  are 
very  numerous;  the  chief  are  the  three  south  islands  of 
Arran,  lying  about  midway  between  the  coasts  of  lar-Con* 
naught  and  Clare,  in  the  opening  of  the  bay  of  Galway,  and 
the  islands  of  Innisturk,  Innisbollin,  and  Innishark,   ex- 
tending, in  like  manner,  across  the  offing  of  Killery  har- 
bour, between  the  coasts  of  Connamara  and  Murrisk. 

On  the  southern  side  of  the  bay  of  Galway  the  coast  is 
not  favourable  for  the  construction  of  harbours.  From 
Burrinquay,  in  the  county  of  Clare,  to  Kinvarra,  at  the 
head  of  the  bay,  there  is  no  place  of  shelter  for  crall  except 
at  Killancy  in  Arran,  and  Durus  on  the  mainland,  opposite 
the  town  of  Galway.  The  creeks  of  Ballynacourty  and 
Rhenville  are  good  harbours  for  vessels  of  a  small  class 
at  the  head  of  the  bay,  and  the  harbour  of  Galway  has 
lately  been  much  improved.  Westward  however  from 
Galway,  and  round  tlio  entire  coast  of  lar-Connaughc 
and  Connamara  to  the  boundary  of  Mayo,  there  is  a  suc- 
cession of  harbours  for  vessels  of  the  largest  class,  un- 
equalled perhaps  on  any  similar  extent  of  coast  in  Europe. 
The  first  of  these  noble  roadsteads  next  Galway  is  Costello 
bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the  celebrated  fishing- stream  the  Cos- 
tello, where  a  small  pier  was  erected  in  1822  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  fishing-boats  and  merchant  vessels.  This 
harbour  admits  large  ships,  and  is  defended  by  a  martel]o 
tower.  Casheen  bay,  Greatman's  bay,*  and  Kilkerran  bay 
occur  immediately  west  from  the  Costello,  being  separated 
from  one  another  by  narrow  peninsulas.  The  last-mentioned 
bay  contains  one  hundred  miles  of  shore,  and  is  capable 
of  receiving  the  largest  vessels.  A  pier,  five  hundred  feet 
in  length*  with  a  return  of  one  hundred,  was  constructed 

Vol.  XL-I 


GAL 


58 


GAL 


here  in  1822 :  but  as  there  is  no  road  of  any  kind  to  the 
shore,  it  has  been  of  comparatively  little  service.  An  ex- 
tensive peninsula  (ten  miles  by  seven),  interspersed  with 
lakes,  but  destitute  of  roads  of  any  kind,  separates  Kilkerran 
bay  from  the  bay  of  Birterbuy,  which  runs  inland  about  five 
miles,  beinq  only  half  a  mile  wide  at  the  entrance,  and  from 
two  to  three  miles  wide  within  ;  it  has  deep  water  and  fine 
ground,  and  inii^ht  be  easily  fortified,  so  as  to  form  a  most 
desirable  station  fur  ships  of  war.  On  the  western  side  of 
the  entrance  to  Blrterbuy  bay  is  the  opening  of  Ronndstone 
harbour,  a  safe  and  capacious  inlet,  with  clean  good  ground, 
anil  two  to  five  fathoms*  water.  Roundstone  harbour  has 
been  much  spoken  of  as  the  terminus  of  a  western  Irish 
railway.  At  the  head  of  the  haibour,  whero  the  waters  of 
the  lakes  of  Ballinahinch  and  Loch  Ina  discharge  them- 
selves* is  an  excellent  snlmon  fishery.  A  considerable  vil- 
lage has  sprung  up  within  the  last  ten  years  at  Roundstone, 
and  as  a  road  runs  hither  from  the  main  hne  of  commu- 
nication between  Galwav  and  Clifden,  there  is  a  prospect  of 
it  becoming  a  place  of  some  trade,  especially  as  it  is  the 
nearest  point  for  the  shipment  of  the  fine  green  marble  of 
Ballinahinch.  From  Birterbuy  the  coast  stretches,  with 
occasional  anchoras^es,  to  Slyne  Head,  the  most  western 
point  of  Gal  way;  off  Slyne  l^ead  lie  a  number  of  inlands 
with  navigable  sounds  between  them,  which  remained  un- 
noticed in  the  maps  till  Mr.  Nimmo's  coast  survey,  made 
for  the  late  Commissioners  of  Irish  fisheries :  had  the  ex- 
istence of  these  sounds  been  known,  it  is  believed  that 
many  shipwrecks  might  have  been  prevented.  Between 
Slyne  Head  and  Acliris  Head  occiur  the  bays  of  Mannin  and 
Ardbear,  or  Clifden ;  the  former  possessing  one  good  an- 
chorage, but  exposed,  and  the  latter  nn  excellent  harbour 
with  safe  anchorage  in  six  to  eic:ht  fathoms*  water.  At  the 
head  of  this  harbour  a  considerable  town  has  grown  up 
since  1822,  at  which  time  it  consisted  only  of  one  slated 
house  and  a  few  thatched  cabins.  The  commencement  of 
a  pier  here  by  the  proprietor,  Mr.  D'Arcy,  assisted  by 
Government  in  1821,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  step 
towards  raising  the  place  above  the  v  ilds  which  still  sur- 
round it.  So  successful  have  the  efforts  of  the  proprietor 
been,  that  Clifden,  in  182(5,  contained  about  one  hundred 
good  houses,  roofed  with  Bangor  slates,  and  abont  thirty 
country  ^hops,  the  sales  of  which  were  estimated  to  con- 
tribute upwards  of  3000/.  per  annum  in  direct  taxes  to 
the  Government ;  and  the  consumption  of  taxable  commo- 
dities is  now  stated  to  have  increased  to  double  the  amount. 
In  1821  the  population  was  200;  in  1S3!  it  was  1257. 

There  is  now  a  regular  market  in  Clifden  for  com,  where, 
ten  years  ago,  all  the  corn  required  was  brought  in  barrels 
from  Galwav.  A  brewery,  distillery,  and  milling  concerns 
contribute  principally  to  the  demand ;  but  there  is  also  a 
regular  export  of  corn  and  butter  to  Liverpool.  As  early 
as  1825  there  were  seven  cargoes  imported  direct  into 
Clifdi^n  for  the  use  of  the  country;  and  there  is  now  a 
rcMilar  import  from  America.  North  of  Clifden  harbour 
i>  Cleggan.an  excellent  roadstead,  with  a  pier  built  in  1822, 
to  wliich  a  branch  of  the  new  coast-road  has  been  extended. 
Between  Clepgan  bay  and  the  point  of  Renvyle,  which 
forms  the  southern  boundary  of  the  entrance  to  the  Kille- 
ries.  is  the  harbour  of  Ballynakill,  well  sheltered  by  the 
iNland  of  Truchelaun,  and  capable  of  receiving  vessels  of 
the  largest  class.  Rounding  the  point  of  Renvyle  there  is 
an  open  bay,  from  the  head  of  which  two  inlets  run  east- 
word  between  steep  mountains.  These  are  the  Great  and 
Litile  Killeries;  the  latter  an  arm  of  the  sea,  about  twelve 
^1ile^  in  length,  by  a  quarter  to  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in 
width,  having,  for  a  great  part  of  its  length,  ten  to  twelve 
fathoms  of  water  and  clean  ground.  An  island  at  the 
mouth  completely  protects  it  from  the  sea,  but  from  being 
overhung  on  each  side  by  steep  and  lofly  mountains  it  is 
exposed  to  squalls,  and  not  safe  for  sailing  boats.  The 
scenery  of  the  Great  Killery  is  much  ailmired,  and  con- 
sidered to  a^'proach  nearest  to  the  Norwegian  fiords  of  any 
in  these  islands.  On  the  whole  there  is  no  part  of  this  dis- 
trict more  than  four  miles  from  existing  means  of  naviga- 
tion. The  harbours  fit  for  vessels  of  any  burthen  are  upwards 
of  twenty  in  number;  it  contains  twenty-five  navigable  lakes 
of  a  mile  or  more  in  length,  and  hundreds  of  smaller  size. 
LorhCorrib  and  Loch  Mask  alone  have  upwards  of  seventy 
miles  of  navigable  coast:  and  all  these  waters  abound  with 
fi&h.  The  sea-shore  affords  a  constant  supply  of  red  and 
black  seaweed,  which  can  be  used  either  as  manure,  or  in 
the  mantifacture  of  kelp,  of  which  latter  article  upwards  of 


fifteen  thouaand  pounds'  worth  baa  been  numiilketund  in 
one  season.  Banks  of  ealcareous  sand  and  beds  of  lime- 
stone ^are  of  frequent  occurrence*  and  there  is  an  inex- 
haustible supply  of  peat  fuel  and  of  water-power.  Yet. 
notwithstanding  these  capabilities,  if  the  neighbourhoods  of 
Clifden  and  Roundstone  be  excepted,  the  populatkn  still 
continues  poor  and  thinly  scattered  along  the  coast,  leaving 
the  interior  almost  whoUv  waste.  The  population  of  tbu 
district  is  at  present  under  65,000,  and  the  entire  rental 
about  50,000/.  per  annum ;  although  it  is  estimated  to  con- 
tain 350.000  Irish,  or  615,000  English  acres. 

The  rivers  of  Galway,  being  either  feeders  of  the  Suck 
and  Shannon,  or  descending  by  short  courses  from  the 
western  district  to  the  sea,  are  in  general  small.  The 
river  of  Clare-Gal  way,  which  rises  near  Dunmore.  in  the 
north-east  of  the  county,  and  passes  near  Tuam,  has  a 
course,  from  its  source  to  its  termination  in  Loch  Comb,  of 
about  50  English  miles.  South  of  Tuam  it  expands  mto  a 
periodical  lake  or  turlogh :  the  waters  generally  rise  in  Sep- 
tember or  October,  and  do  not  subside  until  May,  aft«*r 
which  a  coarse  grass  springs  up,  which  is  generally  grazed 
as  a  common  by  the  tenants  of  the  adjoining  land.  Similar 
turloghs  mark  the  surfiice  of  the  countrv  throughout  the 
entire  district  bordering  on  the  county  of  Clare ;  a  pheno- 
menon which  is  probably  owing  to  the  porous  nature  of  the 
limestone  rock  which  forms  the  substratum,  which,  being 
saturated  with  the  autumnal  rains,  ceases  during  the 
winter  to  absorb  the  surface  waters.  Here,  as  elsewhere, 
on  the  verge  of  the  great  limestone  tract  which  extends 
throughout  the  central  district  of  Ireland,  it  ia  frequently 
perforated  by  subterranean  cavities,  which  oocasion  the  Attr- 
appearance  of  numerous  streams,  and  in  some  instanci*s 
absorb  considerable  rivers.  Thus,  the  river  of  Shruel,  on 
the  northern  border  of  this  part  of  the  county,  dips  .under- 
ground near  Moycastle,  and  emerges  before  it  terminates  in 
Loch  Corrib.  Tlie  entire  waters  of  Loch  Mask  also  pass  more 
than  two  miles  by  subterraneous  channels  under  the  isthmu* 
of  Cong  into  Loch  Corrib.  A  considerable  stream,  which  nses 
near  Loughrea,  after  a  south-western  course  of  ten  milcs^ 
during  which  it  dips  underground  for  half  a  mile,disappear» 
in  a  turlogh  about  five  miles  from  Gort;  and  two  other 
streams  in  the  more  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Gort 
sink  and  emerge  frequently,  and  finally  disappear  without 
any  visible  outlet.  The  lakes  of  Loughrea  and  Gort  are 
fine  sheets  of  water;  the  latter  has  well- wooded  banks  and 
a  very  picturesque  vicinity. 

An  extension  of  the  Grand  Canal  connects  Balltnasloe 
with  the  line  to  Dublin  at  Shannon  Harbour.  It  has  been 
proposed  to  carry  on  this  line  by  Tuam  to  Galway,  and  to 
extend  a  branch  from  it  to  Loughrea.  It  has  also  lieen 
proposed  to  open  a  water  communication  northwards  from 
Galway  through  the  heart  of  Connaught  by  joining  Loch« 
Corrib  and  Mask  with  the  navigable  lakes  of  Mayo.  [Co>- 

NAUOHT.] 

Prior  to  1813,  the  only  roads  west  of  Galway  were  a  nar- 
row coast-road  to  Costello  bay  and  a  central  road  by 
Oughterard  to  Ballinahinch.  These  were  led  over  rocks 
and  bogs  in  so  unskilful  a  maimer  as  to  be  scarcely  passable 
for  any  sort  of  carriage,  and  the  only  other  means  of  com- 
munication through  the  district  were  narrow  bndle-road« 
scarcely  passable  for  horsemen  in  summer,  and  auite  im- 
practicable in  winter.  On  the  coast,  in  particular,  there  wa» 
nothing  beyond  the  Costello  better  than  a  footpath.  By 
the  improvements  begun  in  1822  and  still  in  progress  under 
the  Government,  a  complete  line  of  carriage  round  the 
whole  district  has  been  effected.  A  coast*road  has  been 
formed  which  touches  the  heads  of  all  the  chief  inlets  from 
Costello  bay  to  the  Killery,  where  it  joins  an  inland  line 
leading  through  the  heart  of  Jovce  Country  to  the  head  of 
Loch  Corrib,  and  thence  across  tfie  central  plain  of  lar  Con- 
naught  to  the  southern  coast-road  at  Costello  bay.  Tbe^? 
works  and  the  expenditure  of  public  money  on  piers  and 
fishing  harbours  on  the  coast,  have  considerably  promoted 
the  general  prosperity  of  the  country ;  and  the  flivoiirablr 
statements  of  the  various  scientific  men  engaged  in  them 
have  attracted  so  much  attention  to  Connaroara  that  thcrv 
is  a  probability  of  its  ultimately  becoming  the  scene  of  ex- 
tended mercantile  and  agricultural  speculations. 

Climate.— The  climate  is  mild,  and  snow  rarely  lies  m 
the  western  district.  Cattle  in  this  part  of  the  county  ar« 
never  housed.  The  summers  are  wet,  and  the  coast  is  ex- 
pose<l  to  very  heavy  storms  from  the  Atlantic.  According 
to  the  population  returns  for  1881,  there  were  living  to  tbe 


GAL 


GO 


GAL 


The  general  condition  of  the  people  of  Gftlway  is  tome- 
what  letter  than  that  of  the  inhabitants  of  most  other 
parts  of  Connaught,  which  probably  arises  from  the  resi- 
aence  of  so  many  of  the  landed  proprietors  on  their  estates : 
6d  to  8dL  per  day  for  120  days  in  the  year  is  the  avenge 
rate  of  agrieultursl  wages  and  employment  The  manners 
of  the  people  west  of  lochs  Corrib  and  Mask  are  very  pri- 
mitive ;  and  some  of  the  elans  still  inhabiting  the  moun- 
tainous tract  north  of  Ou^hterard  and  the  Twelve  Pins 
aie  remarkable  for  great  stature  and  personal  strength.  The 
Irish  language  is  very  generally  spoken. 

IhiiiiixU  Divininu, — Galway  is  divided  into  seventeen 
baronies,  of  which  three  are  situated  west  of  lochs  Corrib 
and  Mask :  viz^  Ross,  nearly  oo-extensive  with  the  district 
of  Joyce  Country,  which  contains  but  two  small  villages ; 
Ballinahineh,  nearly  co-extensive  with  the  district  of  Con- 
naraara,  containing  the  town  of  Clifden  (population,  in  1 83 1 , 
1257),  and  MoycuUen,  corresponding  with  the  district  of 
Iar-Connaught«  which  contains  the  village  of  Oughterard, 
with  a  population  of  527.  East  of  lochs  Corrib  and  Mask 
the  district  bordering  on  Mayo  is  occupied  by  the  baronies 
of  Clare,  containing  the  town  of  Headforth  (population 
1441),  and  part  of  the  town  of  Tuam  (total  population  6883) 
[Tuam]  ;  Dunmore,  containing  the  town  of  Dunmore  (popu* 


lation  847),  and  part  of  Tuam ;  and  lyaquin,  eontaming  no 
hamlet  with  more  than  60  inhabitants:  the  district  border- 
ing on  Roscommon  is  occupied  by  the  baronies  of  Ballymn« 
and  Killian,  containing  only  hamlets ;  Kilconnell, containing 
the  towns  of  Ahascragh  (population  851)  and  Aughritn 
(population  587) ;  and  (Jlonmacnoon,  containing  part  of  the 
town  of  Ballinasloe,  total  population  4615:  the  district  bor- 
dering on  the  Shannon  has  the  baronies  of  Longford,  con- 
taining the  towns  of  Eyre  Court  (population  1789)  an<t 
Portumna  (population  1 122) ;  and  Leitrim,  containing  only 
the  village  of  Leitrim,  of  280  inhabitants :  the  district  ex- 
tending Arom  the  centre  of  the  county  to  the  head  of  Gal- 
way bay  and  to  the  Clare  boundary  has  the  baronies  of 
Athenry,  containing  the  town  of  Athenry  (copulation  1309)  ; 
Loughrea,  containing  the  town  of  Loughrea  (population 
6289);  DunkelUn,  containing  the  town  ofOranmore  (p«>- 
pulation  673);  and  Kiltartan,  containing  the  towns  of 
Gort  (population  3627)  and  Kinvarra  (population  824  >; 
the  islands  of  Arran  constitute*  a  barony  and  pariah  in 
themselves. 

Cialway  county  is  represented  in  the  Imperial  Parliament 
by  four  members,  viz.  two  for  the  county,  and  two  for  the 
county  of  the  town  of  Galway.  The  county  constituency  in 
1836  was  3057. 


Table  qf  Population  (exclusive  of  County  qf  the  Town  qf  Galway). 

Date. 

Ho«r  aieert-iined. 

o 

a 

i 

US 

1 

m  d  ^ 

Ill 

n  0.Q  a 
*2g      * 

^1- 

1 

m 

1 

1 

1 

1792 
1813 
1821 
1631 

Estimated  by  Dr.  Beaufort 
Under  Act  of  1812       .     .     . 
Under  Act  55  Geo.  IIL  c.  120 
Under  Act  1  Wm.  IV.  c.  19   . 

28,212 
21,122 
54,180 
62,508 

•  • 

57] 142 
65,986 

•  • 

•  • 

51,448 

■  a 
•  • 

6 '.950 

a   . 
a  a 

7,588 

1                        .    m     i^iii 

•    • 

156!i57 
la9,204 

•  • 

153,442 
192,360 

142.000 
140,99a 
309,599 
381,564 

Civil  History.—The  Anglo-Norman  fisimily  of  De 
Burgho  and  their  followers,  in  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  fixed  themselves  chiefly  about  Athenry 
and  Galway,  and  maintained  the  administration  of  Eng- 
li»b  law  until  the  middle  of  the  next  century,  when  the 
assassination  of  William  earl  of  Ulster  [Belfast]  led  to 
a  revolt  of  the  entire  Connaught  branch  of  the  De  Burgho 
family.  The  De  Burghos  of  Galway,  having  assumed  the 
Irish  name  of  Mac  William  Eighter,  to  distinguish  them 
fram  the  Mac  Williams  Oughter,  another  branch  of  the 
same  family,  fbll  into  the  lawless  practices  of  the  neigh- 
bouring clans,  and  remained  in  all  respects  like  native  Irish 
till  the  rei};n  of  Elizabeth.  English  law  was  again  intro- 
duced by  the  reduction  of  this  county  to  s hire-ground  by 
Sir  Henry  Sidney  in  1585 ;  but  the  Irish  mode  of  life  con- 
tinued to  prevail  until  after  the  rebellion  of  1641,  and  the 
war  of  the  revolution  of  1688,  both  of  which  events  affected 
the  property  and  population  of  this  county  to  a  great  extent 
The  present  proprietary  are  for  the  greater  part  of  English 
descent;  but  the  great  mass  of  the  population  are  the  de- 
scendants of  old  Irish.  The  family  of  Joyce,  which  still 
forms  the  chief  population  of  the  barony  of  Ross,  and  are 

auite  Irish  both  in  languas^  and  manners,  are  said  to  be 
escendanU  of  English  adventurers,  who  settled  here  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  L 

Galway  is  very  rich  in  antiquities.  There  are  round 
towers  at  Ballvgaddy,  Kllbannon,  Kilmacduagh  Meelick, 
Murrough,  ana  Ardrahan.  Cromlechs  and  stone  circles 
are  of  frequent  occurrence.  The  antiquities  of  the  epis- 
copal seaU  of  Tuam,  Clonfert,  and  Kilmacduagh  are  con- 
tained within  this  county.  Of  the  numerous  remains  of 
religious  houses  throughout  Galway,  the  ruined  abbey  of 
Knockmoy  is  the  most  interesting.  It  was  founded  in  the 
year  1189  bv  Cathal  O'Connor,  sumamed  Crove-dearg,  or 
•  of  the  red  hand,'  in  consequence  of  a  victory  obtained  by 
him  over  the  English  under  Almeric  St  Laurence.  Above 
the  tomb  of  the  founder  are  some  fresco  paintings  of  great 
interest,  as  exhibiting  the  costume  of  the  antient  Irish:  the 
Phrygian  cap  represented  as  worn  by  some  of  the  figures 
will  attract  the  attention  of  the  antiquary.  Abbey  Knock- 
moy is  also  interesting  for  iU  architecture,  which  indicates 
a  considerable  advancement  in  the  arts  among  its  founders. 
The  raths  or  earthem  fbrtraiaea  of  the  old  Irish,  and 


castles  of  the  early  Anglo- Norman  lords,  are  also   very 
numerous. 

For  the  present  state  of  education  in  this  district  see 
Tuam. 

The  county  expenses  are  defrayed  by  grand  juiy  asse^<- 
ment  The  amount  so  IcTied  in  the  year  1835  was 
43,936/.  8«.  7d, 

The  constabulary  force  employed  in  Galway  in  the  veax 
1835  consisted  of  12  chief  constables,  122  consUbles/540 
sub-constables,  and  1 5  horse  police,  the  total  expen«e  of 
which  force  was  23,553/.  19#.  Bd,  In  1835  the  police  force 
for  this  county  consisted  of  one  stipendiary  magistrate,  1 3 
chief  constables,  135  constables,  582  sub-constables,  and 
19  horse  ;  the  total  expense  of  this  establishment  vas 
26,565/.  69,  9(/.,  of  which  12,480/.  16f.  6</.was  defrayed  by 
the  county. 

The  district  lunatic  asylum  for  Galway  and  the  oth(*r 
counties  is  at  Ballinasloe :  it  was  opened  in  1 833,  and  ac- 
comodates 150  patients.  (Statistical  Survey  of  the  Covnfy 
qf  Galway,  Dublin,  1824;  Reports  of  Commissioners  ff 
Irish  Bogs :  Reports  qf  Commissioners  of  Irish  Pisheriet ; 
Inglis's  Ireland;  Letters  from  the  Irish  Highlands,  &cO 

GALWAY,  County  of  the  Town  of,  was  erected  into  a 
separate  county  by  charter  of  8th  James  I.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  site  of  the  county  gaol  and  court-house,  the 
county  of  the  town  embraces  a  tract  of  23,000  acres,  and 
includes  the  parish  of  St  Nicholas,  and  parts  of  the  parishes 
of  Rahoon  and  Oranmore.  This  district  is  divioed  into 
nearly  equal  parts  by  the  river,  which  here  discharges  the 
waters  of  Loch  Corrib  into  the  sea.  The  town  of  Galwa} 
is  built  on  both  sides  of,  and  on  two  islands  in,  this  river ; 
the  main  town  is  situated  wholly  on  the  eastern  side.  Gal- 
wayis  102  Irish  or  130  English  miles  ftom.  Dublin. 

There  does  not  appear  to  have  been  any  trace  of  a  town 
here  till  the  year  1 124,  when  a  fortress  was  erected  on  this 
site,  probably  by  the  O'Flaherties,  dynasts  of  lar  Cun- 
naught,  which  was  destroyed  by  Conor,  king  of  Muosler,  in 
1132;  and,  having  been  rebuilt,  was  a  second  time  demo- 
lished by  Furlough  O'Brien,  his  successor,  tn  1149.  Ot% 
the  invasion  of  tlie  English  in  1 180,  Galway  was  again  put 
in  a  state  of  defence  b^  the  O' Flaherties,  from  whom  Ri- 
chard De  Burgho  took  it  in  1232 ;  and  in  1270  the  wallinir 
and  fortification  of  the  town  were  undertaken  by  the  eon- 


GAL 


61 


GAL 


querors.  About  tlik  time  the  ancestors  of  many  of  the 
present  leading  families  of  GralMray  settled  here,  and  from 
the  entry  of  customs  on  the  Pipe  roll,  it  appears  that  the 
place  at  this  time  had  already  become  a  considerable  depot 
of  foreign  merchandize. 

The  power  of  the  new  settlers  being  confirmed  by  tlieir 
victory  at  Athenry  over  the  Irish,  who  had  risen  in  aid  of 
Edward  Bruce  on  his  invasion  in  1315,  the  town,  notwith- 
standing some  interruption  caused  by  the  defection  of  the 
De  Burghos  in  1333,  continued  to  prosper;  and  various 
subsequent  grants  of  murage  attest  the  importance  which 
was  attached  to  its  preservation  by  the  English  govern- 
ment. 

Although  involved  in  Arequent  disputes  with  Limerick, 
arising  out  of  the  rivalry  of  trade,  Galway  continued  to 
increase  in  mercantile  prosperity  till  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  rebellion 
in  1641,  the  Earl  of  Clanrioarde,  after  some  opposition, 
occupied  the  town  for  the  king.  The  concourse  of  persons 
taking  refuge  here  from  the  troubles  which  succeeded 
produced  a  plague,  which,  between  July  and  April,  1649, 
carried  off  3700  of  the  inhabitants.  On  the  final  success  of 
the  Parliamentarians  in  1652,  Galway,  after  enduring  a 
blockade  of  some  months,  submitted  to  Sir  Charles  Coote. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  the  revolution  in  1688, 
the  inhabitants  declared  for  James  II.,  and  continued 
attached  to  his  cause  until  the  defeat  of  the  Irish  at 
Aughrim  enabled  General  Ginckle  to  come  before  the  town 
with  a  force  of  1400  men,  to  whom  the  place  surrendered 
on  honourable  terms  on  26th  July,  1691.  From  this  period 
down  to  the  present  time  Galway  has  continued  distin- 
g^uished  ibr  its  attachment  to  the  established  government, 
which  was  markedly  evinced  by  the  loyal  services  of  the 
inhabitants  during  the  rebellion  of  1798. 

The  walls,  which  formerly  contained  an  area  of  about 
twenty-two  acres,  have  been  almost  entirely  pulled  down 
since  1779,  and  the  town  has  now  extended  on  all  sides  to 
a  considerable  distance  beyond  its  former  limits.  Some  of 
the  antique  residences  still  remain,  which  are  generally 
square  castellated  buildings,  with  an  interior  court-yard 
and  arched  gateway  opening  on  the  street,  in  the  Spanish 
taste.  The  whole  of  the  ola  part  of  Galway,  indeed,  par- 
takes of  the  appearance  of  a  Spanish  town,  the  result  most 
probably  of  the  extensive  trade  and  intercourse  maintained 
Dctween  it  and  the  coast  of  Spain.  The  house  of  James 
Lynch  Fitzstephen,  who  was  mayor  in  1493,  and  whose 
determined  execution  of  the  law  upon  his  own  son  has 
given  much  interest  to  his  memory,  still  stands  in  Lom- 
bard-street, commonly  called  '  dead  man's  lane,'  in  allusion 
to  the  event  above  referred  to.  The  west  bridge,  built 
about  1442,  connects  the  town  with  Ballymana  island  and 
the  opposite  suburbs. 

The  corporation  of  Galway  consists  of  a  mayor,  two  she- 
riffs, free  burgesses  unlimited,  recorder,  and  town-derk. 
The  corporate  authorities  have  exclusive  criminal  jurisdic- 
tion within  the  town,  and  a  civil  jurisdiction  to  any  amount 
for  debts  contracted  within  the  same  limits.  The  borough 
quarter-sessions  are  held  four  times  a  year,  and  petty  ses- 
sions two  days  in  each  week.  The  earliest  charter  extant  is 
of  19th  Richard  II. ;  but  this  and  other  subsequent  charters 
were  refonned  by  the  new  rules  of  25th  Charles  IL,  and 
by  the  present  governing  charter  of  29th  of  the  same  reign. 
[Corporations  of  Irbland,  p.  49.]  The  revenue  of  the 
corporation  arises  wholly  from  the  tolls  of  the  town,  which 
in  the  year  1836  were  let  for  1260/.  per  annum. 

This  corporation  has  the  patronage  of  a  singular  ecclesi- 
astical body  called  the  Royal  College  of  GalWay,  which 
originated  in  a  desire  of  the  inhabitants  to  free  themselves 
from  the  diocesan  jurisdiction  of  the  Irish  archbishops  of 
Tuam.  This  was  carried  into  effect  by  a  release  executed 
in  1484  by  Donat  O'Murray,  the  then  archbishop,  which 
^^as  subsequently  eonftrmed  by  Pope  Innocent  VIII.,  and 
ratified  by  charter  of  5th  Edward  I V. ;  erecting  the  church 
of  St.  Nicholas  into  a  collegiate  body,  consisting  of  a  war- 
den and  eight  vicars  choral,  whose  presentation  and 
election  lie  wholly  with  the  corporation.  By  the  1 5th  sec- 
tion of  1 1  Geo.  ly .,  c.  7,  this  privilege  is  now  confined  to 
the  Protestant  members  of  that  body.  The  wardenship  of 
Galway  extends  over  the  parishes  of  St  Nicholas,  Rahoon, 
Oranroore,  Clare-Galway,  MoycuUen,  Kilcommon,  Bally na- 
courty,  and  Sbruel,  and  contains  a  total  population  of 
68,1 45.  Galway  is  represented  in  the  Imperial  Parliament 
by  two  members*    The  constituency  in  1836  was  2064« 


The  port  and  harbour  are  under  the  control  of  oommis- 
sioners  acting  under  1  and  2  William  IV.,  c.  54.  The 
harbour  dues  are  at  present  let  for  1260/.  per  annum ;  and 
on  security  of  this  revenue  the  commissioners  have  bor- 
rowed from  the  Board  of  Public  Works  a  sum  of  1 7,000/. 
for  various  improvements  on  the  harbour  now  in  progress. 
The  mayor  of  Galway  is  ex  officio  admiral  of  the  coasts  of 
Galway  bay  as  far  as  the  isles  of  Arran. 

The  borouffh  gaol  erected  in  1810  is  situated  on  the 
upper  of  the  Uiree  islands  which  the  river  here  forms ;  and 
adjoining  it  is  the  county  gaol,  connected  by  a  bridge,  built 
in  1831,  with  the  cotmty  court-house,  a  handsome  cut  stone 
building  erected  in  1815,  with  a  portico  of  four  Doric 
columns.  The  gaol  is  built  on  the  semicircular  model,  and 
is  kept  in  an  excellent  state  of  discipline.  The  borough 
court-house  or  Tholsel,  erected  during  the  civil  wars  of 
1641,  is  a  respectable  edifice:  the  under  part  forms  an 
extensive  piazza. 

Opposite  the  Tholsel,  in  the  middle  of  the  only  plot  of 
ground  within  the  limits  of  the  old  walls,  stands  the  colle- 
giate and  parish  church  of  St.  Nicholas,  founded  in  1320, 
by  much  the  most  imposing  building  in  this  county,  if  the 
lately-erected  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  of  Tuam  be  ex- 
cepted. It  is  of  a  cruciform  shape,  and  extends  in  length 
152  feet  by  126  feet  in  breadth,  including  the  side  aisles; 
the  height  to  the  vault-nave  is  42  feet  10  inches.  From  the 
intersection  of  the  circles  rises  the  tower,  to  which  the  stee- 
ple was  added  in  1633.  In  the  interior  are  various  monu- 
ments of  interest  still  retaining  many  traces  of  sumptuous 
embellishment.  The  style  of  the  building  is  the  pointed 
Grothic.  A  sum  of  1 385/.  has  been  recently  granted  b^  the 
Ecclesiastical  Commissioners  for  its  repair.  The  disposition 
of  the  streets  within  the  circuit  of  the  antient  walls  is  very 
irregular ;  but  in  the  newly-built  portion  of  the  town,  par- 
ticularly in  the  direction  of  the  county  court-house,  uni- 
formity and  airiness  have  been  more  consulted.  The 
custoin-house«  built  in  1807,  is  a  plain  building.  There 
are  two  barracks  with  acoommoaation  for  about  500 
men. 

This  portion  of  the  town  is  built  on  a  gently-rising  emi- 
nence stretching  down  to  the  river  on  the  west,  and  to  the 
sea  on  the  south:  on  the  latter  side  a  creek  of  the  bay 
forms  a  natiural  harbour,  which  is  the  site  of  the  docks  now 
in  progress.  These  docks  will  occupy  about  nine  acres, 
with  water  for  vessels  of  500  tons.  The  spit  of  land  which 
separates  this  basin  f^om  the  river  is  quayed  for  a  distance 
of  1300  feet,  and  terminates  in  a  return  pier.  There  are 
also  two  small  docks  on  the  river  side  of  the  town,  which 
constituted  the  quays  for  merchant  vessels  during  the  old 
period  of  its  continental  trade.  A  small  open  space  adjoin- 
ing is  still  called  Spanish  Parade. 

On  the  western  side  of  the  river  is  the  extensive  suburb 
of  Claddagh,  which  was  a  very  filthy  village  until  1803, 
when  Captain  Hurdis,  of  the  navy,  at  that  time  sta- 
tioned on  the  coast,  persuaded  the  fishermen  by  whom  it  is 
exclusively  occupied  to  set  apart  a  portion  of  their  earnings 
for  the  paving  and  cleansing  of  their  streets ;  and  the  Clad- 
dagh is  now  m  this  respect  superior  to  many  parts  of  the 
town  itself.  The  inhabitants  will  not  permit  strangers  to 
reside  among  them.  The  laws  of  their  fishery  and  most 
of  their  internal  regulations  are  under  the  control  of  a  func- 
tionary whom  they  call  their  mayor,  and  elect  annually. 
They  all  speak  the  Irish  language,  and  the  women  still 
retain  more  of  the  Irish  costume  than  is  observed  in  any 
equally  accessible  district.  In  1820  the  number  of  their 
open  sailing-boats  was  stated  to  be  250.  In  1836  they 
are  stated  at  105,  employing  500  men,  with  80  row- 
boats  employing  320  men.  The  entire  population  of  this 
suburb,  which  is  on  the  increase,  is  estimated  at  about 
6000. 

Although  by  the  act  of  2  Geo.  ll.,  c.  13,  s.  19,  the  cor 
poration  are  speciidly  empowered  to  levy  a  tax  for  the  light- 
mg  of  the  town,  as  well  as  the  inhabitants  generally  by  9 
Geo.  IV.,  c  82,  neither  of  these  acts  has  yet  been  put  in 
force.  Gas-works  are  however  at  present  in  progress  of 
erection.  The  paving  of  the  streets  has  been  greatly 
neglected ;  and  at  night  they  have  hitherto  been  left  unpro- 
tected by  any  police.  The  ftiel  chiefly  used  is  turf,  which 
is  brought  in  large  quantities  from  the  neighbouring  coasts 
of  lar-Connaught  and  Connamara.  The  average  price 
of  coal  is  about  20«.  per  ton ;  but  this  is  an  article,  the  price 
of  which  fluctuates  with  the  weather^  and  sometimes  riseA 
to  ft  guinea  and  a  hslf  per  ton« 


GAM 


62 


GAM 


The  cbief  manufhcture  of  Gdway  is  ftrnr,  wbicb,  owing 
to  a  fall  of  fourteen  feet  in  the  waters  of  Loch  Corrib,  be- 
tween that  lake  and  the  sea,  has  been  carried  to  a  very 
considerable  extent.  In  1820  there  were  twent)Mhree 
flour-milU,  six  oat-mills,  two  malt-mills,  and  three  Ailling- 
mills,  driven  by  this  water-power.  The  (quantity  of  wheat 
ground  and  drevsed  at  this  time  was  estimated  at  1 2,000 
tons  per  annum,  and  the  trade  has  since  increased.  There 
are  a  bleach  mill  and  green  on  one  of  the  islands,  and  an 
extensive  paper-mill  ana  several  breweries  and  distilleries  in 
the  town. 

The  export  of  wheat,  oats,  and  flour  has,  it  is  stated,  tre- 
bled within  the  fifteen  years  preceding  1834.  The  exports 
from  1st  September,  1833,  to  5th  July,  1834,  consisted  of  6018 
tons  of  wheat,  chiefly  to  Liveipool;  7212  tons  of  oats, 
chiefly  to  London;  1554  tons  of  flour;  406  tons  of  barley; 
and  50  tons  of  oatmeal.  Besides  this  there  is  an  export  of 
kelp,  marble,  wool,  and  provisions.  The  imports  consist  of 
timber,  wine,  coal,  salt,  hemp,  tallow,  and  iron.  The  fol- 
lowing table  exhibits  the  progress  of  trade  during  the  last 
ten  years :— 


Year 

•udfag 

6th  Jan. 

Coatom  Receipt!  in 
PoftofUalway. 

Veticla  I«wmrds. 

Veawta  Oatvarda. 

1824 

£.          a. 

13,951     8 

a. 
2 

No. 
73 

Teauage. 

6,856 

No 
127 

Tun  OAK  r. 

11.932 

1825 

17,308     2 

5 

156 

13,IG9 

150 

1 1 , 5:^0 

1826 

23,324     9 

5 

157 

12,866 

156 

13. '^97 

1827 

29,913     7 

8 

140 

12,992 

140 

10,  IM 

1828 

35,784  10 

0 

132 

12,451 

133 

11.3 J6 

1829 

40,109  18 

6 

129 

14,251 

153 

14.5Ci 

1830 

48,564     6 

4 

148 

13,830 

150 

12, ec: 

1831 

36,260     8 

3 

132 

14,006 

107 

10,9-:'; 

1832 

35,183     1 

4 

110 

9,991 

136 

13,29; 

1833 

27,755     4 

8 

112 

11,577 

136 

14,39S 

In  1835  the  customs  had  increased  to  31,1 33f  2#.  5^. : 
the  vessels  inward  numbered  135,  of  an  aggregate  burthen 
of  12,915  tons;  vessels  outward  145,  with  a  tonnage  \A 
15,531.  In  the  same  year  the  excise  duties  for  this  distrirt 
amounted  to  50,154/.  12«.  5d. 


TahU  qf  PiifpulaHon, 


Date. 


1813 
1881 
1891 


IlofW  aaeaitaioed. 


Under  Act  85  Geo.  HI.  e.  1801 
Umter  AetlWai.lV.e.18. 


No.  of 
Hooiea. 

Kaof 
Famlliei. 

• 

Famillei 
dilefly  em- 
ployed In 
Agrical- 
tore. 

8,863 
3.857 
4,606 

•  • 
6.833 
6.858 

•  • 

•  • 
S.64S 

Famlliea 

chiefly  em< 

ployed  in 

Trade. 

Manufae- 

torei.  and 

Handicraft. 


1.307 


Familial 

not 

inelnded  in 

preceding 

claiMS. 

Malec 

Females. 

« • 
«• 
9,809 

•  • 
18,346 
18.487 

*■ 
14.4S8 
17,688 

ToCal 


84.684 

87.775 
33.188 


The  number  of  young  persons  receiving  instruction  in 
the  wardenship  of  Galway  in  1834  was  2827,  of  whom  1763 
were  males  and  1064  females.  The  majority  receive  their 
instruction  from  the  Roman  Catholic  religious  orders,  who 
are  more  numerous  in  Galway  than  in  any  other  part  of. 
the  British  empire.  There  are  monasteries  of  tne  Do- 
minican, Franciscan,  and  Angus  tin  orders  for  men,  with  an 
equal  number  of  nunneries  of  the  same  orders,  together 
with  a  Patrician  monastery,  in  which  is  a  school,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  National  Board  of  Education,  of  799  boys ; 
two  convents  for  nuns  of  the  Presentation  order,  in  one  of 
which  there  is  a  school,  also  in  connexion  with  the  same 
Board,  for  529  girls ;  and  a  Magdalen  asylum.  Two  of  the 
other  schools  within  the  wardenship  are  in  connexion  with 
the  National  Board. 

There  are  four  newspapers  published  in  Galway,  to  which 
39310  stamps  were  issued  in  the  year  1835.  There  are 
two  subscription  news-rooms  and  a  library;  but  in  1834 
there  was  no  regular  bookseller's  shop  in  the  town. 

Tlie  expenses  of  the  county  of  the  town  are  defrayed  by 
grand  jury  assessments,  which,  for  the  year  1835,  amounted 
to  5,701/.  8«.  3d.  The  constabulary  force  in  the  same  year 
consisted  of  one  chief  constable  and  twenty  men,  the  expense 
of  maintaining  which  amounted  to  854/.  \9s,  5d^  of  which 
418/.  198.  7d,  was  chargeable  against  the  county  of  the 
town.  (Hardiman's  Histnry  qf  Galtpay,  Dublin,  1820; 
Mtathtiral  Survei/  qf  Gaitray;  Inglis's  Ireland  in  1834; 
i^trh/invfniary  Retumi,  ^c.) 

O A  MA.  VA.SCO  DE,  the  first  European  navigator  who 
f ..  '.d  'wa  wa)  to  India  by  doubling  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
we  ky,ru  at  xti^s  amHll  Maport  town  of  Sines  in  Portugal. 
Tt.»  o»«*  vf  Ka  l/jfih,  ana  tlia  circumstances  of  his  early 
•  %.  WK  U'A  f/^^TiV/fjrd.  It  appears  that  he  was  in  the 
uwaha'u'j/}  'A  Hisiitwufl  king  of  Portugal,  and  having  de- 
\'f^<^  '  *u**!*  t/y  /,)(-. i/«r ion  and  discovery,  was  appointed  to 
tu*  •«^i  *t.u  'A  'A  %u  •rx\0^Uutm  which  was  to  seek  its  way  to 
tiM  '•i'-.».v  '>avf.  ^tj  ^xUu'x  round  the  southern  extremity 
<!•  riXi^x  T'-»  •i/.vfi  *A  this  passage  was  by  no  means  a 
It*  •  VIM  ii».fi  »i>^.  .t  VM  taken  up  by  the  Portuguese  so- 
%.i«'.^i  i>  urw  .•%M.-%  hv'l  been  pretty  well  established, 
li  .^;  i't-drv  4r  Cy.>  »,»„,  .^  ,,ut  fQf  India  by  way  of  the 
fi.iy.i  •.#fuu»i.' .  •!,►  .*  .  wva  of  »u«B,  and  the  Red  Sea,  and 
If*'  Ha#  «M^  viium-  A^i  M  Uf  M  Ksrypt  by  Alfon«to  de  Payva, 
in.o  fiifii  i«^'  ffii  ♦  y  |rv  •».  a^r  h  or '  Prester  John,'  a  great 
<  ».r*i»iu»i:  i-Hiu,  uri^'y.  •f'#Y  bnnj{  longht  for  in  various 
4  .uiiu.i*.  \^tu  1.1^  fk-p'/rU'd  t/>  \m  hvinj  in  a  high  state  of 
r.vi,/4iti<Hi  lu  «i*r  c^^tm  pajrts  of  Africa.  [Abyssiwia.] 
livtvti  tuekr  iU^jwtunr  U^m  Portogal,  Ctbacfilta  bishop  of 


Viseu  gave  these  travellers  a  map  of  Africa,  in  which  that 
continent  was  correctly  described  as  being  bounded  on  the 
south  bv  a  navigable  sea.  Tliis  map,  or  the  materials  for  i(. 
had  probably  been  procured  ftom  the  trading  Moors  of  Nu.  i  h 
Africa,  to  whom  the  Portuguese  had  long  before  been  in- 
debted for  much  information  concerning  that  continent 

Payva  added  little  to  geographical  knowledge ;  but  Cor.l. 
ham  crossed  the  Indian  Ocean,  visited  Goa,  Oilicut,  ar»d 
other  places  on  the  coast  of  Hindostan,  acquired  an  exalte*! 
notion  of  the  trade  and  wealth  of  those  parts,  and  on  hi^ 
return  towards  the  Red  Sea  he  obtained  from  Arabian  ma  • 
riners  some  information  concerning  the  eastern  coast  of 
Africa  as  fiu*  as  Sofala  on  the  Mozambique  Channel.  S^-^n 
after  his  return  he  visited  Abyssinia,  where  he  was  detained 
by  the  government  for  some  thirty  years.  Shortly-  after  ar- 
riving in  that  country  he  found  means  of  forwarding  letters 
to  the  king  of  Portugal,  in  which  he  stated  that  no  doubt 
existed  as  to  the  possibility  of  sailing  from  Europe  to  India 
by  doubling  the  southern  point  of  Africa,  and  he  added  thui 
that  southern  cape  was  well  known  to  Arabian  and  Indian 
navigators.  The  reports  of  Covilham,  and  the  well-known 
importance  of  the  trade  with  India,  greatly  excited  the  Por- 
tugese, who  moreover  had  long  been  pursuing  discu^ory 
on  the  western  coast  of  Africa ;  and  in  the  course  of  tins, 
the  fifteenth  century,  they  had  gradually  extended  their  r>'- 
searches  from  Cape  Non,  in  lat.  28°  40'  N.,  to  Cape  Cn>ss. 
or  de  Padrone,  in  lat,  22**  S.  At  the  end  of  December, 
1487,  Bartholomew  Diaz  had  returned  to  Lisbon  after  dis- 
covering 300  leagues  of  coast,  and  correctly  laying  down  the 
^reat  Cape,  which  he  doubled  in  a  storm  without  knowint; 
it,  but  which  he  had  properly  recognised  on  his  retuni. 
[Afkica.]  Vasco  de  Gama  sailed  from  Lisbon  on  the  *>:h 
of  July,  1497,  five  years  after  the  discovery  of  the  Nc« 
World  by  Columbus.  The  royal  squadron  which  he  cum- 
manded  consisted  only  of  three  small  vessels,  with  »i\:y 
men  in  all.  The  Cape  of  Good  Hope  seemed  to  merit  the 
name  which  had  been  given  it  by  Diaz — Cdbo  Tormonto<>. 
Dreadful  tempests  were  encountered  before  reaching  it,  tli« 
winds  were  contrary,  and  their  fears  and  their  sufTerin^-i 
caused  a  mutiny  among  the  sailors,  who  tried  to  ind  ur-/ 
Gama  to  put  back.  But  the  firmness  of  the  commander 
quieted  the  apprehensions  of  his  men,  and  on  the  19tli  No- 
vember, with  a  stormv  sea,  he  doubled  the  Cape  and  lurmil 
along  the  eastern  shore.  [Africa.]  On  reaching  the 
African  town  of  Melinda,  which  belonged  to  a  coiniucrral 
and  civilized  people,  a  branch  of  the  great  race  of  Afoor>  lt 
Arabian  Mohammedans,  he  found  several  Christian  niex- 
chants  fh)m  India,  and  ne  also  procuitd  the  valuable  scr> 


GAM 


63 


GAM 


vices  of  Malemo  Gana,  •  pilot  from  Gocent  This  man 
was  a  skilful  navigator :  he  was  not  surprised  at  the  sight 
of  the  Astrolabe^  or  at  their  method  of  taking  the  meridian 
altitude  of  the  sun.  He  told  them  that  both  Uie  instrument 
and  its  uses  were  familiar  to  the  mariners  of  the  Eastern 
tieas.  Under  the  guidance  of  this  pilot  Gama  made  the 
coaftst  of  Malabar  in  twenty-three  days,  and  anchored  before 
Calicut  on  the  20th  of  May,  1498,  then  a  pkce  of  consider- 
able manufactures  and  foreign  trade,  which  was  chiefly  in 
the  hands  of  Moors  or  Arabs.  Gama  opened  communica- 
tions with  the  zamarin  or  sovereign  prince  of  Calicut,  who, 
at\er  some  negotiation,  agreed  to  receive  him  with  the 
honours  usually  paid  to  an  ambassador. 

The  sailorsi  who  were  well  acquainted  with  the  character 
of  the  Moors,  feared  that  if  their  commander  put  himself  in 
their  power  he  would  fiotll  a  victim  to  their  treachery  and 
jealousy.    The  officers  also  and  his  brother  Paul  strongly 
dissuaded  him  from  landing.     But  Gama  was  resolved. 
Arming  twelve  of  his  bravest  men,  he  went  into  his  boat, 
strictly  charging  his  officers,  in  case  he  should  be  murdered, 
to  return  immediately  to  Portugal  and  there  announce  to 
the  king  the  discoveries  made,  and  his  fate.  On  landing  he 
was  received  with  great  pomp  and  ceremony  by  the  natives, 
who  conducted  him  through  the  town  to  a  house  in  the 
country,  where  on  the  fbllowing  day  the  zamorin  granted 
him  an  audience.    At  first  his  reception  was  very  fevourable, 
but  the  tone  of  the  prince  soon  changed;  a  circumstance 
which  the  Portuguese  attribute  to  the  intrigues  of  the  Moors 
and  Arabs,  who  were  jealous  of  the  new  comers.    The  ill- 
humour  of  the  zamorin  was  not  soothed  by  an  unlucky 
omission.     Gama  had  not  brought  any  suitable  presents, 
and  the  few  naltry  things  he  offered  were  rejected  with 
contempt  by  the  officer  appointed  to  inspect  them.    What- 
ever may  have  been  the  desi^s  of  the  zamorin  against 
the  Portuguese,  Gama,  it  is  said,  at  last  succeeded  in  con- 
vincing him  of  the  great  advantages  he  might  derive  from 
a  commercial  and  friendly  intercourse  with  the  Portuguese ; 
and  he  certainly  was  allowed  to  get  back  to  his  ships  in 
safety.    As  soon  as  he  was  on  board  he  made  sail,  and  after 
repairing  his  ships  at  the  Angedive  Isles,  on  the  coast  a  little 
to  the  north  of  Calicut,  he  again  stood  across  the  Indian 
Ocean.    He  touched  at  Magadoxa,  or  Mukdeesha,  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Africa  and  nearer  to  the  Straits  of  Bab-el- 
Mandeb  than  he  had  gone  on  his  outer  voyage.    He  next 
anchored  at  Melinda,  and   took  on  board  an  ambassador 
from  the  Mohammedan  prince  of  that  place.    He  arrived 
at  Lisbon  in  September,  1499,  having  been  absent  about  two 
Tears  and  two  months.    His  sovereign  received  him  with 
high  honours,  and  conferred  on  him  the  sounding  title  of 
Admiral  of  the  Indian,  Persian,  and  Arabian  seas.    This 
voyage  of  Gama  is  a  great  epoch  in  commercial  history :  it 
showed  the  nations  of  the  West  the  sea-road  to  the  remote 
East ;  it  diverted  the  trade  of  the  East  from  the  Persian 
Gulf,  the  Red  Sea,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  and  Italy,  the  routes 
in  which  it  had  run  for  1400  years;  and  it  led  ultimately 
to  the  establishment  in  India  of  a  vast  empire  of  European 
merchants.    The  effect  it  had  upon  Italy  was  most  disad- 
vantageous, and  though  there  were  other  causes  at  work, 
the  decline  of  the  great  tradinj^  republics  of  Venice  and 
Geno(^  may  be  traced  to  the  discovery  of  the  passage  to 
India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.    Soon  after  Gama's 
return  Emanuel  sent  out  a  second  fleet  to  India,  under  the 
command  of  Pedro  Alvares  de  Cabral.    The  most  remark- 
able incident  of  this  voyage  was  the  accidental  discovery 
of  BrazU.  [Brazil,  vol.  v.  p.  369.]  From  Brazil  however  the 
little  fleet  got  to  India,  and  Cabral  established  a  fiictor>-  at 
Calicut — the  first  humble  settlement  made  by  the  Europeans 
in  that  part  of  the  world.  But  Cabral  had  scarcely  departed 
vhen  all  the  Portuguese  he  left  behind  were  massacred  by 
the  natives  or  Moors,  or  by  both.    The  Portuguese  govern- 
ment now  resolved  to  employ  force.     Twenty  ships  were 
prepared  and  distributed  into  three  squadrons ;  Gama  set 
sail  with  the  largest  division,  of  ten  ships — the  others  were 
to  join  him  in  the  Indian  seas.    After  doubling  the  Cape, 
be  ran  down  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  taking  vengeance 
}ipon  those  towns  which  had  been  unfriendly  to  him  dur- 
ing bis  former  voyage.    He  settled  a  factory  at  Sofala,  and 
another  at  Mozambique.     On  approaching  the  coast  of 
India  he  captured  a  rich  ship  belonging  to  the  Soldan  of 
EjO'pt,  and  after  removing  what  suited  him  he  set  fire  to 
the  vessel ;  all  the  crew  were  burned  or  drowned,  or  stabbed 
Dy  the  Portuguese.    He  then  went  toCananore,  and  forced 
the  prince  of  that  country  to  enter  into  an  alliance  with 


him ;  on  arriving  at  Calicut,  the  main  object  of  his  voyage, 
he  seized  all  the  ships  in  that  port  Alarmed  at  his  display 
of  force— for  Gama  had  been  joined  by  some  of  the  other 
ten  ships— the  zamorin  condescended  to  treat;  but  the 
Portuguese  admiral  would  listen  to  no  propositions  unless  a 
full  and  sanguinary  satisfaction  were  given  for  the  murder 
of  his  countrymen  m  the  factory.  Gama  waited  three  days, 
and  then  barbarously  hanged  at  his  yard-arms  fifty  Mala- 
bar sailors  whom  he  had  taken  in  the  port  On  the  next 
day  he  cannonaded  the  town,  and  having  destroyed  the 
greater  part  of  it,  he  left  some  of  the  ships  to  blockade  the 

Sort,  and  sailed  away  with  the  rest  to  Cochin,  the  neigh- 
ouring  state  to  Calicut  These  neighbours  being  old 
enemies,  it  was  easy  for  Gama  to  make  a  treaty  with  the 
sovereign  of  Cochin,  whom  he  promised  to  assist  in  his  wars 
with  Calicut.  It  is  not  quite  clear  whether  a  war  existed 
at  the  time,  or  whether  Cochin  was  driven  into  one  by  the 
manoeuvres  of  the  Portuguese ;  and  according  to  some 
accounts,  Gama  only  renewed  a  treaty  which  had  been  made 
by  Cabral  two  years  earlier.  It  was  Gama  however  who 
first  established  a  factory  in  Cochin,  at  the  end  of  1502. 
In  the  following  year,  the  Alburquerques  obtained  permis- 
sion to  build  a  fort  on  the  same  spot ;  the  Portuguese  then 
became  masters  of  the  port  and  the  sea-coast,  and  Cochin 
was  thus  the  cradle  of  their  future  power  in  India.  Gama 
left  the  zamorin  of  Calicut  with  a  war  with  Cochin  on  his 
hands ;  and  five  ships  remained  on  the  coast  of  Malabar  to 
protect  the  settlement  The  admiral  arrived  at  Lisbon  with 
thirteen  of  the  ships  in  the  month  of  December,  1503.  The 
court  created  him  Count  of  Videqueyra.  Gama  however 
was  not  re-appointed  to  the  command  in  India,  where  the 
career  of  conquest  was  prosecuted  by  Alburouerque,  Vascon- 
cellos,  and  ottiers.  In  1 524,  eight  years  after  the  death  of 
the  great  Alburquerque,  Gama,  who  had  been  living  quietly 
at  home  for  nearlv  twenty  years,  was  appointed  viceroy  of 
Portuguese  India,  being  the  first  man  that  held  that  high 
title.  He  died  in  December,  1525,  shortly  after  his  arrival 
at  Cochin.  His  body  was  buried  at  that  place,  and  lay  there 
till  ]  538,  when,  by  order  of  John  lU.,  his  remains  were 
carried  to  Portugal. 

Vasco  de  Gama  was  a  brave  and  skilful  man,  but  owing 
to  several  circumstances  his  fame  has  been  raised  somewhat 
above  his  real  merits.  The  main  cause  of  this  is  probably  to 
be  found  in  the  great  national  poem  of  the  immortal  Camoens, 
of  a  portion  of  which  Gama  is  the  hero,  the  adventures  of 
his  first  voyage  to  India  being  described  with  even  more 
than  the  usuiu  brilliancv  and  amplification  of  poetry.  (Bar- 
ros,  Decades;  Castanheda  and  Lafitau's  Hist  Conqu, 
Port  US' ;  Cooley's  Hist.  Mar,  Discov.;  Camoens.) 

GAMBIA,  a  river  in  Western  Africa,  whose  embouchure 
U  situated  betwen  13**  and  14°  N.  lat.  and  near  IG**  W.  long. 
The  upper  course  of  thb  river  has  not  been  visited  by 
European  travellers ;  but  according  to  information  obtained 
from  natives  its  source  seems  to  be  on  the  northern  decli- 
vity of  the  mountain  region  which  occupies  nearly  the 
whole  country  between  the  Sahara  and  the  coast  of  Guinea, 
near  the  place  where  the  1 1th  northern  parallel  is  cut  by  9'' 
W.  long.  More  than  one  half  of  its  course  lies  through 
the  mountain  region  itself.  Where  it  begins  to  emerge 
from  the  mountains  and  enters  the  hillv  country,  which 
separates  them  from  the  plain  along  the  shores  of  the 
Ocean,  it  receives  on  the  right  a  considerable  branch,  the 
Nerico,  which  comes  down  from  Bondoo  with  a  south- 
western course.  Up  to  the  confluence  with  this  river  the 
Gambia  seems  to  run  in  a  west-north-western  direction,  but 
soon  afterwards  it  turns  due  west,  and  continues  this  course 
to  its  mouth.  After  this  change  in  its  direction,  the  €ram- 
bia  has  a  small  impediment  in  its  navigation  at  Baraconda, 
near  Madina,  but  tnough  it  is  usually  cal]^  a  fall,  it  is  only 
a  rapid  which  does  not  totally  impede  the  passage  of  canoes 
or  small  boats.  Up  to  this  fall,  as  it  seems,  the  tide  ascends. 
Small  sailing-vessels  may  go  up  to  this  point  from  which 
to  its  mouth  the  course  of  the  river  is  well  known ;  it 
mostly  runs  through  a  flat  country,  which  however  for  some 
distance  is  enclosed  by  hills  and  rising  grounds;  tliese 
heights  however  sink  lower  and  lower,  and  disappear  en- 
tirely at  Kayaye,  about  120  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
river.  The  remainder  of  its  course  is  through  an  immense 
plain.  The  flat  countries  along  its  banks  are  annually  in- 
undated and  distinguished  by  their  vigorous  vegetation. 

The  English  have  some  establishments  along  this  river. 
Formerly  there  was  one  at  Pisania,  about  160  miles  from 
the  mouth,  but  it  was  abandoned  in  consequence  of  the  an- 


GAM 


64 


GAM 


novmnoe  frequently  experienced  from  the  people  of  Bondoo 
and  Woolli.  The  forthest  En^rlMh  establishment,  we  be- 
lieve, is  now  at  Jonkakonda,  a  little  more  than  120  miles 
fiom  the  mouth  of  the  ri%'er.  Other  settlements  are  at  St. 
Jamos*s  and  lellifry ;  but  the  principal  establishment  is  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river,  the  town  of  Bathurst,  whence  the 
produce  of  the  country  is  shipped  for  England.  [Bathurst.] 
The  whole  course  of  the  Gambia  protmbly  exceeds  500 
miles.  It  is  called  by  the  natives  Ba  Ueema.  (Mungo  Park ; 
Gray*s  TYaveU  in  Wutem  jifirica.) 
GAMBOGE.    [Cambogk.] 

GAMBO'GIA.      [HsBRADBNDItON.] 

GAME-LAWS  were  the  remnant  of  the  antient  forest- 
laws,  under  which  the  killing  one  of  the  kins^^s  deer  was 
equally  penal  with  murdering  one  of  his  subjects ;  or,  as 
Sir  W.  Blackstone  somewhat  quaintly  expresses  it,  '  from 
this  root  has  sprung  a  bastard  slip,  known  by  the  name  of 
the  game-law,  now  arrived  to  and  wantoning  in  its  highest 
vigor,  both  founded  upon  the  same  unreasonable  notion  of 
permanent  property  in  wild  creatures,  and  both  productive 
of  the  same  tyranny  to  the  commons ;  but  with  this  dif- 
ference, that  the  forest-laws  establii^hed  only  one  mighty 
hunter  throughout  the  land,  the  game-laws  have  raised  a 
little  Nimrod  in  every  manor.* 

These  laws  decided  what  birds  and  beasts  should  be 
deemed  game,  prohibited  all  persons  not  duly  Qualified  by 
birth  or  estate  from  killing  any  of  such  prohibited  creatures, 
or  even  from  having  them  in  their  possession  as  articles  of 
food,  and  inflicted  severe  punishments  and  penalties  upon 
the  offenders  against  their  provisions. 

Daring  the  operation  of  the  game-laws  the  gaols  were 
filled  with  offenders  against  them,  and  profligate  habits  were 
induced,  violence  was  committed,  and  misery  of  the  most 
dreadful  description  was  caused  by  the  temptations  to  vio- 
late these  enactments.  Yet  the  landed  proprietors  continued 
to  support  the  obnoxious  system,  regardless  of  the  evil  it 
produced ;  jealousies  were  created  among  themselves,  and 
the  most  notorious  injustice  was  perpetrated  before  indivi- 
dual magistrates  and  the  courts  of  quarter-sesiiions,  who 
could  hardly  be  expected  to  judge  offenders  against  their 
own  cherished  pririleges  with  impartiality ;  until  at  last  the 
legislature  was  compelled  to  interfere,  and  by  a  statute 
passed  in  1631,  1  and  2  William  IV.  c.  32,  the  old  system 
was  materially  improved.  The  whole  of  the  farmer  pro- 
visions respecting  qualification  by  estate  or  birth  wore 
removed,  and  any  person  obtaining  a  certificate  is  now 
enabled  to  kill  game,  cither  upon  his  own  land  or  on  the 
land  of  any  other  person  with  his  permission. 

The  sale  of  game  is  under  certain  restrictions  legalised ; 
and  being  recognised  as  an  article  of  legal  traffic,  the  statute 
very  properly  provides  some  more  summary  means  than 
those  previously  in  force  for  protecting  it  from  trespasses. 
Poaching  in  the  night-time  still  remains  punishable  by  im- 
prisonment for  the  first  two  offences,  and  by  imprisonment 
or  transportation  for  the  third. 

For  the  purposes  of  this  statute  the  word  Game  is  declared 
to  include  hares,  pheasants,  partridges,  grouse,  heath  or  moor 
game,  black  game,  and  bustards ;  and  the  periods  during 
which  the  different  species  of  game  may  not  be  killed  is 
declared,  such  periods  being  the  breeding  and  rearing 
seasons  of  the  different  species ;  and  penalties  are  imposed 
upon  persons  laying  poison  for  game,  or  destroying  the 
e'r.rs  of  any  bird  of  game,  or  of  any  swan,  wild  duck,  teal, 
or  widgeon,  or  knowingly  having  possession  thereof. 

The  penalty  imposed  by  the  above  statute  for  killing  game 
without  a  certificate  in  the  day-time  is  5/.  for  each  oft'ence; 
and  trespassers,  even  if  licensed  to  kill  game,  may  be  fined 
i/.  with  costs,  or  if  in  greater  number  than  five  persons,  5/. 
each,  and  the  ^me  killed  may  be  demanded  and  taken 
from  them.  The  penalties  were  made  recoverable  in  a 
summary  way  belbro  two  justices  of  the  peace,  and  if  the 
party  trcspa.<sing  refuses  to  give  his  name  and  address,  he 
may  be  apprehended  and  taken  before  a  justice  of  the 
peare  by  the  person  entitled  to  the  game,  or  the  person 
entiiled  to  the  land,  or  any  person  authorized  by  either  of 
them. 

Gamekeepers  are  persons  authorized  by  lords  oi  manors 
or  reputed  manon  to  kill  game ;  but  the  authority  does  not 
extend  beyond  the  limits  of  the  manor,  though  a  game- 
keeper may  be  appointed  for  any  number  of  manors;  the 
le-ttriction  indeed  is  rarely,  if  ever,  insisted  upon.  The 
'  '^Hil  of  all  game-laws  being  the  pn«en'ation  of  game,  it 
u  lollicicDtly  attained  by  the  prohibition  to  kill  game 


during  the  breeding  and  rearing  sataons.  All  peraona 
having  an  equal  right,  under  certain  rastrietions,  to  kill 
game  during  the  rest  of  the  year,  have  in  fact  an  interest 
in  enforcing  the  observance  of  the  laws. 

Though  not  coming  strictly  under  the  usual  meaning  of 
the  term  game-laws,  we  may  mention  that  the  salmon - 
rivers  are  closed  during  a  certain  specified  period  of  the 
year,  being  the  spawning  season ;  a  regulation  oonsidcrecl 
necessary  to  preserve  the  breed  of  fish,  and  also  because  at 
that  season  tne  flesh  is  not  wholesome  lor  food.  (4  BU 
Com. ;  Deacon  on  the  Game-Laws.) 

GAMING,  or  GAMBLING,  is  an  amusement,  or  we 
might  properly  call  it  a  vice,  which  has  always  been  com- 
mon in  all  civilized  countries  and  among  all  claases,  but 
more  particularly  the  rich  and  those  who  have  no  reguliir 
occupation.  But  a  pa.<sion  for  gaming  is  not  confined  to  tb« 
nations  called  civilized :  wherever  men  have  much  leisure 
time  and  no  pursuit  which  will  occupy  the  mind  and 
stimulate  it  to  active  exertion,  the  excitement  of  gam- 
in|^,  which  is  nothing  more  than  the  mixed  pleasure  and 
pain  arising  Arom  the  alternations  of  hope  and  fear,  suc- 
cess and  failure,  is  a  necessity  which  all  men  feeU  though 
in  different  degrees  according  to  the  difference  of  tempera- 
ment. The  Germans,  says  Tacitus,  stake  their  own  per- 
sons, and  the  loser  will  go  into  voluntary  slavery,  and  suffer 
himself  to  be  bound  and  sold,  though  stronger  than  hi% 
antagonist;  and  many  savage  nations  at  the  present  day 
are  notoriously  addicted  to  gambling.  Gaming  has  bet.-ii 
described  by  Cotton,  an  amusing  author  who  wrote  in  the 
beginning  of  the  last  century,  as  '  an  enchanting  witchery 
gotten  betwixt  idleness  and  avarice.'  Besides  the  pleasure 
derived  from  the  excitement  that  attends  games  of  ohancv, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  desire  to  enjoy  without  labour  is 
one  motive  which  operates  on  a  gambler;  but  this  moti%e 
operates  more  on  those  who  are  practised  gamestem  than 
on  those  who  are  beginning  the  practice ;  and  instances  arv 
not  wanting  of  men  strongly  addicted  to  gaming,  who  ha%c 
yet  been  indifferent  to  money,  and  whose  pleasure  has  con- 
sisted in  setting  their  property  on  a  die. 

In  France,  and  many  other  parts  of  the  Continent,  the 
government  has  not  only  allowed,  but  has  derived  a  consi- 
derable revenue  from  games  of  chance.  In  Pkris,  the 
exclusive  right  of  keeping  public  gaming-houses  was,  un- 
til the  year  1838,  let  out  to  one  company,  who  paid  an  an- 
nual sum  of  6,000,000  francs  (about  240,000/.)  tor  the  pri%  i- 
lege.  They  kept  six  houses,  namely,  Frascati's,  the  8aluns 
and  four  in  the  Palais  Royal.  In  a  recent  trial  in  Paris,  it 
came  out  in  the  course  of  the  evidence,  that  the  dear  prqAt 
for  1837,  exclusive  of  the  duty,  had  been  1,900,000  i^ncs 
(76,000/.)>  of  which  three-fourths  was  paid  to  the  city  of 
Paris,  leaving  the  lessee  lO.OOOi.  for  his  own  share,  llio 
average  number  of  players  per  day  was  stated  at  3000,  and 
about  1000  more  reAised  admittance.  The  games  played 
were  chiefly  Roulette  and  Rouge-et-Noir,  of  which  the  latter 
is  the  favourite.  It  is  very  seldom  that  large  sums  are  stakol 
at  the  former,  as  the  chances  against  the  player  are  ciin- 
sidered  immense  hy  professional  men,  a  class  of  gentlemen 
who  are  gamblers  by  profession.  Rouge-et-Noir  is  played 
with  four  packs  of  cards,  and  the  *  couleur*  which  is  nearest 
31  wins;  the  black  being  dealt  for  first,  and  then  the  red. 
All  the  houses  were  open  from  one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon 
till  one  or  two  after  midnight ;  and  latterly  till  five  or  six  i:i 
the  morning.  The  highest  play,  especially  at  FrascatiV  wa< 
carried  on  between  three  and  six  in  the  afternoon.  Ten  or 
twelve  thousand  francs  were  constantly  lost  at  asittini;,  ond 
once  within  these  few  years  100,000  francs,  which  ci>n!%ii- 
tuted  the  *  Banque*of  the  day,  was  won  by  a  French  nohh>- 
man.  The  actual  chance  of  the  table  or  *  Banque*  is  consi- 
dered to  be  7^  per  cent.  abo\'e  that  of  the  player,  supp<»in^ 
the  game  to  be  fairly  played,  as  it  no  doubt  was  in  Puri>. 
under  tbe  old  system ;  the  cards  being  examined  and  8tain|>«^ 
bv  the  government,  and  there  being  an  agent  of  the  poltcc 
always  present  and  ready  to  detect  any  attempted  f^ud  <  u 
the  part  of  the  company.  But  admitting  the  same  to  U- 
fairly  played,  the  coolness  of  the  '  croupiers*  or  dealers,  %\u^ 
had  no  interest  at  stake  (the  whole  of  the  losses  or  gani« 
being  taken  by  the  company),  and  the  large  capital  of  the 
latter,  made  it  absolutely  impossible  for  the  player  to  win,  in 
the  long  run ;  nay,  it  is  clear  that  he  must  lose,  and  that  i;i 
proportion  to  his  stake,  which  probably  is  regulated  by  his 
means.  This  we  have  heard  admitted  by  the  most  constant 
frequenten  of  these  houses ;  and  nevertheless,  undtrr  thu 
influence  of  those  causes  which  first  UssA  man  to  gaming'. 


CAN 


615 


GAR 


•otly  slight  grounds,  under  the  names  of  Lairt4ht>e,  Dcjta- 
«Mii4*t  MeiHa,  MaerOy  Pherusa,  AmphiMe,  Orchestiih  &c. 
xhe  greater  part  of  these,  M.  De^mare^t  states,  have  not 
been  adopted  by  the  more  recent  authors  ou  the  natural 
bislory  of  the  Crustaceans,  and  the  only  ones  which  had  been 
generally  admitted  when  he  wrote  were  TalUnu  and  Cora- 
phium,  Cerajna  of  Say  he  considers  to  )»e  founded  on 
sufticient  characters.  M.  Latreille  however,  in  the  fourth 
Tol.  of  Cuvier's  'Regno  AuimaV  (ed.l&29), admits  them  all. 
Gammarus  (Amphipoda)  is  noticed  by  Mr.  Westwood  as 
one  of  the  types  of  each  of  the  great  groups  of  the  typical 
Malacostracous  Crustacea,  which  have  been  ascertained  to 
uiidcrgo  no  change  of  form  sufficiently  marked  to  warrant 
the  eraplovment  of  the  term  metamorphosis.   iPhiL  Tratu^ 


«•  Oaniatnit  Poles,  nugnifled)  h,  (he  Imd  uid  aBlaAaa  of  the  tame, 
M|^y  HiafBi&ML 

GAHMUT,  in  Music,  signifies,  in  the  popular  sense  of 
the  word,  the  diatonic  scale,  as  named  either  by  the  seTen 
first  letters  of  the  alphabet,  or  by  the  syllables  used  in  sol- 
miiation.  i,e.  do.  re,  mi.  fa,  sol,  la,  si.  [Diatonic  Scalk.] 
And  occasionally  the  term  is  applied  to  a  single  note — the 
•  below  the  base  clef.  The  word  is  compounded  of  the 
name  of  the  third  letter  in  the  Greek  alphabet,  T  (gamma), 
the  final  Yowel  being  cut  oiF,  with  the  sellable  ut  added. 
In  the  eleventh  century  the  antient  scale  was  extended  by 
the  addition  of  a  note  below  that  sound  which  the  Greek^ 
ctlled  proslambanomenos  ii,e.  supernumerary),  the  latter 
•ntwenng  to  our  a,  the  first  space  of  the  base  staff',  and  the 
note  was  called  Gamm'-ut^ — that  is,  o  ut,  or  g  do. 

The  invention  of  the  gammut  in  its  antiquated  form 
is  generally  ascribed  to  Guido  d*ArezEo,  but  it  tiow  seems 
nearly  certain  that  in  part,  if  not  wholly,  it  exi:>tcd  much 
eariier  than  his  period.  It  long  continued  in  use.  and  was 
one  of  the  many  stumbling-blocks  in  the  path  of  musical 
atttdenta.  Happily  little  more  than  the  name  remains ;  it  is 
therefora  unnecessary  for  us  to  enter  fVirther  into  the  sub- 
ject. 

GANGA.    (Tbtraonid.c.I 

G  AN  GAM.    [CiRCARS,  North  krn.] 

GANGANELLI.    [Clement  XIV.] 

GANGES.    [Hindustan.] 

GANNAT.    [Allier.] 

6ANNET.    iBooBY.  vol.  v.] 

GANYME'DA  (Zoology),  Mr.  Gray*s  name  for  a  genus 
of  radiated  animals  allied  to  the  Echtnida  and  the  Atteriid^e, 
wid  which  he  thus  characterizes. 

Body  hemiipkeriealy  depressed,  thin,  chalky,  hollow. 
The  back  xounaed.  rather  depressed,  flattened  behind,  with 
a  rather  sunk  quadrangular  central  space.  The  sides  co- 
vered with  sunken  angular  cavities,  witn  a  small  round  ring, 
having  an  oblong  transverse  subccntral  hole  in  their  base. 
Underside  small,  rather  concave,  with  five  slight  sloping 
elevations  from  the  angles  of  the  mouth  to  the  angles  of  the 
rather  pentagonal  margin.  The  edge  simple.  The  mouth 
central.  Vent  none.  Cavity  simple.  Farietes  thin  and 
minutely  dotted :  centre  of  the  dorsal  di<(c  pellucid. 

The  genus,  in  Mr.  Gray's  opinion,  is  very  nearly  allied  to 
Dr.  Gold/us»*s  Glenotremitei  paraJoxtu  {Petri fact.  tab.  49, 
i  9.  and  t.  51,  f.  1),  but  Mr.  Gray  points  out  the  diflferences, 
«nd  is  iiiduf'cd  to  ron^ider  these  two  genera  as  forming  a 
Ikmilv  or  order  between  the  Echirndce  and  the  AstenicUe; 
allied  to  the  latter  in  having  only  a  single  opening  to  the 
digest t\e  canal,  and  aprccing  with  the  former  in  shape  and 
consistence,  but.  differing  from  it  in  not  being  composed  of 
nanv  pbtei. 

Mr.  Gray  only  knew  of  two  specimens  of  Ganymedoy 
whi.  h  lie  b*h»'\e*  weie  found  on  the  coast  of  Kent,  as  he 
discovered  them  mix<!<l  with  a  quantity  of  Ditcopora  Pati- 
na, wli>:h  he  Cfllected  se^eral  years  ago  from  ftici  and 
abeUs  on  that  coast,  bize  of  specimens  one-eighth  of  an  inch 


in  diameter.    Species  Ganymeda  putehtlla^  Gray.    iZ^^L 

Proc.  Ib34.> 

GAOL.    [Prison] 

GAOL  DELIVERY.  The  oouraission  of  gaol  di^h- 
very  is  directed  to  the  justices  of  assiie  of  each  cirruit  tSf* 
Serjeants  and  king's  counsel  attending  that  circuit,  the  clerk 
of  the  assiie,  and  the  judges  associate.  It  is  a  patent  in 
the  nature  of  a  letter  from  the  king,  constituting  them  li  * 
justices,  and  commanding  them. four,  three,  or  two  of  ihrtn. 
of  which  number  there  must  be  one  at  least  of  the  judtn^n 
and  Serjeants  specified,  and  authorizing  them  to  delner  h  • 
gaol  at  a  particular  town  of  the  prisoners  in  it ;  it  also  i  n  ff  >f : . .  * 
them  that  the  sheriff  is  commanded  to  bring  the  pri^ofi-.  ^ 
and  tlieir  attachments  before  them  at  a  day  to  be  named  \\ 
the  commissioners  themselves.  Under  this  commission  t:  • 
judges  may  proceed  upon  any  indictment  of  felony  or  trt  «• 
pass  found  before  other  justices  a?ain»t  any  person  in  t  he- 
prison  mentioned  in  their  commission  and  not  deter minc-1. 
in  which  respect  their  authority  differs  from  that  of  ju<k!io./<» 
of  oyer  and  terminer,  who  can  proceed  only  upon  iufhrt- 
men'ts  found  before  themselves.  (2  Hale,  P.O.)    [Asstr^  \ 

Antiently  it  was  the  course  to  i«sue  specifld  writs  of  ;:»>•! 
deliver}'  for  each  prisoner,  but  this  being  found  inrx>n>  c- 
nient  and  oppressive,  a  general  commission  has  iong  be«rn 
established  in  their  stead.    (4  Bl.  Com. ;  Hawk,  P.  C) 

GAP,  a  city  in  France,  capital  of  the  department  ^f 
Hautes  Alpes  (High  Alp>),  on  the  north-west  bank  of  thi> 
little  ri\er  Line,  which  flows  into  the  Durance:  44^  34'  N. 
lat.,  6°  b'  E.  long.  Gap  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  a  h'>I> 
low :  the  neighbourhood  is  fertile,  and  the  surrounding  hi  IN, 
naked  and  desolate  in  some  parts,  are  in  others  en tirr:\ 
covered  with  vineyards.  The  streets  of  the  town  are  narr  •  w 
and  ill-paved,  and  the  houses  poor:  the  public  edifices  an* 
the  cathedral,  the  episcopal  palace,  several  Catholic  rhurclK-s 
and  one  Protestant  church,  the  townhall.  the  prefect^  oflirr. 
the  courts  of  justice,  and  the  barracks.  A  public  w,  ,'» 
(boulevard)  occupies  the  site  of  the  town  walls.  The  p'>p  :• 
lation  of  the  town  was,  in  1831,  4572 ;  that  of  the  commui.t , 
7215  in  1831,  and  7834  in  1836.  There  are  at  Gap  a  com- 
mercial high  school,  a  seminary  for  the  priesthood,  a  ntn- 
seuro  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  antiquities,  a  museum  of 
natural  history,  and  a  theatre.  The  dioeese  of  Gap  f.r- 
merly  included  parts  of  Dauphin^  and  Provence :  at  pie- 
sent  it  consists  of  the  department  of  Hautes  Alpes. 

Gup  was  in  the  middle  aces  subject  to  the  counts  of  F>>r- 
ealquier,  and  afterwards  to  its  own  bishops,  tk'ho  bad  the  tit^e 
first  of  princes,  then  only  of  counU.  Its  territory,  which 
took  from  it  the  designation  Gapen^ois.  was  one  of  the  su^.h 
divisions  of  Haut  or  Upper  Dauphin^.  It  was  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Le  Gr6sivaudan,  on  the  south  by  Les  Baronnsri 
and  by  the  dioceses  of  Sisteron  and  Digne,  on  the  east  l>v 
L'Embrunois  and  on  the  west  by  Le  Diois.    [Dattphiml.J 

GAR-FISH,  a  species  offish  inhabiting  the  European 
seas,  and  which  is  caught  in  tolerable  abun£ince  on  van'ou> 
parts  of  the  coast  of  our  own  country.  This  fish  is  allied 
to  the  Pike,  and  from  the  resemblance  it  bears  to  that  <;pc> 
cies,  has  been  called  by  some  the  Sea  Pike.  It  is  bowc\>  r 
of  a  more  elongated  form,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  great 
length  and  slcfidemcss  of  the  jaw-bones. 

Both  jaws  are  furnished  along  their  edges  with  nuneroui 
small  pointed  teeth :  the  upper-jaw.  which  consists  of  the 
intermaxillary  bones,  is  the  shorter.  The  body  is  covertxl 
with  scales,  which  are  not  very  distinct.  The  dorsal  ami 
anal  fins  are  of  a  simple  form, and  about  equal  in  size:  they 
are  placed  opposite  each  other,  and  not  veiy  distant  fn»m 
the  tail,  which  is  forked.  The  ventral  fins  are  small,  aii') 
situated  behind  the  middle  portion  of  the  body.  The  up]K'r 
parts  of  the  head  and  back  are  of  a  deep  blue-green  coiuu.'. 
and  the  under  parts  are  silvery-white :  the  dorsal  fin  and 
the  tail  are  greenish -brown ;  the  other  fins  are  white.  The 
ordinary  length  of  this  fish  is  about  two  feet. 

The  f^ar-fish  is  sold  in  the  London  and  other  markets :  .'- 
flesh  somewhat  resembles  that  of  the  mackerel  in  flavour,  I  ut 
is  more  dr}* ;  before  it  is  cooked  it  emits  an  unpleasant  uduur : 
the  bones  are  green.  '  The  elongated  narrow  beak-lise 
mandibles  of  this  fish  make  a  knowledge  of  its  food  a  sui- 
ject  of  some  interest ;  but  I  have  only  found.*  says  Mr.  Y:(r- 
rell,  'a  thick  mucus  in  the  stomach,  without  any  rcmami 
that  I  could  name.  In  all  the  works  to  which  I  have  access 
I  can  find  no  mention  of  the  nature  of  its  food.* 

In  addition  to  the  various  parts  of  our  coast,  cnumcratt^l 
by  Mr.  YarrcU.  in  which  the  gar-fish  is  caught,  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Mersey  may  be  mentioned.  From  knoiring  that 


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68 


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Hilled  Dr.  Roxburgh  says,  '  For  these  35  yevLVH  ynA  I  have 
laboured  in  vain  to  make  it  grow  and  be  fruitful  on  the 
ooQtineDt  of  India.  The  plant  has  uniformly  become  ftickly 
when  remoTed  to  the  north  or  west  of  the' Bay  of  Benc^t 
and  rarely  riaes  beyond  the  height  of  two  or  three  feet 
befbre  it  perishes.*  The  male  and  female  flowers  are  sorae- 
timea  on  the  same,  bnt  usually  on  separate  trees.  The 
«nn  is  superior,  round,  from  6  to  8-celled,  with  one  ovule 
in  eaeh«  attached  to  the  middle  of  the  axis.  The  ripe  berry 
IS  spherical,  of  the  size  of  a  pretty  lars^e  apple,  having  the 
torface  even,  and  crowned  with  the  permanent  peltate  6  to 
S-lobed  stigma.  The  rind  is  thick,  firm,  though  somewhat 
spongy,  of  a  dull  crimson  colour,  sometimes  compared  to 
tnat  of  the  pomegranate.  Seeds  as  far  as  eight  in  number 
enelosed  in  a  very  abundant  soft  fleshy  envelope  which  is 
delicately  white,  forming  the  edible  part  of  the  fruit,  de- 
scribed as  delicious  to  the  taste  and  as  dissolving  away  in 
the  mouth.  It  is  also  extremely  innocent  in  its  nature,  as 
almost  any  quantity  of  it  may  be  eaten  without  detriment, 
and  persons  sick  of  almost  any  disease  are  allowed  to  par- 
take freely  of  it  without  inconvenience.  The  fruit  before 
ripening  is  slightly  acid.  The  rind  is  powerfully  astringent, 
and  its  decoction  is  employed  in  dysentery  and  as  a  gargle 
in  aphthsD  of  the  mouth.  The  bark  of  the  trunk  and 
branches  is  also  considered  astringent,  and  said  to  be  em- 
ployed by  the  Chinese  in  dyeing. 

G.  Cambogio,  Cowa,  lancesfolia,  Kydia,  pedunculata,  and 
paniculata,  all  yield  a  kind  of  edible  fruit,  but  of  these  the 
last  is  most  like  the  Mangosteen.  From  incisions  made  in 
the  branches,  a  yellow  juice  exudes  and  soon  concretes, 
having  a  close  resemblance  to,  and  in  fact  forming  an  in- 
ferior kind  of  gamboge ;  whence  it  has  been  inferred  that 
this  substance  is  yielded  by  a  species  of  this  genus,  which  has 
therefore  been  called  G.  Cambogia.  Later  investigations 
have  proved  the  incorrectness  of  the  opinion,  and  the  true 
gamboge-tree  of  Ceylon  has  been  determined  to  belong  to  a 
new  genus  named  Hebradendron.  [Hxbradbndron.J  G. 
Cambogia,  Zeylona,  Cowa,  cornea,  and  pictoria  (the  last 
also  supposed  to  be  a  species  of  Hebradenaron),  all  yield  an 
inferior  Kind  of  gambo^ 

Garcinia  Cambo^a.  xhe  species  supposed  to  yield  Cey- 
lon gamboge,  and  mdicated  as  the  gamboge-tree  in  many 
works.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  other  species  of  Gar- 
cinia by  its  fruit  bemg  from  8  to  10-furrowed  while  that  of 
others  is  simply  round.  It  is  called  by  the  natives  of  Travan- 
eore  Gharka  puUi,  and  is  therefore  inferred  to  be  Carca 
puUi  of  old  writers.  In  Ceylon  the  fruit  is  called  Gorakth 
and  much  used  by  the  natives  in  their  curries ;  when  ripe  it 
is  said  to  form  a  fine  fruit  as  large  as  the  Mangosteen. 
The  tree  is  one  of  the  most  common  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Colombo,  where  it  attains  a  large  size  and  forms  a  hand- 
some tree  with  thick  dark  foliage.  Mrs.  Col.  Walker,  in 
her  letters  to  Dr.  Graham,  describes  the  outer  husk  of  the 
fruit  as  being  prepared  by  the  natives  by  taking  out  the  pulp 
and  seeds,  bruising  and  then  heaping  it  up  until  the  wnole 
is  soft  It  is  then  smoked  and  kept  within  the  influence  of 
smoke,  being  much  used  as  a  favourite  ingredient  in  their 
curries  and  also  for  preserving,  along  with  salt,  a  small  kind 
of  fish,  which  thus  cured  will  keep  ror  six  or  seven  months. 

GARCZYN'SKI,  STEPHEN,  palatine  of  Poznania, 
died  in  1755,  at  an  advanced  age.  lie  spent  all  his  life  in 
public  employments,  which  gave  him  tiie  opportunity  of 
acquiring  a  thoroush  knowledge  of  the  affairs  of  his  country. 
He  published,  in  Polish,  a  political  work  on  Poland,  en- 
titled 'The  Anatomy  of  the  Republic  of  Poland,'  Warsaw, 
1751,  and  Berlin,  1754. 

GARCZYN'SKI,  a  young  man  of  the  same  family,  who 
died  in  1 832,  in  conseauence  of  the  fatigues  of  the  Polish 
war  of  1831,  left  behind  him  several  poems,  which  are  cha- 
racterized by  great  beauties. 

GARD,  a  department  in  the  south  of  France^  which  de- 
rives its  name  flrom  the  river  Garden,  which  is  found  in 
some  compounds  (Vers  du  Gard,  Pont  du  Crard),  in  the 
abbreviatea  form  Gard.  The  department  is  bounded  on 
the  north  bv  that  of  Ardiche  ;  on  the  east  and  south-east 
by  those  of  Vaucluse  and  Bouches  du  Rhdne ;  on  the  south 
by  the  Mediterranean ;  on  the  south-west  by  the  depart- 
ment of  H^ult ;  on  the  west  by  that  of  Aveyron ;  and  on 
the  north-west  by  that  of  Loz^re.  The  form  of  the  depart- 
ment is  irregular ;  its  greatest  length  is  in  a  direction  nearly 
east  and  west  about  76  miles;  its  greatest  breadth,  at  right 
angles  to  the  length,  is  about  70  miles.  The  area  of  the  de- 
partment is  about  8294  English  square  miles,  which  is 


ratlier  under  the  average  of  the  Fretch  departments,  and 
rather  more  than  the  combined  areas  of  the  three  English 
counties  of  Cambridge,  Huntingdon,  and  Northampton. 
The  population,  by  the  census  of  1836,  was  366,259,  or 
nearly  160  to  a  i^quare  mile.  In  absolute  and  relative  po- 
pulation it  is  below  the  average  of  the  French  departments, 
and  also  below  the  conjoint  English  counties  with  which  «c 
have  compared  it.  Ntmes,  its  capital,  is  in  43^  51'  N.  lat., 
and  4°  2l'  E.  long.,  and  about  360  miles  in  a  straight  line 
south-by-west  of  Paris. 

Surface;  Hydrography ;  Communication*. — ^Tlie  north- 
western part  of  the  department  is  occupied  by  the  branches 
of  the  C^vennes,  of  which  the  principal  ridge  is  for  the  nit  ^^t 
part  without  the  boundary  of  the  department.  From  ibu 
part  the  face  of  the  country  gradually  declines  to  the  south- 
east, in  which  direction  the  principal  rivers  flow,  to  i he- 
lower  part  of  the  vallev  of  the  Rhdne  and  to  the  Mediterxa- 
nean.  The  coast  and  the  lower  banks  of  the  Rb6nc  arr 
lined  with  ^tangs  or  pools  of  considerable  size:  those  uf 
Repauset  and  E:rcamandre  are  among  the  largest. 

The  principal  rivers  are — the  Rhone,  which  bounds  the 
department  on  the  east ;  the  Ard^he,  which  has  the  lower 
part  of  its  course  along  the  northern  boundary;  the  Ch.i«- 
sezac,  a  tributary  of  the  Arddcbc,  which  just  touches  the 
northern  boundary  in  one  part;  the  C<h&e,  about  55  miU*«> 
long,  and  its  feeders,  the  Luech,  the  Auzonet,the  Aigui!- 
lon,  and  theTave.  The  Garden,  which  waters  the  central 
districts,  ikils  into  the  Rhone,  and  is  65  to  70  niili.*** 
long :  its  tributaries  are  all  small'  The  Vidourle  flows  into 
the  .Etang  of  Manguio,  in  the  adjacent  department  ft 
H^ult.  Its  course  may  be  estimated  at  from  48  to  50 
miles.  The  Vistre,  which  flows  near  Ntmes,  and  tlie  Rhosny, 
which  flows  near  Aymargues,  unite  and  sene  as  feeders  to 
the  canal  of  Radelle.  The  Herault,  and  its  tributaries,  the* 
Vis  and  the  Rieulor,  have  their  sources  and  part  of  thetr 
course  in  the  department,  as  well  as  the  Dourbie,  an  afllueot 
of  the  Tarn.  Of  these  rivers  only  the  RhOne  aud  the 
Arddche  are  navigable. 

There  are  several  canals.  That  from  the  Rh6ne  at  Beau- 
caire  to  Aiguesmortes  (undertaken  a.d.  )776«  finished  a. p. 
181 21  is  about  31  miles  long;  the  canal  of  Silv^r^al.  vbich 
forms  part  of  the  navigation  of  one  arm  of  the  Rh6ne.  i.s 
about  7  miles  long ;  that  of  Bourgidou,  from  Aiguesmort<'> 
to  the  Canal  de  Silv6real,  about  6  miles;  that  of  Grau  du 
Roi,  nearly  4  miles ;  and  that  of  Radelle,  little  more  than  a 
mile  ;  making  together  nearly  50  mile:i  of  canal  navigatiou : 
in  all  about  1 1 1  miles  of  water  communication. 

The  Routes  Roy  ales,  or  government  roads,  have  an  ag- 
gregate length  of  above  300  miles,  but  only  about  half,  ac- 
cording to  the  oflicial  statements  last  pubUshed,  are  in 
repair.  Of  these  roads  the  greater  part  cxmverge  at  Ntmes. 
The  Routes  Departementales  (*  County  Roads,  maintained 
at  the  cost  of  the  department)  amount  to  above  400  miles ; 
but  not  two-fifths  are  in  good  repair:  the  bye-roads  and 
paths  iChemins  vicinaux)  are  estimated  at  3000  miles.  A 
railroad  has  been  constructed  (or  is  in  course  of  oonstructinn ) 
from  Alais  to  Nimes  and  Beaucaire:  its  length  is  about  43 
miles.  The  above  statements  are  taken  fh>m  ofllcial 
sources. 

Geological  Character  and  Mineral  Productions, — ^The  de- 
partment is  chiefly  occupied  by  the  oolitic  aud  other  strata, 
which  are  found  between  the  cretaceous  group  and  the 
red  marl,  or  new  red  (or  saliferous)  sandstone.  The  south- 
eastern portion  is  occupied  by  the  rocks  of  the  supercreta- 
ceous  group.  The  primitive  rucks  which  form  the  loftiest 
summits,  and  the  western  slope  of  the  (Revenues,  hardly 
appear  in  this  department.  Its  mineml  treasures  are  con**i* 
derable;  but  they  are  either  altogether  neglected  or  im- 
perfectly worked.  There  are  mines  of  antimony,  loJ 
(which  contains  silver),  sulphate  of  lead,  oxide  of  iron, 
copper,  calamine,  and  manganese,  coal-pits,  and  quame^^  of 
gypsum.  Ochre,  asphaltum,  sulphate  of  magnesia,  and 
clay  for  porcelain  and  earthenware,  of  various  degrees  uf 
fineness,  are  procured.  There  are  extensive  salt-marshcs» 
the  produce  of  which  is  considerable,  and  mineral  springs 
in  various  places. 

Climate. — ^The  air  in  this  department  is  commonly  mild; 
but  in  March  and  April  considerable  changes  of  temperature 
are  experienced  within  the  twenty-four  hours.  In  May  tho 
heat  in  the  afternoon  rises  to  77"  or  even  Se"*  (Fahrenhtnt) « 
in  June  to  90**  or  93°;  and  in  July  and  August  to  95'  or 
98^  The  autumn  is  usually  dry  and  cool.  The  greatest 
cold  is  commonly  at  the  end  of  December. 


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6» 


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Soil;  Agriadtural  and  other  Produce. — ^The  surface  of 
the  department  is  estimated  to  contain  592,108  hectares,  or 
about  1,463,440  acres:  the  soil  is  thus  classified :— Rich 
loam,  1 1,500  hectares;  chalky  or  limestone,  125,000;  gra- 
velly, 15,500;  stony,  325,000;  sandy,  45,000;  various, 
70,108:  total,  592,108  hectares.  The  sheltered  hUls  and 
the  plains  are  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  vine,  the 
olive,  the  mulberry,  and  the  almond.  The  arable  land  is 
contained  chiefly  in  the  valleys.  The  produce  of  the  de- 
partment in  grain  is  not  sufficient  for  the  home  consump- 
tion ;  but  what  wheat  is  grown  is  of  superior  quality.  The 
soil  is  thus  appropriated  :~Arable  land,  157,535  hectares; 
meadows,  8,382  ;  vineyards,  71,306  ;  woods,  106,472; 
orchards  and  gardens,  1,592 ;  osier  and  willow  plots,  &c., 
2, 1 62 ;  various,  58,1 56 ;  heaths,  commons,  and  other  wastes, 
158,058 ;  pools,  ponds,  and  ditches,  2.766 ;  lakes,  rivers, 
brooks,  12,365 ;  forests,  and  non-productive  domains,  1,202 ; 
not  accounted  for,  12,112:  total,  592,108  hectares.  The 
Quantity  of  arable  land  sown  with  different  kinds  of  grain, 
&c.,  in  1835  was  as  follows  .—Wheat,  28,953  hectares ;  rye, 
6,286  ;  maslin  or  mixed  com,  1,681  ;  barley,  5,644  ;  buck- 
wheat, 2,081 ;  mai^e  and  millet,  1,181 ;  oats,  7,900  ;  pease, 
beans,  and  other  pulse,  891  ;  other  grain,  442;  potatoes, 
2,643.  The  great  wealth  of  the  department  consists  in  its 
wines,  and  in  oil,  silk,  and  delicious  fruits. 

Only  a  small  number  of  oxen  are  reared :  but  sheep  arc 
numerous,  and  their  wool  is  very  fine  and  much  sought 
after.  Tho  horses  are  small,  but  vigorous,  lively,  and  al- 
lowed to  run  almost  wild.  The  wolf  and  the  fox  are  com- 
mon in  the  forests,  but  the  wild  boar  is  of  rare  occurrence : 
the  beaver  is  occasionally  seen  in  the  islands  of  the  Rhdne, 
while  the  otter  has  his  haunts  on  the  banks  of  the  Gard. 
Ortolans,  red  partridges,  storks,  and  bustards  are  com- 
mon ;  and  the  etangs  and  rivers  abound  with  fish. 

Divisioni,  Towm,  and  other  Locah'ties.^This  depart- 
ment is  made  up  of  the  former  dioceses  of  Ntmes,  and  fjzds 
in  Languedoc  It  is  now  divided  into  four  arrondissements 
as  follows : — 


CapitaL 


Population  in         Sitaation,  area,  and  ponnUtiou  of  arrondtii. 
1631.  1936.  ■»  aq.mllea.    1831.  L83S. 


Ntmes,      41,266  43,036  S.  &  S.E.  650  128,461  131,712 

Alais,         12,077  13,566  N.&N.W.528     79,823  83,091 

Uzes,           6,162  6,856  E.  &  N.E.  573     83,752  95,701 

Le  Vigan,  4,909  5,049  W                543     65,247  65,755 

2294  357,283     366,259 

The  whole  department  comprehends  38  cantons  and  342 
communes. 

The  towns  in  the  arrondissement  of  Nimes,  beside  the 
capital,  and  Beaucaire  (population  9967)  on  the  Rhdne,  of 
which  an  account  is  given  elsewhere  rNtuES ;  Bbaucairb], 
are :  Aiguesmortes  (pop.  2897),  near  the  sea ;  Aramon  (pop. 
2447).  on  the  Rhdne;  Montfrin  (pop.  2331),  on  the  Gard; 
Marguerittes  (pop.  1925)  and  Milhaud  (pop.  1613),  on  the 
Vistre  ;  Soramiires  (pop.  3632),  and  Villevieille,  adjacent  to 
it,  on  the  Vidourle;  St.  Gilles  (pop.  5561),  on  the  canal  of 
Aiguesmortes  and  Beaucaire ;  Calvisson  (pop.  2692),  Aubais, 
Galargues  (pop.  2096),  Aymargues  (pop.  2182),  and  St. 
Laurent,  between  the  Rhosny  and  the  H6rauU,  and  Vauvcrt, 
between  the  Yistre  and  the  Aiguesmortes  canal. 

Aiguesmortes  is  well  laid  out  and  well  built :  the  houses 
are  chiedy  of  stone,  and  of  one  story  only,  in  order  that  they 
may  be  under  the  shelter  of  the  ramparts.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  tawn  are  engaged  in  fishing  and  in  procuring  salt 
from  the  salt-marshes  of  Peccais»  which  are  a  short  dis- 
tance south-east  from  Aiguesmortes.  From  May  to  August 
150  workmen  are  employed  in  them;  but  in  the  latter 
month  more  than  2000. 

St.  Gilles  (distinguished  as  St.  Gilles4es-6oucheries)  is  on 
an  eminence;  the  kings  of  the  Visigoths  had  a  palace  here, 
and  it  was  the  birthplace  of  Pope  (Jlement  I  v .  The  en- 
virons produce  excellent  red  wine. 

In  the  arrondissement  of  Alais,  beside  the  chief  town, 
and  Anduze  (pop.  5020  town,  5554  commune)  [Alais; 
AnduzxI  there  are  Baijac  (pop.  1700  town,  1975  com- 
mune), between  the  boundary  of  the  department  and  the 
river  C^ze;  St.  Ambroix  (pop.  2560  town,  2947  com- 
mune), on  the  C^zo ;  Genolnac,  on  a  branch  of  the  same 
river;  and  St.  Jean  du  (yard  (pop.  2788  town,  4128  com- 
mune), on  the  Garden  d* Anduze.  At]  St.  Ambroijc  silk, 
hats,  leather,  and  nails  are  manufactured;  and  at  St. 
Jean  du  Crard,  silk  and  leather. 


In  the  arrondissement  of  TJzIs,  beside  the  chief  towii« 
Uz^,  there  are  Le  Pont  St  Esprit  (pop.  4250  town,  4853 
commune) ;  Roquemaure  (pop.  2653  town,  4138  commune), 
and  Villeneuve  les  Avignon  (pop.  3564),  on  the  Rhone ; 
Bagnols  (pop.  3800  town,  4902  commune),  on  the  Ceze; 
Laudun  (pop.  1888  town,  2260  commune),  on  the  Tave; 
St.  Quentin,  near  Uzds  (pop.  1770  town,  1994  commune); 
and  St  Genies,  near  the  south  bank  of  the  Garden. 

Le  Pont  St  Esprit  (Bridge  of  the  Holy  Spirit)  takes  iU 
present  name  (it  was  previously  called  St.  Savoumin)  from 
a  bridge,  which  at  the  commencement  of  the  present  cen- 
tury was  the  only  one  across  the  Rhdne  below  Lyon,  except 
the  bridge  of  boats  established  for  a  part  of  the  year  between 
Beaucaire  and  Tarascon.  Viewed  from  the  river  the  bridge 
of  St.  Esprit  presents,  fram  its  great  length  and  height,  the 
appearance  of  a  wall  built  upon  arches  across  the  stream. 
Its  length  is  rather  more  than  half  a  mile;  its  breadth  not 
more  than  14  or  15  feet  between  the  parapets,  so  that  car 
riages  cannot  pass  each  other,  except  in  particular  parts 
widened  for  the  purpose.  It  has  twenty-three  arches,  nine- 
teen large  and  four  small ;  beside  which  the  piers  have  each 
a  small  arch  above  the  starlings  to  admit  the  passage  of  the 
water  in  the  time  of  the  floods.  This  bridge  was  built  with  the 
offerings  presented  at  a  small  oratory  or  chapel  on  the  bank 
of  the  river,  dedicated  to  the  Holy  Spirit ;  the  first  stone  was 
laid  A.D.  1265.  Considering  the  state  of  the  arts,  the 
breadth  and  rapidity  of  the  stream,  it  is  a  wonderful  work. 
At  Le  Pont  St  Esprit  is  a  citadel  built  by  Louis  XIV.  to 
bridle  the  Protestants  of  Languedoc.  The  inhabitants  carry 
on  a  considerable  trade  by  means  of  the  Rhdne,  in  oil,  wine^ 
and  silk.    There  is  a  considerable  yearly  fair. 

The  inhabitants  of  Roauemaure  are  engaged  in  silk- 
weaving  and  in  distilling  brandy.  There  is  an  old  castle, 
once  belonging  to  the  counts  of  Toulouse.  Villeneuve  les 
Avignon  forms  a  suburb  of  Avignon  [Avignon],  from 
which  it  is  separated  l:y  the  Rhdne. 

In  this  arrondissement,  on  the  road  from  Lyon  by  Le  Pont 
St  Esprit  to  Ntmes,  is  Le  Pont  du  Gard.  This  aqueduct- 
bridge,  designed  to  convey  the  waters  of  the  fountain  of 
Aure  to  Ntmes,  crosses  the  valley  and  stream  of  the  Garden, 
uniting  two  steep  hills  by  which  the  valley  is  bounded  at 
this  place.  It  consists  of  two  tiers  of  large  arches,  and  a 
third  tier  of  small  arches  which  supports  the  trunk  of  tiie 
aqueduct.  The  channel  for  the  water  is  above  four  feet 
wide  and  five  deep,  and  is  lined  with  cement  three  inches 
thick,  and  covered  with  a  fine  coat  of  red  clay.  The  bottom 
is  formed  with  small  stones,  gravel,  and  chalk.  Tlie  whole 
work  is  built  of  stones  joined  without  mortar  or  any  other 
dement,  except  in  the  trunk  for  the  water.  The  river,  over 
which  the  bridge  is  carried,  does  not  in  summer  occupy 
more  than  one  of  the  arches  of  the  lowest  tier  ;  but  in 
the  floods  in  winter  its  stream  is  so  swelled  as  to  occupy 
them  all. 

In  tho  arrondissement  of  Le  Vigan  are :  Le  Vigan,  the 
chief  town,  on  the  Arre,  a  feeder  of  the  Herault ;  Valle- 
raugue  (pop.  1878  town,  3895  commune),  on  the  Herault; 
Sumine  (pop.  2030  town,  3017  commune),  on  the  Rieulor ; 
St  Andre  ae  Valborgne,  on  the  Garden  d' Anduze ;  La 
Salle  (pop.  1750  town,  2270  commune),  on  one  of  the 
affluents  of  the  Crardon ;  Aulas,  near  Le  Vigan ;  and  St 
Hypolite,  or  Hippolyte  (pop.  5120  town,  5214  commune); 
Sauve  (pop.  2851  town,  3021  commune);  and  Quiasac,  on 
the  Vidourle.  Le  Vigan  is  amid  the  C6vennes.  The  in- 
habitants are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  silk  and  cotton 
stockings  and  leather.  St  Hypolite  is  well  built :  it  is  tra- 
versed hy  a  canal  which  supplies  several  fountains.  Hie 
inhabitants  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  leather,  wool- 
len stuffs,  and  silk  and  cotton  stockings. 

The  population  of  the  towns,  except  when  mentioned  to 
be  otherwise,  is  from  the  census  of  1831. 

In  respect  of  education  the  department  occupies  a  low 
place ;  but  it  is  in  advance  of  the  adjacent  departments, 
except  that  of  H6rault.  Of  the  young  men  enrolled  in  the 
military  census  in  1828-29,  only  40  in  100  could  read  and 
write.  The  condition  of  the  mountaineers  who  occupy  the 
mountains  wliich  separate  this  department  from  that  of 
Lozcre,  is  very  wretched.  They  dwell  in  huts  built  of  stone, 
without  windows,  and  almost  without  roofs ;  and  a  con- 
siderable part  of  their  subsistence  is  derived  from  the 
chesnuts,  which  constitute  the  only  produce  of  their  soil. 
They  are  a  stunted  and  ill-made  race. 

This  department  constitutes  the  diocese  of  Nimes,  the 
bishop  of  which  is  a  suffragan  of  the  archbishop  of  Avig 


GAR 


70 


GAR 


Hon*  Th«re  are  many  Pioiestantt  in  the  dejiartiDent ; 
they  oonstitute  a  majority  of  the  popnlation,  and  have 
aeTcnteen  consistorial  churches.  The  de|MLrtment  ia  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Cour  Roffole  of  Ntmes,  and  in  the 
circuit  of  the  Academe  Uhiverittaire  of  that  city.  Among 
the  buildinf^s  not  subjeot  to  taxation,  the  official  returna 
enumerate  5  prisona,  4  ichools,  libFaries,  or  establiahmenta 
for  superior  education,  24  hospitab  or  almshouses,  and 
462  churches  and  chapels. 

The  department  sends  5  members  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  It  is  in  the  ninth  military  division,  of  which  the 
head-quarters  are  at  Montpellier. 

GARD,  PONT  DU.  JTGaiid.] 

GARDA,  THE  LAKE  OF,  the  antient  Benaeus,  the 
largest  of  the  Italian  lakes,  is  in  the  Lombardo- Venetian 
kingdom,  between  the  province  of  Brescia  on  the  west  and 
that  of  Verona  on  the  east ;  the  boundary  between  the  two 
provinces  crosses  the  lake  in  its  length.  Its  south  coast 
neloni^  to  the  province  of  Mantua.'  The  northern  ex- 
tremity of  the  lake  enters  the  territory  of  Trent  in  theTsrrol. 
Its  length,  which  is  north  by  east  to  south  by  west,  is  28 
Italian  miles  of  60  to  one  degree  of  latitude ;  and  its  greatest 
breadth,  which  is  in  its  southern  part,  is  ll(  Italian  miles; 
but  it  is  much  narrower  towards  the  north.  Its  greatest 
depth  is  about  1800  feet.  (QMadrh  Proffpetto  StaiMco  delle 
provinrie  Venete.)  It  receives  at  its  northern  extremity 
the  river  8 area,  which  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Tyrol,  and 
numerous  other  streams  on  its  east  and  west  banks.  The 
Minrio  issues  from  its  south-east  extremity  by  the  fortress 
of  Peschiera.  Two  ridses  of  mountains  run  parallel  to  its 
east  and  west  banks :  that  on  the  east  is  more  rugged  and 
nearer  to  the  coast,  but  the  western  ridge  leaves  a  fine  and 
fertile  strip  of  land  between  it  and  the  bank,  and  is  known 
by  the  name  of  Riviera  di  Sal5.  The  south  coast  of  the 
lake  forms  part  of  the  great  plain  of  Lombardy.  Some  ac- 
count of  the  territory  along  the  banks  of  this  lake,  the 
scenery  of  which  has  been  praised  by  Catullus,  Dante,  and 
other  poets,  is  given  under  the  heads  Brescia,  and  Verona, 
THB  Provinces  of.  There  is  a  good  description  of  the 
lake  in  Valery's  Voyages  Litter  aires  en  Italie,  A  steam- 
boat plies  on  the  lake  of  Garda,  between  Desenzano  on  its 
south  coast,  and  Riva  at  its  north  extremity,  in  the  Tyrol. 
The  lake  has  some  small  islands  near  its  west  coast,  the 
largest  of  which  is  called  *  Isola  Lecchi,'  from  the  name  of 
the  family  to  which  it  belongs,  and  is  little  more  than  one 
mile  in  circumference. 

GARDEN.  A  garden,  as  distinguished  from  a  farm,  is 
a  piece  of  ground  designed  for  the  cultivation  of  plants  not 
actually  indispensable  to  man  for  food.  While  corn  for 
llour,  various  roots  and  herbs  for  the  sustenance  of  cattle, 
or  tracts  of  pasture  land  on  which  animals  destined  fbr 
slaughter  are  maintained,  constitute  the  essential  features 
of  a  farm ;  a  garden,  ei'en  when  exclusively  occupied  by 
culinary  vegetables,  is  still  a  source  of  objects  of  luxury,  not 
of  first  necessity;  in  a  more  extended  sense,  and  as  it 
usually  exists  at  the  present  day,  it  is  clriefiy  intended  to 
gratify  the  senses  and  to  minister  to  the  more  refined  en- 
joyments of  social  life. 

The  possession  of  a  garden  is  one  of  the  most  early  indi- 
cations of  civilization  in  man,  and  it  is  only  among  the 
most  brutal  and  degraded  races  of  savages  that  it  is  alto- 
gether unknown ;  while  we  find  such  an  appendage  to  a 
dwelling  increased  in  magnificence,  or  diminished  and 
neglected,  with  the  prosperity  or  decline  of  the  most  mighty 
states.  It  is  Lord  Bacon  who  says  that '  when  ages  do 
grow  to  civility  and  elegancy  men  come  to  build  stately 
sooner  tlian  to  garden  finely,  as  if  gardening  were  the 
greater  perfection.' 

According  to  Sir  John  Malcolm,  the  Persians  had  war- 
dens from  the  period  of  their  first  king  Mahabad.  We 
learn  from  Xenoplion  that  Cyrus  considered  them  an  indis- 
pensable appendage  of  his  re>idences.  •  Wherever  he  re- 
sides, or  whatever  ]ilace  he  visits  in  his  dominions,  he  takes 
care  that  the  para  Uses  shall  be  filled  with  all  that  is  beau- 
tiful and  Uftcful  which  the  soil  can  produce.*  (Cyropa^d.v.) 
And  it  Hpi)ears  upon  the  testimony  of  Pliny  and  other 
Roman  autnurs,  that  among  the  same  people  small  gardens 
existed,  in  which  trees  were  arranged  in  strais^ht  lines  and 
regular  figures,  the  margins  of  the  walks  being  planted 
with  tuflR  of  roses,  violets,  ntid  other  odoriferoiis  tlowering 
plants,  while  the  trees  consisted  of  kuids  grateful  for  their 
fragrance,  as  the  cypress  and  the  pine,  or  agreeable  for 
tlkeir  shade,  as  the  plane  and  the  common  elm.  The  Greeks, 


in  their  most  flourishing  times,  appear  to  hare  been  equally 
attached  to  the  formation  of  gardens,  and  even,  in  soma 
respects,  to  the  nicer  parts  of  the  art  of  gardening.  Hie 
Oriental  narcissus,  violet,  ivy,  and  rose,  are  mentioned  as 
their  favourite  flowers,  and  terebinthinous  trees  as  thow 
which  were  chiefly  valued  for  their  fragrance.  The  rich 
and  polisheil  Athenians  are  represented  by  Mr.  Meason 
as  having  borrowed  their  garaening  from  Asia  Minor. 
Myrtles  and  roses,  the  box  and  the  lime-tree,  were  planted 
for  clipping  into  artificial  forms,  while  flowers  ana  fruU« 
were  cultivated  in  the  winter,  and  the  violet  was  in  pm- 
fiision  in  the  Athenian  markets  when  snow  was  lying  on 
theground. 

Theophrastqs  himself  not  only  gives  directions  for  garden- 
ing operations,  many  of  which  were  fanciful  enough,  su<'h 
as  sowing  rue  with  chips  of  fig-wood,  and  pulling  up  pacu- 
lents  by  way  of  making  them  more  tender,  instead  of  rutliny^ 
them ;  but  he  had  a  garden  of  his  own  which  he  left  to  t«'n 
of  his  friends  to  be  preserved  as  a  place  of  public  resort  for 
those  who  employea  their  leisure  in  letters  and  philosophy. 
(Diogen.  Laert.  v.  53.)  The  instances  of  the  kings  Attalu^ 
Phtlometor  [Attalus]  and  Mithridates,  who  culti^'ated  all 
sorts  of  poisonous  plants  in  their  gardens,  are  pcrhati^ 
the  earliest  upon  record  of  such  places  being  occupied  M 
medical  purposes. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  gardens  were  tiej^lected  by 
the  luxurious  and  wealthy  Romans.    The  prodigious  gar- 
dens of  Lucullus,  who  introduoed  the  cherry,  the  pcacb, 
and  the  apricot  from  the  Persians,  were  derided  by  hia 
Roman  friends  for  their  extraordinary  sumptuosity.    Thoy 
are  related  to  have  consisted  of  immense  artificial  towers^ 
large  sheets  of  water,  gigantic  edifices  jutting  into  the  sea, 
ana  mountains  raised  where  no  hill  had  existed  before 
Such  an  example  might  be  ridiculed  by  some,  but  was 
certain  to  be  followed  by  others  whose  taste  for  splendour 
and  profusion  was  supported  by  unbounded  wealth ;  and 
accordingly  the  gardens  of  Sallust,  of  the  emperors  Nero 
and  Hadrian,  and  of  many  of  their  subjects,  are  doubtless 
to  be  classed  in  the  same  order  as  those  of  Lucullus.    It  i« 
however  to  be  remembered  that  such  gardens  were  rather 
more  similar  to  an  English  park  and  garden  combined 
than  to  a  mere  garden,  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word* 
and  moreover  were  so  uncommon  as  to  be  looked  upon  with 
wonder  by  the  people  among  whom  they  were  created.     A 
common  Roman  garden  must  have  been  a  very  diflerent 
place,  if  we  are  to  take  the  description  given  by  Virgil 
{Georeic,  iv.  121)  as  at  all  a  faithful  sketch  ;  for  he  spcuk« 
of  nothing  but  endive  (intyba),  celery  (apium),  melons? 
(cucumis),  narcissi,  acanthus,  roses,  ivy,  and  myrtles.    That 
they  had  various  trees  bearing  fruit,  as  well  as  the  common 
wild  timber  of  the  country,  and  many  different  kinds  of 
flowers,  must  of  course  be  admitted;  but  that  all  gardens* 
up  to  the  most  flourishing  period  of  the  Roman  empire, 
must  have  been  much  alike  in  respect  to  the  plants  they 
contained,  is  manifest  fi:om  the  fact  that  hardly  more  than 
seventy  plants  of  all  descriptions  are  noticed  by  this  poet, 
although  he  wrote  professedly  upon  rural  affairs.     It  i« 
true  that  the  Romans  carried  their  passion  for  flower"*  >'j 
far  that  it  became  necessary  to  restrain  it  by  sumptuan 
laws,  and  that  cases  of  extreme  profusion  in  the  uc  ik 
them  are  mentioned  by  historians.    The  institution  of  Flo- 
ralia,  or  flower-feasts,  the  universal  passion  for  garlands, 
the  reproaches  addressed  by  Cicero  to  Verrcs  for  ha \  ins; 
made  the  tour  of  Sicily  in  a  litter,  seated  on  roses  and 
decked  with  festoons  of  flowers,  are  a  sufficient  evidence  uf 
this  taste  having  been  carried  to  an  extent  unknown  at  tt;e 
present  day ;  to  say  nothing  of  the  prodigality  of  Heliojni- 
balus,  or  of  Cleopatra,  the  latter  of  whom  is  said  bv  Atlie- 
niDus  to  have  paid  upwards  of  200/.  (an  Eg)ptian  talent)  for 
roses  expended  at  one  supper.    But  notwithstanding  thif. 
the  variety  of  plants  that  were  culti^Tited  in  the  gar  (loi.< 
of  both  Greeks  and  Romans  must  have  been  extremely 
small.  Tlieopluastus   speaks  only  of    roses,    gillyflowers, 
violets,  narcissi,  and  iris,  as  used  for  decoration,  to  whr  h 
the  larkspur  and  gladiolus  (hyacinthus),  with  the  white 
lily,  and  a  few  others  may  be  added.      The  great  object 
of  their  ailmiration  was  rcses,  which  were  forced  by  platen 
of  talc  (said  to  have  been  as  much  as  five  feet  long  ;  hut 
it  is  more  probable  that  these  svecularia  were  sashes  fi\c 
feel    long,   glazed   with   tair)    oeing  placed  over  buvhe» 
watered  with  warm  water.     Pliny,  in  nis  *  Natural  Iliston .' 
docs  not  enumerate  above  one  thousand  plants  of  all  de- 
scriptions, a  very  small  part  of  which  were  objects  of  cul* 


fi 


GAR 


"n 


OAR 


wbieh  an  epitome  lifts  been  eiven  hy  CeBiriui  (Bibl,  Bfcurial, 
i.  326, 8.) ;  and  according  to  Mr.  Loudon,  Uiii  writer  has  left  a 
list  of  plants  cultivated  in  the  garden  of  Seville,  more 
extensive  than  that  of  the  Oreelu  and  Romans.  In  the 
13th  century  the  then  Vixir  of  Cairo,  Ebn-Beitar,  a  native 
of  Malaga,  was  so  much  attached  to  botany  that  he  visited 
all  parts  of  the  East  for  the  express  purpose  of  extending 
his  knowledge  of  plants.  His  works  are  preserved  in  MSS. 
in  the  library  of  the  Escurial,  and  it  is  said  that  althou8;h 
he  scrupulously  abstained  from  describing  anything  which 
he  had  not  seen,  yet  he  speaks  of  2000  species  more  than 
I>iosoorides.  (Spreng.i.  238.)  It  is  only  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  such  a  man  had  a  garden.  We  must  however  fix  the 
period  when  gardens  first  began  to  be  extensively  improved, 
in  the  middle  of  the  1 6th  century,  when,  as  has  been  already 
shown,  the  rich  Italians  turned  their  attention  to  the  intro- 
duction of  new  and  rare  plants.  By  the  time  that  this  new 
tftste  began  to  be  fixed  in  the  minds  of  Europeans,  the 
numerous  geographical  discoveries  that  had  been  made  by 
the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards,  had  opened  new  and  unheard- 
of  sources  from  which  the  lovers  of  gardens  were  able  to 
enrich  them.  It  would  appear  that  the  maize,  the  yam, 
tobacco,  and  the  cotton-tree  (Bombax)  were  brought  to 
Europe  by  the  Spaniards  so  early  as  the  end  of  the  1 5th 
century  (Barcia,  ^t>/.,  i  24),  and  king  Ferdinand  is  recorded 
to  have  preferred  the  pine-apple,  brought  home  in  Colum- 
bus's second  voyage,  to  all  otner  fruits.  (Petr.  Martyr.  Beb, 
Oc,  Dec,  1.  2,  b.  39.) 

It  would  be  impossible  to  trace  the  progress  of  public 
taste  in  the  construction  of  gardens  any  mrther  historically, 
without  occupying  more  space  than  such  a  subject  can  have 
allotted  to  it  in  a  work  of  this  description.  It  may  easily 
be  conoeived  that  flrom  the  time  when  the  taste  for  gardens 
revived,  up  to  the  present  period,  there  has  been  a  gradual 
improvement  in  such  places,  commensurate  with  the  wealth 
of  mdividuals  and  the  commercial  power  of  nations,  their 
peaceful  habits,  the  securitv  of  property,  and  their  general 
progress  in  settling  the  relations  of  social  life.  At  the 
present  day  the  most  prosperous  nation  is  Great  Britain, 
and  here  the  cultivation  of  wardens  is  unrivalled  as  a  general 
national  object :  the  most  degraded  are  Spain  and  Portugal, 
and  there  a  feeling  for  garden  enjo3rment  is  almost  extinct 
In  the  remainder  of  this  article  we  shall  ofier  a  few  remarks 
upon  the  most  important  causes  which  have  contributed  to 
bring  gardens  to  their  present  improved  condition,  and  con- 
clude by  a  brief  account  of  some  of  the  most  remarkable 
Botanical  Gardens  of  the  present  day. 

The  first  great  step  that  was  made  by  gardeners  to  ad- 
vance their  art  beyond  mere  mechanical  operations,  was  the 
invention  of  glassnouses,  in  which  plants  might  be  grown 
in  an  artificial  climate,  and  protected  from  the  inclemency 
of  weather.  Until  this  was  effected,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
cultivation  of  exotic  plants  in  Europe,  especially  its  northern 
kingdoms,  must  have  been  much  circumscribed.  Mr.  Lou- 
don refers  the  invention  of  greenhouses  to  Solomon  de 
Cans,  architect  and  engineer  to  the  Elector  Palatine,  and 
who  constructed  the  ga^ens  at  Heidelberg  in  1619.  But 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  buildinn  of  this  description 
claim  a  higher  antiauity.  The  specularia  of  the  Romans, 
whether  pieces  of  talc  5'  feet  long,  or,  as  we  rather  suppose, 
sashes  5  feet  long  glazed  with  talc,  were  certainly  used  for 
the  purpose  of  forcing  roses  and  some  other  plants ;  they 
were  essentially  greenhouses,  although  perhaps  more  like 
our  garden-frames.  It  is  scarcely  likely  tnat  where  garden- 
ing survived,  the  learned  men,  in  whose  hands  all  such  sub- 
ject then  were,  should  have  been  unacquainted  with  the 
existence  of  these  specularia,  and  they  would  naturally 
endeavour  to  reconstruct  them.  Greenhouses  certainly 
existed  among  the  Italians  in  the  middle  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury, as  has  been  already  mentioned,  and  there  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  they  had  then  for  the  first  time  been  thought 
of.  In  fact,  the  anticnt  viridarium  seems  to  have  been  a 
room  with  one  side  of  it  glazed  with  sashes  reaching  from 
the  top  to  the  bottom,  and  resembling  the  old  English 
conservatory.  It  may  or  may  not  have  been  heated ;  pro- 
bably not,  for  it  was  chiefly  Greek,  Egyptian,  and  Le- 
vant plants  that  were  at  first  cultivated  as  rarities  by  the 
wealtny  Italians,  and  they  required  no  artificial  heat  in 
Italy. 

If  heat  was  required,  it  would  be  supplied  by  stoves  or 
such  other  contrivances  as  were  used  for  aomestic  purposes. 
Ray  says,  that  in  1684  the  greenhouse  in  the  Apothecaries' 
gmoa  at  Chelsea  was  heated  by  means  of  embers  placed 


in  a  hole  in  'the  floor;  and  it  appears,  firom  a  section  of  a 
greenhouse  in  the  Electoral  garaen  at  Manheim,  published 
in  *  Medicus  Index  Plantarum,'  that  a  German  sto>'e  was 
used  there  as  late  as  1771.  We  however  agi^ce  with  Mr. 
Loudon  in  considering  the  invention  of  gUoM-roo/t  fir 
greenhouses  to  be  an  sera  firom  which  the  principal  part  o( 
modern  improvements  takes  its  date.  This  happened  lu 
1717,  when  Switzer  published  the  nlan  of  a  forcmg-bou.v?, 
suggested  by  the  Duke  of  Rutland's  graperies  at  Bel  voir 
Castle.  Up  to  that  time  the  want  of  light,  must  have  ren- 
dered it  impossible  to  employ  greenhouses  for  the  gro\t  tb 
of  plants,  either  in  winter  or  summer;  they  could  only  have 
been  hybernatories,  receptacles  inwliich  plants  might  be* 
protected  from  wet  or  cold  during  winter,  but  from  which 
they  were  transferred  to  the  open  air  as  soon  as  the  si.rin^ 
became  sufficiently  mild.  The  substitution  of  glass-roof»,  by 
increasing  the  quantity  of  light,  put  it  at  once  in  the  power 
of  the  gardener  to  cultivate  permanently  in  his  greenhuuho 
those  natives  of  hot  countries  which  are  not  capable  of  bear- 
ing the  open  air  of  Europe  even  during  the  summer.  Froui 
the  time  of  Switzer  to  the  present  oay  there  has  been  a 
gradual  improvement  in  the  construction  of  greenhouxMi^ 
the  object  being  to  supply  the  plants  with  as  nearly  the 
same  amount  of  light  when  under  the  glass-roof,  %s  they 
would  have  had  if  in  the  open  air.  The  modem  invention 
of  curvilinear  iron-roofs  has  accomplished  this  end  in  a 
most  remarkable  degree ;  fur  they  substitute  an  obstruction 
to  light  amounting  to  only  ii  or  ^  for  a  loss  equivalent  to  \ 
or  even  J. 

The  mode  of  heatine  such  houses  has  given  the  modern 
cultivator  additional  advantages  of  the  greatest  importance. 
Stoves  of  all  kinds  not  only  diy  up  the  moisture  of  the  at- 
mosphere, but  impregnate  the  air  with  gaseous  exhalations 
unfavourable  to  vegetation.  The  substitution  of  flues,  while 
it  equalixed  the  heat,  was  still  worse  tlian  the  stove  in  dr)'iiig 
and  deteriorating  the  air;  the  introduction  of  fermenting; 
vegetable  matter,  such  as  tan  in  a  pit,  in  the  interior  of  the 
house,  remedied  this  evil  in  some  measure,  but  the  applica- 
tion of  steam-pipes  or  hot-water  pipes  has  had  the  great 
advantage  of  obviating  every  inconvenience,  and  has  given 
the  g^ardener  the  power  of  modifying  the  heat  and  moisture 
of  his  greenhouse  at  pleasure.  Add  to  this,  the  rapidity 
of  communication  between  one  country  and  another,  the 
long  peace  with  which  Europe  has  been  blessed^  and  the 
leisure  it  has  given  men  to  occupy  themselves  with  domestic 
enjoyments,  ue  great  encouragement  given  to  gardeners 
the  establishment  of  Horticultural  Societies  for  the  promo- 
tion of  the  art  of  gardening,  and  the  discoveries  made  in 
vegetable  physiology— add  aH  these  things  to  the  improve- 
ments in  greenhouses,  under  which  name  is  here  included 
all  descriptions  of  glass  buildings  for  horticultural  purposes, 
and  there  is  no  difficulty  in  accounting  for  the  present  flou- 
rishing condition  of  European  gardens. 

There  is  one  point  furtner  that  requires  to  be  notioc<l.  as 
contributing  to  this  result,  and  that  is,  the  extension  of  the 
education  of  the  working  gardener.  Great  numbers  of  irar- 
doners  are  now  well  informed  in  the  higher  branches  of  their 
profession.  Instead  of  trusting  to  certain  empirical  ruK-^ 
or  to  receipU  for  gardening  operations,  as  if  growing  a  pla.ni 
was  much  the  same  thing  as  making  a  pudding,  they  make 
themselves  acquainted  with  the  principles  upon  which  their 
operations  are  conducted,  they  acquire  a  knowle<lge  of 
botany  and  vegetable  physiology,  and  some  even  of  pli)  »ical 
geography,  ana  thus  they  place  themselves  in  the  only  |o^i- 
tion  from  which  they  can  securely  advance  to  the  improve- 
ment of  their  art  Tne  necessity  of  these  subjects  forming  a 
part  of  all  gardeners*  education  cannot  be  too  strongly  in- 
sisted upon ;  the  Horticultural  Society  of  London  ha%e  re- 
cognised their  importance  by  requiring  all  the  young  men  m 
their  garden  to  pass  an  examination  in  such  subjects,  in  ad- 
dition to  their  possessing  the  usual  gardeners*  acquirements ; 
and  although  people  ignorant  of  such  subjects  them^eUva 
have  been  found  aosurd  enough  to  blame  the  proceeding, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  world  will  give  tne  Society 
the  credit  they  deserve  for  having  been  the  first  to  set  this 
most  important  example,  which  we  trust  will  be  ibllo«'ed  by 
all  such  institutions  through  the  country. 

In  noticing  modern  gardens  we  must  neoessarily  confine 
ourselves  to  a  few  of  the  most  remarkable,  passing  by  entirely 
those  of  private  individuals,  and  in  genend  all  second-rate 
public  establishments.  The  reader  who  is  desirous  of  pro- 
curing detailed  tnibrmation  upon  the  subject  will  find  an  ample 
account  of  all  the  best  modem  gardens  in  Mr.  Loadpo*a  ^a- 


GAR 


74 


G  A  U 


placing  the  plants  geographically,  so  that  the  mo&t  careless 
observer  in  prcceeaing  through'  the  diflferent  luiles  cannot 
fail  to  be  struck  with  the  changes  in  vegetation  as  he  jpa-»acs 
f«om  Africa  to  America,  to  Nov  Hollaudi  to  India,  China, 
and  so  on. 

In  France  gardening  has  never  been  in  a  very  flourishing 
condition ;  it  is  true  tnat  great  quantities  of  vegetables  are 
raided  for  the  market,  that  the  fruits  of  France  are  justly 
celebrated  for  their  excellence,  and  the  flower- markets  of 
Paris  are  well  supplied ;  it  is  also  true  that  numerous  ex- 
cellent  works  on  gardening  have  heen  written  in  France. 
But  for  the  quality  of  their  fruit  the  French  are  chiefly 
indebted  to  their  climate,  for  the  abundant  supply  of  the  ve- 
getable market  to  their  peculiar  cookery,  and  tor  the  excel- 
lence of  their  written  works  rather  to  the  ingenuity  of  a  few 
clever  men,  than  to  the  general  haljits  of  the  community. 
In  flowers  their  taste  is  rather  that  of  the  Romans  than  of 
other  European  nations,  for  they  are  contented  with  a  few 
showy  kinas  of  sweet-smelling  flowers,  especially  roses. 
Their  great  public  gardens  remind  one  of  the  days  of 
Henry  VIII.,  and  if  it  were  not  for  the  imposing  effect 
produced  by  the  architectural  grandeur  of  the  buildings 
with  which  they  are  associated,  thev  would  be  quite  con- 
temptible as  works  of  the  nineteenth  century.  There  no 
doubt  are  exceptions  to  this  statement,  but  as  a  general 
fact  it  cannot  be  contradicted.  The  Garden  of  Plants  at 
Paris,  which  is  the  largest  of  the  public  establishments  in 
France  to  which  tlic  name  of  garden  properly  applies,  is 
not  an  exception  to  this  statement,  so  ikr  as  the  plants  it 
contains  are  concerned.  In  1818  it  consisted,  in  the  open 
air.  of  departments  devoted  to  various  purposes  of  teaching ; 
there  was  an  indifferent  collection  of  nardy  herbaceous 
plants,  and  hardy  trees  and  shrubs,  some  puerile  contriv- 
ances to  aid  the  student  of  agriculture :  the  plants  in  the 
houses  were  ill  cultivated,  few  in  number  for  such  a  place, 
and  altogether  unworthy  of  the  reputation  the  garden  had 
gained.  Since  that  period  two  large  hothouses  have  been 
built,  72  feet  long,  4*2  feet  wide,  and  about  50  feet  high, 
with  iron  span  roofs  and  heated  by  steam,  and  undoubtedly 
the  establishment  is  pro:;ro<sing  to  a  better  state.  But 
even  now  there  are  few  judges  of  gardens  who  would  assign 
the  Jardin  dcs  Plantes  a  place  among  the  first  class  of  Eu- 
ropean gardens. 

In  Great  Britain  it  has  never  been  the  policy  of  the  go- 
vernment to  offer  direct  encouragement  to  either  science  or 
art,  except  in  an  uncertain  and  sparing  manner,  but  rather 
to  throw  the  duty  of  fostering  them  upon  the  people.  So 
far  as  gardening  is  concerned  the  government  has  been  right ; 
for  if  in  this  country  such  public  gardens  as  we  have  enu- 
merated are  unknown ;  on  the  other  hand  no  part  of  the 
Continent  possesses  such  multitudes  of  good  private  gardens 
as  Great  Kntain.  That  which  in  other  countries  is  a  luxury, 
provided  for  at  the  publie  expense,  is  here  rendered  a  kind 
of  necessity,  which  all  persons,  from  the  cottager  to  the 
noble,  strive  to  possess.  Nothing  can  be  more  beneficial 
to  the  community,  or  more  advantageous  to  horticulture 
itself,  than  this  difference,  for  the  result  is  not  here  and 
there  a  raa^uiticent  garden,  and  all  round  it  comparative 
sterility,  but  a  universal  garden  all  over  the  country.  The 
chief  English  garden  containinj^  a  large  collection  of  plants 
is  that  of  Kew,  which  is  certainly  the  richest  in  the  world 
in  New  Holland  plants,  and  which  was,  during  the  late  war, 
almost  the  only  place  in  Europe  to  which  exotic  plants 
were  introduced  in  considerable  quantity.  It  contains  a 
bad  and  ill-named  or  rather  unnamed  collection  of  hardy 
plants,  and  a  good  many  small  hothouses  and  greenhouses 
filled  with  rare  plants;  there  is  moreover  an  excellent 
kitchen-garden  and  forcing  department.  In  consequence 
of  thu»  establishment  having  had  a  monopoly  of  govern- 
ment support  §or  above  30  years,  it  has  been  the  channel 
through  i^hich  an  enormous  quantity  of  new  plants  have 
been  introduced  to  Europe  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  For 
many  years  however  it  was  unworthy  of  the  nation,  from 
the  illiberal  manner  in  which  it  was  conducted,  a  system 
of  cxclufrive  po>bes)»ion  having  been  obser\'ed  in  it,  which 
was  most  disi^roceful  to  tho^e  by  whose  authority  it  was 
maintained,  and  who  acted  as  if  such  gardens  were  supplied 
by  the  public  purse  for  the  private  gratification  of  a  few 
selfish  cnurlierji,  and  not  for  cither  the  crown  or  the  country. 
Of  late  }ears  Iiowevcr  this  system  has  been  abandoned,  a 
liberal  luuiii^eineut  has  been  introduced,  and  the  collec- 
tion is  OS  accessible  as  that  of  other  nations.  Next  in  im- 
portaaico  omgng  public  gardens  is  that  of  the  Horticultural 


Society,  at  Chiswick,  near  London.  It  was  efttablisbed  U 
the  expense  of  the  members  of  the  society,  and  was  inteodeA 
both  as  a  place  of  experimental  researches  in  horticultuml 
bcience,  and  a^i  a  station  i\  hence  the  most  valuable,  useful, 
and  ornamental  plants  of  all  kinds,  might  be  distributed 
through  the  country ;  for  which  purposes  its  extent, 
amounting  to  33  acres,  was  expected  to  be  amply  sufficienU 
It  has  now  been  instituted  17  years,  and  consists  of— i.  aD 
Arboretum,  probably  the  vichest  in  Europe  in  trees  and 
shrubs  that  are  ornamental ;  2,  of  an  orchard,  beyond  al! 
comparison  the  most  perfect  collection  of  fruit-trees^  of  all 
descriptions,  that  has  ever  been  formed ;  3,  of  a  few  forcing- 
houses,  now  chiefly  employed  in  the  determination  of  tiie 
equality  of  different  kinds  of  grapes;  4,  of  a  kitchen-garden. 
in  which  trials  are  made  of  new  vegetables,  or  of  new 
methods  of  cultivation ;  but  which  is  principally  used  as  a 
school  of  practice  for  the  improvement  of  the  young  gar- 
deners in  this  branch  of  their  art ;  and  5,  of  a  few  small  hot- 
houses and  greenhouses  filled  with  rare  plants.  It  is  more- 
over conducted  as  a  kind  of  normal  school  for  young  men 
intended  for  gardeners,  who  are  now  obliged  to  pass  an  exa- 
mination in  the  principles  of  their  business  before  they  at* 
recommended  to  places.  It  was  originally  intended  to  erect 
a  magnificent  range  of  hothouses,  but  the  mismanagement 
of  the  funds  of  the  society  by  the  late  secretarjr  ha»  pre- 
vented that  object  being  yet  accomplished;  it  is  however 
generallv  understood  that  this  part  of  the  plan,  so  far  from 
being  abandoned,  will  actually  be  commenced  in  m  few 
months,  now  that  the  resources  of  the  corporation  bate 
been  invigorated  by  a  more  prudent  and  c*refiil  roanoire- 
ment.  Even  as  it  is,  no  association  of  individusls  e%cr 
produced  so  marked  an  effect  upon  gardening  in  a  few  years 
as  has  been  brought  about  by  tlie  enormous  distributions  of 
cuttings  of  improved  fruit-trees,  of  the  finest  kinds  of  ve{:c- 
table  seeds,  and  of  new  plants  mostly  imported  direct  fK*ra 
the  British  colonies  and  from  the  west  coast  of  America, 
made  annually  from  the  society's  gardens,  independently  of 
the  collections  sent  in  return  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Tlie  botanic  garden  of  Edinburgh  is  one  of  the  finest  and 
best-managed  in  Europe.  It  consists  of  16  acres,  deliirht- 
fuUy  situated,  and  includes  everything  that  can  be  required 
for  the  purposes  of  teaching.  The  houses  are  remarkably 
good,  and  the  healthy  condition  of  the  plants  deserving  nt 
all  praise.  It  is  particularly  celebrated  for  its  beautiful 
specimens  of  heaths.  Besides  these,  there  are  botanic 
gardens  at  Glasgow,  Liverix>ol,  Cambridge,  and  0.\fonl : 
fine  public  gardens  in  the  towns  of  Shcflield,  Manchester, 
and  Birmingham ;  and  a  garden  at  Chelsea,  belonging  to 
the  Apothecaries'  Company,  who  maintain  it  for  the  u%e  of 
the  medical  students  of  the  London  schools.  The  latter 
was  once  among  the  most  celebrated  in  Europe,  having 
been  for  nearly  50  years  under  the  management  of  Pb<lip 
Miller,  the  author  of  the  *  Gardener's  Dictionary,'  and 
whom  Linnaeus  called  the  *  prince  of  gardeners.'  Its  situa- 
tion has  however  become  unfavourable  for  a  garden*  in 
consequence  of  the  number  of  houses  with  which  it  h 
surrounded;  and  the  collection  had  latterlv  fallen  ini9 
some  disorder ;  but  a  commencement  has  lately  been  made 
by  the  present  professor  to  re-arrange  it,  and  it  may  a:c.im 
be  expected  to  becomo  an  eflicient  school  of  botanical  m* 
struction. 

The  number  of  species  included  in  Loudon's  *  Hon  us 
Britannicus,'  or  catalogue  of  the  plants  either  cuUivate<l  m 
Great  Britain  or  indigenous,  amounted  in  183U  to  uowarls 
of  25,000,  exclusive  ojf  Cryptogamous  plants;  and  alibou.^h 
a  vast  number  of  deductions  must  be  made,  it  is  not  impfv^- 
bable  that  there  are  at  this  time  nearly  as  many  s]i€Cios 
known  in  the  different  British  collections. 

GARDEN  HUSBANDRY  U  a  branch  of  Horticulture, 
the  object  of  which  is  to  raise  fruits,  vegetables,  and  seedf 
fi)r  profit  on  a  smaller  extent  of  ground  than  is  osually  oo» 
cupicd  for  the  purpose  of  Agriculture. 

The  best  examples  of  this  kind  of  industry  are  found 
among  themarkot-gardeneis  near  populous  towns,  paiti-.*- 
larly  London,  Paris,  and  Amsterdam.  By  Iba  appUa- 
tion  of  much  manual  labour  and  an  abundant  supple  (*f 
manure  they  accelerate  the  growth  of  vegetables,  aud  pru> 
duoe  them  more  abundantly  than  where  manure  is  not  to 
easily  obtained,  or  where  there  is  not  so  large  a  demand  fv>r 
the  produce. 

The  eardeners  near  Paris,  some  of  whom  have  gardens 
within  the  outer  walls  of  the  city,  are  called  Manachrr^, 
iium  the  situation  of  their  gardens  in  a  low  district  «btcU 


I 


GAR 


:6 


GAR 


exposes  then  more  to  the  influence  of  the  sun.  In  very 
frosty  weather,  these  heds  are  covered  with  mats  or  looso 
straw.  We  do  not  mention  frames  covered  with  glass;,  as 
thev  helonf^  to  a  higher  kind  of  horticulture :  but  a  moderate 
hotbed  made  with  fresh  dung,  and  covered  with  mats  laid 
over  hoops,  is  indispensable  lor  the  raising  of  early  vegeta- 
bles. By  these  means  radishes  and  various  salads  may  be 
raised  very  early  in  the  spring,  and  sometimes,  in  mild 
winters,  without  any  interruption  during  the  whole  year. 

An  abundant  supply  of  manure  is  indispensable  in  a 
market-garden,  and  tnis  can  generally  be  obtained  in  large 
towns  at  a  tritling  expense.  The  neis^hbourhood  of  a  town 
is  therefore  a  necessary  circumstance  towards  the  production 
of  the  crop,  as  well  as  its  sale.  It  would  be  impossible  to 
make  a  sufficient  quantity  of  manure  by  means  of  the 
horses  which  are  employed  to  carry  the  produce  to  market : 
and  the  extent  of  land  usually  laid  out  in  garden-ground 
could  not  raise  sufficient  fuod  for  cattle,  without  taking  up  a 
•pace  which  may  be  more  profitably  employed.  The  only 
animal  which  can  be  kept  to  advantage  bv  a  gardener  is  a 
pig.  This  animal  will  live  well  on  the  oflal  of  vei^etubles ; 
and  the  gardens  of  cottagers  could  not  well  be  kept  in  a  fer- 
tile state  if  it  were  not  for  the  manure  made  by  the  pigs. 

The  market-gardeners  about  Amsterdam  are  mostly 
Jews,  and  the  vegetables  which  they  bring  to  market  are 
similar  to  those  of  the  London  or  Paris  gardeners ;  but  they 
excel  particularly  in  raising  cauliflowers,  large  white  cab- 
bages for  making  taur-kraut,  a  dish  much  relished  in  the 
winter  by  theDutchand  Qermans,  [Cabbage,]  French  beans, 
cucumbers,  and  melons.  They  raise  these  last  in  such 
abundance,  that  heaps  of  them  are  sold  in  the  markets  at 
a  very  low  rate.  They  also  excel  in  the  forcing  of  early  peas 
and  beans,  and  in  the  general  management  of  hot  beds. 

The  profits  of  a  garden  near  London,  of  the  extent  of  ten 
or  twelve  acres,  are  as  great  as  that  of  a  farm  of  ten  times 
the  extent  cultivated  in  the  best  manner,  without  the  help 
of  purchased  manure.  But  if  manure  can  be  obtained  at  a 
reasonable  rate,  as  is  often  the  case  in  great  thoroughfares, 
where  many  horses  are  kept  for  public  conveyances,  although 
there  be  no  immediate  demand  for  vegetables,  a  garden  may 
be  very  profitably  cultivated,  entirely  for  the  purpose  of 
raising  seeds.  This  branch  of  industry  is  the  more  worthy 
of  notice,  as  it  may  enable  a  cottager  to  improve  his  situation 
greatly  by  the  produce  of  a  small  garden  or  allotment  of 
land.  Tiie  demand  for  seeds  of  all  the  most  common  pro- 
ductions of  a  garden,  and  especially  of  flowers,  is  great  be- 
yond belief,  and  the  profit  of  those  who  retail  them  in  small 
Quantities  is  so  great  that  they  can  aflbrd  a  liberal  price  to 
tnose  who  raise  them  with  proper  care  so  as  to  keep  the 
varieties  distinct 

In  some  agricultural  districts  it  is  the  custom  for  the  la- 
bourers to  plant  turnips  in  their  gardens  in  November,  in 
order  to  obtain  the  seed  in  time  for  sowing  in  the  next  year. 
They  choose  the  soundest  and  best  shaped,  and  by  attention 
in  keeping  the  ground  clean,  and  allowing  only  one  sort  to 
go  to  seed  within  a  certain  distance,  they  produce  a  better 
seed  than  the  farmer  could ;  because  the  labourer  and  his 
family  having  their  garden  constantly  in  view,  can  more 
easily  keep  off  birds  and  watch  the  ripening  of  the  seed,  so  as 
to  allow  it  to  oome  to  perfect  maturity,  without  danger  of  the 
pods  bursting,  and  shedding  the  seed  horn  being  left  too  long. 
Thus  they  can  collect  a  bushel  or  two  of  excellent  seed  deom 
a  small  portion  of  land;  and  this,  at  the  price  of  a  guinea  a 
bushel,  which  is  cheaper  to  the  farmer  than  if  he  raised  it 
himself,  or  purchased  it  of  the  seedsman,  is  a  verv  profitable 
crop  to  the  labourer.  An  industrious  cottager,  without  losing 
any  time,  with  the  help  of  his  wife  and  children,  may  much 
increase  his  comforts  in  this  manner,  while  at  the  same  time 
he  trains  his  children  in  habits  of  industry.  To  no  class  of 
men  would  a  knowledge  of  garden  husbandry  be  more  use- 
ful. The  improvement  which  may  be  made  in  the  condition 
and  character  of  the  poor,  by  combining  in  their  education 
a  knowledge  of  the  most  common  arts  of  life  with  that  of 
]etters,which  is  often  the  only  thing  taught  in  schools,  must  be 
evident  to  every  man  who  has  reflected  on  the  subject ;  and  I 
of  all  these  arts  the  most  generally  useful  amongst  an  agri- 
cultural population  is  the  art  of  horticulture.  The  cot- 
tager who  b  acquainted  with  the  means  of  raising  early 
guden  produce,  who  can  graft  young  trees,  who  knows  what 
slants  may  be  propagated  with  a  little  care,  and  bo  readily 
*  M  when  in  perfection,  can  employ  his  labour  with  a  double 
^^  itage.  And  many  a  man,  mm  a  very  small  beginning, 
ith  a  moderate  share  of  judgment  and  prudence, 


raised  himself  to  independence,  if  not  to  affluence;  \ihile  he 
that  plods  on  in  the  beaten  track  like  a  horse  in  a  mill  eii'l  -> 
his  days  in  ignorance  and  poverty. 

The  gieat  bupi'riurity  of  those  schools  which  have  hc<  ri 
established  to  teach  the  children  of  the  poor  to  work  as  wi-w 
as  to  read,  over  those  which  teach  book  knowledge  only,  t- 
indisputable.  A  boy  who  can  manage  a  little  gvden,  u  \vj 
takes  a  pleasure  in  watching  the  seed  he  has  sown,  who 
plucks  out  every  weed  as  soon  as  it  appeara,  and  who  phdi-^ 
liiroself  on  the  fruit  and  vegetables  which  he  can  pla«v  on 
his  father's  table,  is  more  advanced  in  his  education  than 
he  who  can  only  read  and  write,  however  well  he  roav  do 
both. 

Many  plans  have  been  proposed  for  the  distribution  of 
the  crops  in  a  cottage  frarden ;  but  none  of  them  are  suiti^'l 
to  every  situotion.  Much  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  m>iI. 
which  may  be  better  suited  to  one  kind  of  produce  tha  a 
another ;  and  also  to  the  demand  for  any  peculiar  clav^  «tf 
vegetables.  New  sorts  may  often  be  introduced  with  a<l* 
vantage.  The  raising  of  any  useful  plant  with  great  cai«* 
will  often  givo  a  man  a  reputation,  which  makes  it  advan- 
tageous to  him  to  confine  himself  to  these  principally,  antl 
raise  them  in  the  greatest  perfection.  An  ingenious  m^n 
will  find  out  what  is  most  for  his  own  advantage ;  and 
from  the  list  of  plants  which  may  be  cultivated  fur  orn..- 
ment  or  for  use  a  selection  may  be  made  which  may  be 
well  suited  to  the  situation  of  the  ground  and  the  circum- 
stances of  the  grower.  The  practice  of  the  market-gardeners 
mav  be  exammed  with  advantage;  and  long  expenenor. 
with  the  test  of  profit,  will  lay  down  better  practical  rules 
than  the  most  plausible  theories. 

An  allotment  of  land  such  as  is  now  very  frequent b 
given  to  agricultural  labourers  with  the  laudable  intention 
of  making  them  more  industrious  and   independent  of 
parochial  relief,  may  be  cultivated  to  great  advantage  b> 
applving  judiciously  the  general  principles  of  garden  hu«- 
iMtndry.    There  are  few  cottages  which  have  not  alrcortv 
attached  to  'them  a  small  garden  of  a  few  perches,  in  whirh 
common  vegetables,  such  as  cabbages,  onions,  and  earl> 
potatoes,  are  raised.    The  same  vegetables  may  continue  !o 
be  cultivated  there,  provided  the  situation  is  more  con- 
venient from  its  proximity  to  the  cottage,  or  a  small  part 
of  the  allotment  may  be  set  apart  every  year    for  tUt:* 
purpose,  so  as  to  change  the  crops,  which   is  always  a  n 
advantage.     But  the  remainder  of  the  allotment  should  Ix* 
cultivated  on  a  regular  plan,  as  a  farm  in  miniature,  wiih 
this  difference,  that  all  the  operations  should  be  perform e<l 
with  the  minute  attention  of  a  gardener.      Potatoes  anil 
wheat,  if  the  soil  is  not  too  light  for  the  latter,  or  rye.  in 
very  sandy  soils,  will  be  the  principal  crops,  being  imtiu*- 
dialely  necessary  to  the  support  of  the  family.     Thevf 
crops  have  sometimes  been  recommended  to  bo  raised  in 
every  alternate    year;    but  whatever  be    the    tillti(;e   or 
manuring,   there  are  few  soils  which  will  not  soon   be 
reduced  in  fertility  by  this  constant  succession.      One- 
fourth  of  the  land  in  wheat,  and  one-fourth  in  potatoes,  u 
the  utmost  which  can  be  profitably  cultivated  in  one  \ear. 
The  remaining  half  of  the  allotment  must  produce  nuUo. 
roots,  and  green  crops,  by  which  animals  may  be  fed  and 
manure  collected.    An  allotment  of  three  acres  will  enable 
a  cottager  to  keep  a  cow,  by  having  a  portion  of  it  in  clu\  cr 
or  other  artificial  grass.      In  the  '  Farmer's  Magazine'  tur 
February,   1802  (p.  38),  there  is  an  article  drawn  up   bv 
Mr.  John  Sinclair,  in  which  it  is  shown  how  this  may  b« 
effected  without  difficulty.     But  as  the  allotments  usually 
given  to  labomvrs  seldom  exceed  half  an  acre,  or  at  tlfe 
most  an  acre,  the  keeping  of  a  cow  is  out  of  the  question  ; 
and  the  only  animal  which  can  be  profitably  reared  and 
fatted  is  the  pig,  to  which  we  shall  therefore  confine  our 
observations.    By  means  of  pigs  the  cottager  may  greatly 
increase  the  profit  which  can  be  made  from  his  allotment 
of  land,  keeping  up  at  the  same  time  a  proper  degree  of 
fertility.    One-half  of  his  bnd  must  be  cultivated  to  feed 
his  pigs;  besides  the  smaller  potatoes  which  remain  when 
the  finest  and  best  are  taken  out  for  the  use  of  the  ikmily, 
he  may  give  them  beans,  barley,  carrots,  parsnips,  and 
turnips,  especially  the  Roola  Baga,  or  Swedish  turnip ;  and 
all  the  straw  must  be  used  for  litter.      If  this  be  strictly 
attended  to,  the  greatest  possible  profit  will  be  made  from 
the  land,  without  any  danger  of  iu  being  exhausted  and 
loosing  iu  fertility.    The  rotations  will  therefore  be— pota- 
toes, with  a  great  quantity  of  manure ;   then  barley,  then 
peas,    bean^,  .  carrots,    parsnips,  and    Swedish    turni|>s. 


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78 


GAR 


eoimeil,  on  his  refusal  (o  comply  with  their  injundions,  I 
comtnitled  him  to  the  Fleet.  Here  he  was  confined  until 
the  art  of  general  amnesty,  which  passed  in  the  December 
after  the  arcc-sion  of  Edward,  released  him.  As  soon  as 
he  was  free  ho  went  down  to  his  diocese,  and  while  there 
he  remaine<l  unmolested;  but  on  his  return  to  London,  on 
account  of  a  certain  sermon  which  he  preached  on  St, 
Peter's  Day,  he  was  seized  and  committed  to  the  Tower 
(1548).  Various  conferences  were  held  willi  him,  and  his 
release  was  promi-^ed  him  on  condition  that  he  would 
express  his  contrition  f  ;r  the  past,  promise  obedience  for 
the  future,  subscribe  the  new  settlement  in  relij^iou,  also 
the  king*8  complete  power  and  supremacy,  though  a  minor, 
together  with  the  abrogation  of  the  six  articles.  With  the 
first  of  these  conditions  alone  did  he  absolutely  refuse  to 
comply.  The  terms  of  liberation  were  afterwards  rendered 
still  more  ditlicult.  Tlie  number  of  articles  that  he  was 
called  upon  to  subscribe  was  considerably  increased.  On 
his  refusal  to  sign  them,  his  bishonric  was  sequestered, 
and  he  was  soon  afterwards  depiivcfl.  For  more  than  five 
years  ha  suffered  close  imprisonment,  and  it  was  not  until 
the  bej^inning  of  the  reit^n  of  Mary  that  his  liberty  was 
restored  (1553).  If  his  fall  from  power  at  the  conclusion 
of  Henry's  reign  had  been  great  and  sudden,  still  greater 
and  still  more  sudden  Was  the  rapidity  of  his  reinstatement. 
A  Catholic  queen  was  on  the  throne,  and  he  who  had  been 
ever  the  foremost  of  her  partisans  must  necessarily  be 
raised  to  be  one  of  her  first  advisers.  The  chancellorship 
was  conferred  upon  him.  His  bishopric  was  restored,  and 
the  conduct  of  affairs  placed  in  his  hands.  The  manage- 
ment of  the  queen's  marriage  treaty  was  intrusted  to  him. 
He  was  chosen  to  otfiriute  at  her  marriage,  as  he  had  also 
done  at  her  coronation,  and  became  her  most  confidential 
adviser.  No  matters,  whatever  they  might  be,  could  be 
proceeded  in  without  his  privily  and  concurrence.  We 
must  refer  our  readers  to  the  ecclesiastical  and  general 
histories,  and  to  Burnet's  *  History  of  the  Reformation,'  for 
an  account  of  his  share  in  the  persecutions  of  this  reign. 
Those  horrors  which  were  not  committed  by  his  artual 
orders  must  at  least  have  obtained  his  sanction ;  for  he 
had  reache<l  a  height  of  power,  both  civil  and  ecclesias- 
tical, perhaps  unequalled  in  this  kingdom,  except  by  his 
master  Wolsey  alone.  He  died  on  the  I'ith  of  November, 
1555.  His  funeral  was  conducted  with  great  pomp  and 
magnificence.  A  list  of  his  writings  is  given  in  Tanner's 
'  Biol.  Britannica,'  Hiberuica,  p.  3UH. 

The  character  of  Gardiner  mav  be  stated  in  a  few  words. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  abilitv ;  his  general  knowledge  was 
more  remarkable  than  his  learning  as  a  divine :  he  was 
ambitious  and  revengeful,  and  wholly  unscrupulous;  bis 
drst  object  was  his  own  preservation  and  advancement,  and 
his  next  the  promotion  of  his  party  interest.  He  saw 
deeply  into  the  characters  of  those  with  whom  he  dealt, 
dealt  with  them  with  infinite  tact,  and  had  an  accurate  fore- 
sight of  affairs.    (ICcclesias  Hist. ;  BnrneVs  Reform. ;  &c.) 

GARFAGNA'N  A  is  a  highland  district  of  the  northern 
Apennines,  on  the  borders  of  the  states  of  Tuscany,  Genoa, 
and  Modena,  including  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Serchio 
above  its  junction  with  the  Lima.  The  valley  extends  from 
the  sources  of  the  Serchio  in  a  south-east  direction  for  about 
twenty-four  miles  between  the  main  ridge  of  the  Apennines 
and  the  lofty  croup  called  Alpe  Apuana,  which  divides  the 
Talley  of  the.  Serchio  from  that  of  the  Magra,  and  also  from 
the  maritime  districts  of  Carrara,  Massa,  and  Pictrasanta. 
The  most  elevated  summits  of  the  Alpe  Apuana.  called  Pisa- 
nini)  and  Pizzo  d'Ucccllo,  are  between  6000  and  7000  feet 
high.  The  climate  of  Gar  fag  nana  is  cold  and  fogjry,  and 
ex|»oscd  to  btji>terous  winds  from  the  mountains.  The  in- 
habitants of  this  secluded  district  amounted  in  1832  to 
40,100.  The  low  lands  of  the  >  alley  produce  some  corn, 
hemp,  and  tlax,  and  in  some  sheltered  and  favoured  spots 
the  olive  and  intilbcrry  ;  but  the  main  resource  of  the 
people  is  thoir  pa^ures  a'ld  their  forests  of  chestnut-trees, 
the  fruit  of  >\hn-h  is  to  them  a  substitute  for  bread.  In  1^32 
they  had  8<^36  head  of  horned  cattle,  47,505  sheep,  G^58 
goats,  1867  pi;.;-,  ij-j  horbos  6.i4  a>5;es  and  172  mules.  In 
the  same  year  they  exported  40.000 lbs.  of  silk  cocoons; 
other  exnortations  are  c!ici»se,  undressed  skins,  chestnuts, 
w«}ol,  anu  timber.  There  are  also  iron  and  coal-mines.  The 
Garfa^nana  contains  sixty-seven  parisho<«.  and  is  di\ided 
for  administrative  purposes  into  six  jurisdictions,  three  of 
which  belong  to  the  duchy  of  Modena,  two  to  the  duchy  of 
Laoca,  and  one  to  Tuscany.    The  principal  towns  are— 1. 


CastelnuoTo.  with  2400  inhabitants,  and  some  good  btiilJ* 
in^,  being  the  residence  of  the  Modenese  governor;  it  ha« 
a  college,  an  hospital,  and  a  Monic  di  Pict4.  The  puet 
Ariosto  was  at  one  time  governor  of  this  place,  of  which  he 
gives  a  curious  account.  [Ariosto.]  2.  Gallirano,  with 
about  1000  inhabitants,  the  head  place  of  the  district,  attd 
belonging  to  Lucca.  3.  Barga,  with  2500  inhabitants,  hcail 
town  of  the  district,  and  belonging  to  Tuseanv. 

GARLIC,  a  hardy  perennial  plant  with  bulbous  rootc^ 
found  growing  wild  in  the  ialana  of  Sicily,  and  in  se%*eral 
other  parts  of  the  south  of  Europe.    In.^rdens  it  is  culti 
vated  chiefly  on  account  of  its  bulbs,  which  are  much  used 
in  cookery,  and  occasionally  in  medicine. 

It  is  the  Allium  sativum  of  botanists,  and  is  regularly 
grown  for  the  market.  For  this  purpose,  a  light  tolera- 
bly rich  soil  is  selected  in  a  dry  warm  situation.  Tlie  grouml 
should  be  well  dunged  for  the  crop  which  precedes  garlir  ; 
and  not  when  the  garlic  is  planted,  because,  when  this  i- 
done,  the  bulbs  are  very  apt  to  canker  and  to  be  infe»tcdi 
with  maggots. 

It  may  either  be  planted  in  beds  or  in  rows ;  it  in  be<K. 
the  distance  between  the  plants  may  be  seven  or  ci^ht 
inches;  if  in  rows  (which  is  most  recommended),  the>  nny 
be  one  foot  apart,  and  six  inches  between  the  plants  m  the 
row.  In  ganlens  where  the  soil  is  light  and  dry,  the  h*"-x 
season  for  planting  is  late  in  autumn  ;  but  where  the  mi\  i% 
wet,  the  operation  should  be  deferred  until  spring,  that  u«« 
to  any  time  in  February  or  March. 

The  plant  is  propagated  by  offsets,  which  it  produces  an- 
nually in  consiucrable  numbers,  and  which  are  common ly 
called  cloves.  The  season  of  ripeness,  which  is  generally  tu 
the  end  of  July  or  August,  is  easily  known  by  the  lea\«*^ 
changing  from  green  to  yellow.  At  this  period  the  bultjs 
should  be  taken  up  and  spread  out  in  the  sun  to  dry,  af(c»r 
which  they  may  be  tied  in  bunches  and  kept  in  a  dry  hou^« 
for  winter  use,  in  the  same  way  as  onions. 

GARNET,  a  well-known  precious  stone,  of  which  there 
are  many  varieties.  Some  of  them  are  probably  distinrc 
species;  but  agreeing  in  form,  and  some  other  propertii-s 
they  are  classed  together.  This  mineral  occurs  crystallizol. 
massive,  and  granular.  The  primary  form  is  a  cube,  but 
it  occurs  in  the  form  of  a  rhombic  dodecahedron.  The 
colour  is  various,  and  accordingly,  as  will  be  seen  beU>^, 
it  has  received  different  names.  It  is  transparent,  transr- 
lucent,  rarely  opaaue.  Lustre  vitreous,  resinous.  8pcc;tle 
gravity,  3*6,  4*2.  Haidness,  6*5,  7*5.  Cleavage  parallel  to 
the  planes  of  the  rliombic  dodecahedron ;  fracture,  uneven. 

This  mineral  occurs  in  the  mountainous  porta  of  mu^t 
countries. 

The  massive  varieties  are  amorphous,  structure  granular, 
compact  The  crystalline  varieties,  according  generally  to 
their  colour,  have  received  various  names.  Precious  gamer, 
Almandine;  hlackt  Alelantte,  Pyreneiie ;  greenish  yellow, 
Grosmlaria ;  yellow,  crystallized,  Topasmite ;  granular. 
Succinite ;  brownish-yellow,  granular,  Colophmite  ;  green- 
ish, compact,  Allochroite ;  red,  Pyrope,  Carbuncle ;  reddi>h- 
brown,  Essonite,  Cinnamon-stone,  Romanzovite  ;  magxie- 
sian,  Rothnffite. 

The  following  are  the  analyses  of  the  almandine,  by  the 
authors  named,  and  from  the  places  mentioned  *— 

Butfmia.  New  Yurk. 

Silica 33-75  42*51 

Alumina      .    .    .     27*25  19-15 

Oxide  of  Iron   .     .     3600  .?3*57 

5-49 
000  1*07 


Oxide  of  Manganese    0*25 
Lime 


9r*25  Klaproth  10l79Wachtmcister 
It  appears  that  the  essential  ingredients  of  the  garnet  are 
silica,  alumina,  and  oxi«le  of  iron ;  these  are  frequcnfh  par- 
tiallv  replaced  bv  oxide  of  manganese,  lime,  and  magnes:a. 
GARNET,  riENRY.  superior  of  the  Jesuits  in  Eng- 
land, was  the  son  of  a  schoolmaster  at  Nottingham,  and 
was  born  about  the  year  1554.  He  was  educated  in  the 
Protestant  religion  at  Winchester  College,  whence  it  was 
intended  that  he  should  go  to  New  College,  Oxford,  aad 
his  not  having  done  so  has  been  assigned  to  diflTerent  causes 
by  Protestant  and  Catholic  writers.  He  removed  from 
Winchester  to  I^ondon.  where  he  became  corrector  of  the 
press  to  a  celebrated  law-prinitr;  and  having  turned 
Roman  Catholic,  travelled  nrst  to  Spain  and  thence  io 
Rome,  where  he  entered  the  society  of  Jesuits  in  1 575.  In 
the  Jesuits  College,  at  Rome,  he  studied  with  great  induf 


GAR 


80 


GAR 


flir  Biirpasftf's  the  English  counties  with  which  we  have 
compared  it.  Toulouse,  the  capital,  is  on  the  right  hank  of 
the  Garonne,  in  43'  36'  N.  lat.,  and  l"  26'  E.  fcng^  ahout 
363  miled  in  a  straight  line  west-by-south  of  Paris.  It  had 
in  1831  a  population  of  59.630;  iiri836.  of  77.372. 

Surface  ;  Hydrography  ;  and  Communications, — ^The 
southern  part  ot  the  department  is  covered  with  lofty  moun- 
tains, forming  the  principal  range  or  the  branches  of  the 
Pyrenees.  The  Pic  Quairat.  9964  foot  high,  and  Mont 
Carb&rc  or  Crab^re,  8655  feet  high,  arc  in  or  close  upon  the 
bolder  of  the  department.  The  lower  sloj)e8  arc  covered 
with  thick  forests,  or  are  occupied  as  shccpwalks  or  pas- 
ture grounds.  The  mountains  are  intersected  bv  beautiful 
valleys,  such  as  that  of  Luchon,  and  are  crossed  by  the  vari- 
ous ports  or  passes  by  which  communication  is  kept  up 
between  France  and  Spain.  The  northern  part  of  the  de- 
partment is  occupied  by  hills  of  moderate  elevation,  sepa- 
rated by  extensive  plains. 

llie  Garonne  enters  the  department  from  the  valley  of 
Arran,  in  Spain,  and  traverses  it  in  its  whole  length  m  a 
circuitous  course  from  south  to  north. 

The  other  rivers  which  water  the  department  belong  to 
the  system  of  the  Garonne :  the  principal  are  the  Nesle, 
the  Salat,  the  Aridge,  the  Lers,  the  Lougd,  the  Touch,  the 
Save,  the  Gimone,  and  the  Tarn. 

The  Canal  du  Midi,  or  Canal  du  Languedoc.  commences 
in  the  Garonne  at  Toulouse,  and  follows  the  valley  of  the 
Lers  into  the  department  of  Aridge.  There  is  another 
small  canal  in  the  department,  the  canal  of  St.  Pierre.  The 
official  return  of  the  extent  of  water  conveyance  in  this 
department  is  as  follows  :— 

Navigation  of  Rivern, 

Garonne  .        •        •        70  miles. 
Salat          .         •         •         .     10     „ 

Ari^e     .  .         •         -         19     „    . 
Tarn           •         •         •         .     14     „ 


River  navigation 
Canals, 
Canal  du  Midi  • 

of  St.  Pierre      . 


«f 


113  miles. 

32  miles. 
1     » 


Total  water  communication      146  miles. 

The  number  of  Routes  Rnyales  or  government  roads  in 
the  department  is  seven,  in  all  states  of  rei^air  and  com- 
pleteness ;  their  aggregate  length  is  nearly  200  miles.  None 
of  these  roads  are  of  the  first  class.  One  road  of  the  se- 
cond class,  coming  from  Paris  by  Limoges,  Oihors.  and 
Montauban.  crosses  the  department  from  north  to  south, 
through  Castelnau  and  Toulouse  to  Painiers  (dep.  of  Aridge), 
and  so  into  Spain.    The  other  roads  are  of  the  third  class. 

Thero  are  about  thirty  Routes  Dcpartementales,  or  roads 
under  the  direction  and  at  the  charge  of  the  local  govern- 
ment, having  an  aggregate  length  of  476  miles;  and  a  vast 
number  of  bye-roa&  or  paths  (chemins  vicinaux),  amount- 
ing in  their  total  length  to  above  8000  miles.  Tlie  Routes 
Royaies  are,  on  the  whole,  in  tolerable  repair ;  but  of  the 
Routes  D^partementales  one- fifth  only  are  in  good  repair. 
There  are  no  railroads  in  the  department. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy, — The  greater  part  by  far  of 
the  department  is  occupied  by  the  supercretaceous  stnita, 
which  extend  from  the  northern  boundary  to  the  junction 
uf  the  Garonne  with  the  Salat  and  the  Nesle.  llie  chalk 
fbrmation  does  not  rise  to  the  surface:  the  oolitic  or  other 
formations  between  the  chalk  and  the  red  marl  or  new 
(sal ife reus)  red  sandstone  crop  out  from  beneath  the  super- 
cretaceous  strata,  and  occupy  a  narrow  belt  to  the  south  of 
these.  The  Pyrenees  are  lurmcd  of  the  older  limestunes 
and  other  primitive  rocks.  The  various  mineral  treasures 
of  the  department  are  in  a  great  degree  neglected.  There 
are  ores  of  iron,  cupper,  lead,  antimony,  bismuth,  and  zinc ; 
slates,  gypsum,  and  various  species  of  marble  and  other 
litueitunes.  and  of  granite.  There  are  two  brine  springs 
and  bcveral  mineral  waters,  of  which  the  most  celebrated 
are    those    of    Bagndres    de    Luchon.      [Bagnlres    de 

LtXHON.] 

Climate ;  Soil ;  Agricultural  Pro  luce ;  Animah^—hi  the 
higher  parts  of  the  mouutains  the  winters  arc  severe  and 
long;  in  the  lower  hills  and  plains,  which  make  up  the 
mater  part  of  the  department,  the  cUmate  is  mild ;  it  rarely 
freesei^  and  a  fall  of  snow  is  almoftt  unknown.  The  medium 


temperature  in  winter  is  from  36^  to  39°  Fahrenheit ;  that 
of  spring  and  autumn  from  59^  to  64^  and  that  of  aummer 
).Vom  81^  to  86°;  the  average  number  of  days  in  the  year 
in  which  rain  falls  is  100.  The  east  and  west  winds  pre- 
dominate ;  the  latter  brings  cold  and  rain.  Tempests  are 
frequent  and  violent.  Catarrhal  and  rheumatic  disordera 
and  remittent  fevers  are  common ;  goitres  and  diseaaea  of 
the  eyes  are  frequent  in  the  mountainous  countr)',  especially 
on  the  banks  of  the  Garonne. 

The  soil  is  thus  divided :— mountains,  125.957  acree; 
hea^  and  moors,  81,502;  rich  loamy  soil,  7,409;  ralca- 
reous,  354,384;  gravelly,  185,231;  rocky  or  stony,  111,134; 
sandy,  338,355 ;  clayey,  271,672;  various,  152,033:  total* 
1,527,681  acres. 

In  the  mountainous  tracts  it  is  only  by  dint  of  industry 
that  any  returns  can  be  procured  by  the  farmer.  The  mo>t 
fertile  localities  are  the  neighbourhood  of  Toulouse,  the 
productiveness  of  which  in  com  was  noticed  by  Ca^^ar 
('Locis  patentibus  maximdque  frumentariis :'  De  B,  G,<,  lih. 
i.  10) ;  and  of  Rieux ;  and  other  parts  of  the  valley  of  the 
Garonne :  at  Rieux  two  harvests  are  obtained  in  the  year. 
The  soil,  according  to  it^  occupation,  is  distributed  as  follows  : 
arable,  870,383  acres;  meadows,  97,893;  vines,  120,790; 
woods,  215,214  ;  orchards,  gardens,  and  nurseries,  13,749  ; 
osier  and  willow  plots.  96;  various,  7.84 1 ;  heatlis,  commons, 
pastures,  &c.  114,087;  pools,  ponds,  ditches,  1.008;  lakc?7», 
rivers,  brooks,  11,551  ;  forests,  and  non-productive  occu- 
pations, 35,290;  not  accounted  for,  39,779  :  total,  1,527,6^1 
acres. 

The  arable  land  is  chiefly  devoted  to  the  cultivation  4>f 
wheat,  maize,  millet,  r}'e,  and  other  grains  and  pulse.  The 
following  is  nearly  the  proportion  in  which  the  various 
kinds  of  grain  are  cultivated,  taking  as  the  basis  of  our  cal- 
culation the  otficial  return  of  the  quantity  of  land  sown  for 
the  various  crops  in  the  year  1835.  Wheat,  56*5  acres  out 
of  every  100  of  arable;' maslin,  3*5;  rye,  9*5;  barley,  I*; 
buckwheat,  1  '5  ;  maize  and  millet,  21 ;  oats,  3 ;  peas,  beans, 
and  other  pulse.  3*5 ;  potatoes,  &c.  '5. 

The  quantity  of  wine  grown  in  the  department  is  consi- 
derable, though  far  from  equal  to  what  is  grown  in  many 
other  departments.  The  uplands  and  the  \'alleys  furuiaih 
abundance  of  excellent  pasture;  the  mouutains  abound 
with  wood,  suited  fur  ship-building. 

Many  oxen  are  bred  in  the  extensive  pastures  of  this  il<*- 
partment;  also  many  asses  and  mules,  which  are  mu'-h 
sought  after  by  the  Spaniards.  There  are  sheep  and  awine ; 
the  poultry  are  good,  especially  that  of  lle-en-Uodon.  Tlie 
geese  and  ducks  are  of  great  size;  numbers  of  them  are 
salted :  the  duck's-liver  pies  of  Toulouse  are  highly  c^ 
teemed  by  epicures.  The  care  of  bees  and  of  siTkwunii* 
appears  to  have  been  long  declining.  Game  and  wild  ani- 
mals are  plentiful.  In  the  mountains  there  are  the  wild 
boar,  the  roe-buck,  the  wolf,  the  fox,  and  other  beasts ;  the 
heath-cock,  and  different  varieties  of  the  eagle.  The  par- 
tridge, the  ortolan,  and  the  quail,  are  taken  in  abundance 
in  the  plains.  The  rivers  and  lakes  abound  with  fish ;  the 
lakes  contain  excellent  trout. 

Divisions,  Towns,  4*c>— This  department  is  composed  uf 
portions  of  Languedoc  and  of  Gascogne  rGa*«cony) :  Le  Tou- 
lousain.  or  county  of  Toulouse  (comprehending  the  dioceses 
of  Toulouse  and  Rieux),  a  small  part  of  the  district  of  Le 
Lauraguais  in  Languedoc ;  and  portions  of  the  districts 
of  Comminges.  and^of  Couserans,  and  of  Nebouzan.  L(*i 
Quatre  Vall6es.  Lomagne.  Riviere.  Verdun,  and  the  couuiy 
of  lie  Jourdain,  subdivisions  of  Armagnac  in  Gascogne.  are 
comprehended  within  it 

It  is  subdivided  into  four  arrondissements,  as  fbllowsi:  — 


Cfipilal. 

Populati 

•m  in 

SitiuiUoD.  aici,  and  popalnttoD  orarr««n<)HL 

1831. 

1^36. 

jiq.  roilea.      1831. 

IK-^ 

TouUaM. 

b'J,fM 

7';.3ra 

N.               612        139.987 

r.».  t.i 

Villefratich*. 

a.sds 

8.765 

E.               339-5      61.S51 

f:i .". 

Muret. 

3,7fl7 

a.97U 

CcBlrnl  Sc  W       604         H'.JUl 

h«  ^H 

8(.  GaufUns, 

6,179 

6,030 

s  aads.w.      mss   VJQsey 

Ul,Mi 

S3W*      427.*«6         4S:.7 

The  department  conmprehends  39  cantons  and  i>00  com* 
munes. 

In  the  arrondissemcnt  of  Toulouse,  besides  the  capital 
[louLOUss],  there  are  Grenade  (population,  2670  to'^n. 
424U  commune),  a  neat  town  on  the  Garonne;  Villeu'ir 
(pop.  3166  town,  C0G3  commune),  an  ill-built  town;  Bi-^- 
sidres  and  Buzet,  all  on  the  Tarn ;  Castanet,  near  the  Canal 
du  Midi ;  Castelnau,  on  the  road  firom  Paria  to  Toulousv ; 
Fronton,  Montastruc,  Verfeil,  and  Lavignac. 


GAR 


82 


GAR 


owti  expression,  *  a  wet  blanket '  over  bim.    In  the  same 
year  he  was  put  into  the  commission  of  the  peace. 

At  Christmas,  177B,  while  on  a  visit  to  Lord  Spenoer,  at 
AUhorpe,  he  had  a  severe  fit,  from  which  he  only  recovered 
suHiciently  to  enable  him  to  return  to  town,  and  expired 
January  20th,  1779,  at  his  own  house  in  the  Adolphi. 
having  nearly  .completed  his  63rd  year.  He  was  buried 
with  great  pomp  in  Westminster  Abbey  on  the  Ist  of 
February. 

As  an  actor  Mr.  GarricVs  merits  may  be  considered  as 
summed  up  in  the  forcible  words  of  Pope  to  lord  Orrery  on 
witnessing  the  performance  of  Richard — '  That  young  man 
never  baa  his  equal  as  an  actor,  and  will  never  have  a 
ri\'al.*  As  yet  the  prophecv  is  unshaken.  Garrick  was  an 
excellent  husband,  a  kind  master,  and  a  matchless  com- 
panion. The  charge  of  avarice  so  frequently  made  against 
nim  is  disproved  by  a  careful  examination  of  his  life.  His 
latest  biographer  justly  sajrs, '  He  loved  al^uence  for  its  in- 
dependence, and  the  power  it  bestowed  of  obliging  the 
great  and  relieving  the  humble.*  He  was  one  of  the  most 
a<*complished  men  of  his  day,  and  although  his  literary 
reputation  is  merged  in  the  splendour  of  his  nistrionic  fame, 
his  rank  as  a  writer  of  prologues  and  epilogues,  and  in  the 
lighter  kinds  of  verse,  must  be  generally  acknowledged 
as  considerable.  His  alterations  and  adaptations  of  popular 
English  and  French  plays  were  numerous  and  successful, 
and  with  the  addition  of  his  original  contributions  to  the 
drama,  exceed  forty.  The  best  known  to  the  present 
generation  of  play-goers  is  the  farce  of  •  The  Lying  Valet,' 
and  the  comedy  of  '  The  Clandestine  Marriage,'  of  which 
latter  he  was  joint  author  with  the  elder  Colman. 

Mrs.  Garrick  survived  her  husband  forty>three  years,  and 
expired  suddenly  in  her  chair  after  a  short  indisposition,  at 
her  house  in  the  Adelphi,  on  the  16th  of  October,  1822,  in 
the  ninety-eighth  year  of  her  age,  having  retained  her  facul- 
ties to  the  last.  She  was  btiried  October  25tb,  in  the  same 
grave  with  her  husband,  near  the  cenotaph  of  Shakspeare. 

Garrick*s  private  correspondence,  with  a  new  biogra- 
phical  memoir,  was  published  in  two  volumes,  4to.,  London, 
1831. 

GARROW  HILLS.    [Hindustan.] 

GA'RRULUS.    [CoRViDJB,  vol.  viii.,  p.  69.] 

GARRY  A'CEiS,  a  very  small  natiural  order  of  Exogens 
with  the  habit  of  a  Viburnum  and  apetalous  unisexual 
flowers,  succeeded  by  succulent  fruit,  disposed  in  catkin- 
like racemes.  One  species  only  is  known,  the  Garrya 
elliptica,  figured  and  described  in  the  '  Botanical  Register,' 
vol.  20,  plate  1686. 

GARTER,  ORDER  OF  THE,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
and  illustrious  of  the  military  orders  of  knighthood  in  Eu- 
rope, was  founded  by  King  Edward  lU.  The  precise  year 
of  its  institution  has  been  disputed,  though  all  authorities 
agree  that  it  was  established  at  Windsor  after  the  celebra- 
tion of  a  tournament  Walsingbam  and  Fabyan  give  1344 
as  its  date ;  Stowe,  who.  according  to  Ashmole,  is  corrobo- 
rated by  the  statutes  of  the  Order  says  1350.  The  precise 
cause  of  the  origin  or  formation  of  the  Order  is  likewise  not 
distinctly  known.  The  common  story  respecting  the  fall 
of  the  Countess  of  Salisbury's  garter  at  a  ball,  which  was 
picked  up  by  the  king,  and  his  retort  to  those  who  smiled  at 
the  action,  Honi  soit  qui  mal  y  pense,  which  afterwards  be- 
came the  motto  of  the  order,  is  not  entirely  given  up  as 
fable.  A  tradition  certainly  obtained  as  far  back  as  the  time 
of  Henry  VI.  that  this  Oitler  received  its  origin  from  the 
fair  sex.  Ashmole*s  opinion  was,  that  the  Garter  was  se- 
.ectcd  at  once  as  a  symbol  of  union  and  a  compUment  to 
the  ladies. 

This  Order  was  founded  in  honour  of  the  Holy  Trinity, 
the  Virgin  Mary,  St.  George,  and  St.  Edward  the  Confessor. 
St.  GeorgCt  who  had  become  the  tutelary  saint  of  England, 
was  considered  as  its  especial  patron  and  protector.  It  was 
original  I V  composed  of  twenty-five  knights,  and  the  sove- 
reign (who  nominates  the  other  knights),  twenty-six  in  all. 
This  number  received  no  alteration  till  the  reign  of 
Geor{;e  lU.,  when  it  was  directed  that  princes  of  the  royal 
family  and  illustrious  foreigners  on  whom  the  honour  might* 
be  conferred  should  not  be  included.  The  number  of  these 
extra-knights  was  fourteen  in  1834.  The  military  knights 
of  Windsor  are  also  considered  as  an  adjunct  of  the  Order 
of  the  Garter. 

The  otilcers  of  the  Order  are  a  prelate,  who  is  always  the 
bishop  of  Winchester ;  a  chancellor,  who  till  1837  was  the 
bishoD  of  Salisbury,  but  is  now  the  bishop  of  Oxford,  in  con- 


sequence of  Berkshire,  and  of  course  Windsor,  being  tran<* 
ferred  to  that  diocese;  a  registrar,  who  is  the  dean  (.>• 
Windsor ;  garter  principal  king-at-arms  of  the  Order ;  and  a 
gentleman  usher  of  the  black  rod.  The  chapter  ought  t.> 
meet  every  year  on  St  George^s  day  (April  23rd),  in  St« 
George's  chapel,  Windsor,  where  the  installations  of  the 
Order  are  held,  and  in  which  the  bannen  of  the  several 
kniehts  are  suspended. 

The  original  dress  of  the  Knights  of  the  Garter  was  a 
mantle,  tunic,  and  capuchin  or  hood,  of  {be  &shion  of  the 
time,  all  of  blue  doth;  those  of  the  knights  compani<'i.«, 
differing  only  from  the  sovereign's  bv  the  tunic  being  lineal 
with  miniver  instead  of  ermine.  All  the  three  garments 
were  embroidered  with  garters  of  blue  and  gold,  tl^  mantle 
having  one  larger  thansul  the  rest  on  the  left  shoulder.  The 
dress  underwent  various  changes.  Henry  VHI.  remodolU'<i 
both  it  and  the  statutes  of  the  Order,  and  gave  the  knights 
the  collar,  and  the  greater  and  leaser  George,  as  at  pretwit 
worn.  The  last  alteration  in  the  dress  took  place  in  the* 
reign  of  Charles  II. :  the  principal  parts  of  it  consist  of  a 
mantle  of  dark  blue  velvet,  with  a  hood  of  crimson  velvet ; 
a  cap  or  hat  with  an  ostrich  and  heron  plume ;  the  stocking  4 
are  of  white  silk,  and  the  garter,  which  is  of  dark  blue  vel- 
vet, having  the  motto  embroidered  in  gold  letters,  is  worn 
under  the  left  knee.  The  badge  is  a  gold  medallion  repre- 
senting St.  George  and  the  dragon,  which  ia  worn  sus- 
pended by  a  blue  ribbon ;  hence  itj  is  a  form  of  speech  to 
say,  when  an  individual  has  been  appointed  a  knight  of  the 
garter,  that  he  has  received  the  blue  ribbon.  There  is  als«> 
a  star  worn  on  the  left  breast.  The  fashion  of  wearing  the 
blue  ribbon  suspended  from  the  left  shoulder  was  adoptcl 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 

It  is  not  generally  known,  that  from  the  first  institution 
of  the  Order  of  the  Garter  to  at  least  as  late  as  the  reign  of 
Edward  IV.,  ladies  were  admitted  to  a  participation  in  the 
honours  of  the  fraternity.  The  queen,  someof^the  knights- 
companions*  wives,  and  other  great  ladies,  bad  robe&  ojkI 
hoods  of  the  gift  of  the  sovereign,  the  former  garnished  \i  ii  h 
little  embroidered  garters.  Tne  ensign  of  Uie  garter  wu* 
also  delivered  to  them,  and  they  were  expressly  termed 
Dames  de  la  fratemiie  de  SL  George.  The  splendid  ap- 
pearance of  Queen  Philippa  at  the  first  grand  feast  of  tlu 
Order  is  noticed  by  Froissart  Two  monuments  also  arc 
still  existing  which  bear  figures  of  ladies  wearing  the  frar- 
ter ;  the  Duchess  of  Sufiblk's,  at  Ewelme,  in  Oxibrdshin*. 
of  the  time  of  Henry  VI.,  represents  her  wearing  it  on  thu 
wrist,  in  the  manner  of  a  bracelet ;  Lady  Harcourt,  at  St.*in- 
ton  Harcourt,  in  Oxfordshire,  of  the  time  of  Edward  IV., 
wears  the  garter  on  her  left  arm. 

Ashmole,  writing  on  the  habit  and  ensigns  of  the  Order 
(Htet.  qfihe  Order  of  the  Garter,  fol.  Lend.  1672,  p.  21»». 
says, '  After  a  long  disuse  of  these  robes  bv  the  queens  of 
England  and  knights-companions*  ladies,  there  was  at  the 
feast  of  St  George,  celebrated  an.  14  Cha.  I.,  endeavour 
used  to  have  them  restored ;  for  the  then  deputy* chancellor 
moved  the  sovereign  in  chapter  (held  the  22nd  May),  that 
the  ladies  of  the  knights-coinpanions  might  have  the  ph\  i- 
lege  to  wear  a  garter  of  the  Order  about  (heir  arms,  and  an 
upper  robe,  at  festival  times,  according  to  ancient  usage, 
u  pon  which  motion  the  sovereign  gave  order  that  the  queen 
should  be  acquainted  therewith  and  her  pleasure  known, 
and  the  affair  left  to  the  ladies*  particular  suit  The  luth 
of  October  in  the  following  year  (1639),  the  feast  of  St 
George  being  then  also  kept  at  Windsor,  the  deputy-chan- 
cellor reported  to  the  sovereign  in  chapter  the  answer  which 
the  queen  was  pleased  to  give  him  to  the  aforesaid  ordtT, 
whereupon  it  was  then  left  to  a  chapter  to  be  called  by  t.io 
knights-companions  to  consider  of  every  circumstance,  h  j«» 
it  were  fittest  to  be  done  for  the  honour  of  the  Order,  which 
was  appointed  to  be  held  at  London  about  Alhollantide  afier : 
but  what  was  then  or  after  done  doth  not  appear ;  and  the 
unhappy  war  coming  on,  this  matter  wholly  slept* 

When  Queen  Anne  attended  the  thanksgiving  at  St 
Paul's  in  1 702,  and  again  in  1 704,  she  wore  Uie  garter  K't 
with  diamonds,  as  sovereign  of  the  Order,  tied  round  her 
left  arm. 

GARTH,  SAMUEL,  eminent  as  a  physician  and  a  wit 
during  the  reigns  of  William  UL  and  Ajane,  was  descended 
of  a  good  Yorkshire  family,  received  his  academical  educa- 
tion at  Peterhouse,  Cambridge,  and  graduated  as  M.D.  in 
1691.  Having  settled  in  London,  he  rendered  himself  di>- 
tinguished  by  his  conversational  powers,  whieh  recom- 
mended and  set  off  his  professional  akillt  and  sooft  aoqttirad 


GAS 


84 


GAS 


There  are  some  other  properties  which  |^a«es  possess  in 
common,  though  they  vary  in  dopi'ee.  There  is  however 
one  circumstance  in  which  they  all  agree,  whether  they  are 
elementary  or  compound,  and  whatever  may  be  the  differ- 
ence of  their  specific  gravity: — they  arc  subject  to  suffer  the 
same  increase  of  volume,  when  subjected  to  the  same  in- 
crease of  temperature. 

According  to  Dalton,  when  100  volumes  of  air  are  heated 
from  32**  to  2l2^  they  become  132*5  volumes;  by  Gay- 
Lussac's  experiments  they  increase  to  137*5  volumes;  by 
Cricfaton*s  to  137*48:  the  expansion  therefore  of  each  vo- 
lume, according  to  Dalton  is  ^  to  Gay-Lussac  ,{9,  and  to 
Crichton  ^Jl,,^,  for  one  degree  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer. 

The  discovery  of  this  law  has  supplied  chemists  with  a 
simple  rule  for  determining  what  the  known  bulk  of  a  gas 
at  any  temperature  will  be  at  any  other  temperature.  Sup- 
pose,  for  example,  it  is  desired  to  know  what  the  bulk  of 
1 00  cubic  inches  of  air  at  32"*  will  be  at  60° :  subtract  32 
from  480,  the  remainder  is  448 ;  to  which  add  the  degrees 
above  zero  indicating  the  temperature  of  the  air,  these  are 
32''  and  60^  making  4H0  and  508.  Then  say  480 :  508 : : 
100  :  105-832,  the  volume  of  the  air  at  60^ 

It  is  well  known  that  air  suffers  diminution  of  volume  in 
proportion  to  the  pressure  to  which  it  is  subjected,  and  the 
Rame  law  holds  ^ood  with  all  the  more  incondensible  gases. 
In  chemical  analyses  it  is  often  requisite  to  make  corrections 
for  variations  of  barometric  pressure,  as  well  as  of  tempera- 
ture in  estimating  the  quantity  of  gaseous  products.  The 
following  ai*e  the  rules  for  this  purpose,  given  by  Professor 
Faraday  in  his  wurk  on  Chemical  Manipulation  :— '  A  pres- 
sure of  30  inches  of  mercury,  as  observed  by  an  accurate 
barometer,  has  been  assumed  as  the  mean  height  or  baro- 
metric  pressure,  and  volumes  of  goa  ob*er\ed  at  any  other 
pressure  frequently  require  to  be  corrected  to  what  they 
would  be  at  thi^  point.  Kor  this  purpose  it  is  only  necessary 
to  compare  the  observed  height  with  the  mean  height,  or 
30  inches,  and  increase  or  diminish  the  obser>'ed  volume 
inversely  in  the  same  proportion.  Thus,  as  the  mean  height 
of  the  barometer  is  to  Uie  observed  height,  so  is  the  observed 
volume  to  the  volume  required.  As  an  instance,  suppose 
that  100  cubic  inches  of  gas  have  been  observed  when  the 
barometer  stood  at  30*  7  inches :  then,  as  30  inches,  or  mean 
height,  is  to  30*7  inches,  or  observed  height,  so  is  100,  or 
the  observed  volume  to  a  fourth  proportional,  obtained  by 
multiplying  the  second  and  third  terms,  and  dividing  by 
the  first:  thus,  30*7  X  100  =  3070.  which  divided  by  30  = 
102*333  cubic  inches ;  this  would  be  the  volume  of  the  gas 
at  30  inches  of  barometric  pressure.  Again,  suppose  a 
quantity  of  gas  amounting  to  20  cubic  inches  standing  over 
mercury  in  a  jar,  the  level  of  the  metal  within  being  3 
inches  above  that  without,  and  the  barometer  at  29*4 
inches.  Then  the  column  of  3  inches  mercury  within  the 
jar,  counterbalancing  3  inches  of  barometric  pressure,  in- 
stead of  being  29 '  4,  the  latter  is  effectively  only  26 '  4,  and 
the  correction  will  be,  as  30  inches  is  to  26*4  mchcs,  so  is 
the  20  cubic  inches  observed  to  17*6  cubic  inches,  the  vo- 
lume which  the  gas  would  really  occupy  if  the  mercury 
were  level  within  and  without  the  jar,  and  the  barometer 
were  30  inches.' 

It  is  very  commonly  requisite  to  make  corrections  both 
for  temperature  and  pressure  in  the  same  volume  of  gas, 
and  it  is  of  no  consequence  which  is  made  first. 

In  chemical  analyses  various  other  considerations  arise  in 
ascertaining  the  quantities  of  gaseous  products  ;  aa  for  ex- 
ample, the  separation  of  or  making  the  requisite  allowances 
for  the  moisture  which  they  contain :  for  these,  as  well  aa 
for  the  various  modes  of  collecting,  transferring,  and  pre- 
serving varioug  fi;ases,  we  must  refer  to  the  very  excellent 
work  just  Quoted. 

The  soluDility  of  gases  in  water  is  extremely  various.  Dr. 
Henry  ascertained  that  the  volume  of  each  gas  absorbed  by 
water  is  the  same,  whatever  be  the  pressure  to  which  the 
gas  is  previously  subjected.  If  the  weight  of  carbonic  acid 
gas  be  doubled  by  subjecting  it  to  the  pressure  of  two  at- 
mospheres, water  will  still  absorb  its  own  volume  of  it.  The 
following  table  exhibits  the  volumes  of  each  gas  absorbed 
by  100  volumes  of  water,  supposing  the  temperature  and 
pressure  to  be  the  same  in  all  cases : — 

Ab«orptk>n  la  Volumn. 

Cyanogen         •  .     450         . 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen       366*6 
Chlorine  .  «     200 

Carbonic  acid    •  .106         • 


Authority. 

Gay-Lussac 

Thomson 

Berthollet 

Cavendish 


Abwrplioii  in  VolamM* 

Nitrous  oxide  *•  •  76  • 

Olefiant  gas       .  •  15*3  • 

Phosphuretted  hydrogen  5  • 

Nitric  oxide       .  •  3*7  • 

Oxygen  .  .  3*7  • 

Carburetted  hydrogen    •  3*7  • 

Azote    .  •  •  2*5  • 

Carbonic  oxide  •  2' 01  • 

Hydrogen  .  •  2  . 


Atttboftfy* 

Saussure 

Saus^uro 

Thomson 

Dalton 

Henry 

Dalton 

Dalton 

Henry 

Dalton 


It  may  be  observed,  that  in  general  the  more  easily  a  gas 
is  condensable  b^  cold  and  pressure,  the  more  soluble  it  u 
in  water:  this  will  appear  by  comparing  the  above  state- 
ments with  that  containing  the  pressure  at  which  Faraday 
liquefied  various  gases. 

A  curious  property  of  gases,  and  possessed  by  them  in 
very  different  degrees,   is  that  of  their  condensation   by 

Sorous  bodies,  and  especially  by  charcoal.  Accord ing^  lo 
iaussure,  one  volume  of  charcoal,  made  red-hot,  r<>o]<-d 
under  mercury,  and  exposed  to  the  under-mentioned  gaso-s 
absorbed  the  volumes  annexed;  the  absorption  was  cutn- 

gleted  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  when  the  charcoal  whK  li 
ad  been  saturated  with  one  gas  was  removed  to  another,  a 
portion  of  the  first  was  expelled,  and  replaced  by  a  portion 
of  the  second : — 


Ammonia 

.     90 

Olefiant  gas             .  35 

Hydrochloric  acid 

.     85 

Oxide  of  carbon       .     9 '  1 J 

Sulnhurous  acid 
Hyarosulphuric  acid 

.     65 

Oxygen       .           .    O'jj 

.     55 

Azote                      .     7  *  60 

Nitrous  oxide      . 

40 

Carburetted  hydrogen  5 

Carbonic  acid 

35 

Hydrogen    .            .     1  *  7  j 

It  is  extremely  probable  that  different  kinds  of  charcoal 
absorb  different  portions  of  the  same  gas ;  for  it  was  found 
by  Messrs.  Allen  and  Pepys,  that  they  absorbed  very  dif- 
ferent quantities,  chiefly  o^  moisture,  by  exposure  to  the 
air. 

A  curious  fact  with  respect  to  mixtures  of  gases  was  di^ 
covered  by  Dr.  Priestley,  which  he  thus  states : — *  Different 
kinds  of  air  that  have  no  affinity  do  not,  when  mixed  to- 
gether, separate  spontaneously,  but  continue  diffused  through 
each  other.'  This  he  proved  to  be  the  case  by  several 
experiments;  and  more  especiallv  by  one,  in  which  he 
found  that  he  was  able  to  explode  hydrogen  and  oxvgen 
gases,  which  had  long  remained  together,  and  which  be 
justly  argues  must  have  been  mixeo,  or  he  could  not  have 
fired  them  by  an  electric  spark,  in  a  vessel,  the  wires  of  which 
were  at  the  top.  He  adduces  this  experiment  to  illustrate 
the  fact  that  toe  gases  which  constitute  the  atmosphere  do 
not  separate  according  to  their  respective  gravities,  though 
they  do  not  combine.  (Priestley's  Ejrperimenis,  &c.,  vol.  >  l 
p.  391.) 

These  experiments  were  repeated  by  Dr.  Dalton,  and  he 
inferred  from  them  that  the  particles  of  one  gas.  though 
repulsive  to  each  other,  do  not  repel  those  of  a  different 
kind ;  and  that  one  gas  acts  as  a  vacuum  with  respect  (o 
another.  If  therefore  a  vessel  full  of  carbonic  acid  be  mide 
to  communicate  with  another  of  hydrogen,  the  particle^  of 
each  gas  insinuate  themselves  between  the  particles  of  ca^h 
other  till  they  are  equally  diffused  through  both  vesself. 
This  theory  accounts  not  only  for  the  mixture  of  gases,  but 
for  the  equable  diffusion  of  vapours  through  gases  and 
through  each  other. 

Another  observation  made  by  Dr.  Priestley,  and  related 
with  others  of  a  similar  kind  (American  PhiL  Trtjms. 
vol.  v.),  appears  to  have  been  entirely  overlooked.  He 
found  that  though  a  glass  vessel  was  perfectly  air-tight,  yet 
if  it  had  been  broken,  and  the  pieces  joined  with  paint  or  ce- 
ment, hvdrogen  gas  contained  in  it  would  be  changed  for  the 
external  air.  I)obereiner  has  since  remarked  the  escape  of 
hydrogen  gas  by  a  fissure  or  crack  in  glass  receivers.  Pro- 
fessor Graham,  in  an  elaborate  paper  on  this  subject,  has 
shown  that  gases  diffuse  mto  atmospheric  air  and  inio  each 
other,  with  different  degrees  of  ease  and  rapidity,  the  lighter 
ones  escaping  most  readily,  so  much  indeed,  that  hydrogen 
escapes  five  times  more  quickly  than  carbonic  acid  gas, 
which  is  about  22  times  heavier. 

To  Dr.  Priestley  also  we  are  indebted  for  the  important 
discoverv  that  gases  can  pass  through  membranes  which 
are  perfectly  air-tight,  and  bv  this  action  he  explained  that 
of  the  atmosphere  upon  the  blood  in  the  lungs.  In  thr 
memoir  above  alluded  to  he  has  also  shown,  that  when  a 
bladder  containing  hydrogen  is  pat  into  a  vessel  of  oxygen. 


GAS 


86 


GAS 


being  fired,*  saye  the  account, '  it  has  now  been  burning  two 
jean  and  nine  months,  without  any  sign  of  decrca)$e.*  Large 
oladders  were  filled  in  a  few  seconds  from  the  end  of  the 
tube,  and  carried  away  by  persons,  who  fitted  little  pipes  to 
them  and  burned  the  gas  at  their  own  convenience.  We 
do  not  learn  what  became  of  this  copious  supply ;  it  pro- 
bably diminished  as  the  coal-bed  was  exhausted. 

Soon  after  the  middle  of  the  last  centurv  Dr.  Watson  made 
many  experiments  on  coal  gas,  which  he  details  in  his  '  Che- 
mical Essays:'  he  distilled  the  coal,  passed  the  gas  through 
water,  oonveyed  it  through  pipes  from  one  place  to  another, 
and  did  so  much  that  we  are  only  surprised  he  did  not  in- 
troduce it  into  general  use. 

But  although  the  pronerties  of  coal  gas  were  known  to  so 
many  persons,  no  one  thought  of  applying  it  to  a  useful 
object  until  the  year  1 792,  when  Mr.  Murdoch,  an  engineer, 
residing  at  Redruth  in  Cornwall,  erected  a  little  gasometer 
and  apparatus,  which  produced  eas  enough  to  light  his  own 
house  and  offices.  Mr.  Murdocn  appears  to  have  had  no 
imitators,  but  he  was  not  discouraged,  and  in  1797  he 
erected  a  similar  apparatus  in  Ayrshire,  where  he  then  re- 
sided. In  the  following  year  he  was  engaged  to  put  up  a 
fas-work  at  the  manufactory  of  Boulton  and  Watt,  at  Sono. 
his  was  the  first  application  of  gas  in  the  large  way ;  but, 
excepting  in  manufactories  or  among  scientific  men,  it  ex- 
cited little  attention  until  the  year  1 802,  when  the  front  of  the 
great  Soho  manufactory  was  brilliantly  illuminated  with  it 
on  the  occasion  of  the  public  rejoicings  at  the  peace.  Ac- 
customed as  we  are  to  the  common  use  of  gas,  we  cannot 
even  now  but  be  struck  with  such  a  display  on  a  large 
scale :  but  tlie  superiority  of  the  new  light  over  the  dingy 
oil  lamps  used  at  that  day,  when  thus  brought  into  public 
view,  produced  an  astonishing  effect.  All  Birmingham 
poured  forth  to  view  the  spectacle,  and  strangers  carried  to 
every  part  of  the  country  an  account  of  what  they  had  seen. 
It  was  spread  about  everywhere  by  the  newspapers,  easy 
modes  of  making  gas  were  described,  and  coal  was  distilled  in 
tobacco-pipes  at  the  fire-side  all  over  the  kingdom.  Soon 
after  this  several  manufacturers,  whose  works  required  light 
and  heat,  adopted  the  use  of  gas :  a  button  manufactory  at 
Birmingham  used  it  largely  for  soldering ;  Halifax,  Man- 
chester, and  other  towns  followed.  A  single  cotton-mill  in 
Manchester  used  above  900  burners,  and  had  several  miles 
of  pipe  laid  down  to  supply  them ;  the  quantity  made  aver- 
aged 1250  cubic  feet  per  hour,  producing  a  light  equal  to 
that  of  2600  candles.  Mr.  Murdoch,  who  erected  the  appa- 
ratus used  in  this  mill,  sent  a  detailed  account  of  his  opera- 
tions to  the  Royal  Society  in  180b,  for  which  he  received 
their  gold  medal. 

But  although  the  use  of  gas  was  thus  spreading  in  the 
manufacturing  towns,  it  made  little  progress  in  London. 
This  may  bo  accounted  fjr,  in  some  measure,  by  the  cir- 
cumstance that  no  means  had  as  yot  been  found  out  for 
purifying  it.  It  was  dirty,  it  had  a  disagreeable  smell,  and 
it  caused  headache  when  used  in  close  rooms,  besides  spoil- 
ing delicate  furniture.  This  was  of  little  consequence  in  a 
manufactory,  where  there  is  generally  ventilation  enough 
to  carry  off  unpleasant  vapours,  and  rarely  very  delicate 
organs  or  fiue  furniture  to  suffer  from  their  influence.  But 
these  defects  were  fatal  to  its  general  introduction  in 
London,  and  until  they  could  be  removed  there  was  small 
hope  of  success;  though  attempts  were  made,  lectures 
delivered,  and  a  number  of  interesting  experiments  made 
by  a  Gertnan  named  Winsor,  whose  perseverance  and  san- 
guine temper  were  very  cfiicieut  in  making  the  matter 
known  to  the  public.  But  Winsor  was  deficient  in  chemical 
knowled;re  and  mechanical  skill,  while  he  largely  overrated 
the  powers  of  the  new  instrument  which  he  was  zealously 
endeavouring  to  introduce.  He  took  out  a  patent  in  1804 : 
and  issued  a  Ihiming  prospectus  of  a  National  Light  and 
Heat  Company,  promising  to  subscribers  of  5/.  a  fortune  of 
at  lea.->t  57U/.  per  annum,  with  a  prospect  of  ten  times  as 
much.  A  sub>^criptiun  was  soon  raised,  it  is  said,  of  jO,000/. 
which  was  allex)iended  in  experiments  without  profit  to  the 
subscribers.  Winsor  however  gained  experience,  and  is 
said,  we  know  not  how  truly,  to  have  introduced  the  im- 
portant measure  of  purifying  gas  by  lime.  In  1607  he 
lighted  up  Pull  Mall,  which  continued  for  some  years  to  be 
the  only  street  in  London  in  which  gas  was  used.  In  1809 
the  National  Light  and  Heat  Company  applied  to  Parlia- 
ment for  a  charter,  but  they  were  opposed  by  Mr.  Murdoch 
un  the  score  of  prior  discovery,  and  the  charter  was  rehised. 
It  was  however  granted  on  a  subsequent  application,  and 


the  operations  of  the  company  became  more  extensiTe.  But 
their  profits  had  not  yet  begun,  and  increase  of  business  n  a  % 
only  increase  of  expense.  The  subscribers  began  to  bo 
alarmed  at  the  exhaustion  of  their  funds,  and  cafied  loudly 
for  a  change  in  the  management  of  their  affairs.  This  w  as 
conceded,  and  the  superintendence  of  their  works  was  en- 
trusted to  Mr.  Clegg,  who  had  been  for  some  years  engaireU 
in  the  erection  of  gas  apparatus  in  Birmingham.  Affairs 
now  began  to  wear  a  better  face;  other  parts  of  London 
applied  for  light,  and  new  stations  were  erected.  The  busi- 
ness of  the  company  steadily  increased,  and  in  the  }var 
1823,  in  the  course  of  a  parliamentary  investigation,  it  was 
shown  that  this  company  alone  consumed  annually  20,6  7  *< 
chaldrons  of  coals,  which  produced  on  an  average  680. Ot  U 
cubic  feet  of  gas  every  night ;  this  was  distributed  by  means 
of  122  miles  of  pipe,  which  supplied  more  than  30,0 «-o 
burners,  giving  a  light  equal  to  as  many  uounds  of  tailo\/ 
candles.  The  other  companies  then  established  made  alt  o- 
gether  about  the  same  quantity;  and  such  has  been  tlio 
increase  of  gas-lighting  since  that  time,  that  at  one  of  their 
stations  only,  the  chartered  company  are  now  makin.: 
1.200,000  cubic  feet  every  twenty-four  hours,  and  averauo 
about  a  million  all  the  year  round.  We  believe  it  mav  be 
asserted,  that  every  street  and  alley  in  London  is  nowlightcl 
with  gas,  and  the  consumption  of  the  metropolis  may  l»e 
stated  at  eight  millions  and  a  half  of  cubic  feet  e^'ery  twen  t}  - 
four  hours. 

The  great  success  which  attended  gas-light  in  Lon<Inn 
has  extended  itself  throughout  Great  Britain.  Every  lar%re 
town  has  long  had  gas;  the  smdier  towns  have  follow cvl. 
and  there  is  now  scarcely  a  place  in  the  kingdom  without 
it.  The  continental  nations  have  slowly  followed  our  ex- 
ample ;  Paris  for  some  years,  and  more  recently  the  tow  us 
of  Lyon,  Marseille,  Bordeaux,  Nantes,  Caen,  Boulogne. 
Amiens,  and  several  others,  have  adopted  it.  It  is  in  u*-e 
in  many  parts  of  Germany  and  Belgmm,  and  St.  Peterj.- 
burg  has  a  small  establishment,  which  is  rapidly  increasing 
under  the  superintendence  of  a  gentleman  from  one  of  tiio 
London  works.  The  larger  towns  in  the  United  Stntts 
also  burn  gas;  and  even  in  the  remote  colony  of  New 
South  Wales,  the  town  of  Sydney  has  introduced  this  %  a- 
luable  invention,  which  we  have  no  doubt  will  be  found 
there,  as  it  has  been  in  London,  as  useful  in  preventing 
nocturnal  outrage  as  an  army  of  watchmen. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  to  say  much  abont  oil  gas:  the 
light  it  produces  is,  it  is  true,  much  greater  than  that  gi>  en 
out  by  an  equal  quantity  of  coal  gas;  but  although  it  wai 
introduced  with  success  in  some  places  where  coal  was  dear, 
it  has  always  yielded  to  coal  wherever  the  two  came  iiu.i 
competition.  The  process  of  manufacture  is  exceediiiL-iv 
simple,  and  the  machinery  is  much  cheaper.  But  the  v.^^t 
of  the  od  itself  is  the  great  objection,  ana  we  fear  it  will  !•«• 
found  insuperable.  Oil  gas  was  for  some  time  renden-l 
portable;  it  was  forced  into  strong  vessels  with  a  po>\t-r 
cqual  to  450  lbs.  upon  the  square  inch,  and,  thus  confin..<i, 
could  be  carried  about  and  placed  upon  a  table.  As  eacl) 
vessel  contained  about  thirty  times  as  much  compressed  |!:i^ 
as  it  would  hold  in  its  natural  state,  one  of  the  capaciiv  of 
a  quarter  of  a  foot  would  give  light  for  several  hours  iBut 
even  such  a  size  as  this  was  very  clumsy,  and  the  process 
seems  to  be  declining. 

Some  other  substances  have  been  proposed  for  c>l^- 
making,  such  as  rosin,  wood,  and  peat.  Kosin  has  iMtn 
tried  at  more  than  one  establishment,  but  it  has  not  bi*  u 
found  to  produce  a  gas  much  better  than  coal  gas,  while  ;i  c 
cost  is  much  greater.  An  American,  some  years  ago,  ttKik. 
out  a  patent  for  making  gas  from  cotton  seeds,  which  aie. 
it  appears,  of  very  little  value  in  America ;  but  whether  ur 
not  he  has  reaped  any  advantage  from  the  suggestion,  \«v^ 
are  not  informed.  The  superior  cheapness  of  coal,  in  tbu>c 
places  where  it  can  be  procured,  will  probably  always  put 
It  above  any  other  material  that  could  be  proposed  fur  il^- 
manufacture  of  gas. 

Afanv/acture.^Although  in  the  large  way  there  are  many 
practical  difficulties  to  be  surmount^  in  the  manufaciui'- 
of  coal  gas,  the  operation  is  easily  understood;  it  is  menli 
a  process  of  distillation.  A  quantity  of  ooal  is  put  itit  1 1 
retort,  which  is  well  closed^  and  placed  upon  the  firv ;  the 
temperature  is  raised  to  redness,  which  decomposes  tli.< 
coaL  and  drives  the  gas  resulting  from  the  decumpu»iti- :. 
through  a  pipe  leading  from  the  retort  to  the  receptacle  pr.- 
pared  for  it.  Amassof  coke  remains,  of  greater  bulk,  thou.,  i 
less  weight,  than  the  coal  first  put  in.  Thisookemustbetaicu 


GAS 


8S 


CAS 


thtf  last  purifying  vessel,  and  to  put  a  card  dipped  in  the 
solution  in  ftont  of  the  small  stream  of  gas  which  then 
issues  out  If  l-20,000th  part  only  of  the  bulk  of  gas 
should  be  sulphuretted  hvdrogen,  it  will  produce  a  brown 
spot  on  the  card;  and  as  the  whole  of  the  gas,  after  under- 
going this  scrutiny,  passes  through  the  Inst  purifier,  it  may 
now  be  considered  quite  pure.  When  the  card  shows  any 
impurity,  the  fresh  cream  is  admitted  more  freely,  and  the 
spoiled  lime  drawn  away  from  the  lowest  vessel.  This  stuff, 
which  has  a  nauseous  smell,  used  to  be  allowed  to  run  to 
waste,  to  the  great  annoyance  of  the  public ;  but  it  is  now 
usually  dried,  and  employed  as  cement  to  lute  the  covers 
to  the  retorts. 

In  the  mant^acture  of  oil  gai  all  the  processes  of  filling 
and  emptying  retorts,  condensing,  and  purifying,  are 
avoided.  It  is  only  necessary  to  project  a  small  stream  of 
oil  into  a  red-hot  retort,  in  which  pieces  of  brick  or  coke 
are  inclosed ;  the  gas  immediately  passes  off  through  ano- 
ther pipe,  and  may  be  at  once  received  into  the  gasometer. 
The  only  purification  necessary,  if  it  can  be  called  so,  is  to 
allow  the  gas  to  pass  through  some  cool  vessel,  which  may 
receive  any  undecomposed  oil  that  may  have  been  carried 
off,  to  prevent  its  being  wasted  in  the  gasometer. 


y^ 


T© 


A 


Ir^ 


U 


The  gasometer  a  is  a  very  large  cylindrical  vessel  from 
30  to  60  leet  in  diameter,  closed  at  the  top  and  open  at 
bottom;  it  is  suspended  by  a  rope  and  weight  e  in  a 
tank  filled  with  water,  in  which  it  rises  and  falls  freely,  be- 
ing kept  in  its  place  by  the  guide-wheels  //.  Two  tubes 
cc  pass  under  and  through  the  water,  reaching  above  its 
surface  into  the  hollow  of  the  gasometer ;  one  of  them  comes 
from  the  purifiers  to  admit  the  gas  into  the  gasometer,  the 
other  carries  it  off  when  wanted  for  use.  The  action  of  this 
part  of  the  apparatus  is  simple ;  in  the  figure  the  gasometer 
is  near  the  top  of  the  water,  and  full  of  gas,  which  has  no 
communication  with  the  air,  because  the  edge  of  the  gaso- 
meter is  under  water.  If  now  it  be  pressed  downwards* 
which  is  effected  by  lessening  the  weight  e,  the  gas  will  be 
forced  through  the  pipe  which  is  to  convey  the  gas  out,  and 
which  must  oe  left  open  for  the  purpose.  When  the  gaso- 
meter reaches  the  bottom  it  will  be  full  of  water,  and  ready 
to  receive  gas  again,  which  is  admitted  through  the  other 
tube ;  the  gasometer  then  rises  to  the  top  as  the  gas  goes  in, 
and  may  be  pressed  down  again.  In  this  way  it  is  alter- 
nately filled  and  emptied.  In  most  establi^thments  there 
aro  many  gasometers,  some  filling,  and  others  emptying.  As 
it  is  a  most  unwieldy  part  of  the  apparatus,  and  takes  up  an 
enormous  deal  of  room,  many  attempts  have  been  made  to 
lessen  its  bulk.  The  only  contrivance  which  has  succeeded 
in  diminishing  the  inconvenience  is  termed  the  telescooe 
gaiometer,  which  has  recently  been  adopted  in  several  of  the 
metropolitan  esUblishmento.  In  this  plan,  two  gasometers, 
one  inside  the  other,  are  placed  in  a  single  tank ;  they  are 
ahown  in  the  figure  as  when  drawn  up  and  full  of  gas,  but 
without  any  of  the  necessary  appendages.  When  the  gas  is 
let  in,  the  smaller  gasometer  rises  first,  and  when  it  reaches 
the  top  of  the  water,  its  lower  riin,  which  is  turned  up,  and 
full  of^water,  catches  the  upper  rim  of  the  larger  gasometer, 
which  is  turned  down  over  it ;  the  two  then  become  one, 
and  the  water  which  runs  round  the  rim  prevents  the  gas 
from  getting  out  between  them.  This  gasometer  is  not  in 
reality  less  bulkv  than  the  old  one,  but  as  the  increased 
apace  it  Ukes  up  is  in  height,  and  not  breadth,  nearly  one 
balf  of  tho  trot »  faTed;  aad  th«ce  leema  to  bo  no  roMOO 


11 


til 


<t_. 


■t 


3) 


why  three  or  more  cylinders  should  not  be  placed  in  otie 
tank  in  a  similar  way. 

Many  other  contrivances  are  used  before  thegas  iscarrii  d 
to  its  destination:  a  meter,  to  measure  it;  a  governor,  to 
equalize  the  flow  ;  a  pressure-gauge,  to  indicate  the  retii*<»t- 
ance  offered  to  its  passage;  a  tell-tale, to  show  the  quantify 
manufactured  during  every  hour:  but  the  description  of 
these  would  exceed  our  limits. 

The  tubes  which  convey  the  gas  are  of  course  larger  or 
smaller  according  to  the  number  of  burners  which  they  sup- 
ply. The  largest  in  use  are  about  eighteen  inches  in  dia- 
meter, the  smallest  about  a  quarter  of  an  inclu  A  pipe  of 
one  inch  in  diameter  is  large  enough  to  supply  gas  produc- 
ing a  light  equal  to  that  of  100  mould  candles,  each  con- 
suming 175  grains  of  tallow  per  hour;  and  the  quantity 
supplied  by  larger  tubes  is  more  than  nroportionably  larf^r, 
a  tour-inch  pipe  equalling  2000  canales,  instead  of  16O0. 
This  augmentation  arises  from  the  diminished  friction  in 
large  tubes.  In  laying  the  pipes  caro  is  taken  to  place 
them  sufficiently  deep  under  the  surface  of  the  ground 
to  be  safe  from  injury  by  carriages  rolling  over,  and  tbvy 
are  disposed  in  straight  lines  so  far  as  is  practic^able.  Th<% 
are  also  laid  in  slightly  inclined  planes,  and  a  vessel  i» 
placed  at  the  bottom  of  each  descent  to  receive  and  carT\ 
off  any  deposition  which  would  otherwise  clog  the  pipe^. 
They  are  cast  with  a  socket  at  one  end,  in  which  the  smaller 
end  of  the  adjoining  pipe  is  inserted,  and  the  two  are  joined 
by  running  lead  between  the  joints,  which  is  driven  in  hard 
by  a  punch. 

The  burners  are  of  many  different  forms,  and  each  ha%  its 
technical  name.  The  argand  burner  is  like  the  lamp  of  that 
name.  The  fan  is  a  spreading  semicircle  of  small  jeta.  The 
cock-spur,  a  head  witn  three  jets  only.  The  batswing  ia  a  tbm 
sheet  of  gas  produced  by  its  passing  through  a  fine  aaw-cut 
in  a  hollow  globe.  The  argand  and  the  batswing  are  said  to 
give  the  best  light  with  a  given  quantity  of  gaa,  but  this 
seems  to  be  very  uncertain. 

The  gas  is  turned  off  from  the  burners  by  a  stop-cock, 
and  some  curious  inventions  have  been  produced  to  make 
the  stop-cock  close  of  itself  by  the  cooling  of  the  burner 
when  the  light  is  firom  any  cause  extinguished.  A  patent 
has  recently  been  taken  out  for  a  stop-cock  which  appears 
less  likely  to  get  out  of  order  than  those  commonly  used. 
In  this  invention  the  gas  is  stopped  off  by  a  piece  of  leather 
which  is  pressed  against  a  portion  of  the  tube  where  the  gas 
passes,  by  means  of  a  brass  screw  wording  in  a  hole  at  the 
side  of  the  tube.  The  gas  does  not  come  in  contact  with 
the  brass-work,  so  that  no  corrosion  takes  place,  and  a  fre- 
quent cause  of  escape  is  thereby  obviated. 

Experiment  has  shown  that  every  burner  should  have  tts 
fhll  supply  of  gas,  as  a  greater  light  wiU  thus  be  obtained 
without  a  proportionate  increase  of  consumption.  The  ex- 
periment was  tried  with  an  argand  burner  of  tbree-quartei^ 
of  an  inch  in  diameter ;  a  sufficient  quantitv  of  gas  was  turned 
on  to  give  a  light  equal  to  that  of  a  mould  candle ;  the  con- 
sumption in  tbis  case  was  a  foot  and  a  half  per  hour.  Tlio 
light  was  then  increased  until  it  equalled  four  candles,  bu  t 
notwithstanding  the  light  was  quadrupled,  Uie  consumption 
of  eas  was  not  even  doubled ;  it  was  only  two  feet  per  ho..r. 
or  half  a  foot  per  candle ;  while  in  the  first  trial,  the  light  ot 
one  candle  consumed  a  foot  and  a  half,  or  three  times  as 
much.  The  Ibllowing  statement  shows  the  result  of  the 
whole  experiment,  which  was  continued  aa  long  as  the 
bunMioonsumediil  the  gas  that  WM  admitted;  waentbat 


GAS 


90 


GAS 


th«  cathedral  of  Disise,  wbere  be  was  admitted  to  the  de- 
gree of  doctor  in  amnity,  and  appointed  prevOt  of  the 
church.  This  new  situation,  which  enabled  nim  to  Tacate 
the  chair  at  Aix,  allowed  to  Gassendi  the  undisturbed  dis- 
position of  his  time,  which  he  devoted  to  the  diligent  prose- 
cution and  advancement  of  astronomv  and  anatomy,  and  to 
the  study  of  classical  literature,  ana  of  the  works  of  the 
ancient  philosophers.  As  the  result  of  his  anatomical 
researches,  he  composed  a  treatise  to  prove  that  man  was 
intended  to  live  upon  vegetables,  and  tnat  animal  food,  as 
contrary  to  the  human  constitution,  is  baneful  and  un- 
wholesome. In  1629  a  second  volume  of  his '  Exercitationes* 
appeared,  tiie  object  of  which  was  to  expose  the  futility  of 
the  Aristotelian  scholastic  log;ic.  At  the  same  time  five 
more  volumes,  in  ftirther  consideration  of  the  same  subject, 
were  announced ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  bitter  hostility 
which  his  attacks  upon  the  favorite  system  had  awakened 
in  its  advocates^  Gassendi  deemed  it  prudent  to  abandon 
the  design. 

In  1628  Gassendi  visited  Holland  with  a  view  to  gain  and 
to  cultivate  an  acquaintance  with  the  philosophers  of  that 
country.  During  liis  residence  there  ne  composed,  at  the 
instance  of  his  friend  Mersenne,  the  work  entitled  '  Examen 
Philosophicum  Rob***  Fludd,*  in  answer  to  the  dissertation 
of  our  countryman  on  the  subject  of  the  Mosaic  philosophy. 
Upon  his  return  to  Digne,  Gassendi  applied  himself  with 
great  diligence  to  astronomical  studies,  for  which  his  fond- 
ness had  grown  with  his  years,  and  he  had  the  good  fortune, 
on  the  7th  November,  1631,  to  be  the  first  to  observe  a 
transit  of  the  planet  Mercury  over  the  sun's  disc  which  had 
been  previously  calculated  by  Kepler. 

In  the  year  1641,  being  called  to  Paris  by  a  law-suit 
arising  out  of  the  affairs  oi  the  chapter,  his  amiable  dispo- 
sition and  brilliaut  talents  obtained  for  Gassendi  the  regard 
and  esteem  of  the  most  distinguished  persons  of  the  metro- 
polis of  France,  and  the  friendship  of  the  Cardinal  Richelieu 
and  of  bis  brother  the  Cardinal  du  Plessis,  archbishop  of 
Lyon.  At  this  period  Des  Cartes,  with  whom  Gassendi  had 
loDg  maintained  a  close  and  friendly  intercourse,  was  work- 
ing a  reform  in  philosop{iv,  and  by  the  publication  of  his 
'  Meditationes*  had  openai  for  it  a  new  and  more  useful 
career.  In  this  work  however  Gassendi  discovered  much 
that  was  objectionable,  and  forthwith  attacked  the  philoso- 

Khical  system  of  his  friend  in  a  work  entitled  '  Disquisitio 
Ietapbysica«  seu  Dubitationes  ad  Meditationcs  Cartesii,' 
which  was  put  into  the  hands  of  Des  Cartes  by  their  mutual 
friend  Mersenne.    Des  Cartes  wrote  an  answer,  which  he 
published   together  with  the  '  Doubts,*  under  the  head, 
'  Sixth  Objection  to  the  Meditations.'    In  1643  Gassendi 
imposed  the  *  Instantise '  in  reply,  and  circulated  them  in 
lis.  in  Paris  before  he  sent  tliem  to  M.  Sorbicro  to  be 
printed  at  Amsterdam.    The  latter  circumstance  tended  to 
confirm  and  widen  the  difference  which,  in  the  course  of  the 
controversy,  had  grown  up  between  the  two  friends,  who 
however  entertained  a  sincere  respect  for  each  other,  and 
were  eventually  reconciled  by  the  kindly  offices  of  a  com- 
mon friend,  the  Abb£  d'Estr^s.    Baillet,  the  biographer  of 
Des  Cartes,  ascribes  the  publication  of  the   'Doubts'  to 
secret  jealousy  of  the  growing  fame  of  the  author  of  the 
Meditations,  and  to  chagrin  on  the  part  of  Gassendi  at  the 
omission  in  Des  Cartes's  Treatise  of  Meteors  of  his  Disserta- 
tion upon  the  singular  phenomenon  of  two  parhelia  which 
had  been  observ^  at  Rome.    But  the  mind  of  Gassendi 
seems  to  have  been  superior  to  the  influence  of  such  paltry 
motives,  and  the  origin  of  the  work  in  question  may  more 
juNily  be  referred  to  the  love  of  truth,  which  to  Gassendi  was 
dearer  than  friendship  itself.    Moreover,  there  was  much 
in  their  respective  characters  that  was  calculated  to  lead  to 
difference  of  opinion  upon  speculative  matters.     Carried 
away  by  a  lively  imagination,  Des  Cartes  thought  it  suffici- 
ent to  draw  from  his  own  mind  and  his  individual  consci- 
ousness the  materials  for  constructing  a  new  system  of 
philusophv ;  whereas  Gassendi,  a  man  of  immense  learning, 
and  the  oticlarad  enemy  of  whatever  had  the  appearance  of 
novelty,  was  strongly  biassed  in  favour  of  antiquity.    Chi- 
msara  for  chimsra,  he  preferred  that  which  had  at  least  the 
prescription  of  2000  years  in  its  favour.     From  Democritus 
and  Epicurus,  whose  opinions  were  above  all  others  most 
ea<«ily   reeoucileable  with   his  own  scientific  information, 
Gas^ndi  drew  whatever  was  well-founded  and  rational  in 
their  system  to  form  the  basis  of  his  own  physiology. 
Uavioff  restored  the  doctrine  of  Atoms  and  a  Void  with 
—<«h  sught  nodifleation  that  at  most  perhaps  he  did  but 


lend  to  it  a  modem  style  and  language,  his  phflosophy  ha4 
the  gloty  of  dividing  with  Des  Du'tes  the  empire  of  the 
French  philosophical  world. 

In  1645  Gassendi  was  appointed  profisssor  of  mathematics 
in  the  College  Royal  of  Paris,  upon  the  nomination  and  l-v 
the  influence  of  Cardinal  du  Plessis.  As  this  instituiion 
was  intended  principally  for  the  advancement  of  astronomy, 
he  read  lectures  upon  that  science  to  a  crowded  and  dis- 
tinguished audience,  by  which  he  increased  the  reputa- 
tion he  had  previously  acquired,  and  quickly  became  the 
focus  of  the  literary  activity  of  France,  so  fiir  as  it  w^^ 
directed  to  his  favourite  sciences  of  mathematics  and  as- 
tronomy. 

But  the  intensity  of  his  studies  had  undermined  the  con- 
stitution of  Grassendi,  and  a  severe  cold  having  occasioned 
inflammation  of  the  lungs,  he  was  forced  to  retire  to  Dig  no 
for  the  restoration  of  his  health.  In  this  retirement  how- 
ever he  was  fkr  from  idle.  In  1647  he  published  his  prin- 
cipal work,  'De  Vitil  et  Moribus  Epicuri,'  in  whicfi  be 
clears  the  character  of  this  philosopher  from  the  mist  of 
prejudice  with  which  it  had  been  invested  and  unfairly 
handed  down  to  posterity.  The  '  Syntagma  Philosophic 
EpicuresB,*  which  followed  in  1649,  is  an  attempt  to  recon- 
struct the  system  of  Epicurus  out  of  the  extant  fragment n 
and  to  give  a  complete  and  connected  exposition  of  liii 
theory.  Notwithstanding  the  express  refutation,  whirh 
Crassendi  subjoined,  of  the  errors,  both  physical  and  moral, 
of  this  philosopher,  and  despite  the  purity  of  his  own  moral 
character  and  the  exactitude  of  his  religious  obser>'anc«-9. 
the  sincerity  of  ^his  religious  belief  was  doubted  by  thf  >v.* 
who  were  constrained  to  admit  the  learning  and  critir:il 
acuteness  which  the  work  displayed;  eventuallv  howe\««r 
the  injustice  of  the  calumny  redounded  to  the  disgrace  (»f 
his  envious  traducers. 

His  native  air  having  produced  a  eonsiderable  ame- 
lioration in  his  strength,  Gassendi  was  able  to  return  t<i 
Paris  in  1653,  and  the  next  year  he  published  'Tychoin^ 
Brahaei,  Copernici,  Peurbachii,  &c.  Vit®,'  a  work  whicb 
was  not  confined  to  the  biography  of  these  great  men,  but 
also  contained  a  brief  sketch  of  antient  and  modern  a&tri- 
nomy  down  to  his  own  day.  The  resumption  of  his  li  lib- 
rary labours  auickly  brought  on  a  return  of  his  foraitT 
disorder,  and  ne  died  on  the  14th  October,  1655,  in  the 
sixty-third  year  of  his  age.  His  valuable  collection  uf 
books  and  his  astronomit^al  and  philosophical  appamtn^ 
were  purchased  by  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  III.,  ar.d 
deposited  in  the  Imperial  library  at  Vienna. 

Tho  philosophical  reserve  and  moderation  of  Gassen^li 
have  led  Bayle  to  designate  him  as  a  sceptic,  which  how- 
ever, to  judee  it  least  from  his  writings,  is  little  in  accord- 
ance with  the  spirit  of  his  philosophy;  for  although  ho 
often  complains  of  the  weakness  of  human  reason,  wlurh 
even  in  the  sphere  of  physical  investigations  is  constant!  v 
at  fault,  and  therefore  admits  the  insufficiency  of  his  o\\  fi 
discoveries  to  satisfy  either  himself  or  others,  this  circurn- 
stance,  while  it  rendered  him  patient  in  controversy  ami 
unwilling  to  enforce  his  own  conclusions  upon  others,  on;* 
proves  at  most  that  his  dogmatism  was  not  as  one-sidt'-l 
and  immoderate  as  that  of  other  dogmatists,  and  that  e\  t  n 
while  he  insisted  upon  the  possibility  of  establishing  positi%  c 
results,  he  was  yet  seeptical  enough  to  doubt  the  final  it v 
of  his  own  positions. 

By  the  philosophical  cast  of  his  mind  and  the  variety  of 
his  acquirements,  as  well  as  by  the  amiable  moderation  of 
his  character,  Grassendi  was  one  of  the  brightest  omam>.nts 
of  his  age.  Bayle  has  justly  styled  him  the  greatest  phi!  - 
sopher  among  scholars,  and  the  greatest  scholar  am.*!.^ 
philosophers.  He  may  have  been  surpassed  by  some  of !::« 
contemporaries  in  particular  departments  of  inquiiy,  as,  f.»r 
instance,  by  Des  Cartes,  in  the  higher  branches  of  nut  he- 
matics, yet  none  came  near  to  him  in  reach  and  universal!! \ 
of  ganiuM.  Varied  as  was  his  erudition,  it  did  not  oxir- 
power  the  clearness  of  his  intellect,  the  too  common  rc«;Jt 
of  great  learning;  on  the  contrary,  his  works  are  di>ti:i- 
guished  for  the  perspicuous  arrangement  of  the  idc.», 
the  justice  of  the  reasoning,  the  acuteness  of  the  m;.- 
cism,  and  the  pre-eminent  lucidness  of  the  6t>le  an  • 
diction. 

The  works  of  Gassendi  were  collected  bv  Montmort  nr.  ■ 
SorbiSre,  6  vols.,  foU  Lyon,  1658 ;  and  by  Averrani,  f»  \...  - 
fol.,  Firenze,  1728.    There  is  a  life  of  Gassendi  by  Sorb.o. .  , 
prefixed  to  the  collected  works,  and  one  by  BougereL  F^n  [ 
1737.  J      ^     ^ 


Q  A  S 


01 


GAS 


GASTSnOTODA,*  tfae  third  dass  of  IfolbiakB^  accord- 
ing to  the  system  of  Cuvier,  who  remarks  that  it  is  very 
numerous,  and  that  an  idea  may  he  formed  of  it  from  the 
slugs  and  shell-snails.  Before  we  proceed  to  the  sections, 
or  rather  orders,  into  which  Cuvier  has  subdivided  this  ex- 
tensive congregation,  it  will  be  necessary  to  put  the  reader 
in  possession  of  his  views  of  the  conformation  necessary  to 
bring  a  molluscous  animal  within  the  class  of  Gastropods. 

These  moliusks*  then,  according  to  the  great  French  zoo- 
logist, generally  creep  upon  a  fleshy  disk  placed  under  the 
belly ;  but  which  sometimes  takes  the  form  of  a  furrow  or 
that  of  a  vertical  plale.  The  back  is  furnished  with  a 
mantle,  which  is  more  or  less  extensive,  presents  diversities 
of  form,  and,  in  the  greatest  number  of  8;enera,  produces  a 
shell.  The  head,  ph&ced  in  front,  shows  itself  more  or  less, 
according  to  its  greater  or  less  retirement  under  the  mantle, 
and  is  furnished  with  small  tentacles,  which  are  above  the 
mouth,  and  never  surround  it.  Their  number  ranges  from 
two  to  six,  and  they  are  sometimes  altogether  wanting. 
Their  proper  use  is  only  for  touching,  and,  at  the  most,  for 
smelling.  The  eyes  are  very  small,  sometimes  adhering  to 
the  head ;  sometimes  at  the  base,  or  at  the  side,  or  at  the 
point  of  the  tentacle;  and  sometimes  these  organs  are 
altogether  wanting.  The  position,  the  structure,  and  the 
nature  of  the  respiratory  organs  vary,  and  afford  grounds 
for  dividing  the  animals  into  many  families ;  but  they  never 
have  any  other  than  a  single  aortic  heart,  that  is  to  say, 
placed  between  the  pulmonary  vein  and  the  aorta.  The 
site  of  the  apertures  by  which  the  organs  of  generation 
come  out  and  that  of  the  vent  vary ;  but  they  are  nearly 
always  on  the  right  side  of  the  body. 

Many  of  the  Gastropods  are  absolutely  naked;  others 
have  only  a  concealed  shell ;  but  the  greater  number  carry 
a  shell,  which  is  capable  of  receiving  and  sheltering  them. 

These  shells  are  produced  in  the  tMckness  of  the  mantle ; 
some  of  them  are  symmetrical,  consisting  of  more  pieces 
than  one ;  others  are  symmetrical,  but  formed  of  a  single 
piece ;  and  there  are  also  some  non-symmetrical,  which  in 
species  where  they  are  very  concave,  and  where  they  grow 
a  long  time,  necessarily  produce  an  oblique  spire.  If  the 
reader  will  imagine  an  oblique  cone  in  which  other  cones 
are  successively  placed,  always  larger  in  a  certain  direction 
than  in  the  others,  it  will  follow  that  the  whole  rolls  itself 
upon  the  side  which  is  least.  The  i)art  on  which  the  cone 
4^  rolled  is  called  the  Columella,  or  Pillar :  this  is  sometimes 
solid,  and  sometimes  hollow.  When  it  is  hollow,  the  open 
end  of  it  is  named  the  Umbilicus,  The  whorls  of  the  shell 
may  remain  nearly  on  the  same  plane,  or  may  extend 
towards  the  base  of  the  columella.  In  the  last  case, 
the  preceding  whorls  are  raised  one  above  the  other,  and 
form  what  is  called  the  Spire ^  which  is  pointed  in  propor- 
tion to  the  more  rapid  aescent  and  small  enlargement  of 
the  whorls.  Those  shells  with  an  elon^ted  or  projecting 
spire  are  termed  Turbinated  Shells.  When,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  whorls  remain  nearly  on  the  same  plane,  and  are 
not  enveloped  one  within  another,  the  spire  is  flat  or  even 
concave.  These  are  called  Discoid  Shells.  When  the 
upper  part  of  each  whorl  envelops  tlie  preceding  ones,  the 
spire  is  said  to  be  concealed.  Tnat  part  of  the  shell  from 
which  the  animal  comes  forth  is  termed  the  Aperture* 
When  tho  whorls  remain  nearly  on  the  same  plane,  the 
animal,  when  it  creeps,  carries  its  shell  disposed  vertically, 
the  columella  lying  across  the  posterior  part  of  the  back ; 
and  its  head  passes  under  the  border  of  the  aperture  op- 
posed to  the  columella.  When  the  spire  is  elongated,  it  is 
directed  obliquely  to  the  right  in  almost  .all  the  soecies :  a 
small  number  only  have  it  directed  to  the  left  when  they 
creep ;  these  shells  are  called  Reversed  or  L^-handed  Shells. 
The  heart  is  always  on  the  side  opposite  to  that  where  the 
spire  is  directed.  It  is  therefore  ordinarily  on  the  left  side ; 
in  the  reversed  or  left-handed  shells  it  is  on  the  right  The 
contrary  of  this  disposition  holds  good  with  regard  to  the 
or^ns  of  generation. 

The  organs  of  respiration,  which  are  always  situated  in  the 
last  whorl  of  the  sneU,  receive  the  ambient  element  under 
its  edge,  sometimes  by  means  of  the  mantle  being  entirely 
detached  from  the  boay  aloiuz  the  whole  length  of  this  edge, 
sometimes  in  consequence  of  its  being  merely  pierced  by  a 

•  Otuferopod^  TraehsUjOoda,  and  Hcteropods,  of  Lamaxtk;  nmeephcUaphora 
and  Potyplau^hon.  of  ue  BkdoTille;  imrt  of  the  a^d&ngamjdkaa  ot  Owen. 
The  nenroa«  syatcm  of  the  HeterogangbnU  (AeephaUns  or  Conchifen.  Oas. 
trovods.  and  C^^alopoda)  con^la  of  MrroQs  Slamelita  and  ganglioDa  for  the 
moal  pert  inrefoWly  or  nuymmetrioeUy  (fifpoied,  The  {TaterofiwjMfeoB- 
prise  aU  the^  jToOaMi  of  Cavkr,  with  the  «i0eptto«  of  Uie  Orrvtclii.  ^ 


hole.  The  border  of  the  mantle  is  sometimfls  proloogedl 
into  a  canal,  so  that  the  animal  can  advance  to  seek  the 
surrounding  fluid  without  exposing  either  its  head  or  foot 
beyond  the  shell.  For  this  purpose  the  shell,  in  such  cases^ 
has  also  on  its  edge,  near  to  that  end  of  the  columella  (the 
base)  which  is  opposed  to  that  whereto  the  spire  tends  (ihe 
apex),  a  notch  or  a  canal  for  the  lodgment  of  that  of  the 
mantle.  The  canal  is  consequently  on  the  left  in  the  ordi- 
nary species,  and  on  the  right  in  the  reversed  sheila.  The 
animal  being  very  flexible,  is  able  to  vary  the  direction  of 
its  shell,  and  most  frequently  when  there  is  a  notch  or  a 
canal,  it  is  directed  forwards ;  the  spire  is  thus  behind,  the 
columella  on  the  left,  and  the  opposite  border,  or  extemcd 
lip,  as  it  is  termed  by  some  conchologists,  on  the  right.  A 
directly  contrary  disposition  is  manifested  in  the  Reversed 
Shells,  and  these,  in  consequence  of  this  contrary  disposi- 
tion, turn  towards  the  left  mstead  of  turning  towards  the 
right,  as  in  the  normal  structure.  It  follows  as  a  conse- 
quence  that  the  aperture  of  the  shell,  which  is  formed  prin- 
cipally bv  the  last  whorl,  is  more  or  less  large  in  proportion 
to  the  other  whorls,  accordingly  as  the  head  or  foot  of  the 
animal,  which  is  to  be  constantly  protruded  therefrom  and 
retracted  thereunto,  is  more  or  less  voluminous  compared 
with  the  mass  of  the  visoera  which  remain  fixed  within  the 
shell.  The  aperture  is  moreover  wider  or  narrower  inpro- 
portion  as  the  same  parts  are  more  or  less  thick.  Tnere 
are  shells  whose  aperture  is  narrow  and  long ;  the  foot,  in 
such  cases,  is  delicate  and  doubles  together  for  the  purpose 
of  re-admission.  The  greater  number  of  aquatic  Grastropods 
with  a  spiral  shell  have  an  operculum,  or  separate  piece, 
which  is  sometimes  homy,  sometimes  calcareous,  attached 
on  the  posterior  part  of  the  foot,  and  which  shuts  the  shell 
when  the  animal  has  re-entered  it  and  is  entirely  retracted 
within. 

Such  is  Cuvier's  description  of  the  shell  which  covers  the 
testaceous  Gastropods.  The  organization  and  general  struc- 
ture of  Shell  will  be  treated  of  under  the  proper  head,  and 
will  be  illustrated  with  explanatory  figures.  ^Shell  ;  Pearl.] 
As  far  as  this  work  has  already  proceeded,  the  reader  will 
find  examples  of  some  of  the  forms  of  the  shells  of  Gastropoda 
under  the  articles  Auricula,  vol.  iii.,  p.  109;  Bulinui, 
vol.  vi.,  p.  7;  BuLLADiB,  vol.  vi.,  p.  12;  Cervicorran- 
CHiATA,  vol.  vi.,  p.  440;  Chismobrakchiata,  vol.  vii.,  p. 
93 ;  Chitons,  vol.  vii.,  p.  94 ;  Conus,  vol.  vii.,  p.  484 ;  Cy- 
PRjsiDiS,  vol.  viii.,  p.  254 ;  Entomostomata,  vol.  ix.,  p.  4M, 
&c. 

Cuvier,  in  continuation,  remarks  that  there  are  Gastro* 
pods  with  the  sexes  separate,  and  others  which  are  hermor- 
phrodites :  of  these  last  some  have  the  power  of  reproduc- 
tion without  the  aid  of  a  second  individual,  while  the  others 
require  a  reciprocal  copulation  for  the  continuation  of  the 
species.  He  adds  that  the  organs  of  digestion  present  as 
many  differences  as  those  of  respiration,  and  he  divides  the 
class  into  the  following  orders. 

1.  Les  Pulmonis,  Pulmonifera.     (Pulmobranchiata  of  De 

Blainville.) 

This  order  is  distinguished  from  the  moUusks  inasmuch  aa 
they  respire  the  elastic  atmospheric  air  by  means  of  a  hole 
opened  under  the  border  of  their  mantle,  and  which  they 
dilate  or  contract  at  their  pleasure.  They  have  conse- 
quently no  branchiae,  or  gills,  but  only  a  net-work  of  pul- 
monary vessels,  which  creep  around  the  walls  and  princi- 
pally upon  the  plafond  of  their  respii-atory  cavity.  Some 
are  terrestrial,  others  aquatic ;  but  these  last  are  obliged  to 
come  to  the  surface  of  the  water  from  time  to  time,  in  order 
to  open  the  orifice  of  their  pectoral  cavity  for  the  purpose  of 
respiration. 

The  Terrestrial  pulmoniferous  moUusks  have  all  Ibur 
tentacles ;  two  or  three  only,  of  very  small  dimensions,  have 
not  uermitted  the  observer  to  see  the  lower  pair.  They  are 
divided  into  those  which  are  naked,  and  those  which  are 
protected  bv  a  shell.    They  are  all  hermaphrodites. 

Those  which  have  no  apparent  shell  fonned  the  great 
genus  Limax  of  Linmeus;  and  of  these  every  one  may  find 
examples  in  the  common  slugs.  [Liicax.]  ParmaetUa  and 
Testacella  lead  the  way  to 

Those  which  have  a  complete  and  apparent  shell,  the 
borders  of  whose  aperture,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  are 
reflected  into  a  Uttle  roll  (bourreletj  when  the  animal  is 
adult.  These  were  placMsd  by  Linnsus  under  his  great 
genus  Helix.  The  shell  vanes  much  in  form ;  being,  ftor  iii« 
atance»  subglobular  or  subdiscoid^  as  in  manj  of  the  shells 

■N2 


GAS 


92 


GAS 


•ntilt;  or  elongated  and  pyramidal*  as  in  Buhnui,  &c. 

[HsLtCIDA.] 

The  AquaHc  pulmotttferout  molkuki  have  only  two  ten- 
laeula,  and  always  come  to  the  surface  to  breathe ;  they  do 
tot  therefore  inhabit  deep  waters,  but  live  for  the  most  part 
Si  the  firei^  waters  or  salt  lakeB»  or  at  least  near  the  sides 
and  mouths  of  rivers. 

Cuvier  goes  on  to  give  Onchiekum,  Buchanan,  {Peronia  of 
De  Blainville)  [Cyclobrancriata,  vol.  viii.  p.  249]  as  an 
example  of  the  Aquatic  pulmoniferous  mollusks  without 
•hells. 

Those  with  shells,  which  are  sometimes  discoid  as  in 
Ptanorbii,  or  elongated  and  pyramidal,  as  in  Limfuta,  &c., 
he  illustrates  by  the  genera  Physa,  Scaralkmis,  Auricula^ 
and  Conovuba, 

2.  Nudibranchiata.  (Polybranchiata, — ^Tritonia,  Sec,  of 

De  Blainville.) 

The  mollusks  composing  this  order  have  no  shell,  nor 
any  pulmonary  cavity ;  but  their  branchiie  are  naked,  and 
placed  upon  some  part  of  the  back.  They  ore  all  herma- 
phrodites and  marine.  They  often  swim  reversed,  with  the 
foot  concave  Uko  a  boat,  at  the  surface,  aiding  their  pro- 
gression with  their  mantle  and  tentacles  as  with  oars.  A 
notice  of  Doris,  Folycera,  and  Onchidoris,  three  of  the 
genera  placed  by  Cuvier  under  this  order,  will  be  found 
under  the  article  Cyclobranchiata,  vol.  viii.  p.  249. 

3.  Inferobranchiata. 

This  order  presents  nearly  the  same  form  and  organiza- 
tion as  the  Dorides  and  Tritonup :  but  their  branchisB,  in- 
stead of  being  placed  upon  their  backs,  are  arranged  in  two 
long  rows  of  leaflet-like  appendages  on  each  side  of  the 
body  under  the  projecting  border  of  the  mantle.  Phyllidia 
and  DiphyUidiot  Cuv.,  belong  to  the  Inferobranchiata, 

4.  Tectibranchiata.    (Monopleurobranchiata  of  De 

Blainville.) 

This  order  has  the  branchia  attached  either  along  the 
right  side  or  upon  the  back,  in  the  form  of  leaflets,  which 
•re  more  or  less  divided,  but  not  symmetrical.  The  mantle 
covers  the  branchiie  more  or  less,  and  almost  always  con- 
tains in  its  thickness  a  small  shell.  The  Tectibranchiata 
approach  the  PecHnibranchiata  in  the  form  of  the  organs  of 
respiration,  and  live  like  them  in  the  sea ;  but  the  Tectibran- 
ditata  are  all  hermaphrodites,  like  the  Nudibranchiata  and 
Pulmonifera,  The  genera  Pleurobranchtu,  Cuv.,  Piettro- 
bronchia,  Meckel,  Pleurobranchidium,  De  Blainville ; 
Apfuiia,  Linn. ;  DolabeUa,  Lam. ;  Noiarchus,  Cuv. ;  Bur- 
sateUoj  Blainv. ;  Akerc^  Miill. ;  Bulleea,  Lam. ;  part  of 
Bulla,  Linn. ;  Gasteroptera,  Meek. ;  Umbrella,  I^m. ;  Gas- 
iroolext  Blainv. ;— belong  to  this  order.  The  reader  will 
Una  a  notice  of  Bursatella  under  that  head,  vol.  vi. p.  47 ; 
and  of  Akera,  Bulkea,  Bulla,  and  Gasieroptera,  under  the 
title  BuLLADiK,  vol.  vi.  p.  11 .  Tlte  Aflysiaeea,  including 
Dolabella,  Notarchus,  &c.,  will  be  noticed  under  the  title 
Tbctibramchiata  ;  and  Umbrella,  under  that  of  Patsl- 

LOIOBA. 

These  four  orders  are  united  by  M.  de  Blainville  under 
the  name  of  Paracephalophora  Monoica, 

5.  Heteropoda,  Lam.  (Nectopoda,  Blainv.) 
Distinguished  from  all  the  others,  inasmuch  as  their  foot, 
instead  of  forming  a  horizontal  disk,  is  compressed  into  a 
muscular  vertical  plate,  which  series  them  as  a  fin,  and  at 
the  edge  of  which,  in  many  species,  a  dilatation,  in  form  of  a 
hollow  cone,  represents  the  disk  of  the  other  orders.  Their 
branchisD,  formed  of  feathery  lobes,  are  situated  on  the  poste- 
rior part  and  left  side  of  the  back,  directed  forwards ;  and  im- 
mediately behind  them  are  the  heart  and  a  liver  of  no  great 
aiBe,  with  a  part  of  the  viscera  and  the  internal  organs  of 
generation.  Their  body,  lined  with  a  muscular  coat,  is 
elongated,  terminating  most  frequently  bv  a  compressed 
tail.  Their  mouth  is  formed  by  a  muscular  mass,  and  is 
ftimished  with  a  tongue  beset  with  small  hooks.  The 
osophagus  is  very  long,  the  stomach  delicate  in  texture, 
and  two  tubes  at  the  right  side  of  the  packet  of  viscera 
give  exit  to  the  excrements  and  to  the  ova  or  to  the  prolific 
lluid.  They  generally  swim  vnth  the  back  downwards  and 
the  foot  above,  and  they  can  swell  out  their  bodies  by 
filling  them  with  water  by  means  which  are  not  as  yet  well 
understood. 

To  this  descrintion  Cuvier  adds,  that  the  method  of 
awimming  above  aescribed  having  induced  Peron  to  believe 
that  the  natatory  plate  was  on  the  back,  and  the  heart  and  I 


brancbin  under  the  belly,  has  ^ven  rise  to  many  errofs  as  to 
the  proper  place  of  these  ammals,  Cuvier  adds,  that  the 
examination  of  (heir  nervous  system  led  him  to  the  opinion 
expressed  in  his  memoir  on  the  Mollusea,  that  they  werv 
anal4)gous  to  the  Gastropods.  A  more  complete  dissection, 
he  observes,  made  since,  and  that  given  by  Poli,  in  his  third 
volume,  have  completely  confirmed  this  conjecture,  and  he 
states  that  the  fact  is  that  the  Heteropoda  difier  but  little 
from  the  Teeiibranchiaia,  M.  Laurillard  believes  that  the 
sexes  are  always  separate.  Cuvier  also  remarks,  that  M. 
de  Blainville  makes  of  his  (Cuvier's)  Heteropoda  a  family 
which  he  names  Nectopoda,  and  unites  them  with  another 
family  which  he  names  Pteropoda,  and  which  comprehends 
none  of  Cuvier's  Pteropoda,  except  Limacina.  Tb  this, 
Cuvier  observes,  M.  de  Blainville  refers  Argonauta,  upon 
what  conjecture  Cuvier  knows  not. 

Forskal  places  all  the  Heteropoda  of  Cuvier  under  his 
genus  Pterotraehea. 

In  this  work,  the  type  of  the  family,  Carinakia,  is  des- 
cribed and  figured  under  that  title,  vol.  vL  p.  294,  and 
Atlanta  is  noticed  and  figured  in  vol.  iii.  p.  24.  The  other 
genera  will  be  fotmd  under  the  article  Hbtsropoda. 

6.  Pectinibranchiata.    (Paracephalophora  Dioica,  Blainv.) 

This  order  is  by  far  the  most  numerous  division  of  the 
Gastropods,  for  it  embraces  nearly  all  those  which  have 
spiral  univalve  shells,  and  many  of  those  whose  shells  are 
simply  conical.  Their  branchis.  composed  of  numerous 
leaflets  or  fringes  (lanieres)  ranged  in  parallel  order  like 
the  teeth  of  a  comb  (whence  their  name),  are  attached  upon 
one,  two,  or  three  lines,  according  to  the  genus,  to  the 
plafond  of  the  pulmonary  cavity,  which  occupies  the  last 
whorl  of  the  shell,  and  which  forms  a  large  opening  between 
the  border  of  the  mantle  and  the  body.  Two  genera  only 
(Cydostoma  and  Helicina)  have,  in  the  place  of  branchi». 
a  vascidar  net  covering  the  pkfond  of  a  cavitjr  similar  in 
other  respects :  these  are  the  only  genera  which  breathe 
air ;  all  the  others  respire  water. 

All  the  Pectinibranchiata  have  two  tentacula  and  two 
eyes  sometimes  carried  on  their  proper  peduncles,  a  mouth 
in  form  of  a  proboscis,  which  is  more  or  less  elongated,  and 
the  sexes  separate.  The  intromissive  organ  of  the  male, 
which  is  attached  to  the  side  of  the  neck,  cannot  ordinarily 
be  retracted  into  the  body,  but  is  reflected  in  the  branchial 
cavity,  and  is  sometimes  very  large,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 
fieure  otBuccinum  ti»t<ia^uin(£NTOMOSTOMATA,  vol.  ix.  p.  454  )f 
wnich  will  give  a  general  idea  of  the  form  of  a  marine 
Pectinibranchiale  testaceous  mollusk,  with  a  turbinated 
shell.  Paludina  indeed  can  cause  this  organ  to  re-enter 
the  body  by  an  orifice  nierced  at  its  right  tentacle.  The 
rectum  and  oviduct  of  tne  female  creep  also  along  the  right 
side  of  the  branchial  cavity,  and  between  them  and  the 
branchiie  is  a  particular  organ  composed  of  cellules  con- 
taining a  very  viscous  liquor,  serving  to  form  a  common 
envelopment  or  case,  which  includes  the  egn,  and  which 
the  animal  deposits  with  them.  Several  of  these  depo- 
sited ovaries  present  very  complicated  and  singular  formn, 
and  may  be  ohen  found  on  the  sea-beach. 

The  tongue  of  the  Pectinibranchiata  is  armed  with  small 
hooks,  and  files  down  the  hardest  bodies  by  slow  and  re- 
peated friction. 

The  greatest  difierence  among  these  animals  consists  in 
the  presence  or  absence  of  the  canal  formed  by  a  prolonga- 
tion of  the  border  of  the  pulmonary  cavity  of  the  left  side, 
and  which  passes  by  means  of  a  similar  canal,  or  by  a  notch 
in  the  shell,  so  as  to  enable  the  animal  to  respire  without 
leaving  the  shelter  of  its  shelL  Some  of  the  genera  again 
ore  without  an  operculum ;  and  the  species  al»o  exliibit  dif- 
ferences in  the  filaments,  fringes,  and  other  ornaments  ex- 
hibited on  their  head,  their  foot,  or  their  mantle.  These 
mollusks  are  arranged  under  many  ftunilies^  according  to 
the  form  of  their  shells,  which,  generally  speaking,  present 
a  suflRcientlv  constant  relation  to  the  form  of  the  animal. 
But  the  student  should  remember  that  this  is  not  a  rule  with- 
out exception,  as  Mr.  Gray  has  pointed  out  in  his  interesting 
paper  in  the  '  Philosophical  Transactions.' 

xhe  reader  will  find  the  numerous  genera — ^the  leading 
ones  at  least— of  this  most  extensive  order,  principally 
under  the  titles  of  the  dififerent  fiimilies  into  which  they 
have  been  separated  by  loologists ;  and  sometimes  under 
their  generic  appellations. 

7.  Tubulibrancihiata. 

Cuvier  considexa  that  this  oidei:  should  be  detacbid  ftnm 


GAS 


93 


GAS 


the  Peetinibranchiaia,  to  which  they  nevertheleas  hear 
great  resemhlanoe,  hecause  their  shell  (which  is  in  the  form 
of  a  tuhe  more  or  less  inregular,  the  commencement  of 
which  only  is  turbinated  or  spiral)  is  fixed  to  different 
foreign  bodies:  they  have  inconsequence  no  true  copula- 
tive organs,  and  fecundate  themselves.  Vermetus,  Magilus, 
and  Si'liqu(sria  (all  marine)  belong  to  this  order. 

8.  Scutibranchiata.     (Paracephalophora  Hermaphroditica, 
with  exception  of  the  Chitons,  De  Blainv.) 

This  order  consists  of  Giastropods  whict^bear  a  near  rela- 
tionship to  the  Pectinibranchiata  in  the  shape  and  position 
of  the  branchisBt  as  well  as  in  the  general  form  of  the  body, 
but  which  have  the  sexes  united  in  the  same  individual. 
The  shells  of  this  order  are  always  without  an  operculum, 
very  wide  in  the  opening  (some  of  them  may  be  said  to  be 
almost  all  aperture),  and  many  of  them  have  shells  without 
any  turbination,  so  that  they  cover  the  animal,  and  espe- 
cially its  branchlsB,  like  a  shield.  The  heart  is  traversed 
by  the  rectum,  and  receives  the  blood  by  two  auricles,  as  in 
the  generality  of  Bivalves.  UnJer  this  order  Cuvier,  in  his 
last  edition  of  the  '  Regno  Animal*  places  the  HalioticUe 
(Ear-shells),  Stomatia,  Pissurella,  Emarginula,  and  Par- 
mophorus.  The  reader  will  find  FissurellOy  Emarginula, 
and  Parmophorus  treated  of  in  the  article  Cervicobran- 
CHiATA,  vol.  vL  p.  443. 

9.  Cydobranchiata.*     (Cervicobranchiata,  Blainv.) 

BranchisB  in  form  of  small  leaflets  or  little  pyramids, 
attached  in  a  cordon  more  or  less  complete  under  the 
borders  of  the  mantle,  nearly  as  in  the  In/erobrachiatci,  from 
which  the  Cyelobranchiata  are  distinguished  by  their  her- 
maphroditism ;  for  they  have  no  organs  of  copulation,  and 
can  reproduce  the  spfecies  without  having  recourse  to  a  se- 
cond individual,  llie  heart  does  not  embrace  the  rectum, 
but  it  varies  in  situation. 

The  genera  Patella  and  Chiton,  the  only  forms  admitted 
by  Cuvier  to  belong  to  his  Cydobranchians,  are  treated  of 
under  the  articles  Gkrticobiiancbiata  and  Chitons. 

Such  is  Cuvier's  arrangement ;  and,  based  as  it  is  on 
anatomical  investigation,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  as  a 
whole,  it  rests  on  a  sure  foundation,  however  necessary  it 
may  be  for  the  more  ready  classification  of  the  forms  to 
have  recourse  to  arbitrary  methods.  M.  Rang  adopts  it, 
adding  as  orders  De  Blainville's  Nucleobranckiata  for 
Lamarck's  Heteropoda,  and  De  Blainville*s  Cirrhobran- 
chiata  for  the  genus  Dentalium.  [Dentalium,  vol.  viii.,  p. 
404.] 

Fossil  Gasteropoda. 

A  class  which  comprehends  so  great  a  number  of  ani- 
mated organised  beings,  having  the  most  extensive  geogra- 
phical range — ^a  class  embracing  an  immense  mass  of  mol- 
lusks,  multitudes  of  which  are  littoral,  many  terrestrial 
and  inhabitants  of  the  fresh  waters,  and  a  considerable  num- 
ber pelagic,  for  the  most  part  protected  by  hard  calcareous 
shells,  presents  materials,  in  a  fossil  state,  of  the  greatest 
consequence  to  the  geologbt  for  decyphering  the  mineral 
structure  of  the  earth. 

Mr.  Dillon,  as  is  noticed  by  Dr.  Buckland  in  his  '  Bridge- 
water  Treatise,'  asserts  that  every  fossil  turbinated  univalve 
of  the  older  beds,  from  the  transition  lime  to  the  lias,  be- 
longs to  tbe  herbivorous  genera ;  and  that  the  herbivorous 
class  extends  through  every  stratum  in  the  entire  series  of 
geological  formations,  and  still  retains  its  place  among  the 
inhabitants  of  our  existing  seas.  On  the  other  hand  the 
shells  of  marine  carnivorous  univalves  are  very  abundant 
in  the  tertiary  strata  above  the  chalk,  but  are  rare  in  the 
secondary  strata  from  the  chalk  downwards  to  the  inferior 
ooUte ;  beneath  which  no  trace  of  them  has  yet  been  found. 
Br.  Buckland  further  seems  to  be  of  opinion  that,  in  the 
economy  of  sub-marine  life,  the  great  family  of  carnivorous 
tracheUpods  performed  the  same  necessary  office  during 
the  tertiary  period  which  is  allotted  to  them  in  the  present 
ocean,  and  1^  alludes  to  the  evidence  showing  that  in  times 
anterior  to  and  during  the  deposition  of  the  chalk,  the 
same  important  functions  were  consigned  to  other  carni- 
vorous mollusks  (the  testaceous  cephalopods),  which  are  of 
comparatively  rare  occurrence  in  the  tertiary  strata  in  our 

*  The  (kfOAranekiaia  are,  in  CaTier'i  I«rt  edition  of  the '  Regne  Animal.* 
hnded '  HniUime  ordre dee  OMieiopodes,'  and  they  are  ciled  aa  the 8th  in  the 
•ftidet  CniTiconBAircHiATA,  toL  tI.  p.  440,  and  Ctci.obbamchiata,  toL 


pnbliahed ^ 

^Mi  t^  npeciUOB  h«  nay  hare  taleicnlatsd, 


prat 


modern  seas;  but  threughout  the  secondary  and  transi- 
tion formations,  where  carnivorous  trachelipods  are  either 
wholy  wanting  or  extremely  scarce,  there  occur  abundant 
remains  of  carnivorous  cephalopods,  consisting  of  the  cham- 
bered shells  of  nautili  and  ammonites,  and  many  kindred 
extinct  genera  of  polythalamous  shells.  Their  sudden  and 
nearly  total  disappearance,  as  Dr.  Buckland  remarks,  would 
have  allowed  the  herbivorous  tribes  to  increase  to  an  excess 
that  would  ultimately  have  been  destructive  of  marine 
vegetation,  as  well  as  of  themselves,  had  they  not  been 
replaced  by  a  different  order  of  carnivorous  creatures 
destined  to  perform  in  another  manner  the  office  executed 
by  the  various  extinct  genera  of  testaceous  cephalopods. 
'  From  that  time  onwards,'  continues  Dr.  Buckland,  *  we 
have  evidence  of  the  abundance  of  carnivorous  trachelipods, 
and  we  see  good  reason  to  adopt  the  conclusion  of  Mr. 
Dillwyn,  that  in  the  formations  above  the  chalk  the  vast 
and  sudden  decrease  of  one  predaceous  tribe  has  been  pro- 
vided for  by  the  creation  of  many  new  genera  and  species, 
possessed  of  similar  appetencies,  and  yet  formed  for  obtain- 
ing their  prey  by  habits  entirely  different  from  those  of  the 
cephalopods.' 

The  reader  will  find  the  fossil  Gastropods  noticed  more  in 
detail  under  the  titles  of  the  different  families  and  genera. 

GASTERO'PTERA.    [Bulladje,  vol.  vl,  p.  13.] 

GASTERO'STEUS.    [Stickleback.] 

GASTRIC  JUICE.  This  term  is  applied  to  the  fluid, 
secreted  from  the  interior  of  the  stomach,  which  is  the  prin- 
cipal agent  in  digestion.  The  gastric  juice  is  a  transparent 
slightly  viscid  liquid,  which,  wnen  obtained  from  the  sto- 
mach of  an  animal  while  fasting,  possesses  neither  acid  nor 
alkaline  re-action,  but  has  a  saline  taste.  During  the  pro- 
cess of  digestion,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  distinctly  acid. 
Gastric  juice  possesses  strong  antiseptic  properties,  sus- 
pending putrefaction,  and  restoring  the  freshness  of  tainted 
meat :  it  also  coagulates  milk,  which  property  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  presence  of  anv  acid.  But  the  most  remark- 
able quality  of  the  secretion  of  the  stomach  is  its  solvent  effect, 
which  will  even  act  on  nutritive  substances  out  of  the 
body.  This  power  of  solution  cannot  be  explained  satisfac- 
torily on  chemical  principles,  as  there  appears  to  be  little 
connection  beti^een  the  properties  and  composition  of  this 
fluid.  Titidemann  and  Gmelin  have  ascribed  its  solvent 
qualities  to  the  action  of  muriatic  and  acetic  acids,  which 
they  say  are  always  secreted  during  the  digestive  process ; 
hut  they  have  not  shown  that,  when  in  its  neutral  state,  it 
is  devoid  of  the  solvent  action,  which  proof  is  necessary  to 
determine  that  the  presence  of  the  acid  is  indispensable. 
The  chemical  composition  of  gastric  juice  is  involved  in 
much  obscurity  from  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  this  fluid 
in  a  pure  state,  but  it  does  not  differ  materially  nrom  that  of 
some  other  animal  fluids,  as  saliva,  or  from  the  secretions  of 
mucous  membrane  generally :  it  consists  of  a  large  propor- 
tion of  water,  with  some  mucus,  and  certain  salts  in  small 
quantities,  the  most  plentiful  of  which  is  muriate  of  soda. 
The  free  muriatic  acid  which  is  sometimes  found  should 
rather  be  considered  as  developed  during  the  process  of  diges- 
tion, and  not  as  entering  into  the  regular  constitution  of  the 
fluid.  With  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  gastric  juice,  it  is 
secreted  by  numerous  small  glands  situated  beneath  the 
mucous  membrane,  and  opening  into  the  stomach  by  many 
minute  apertures,  from  the  orifices  of  which  the  fluid  may 
be  seen  with  a  microscope  to  distil.  These  glands  of  the 
stomach  are  single,  and  vary  in  diameter  from  '  02  to  '  08 
of  an  inch ;  the  largest  are  situated  towards  the  fundus  of 
the  organ,  the  smaller  towards  the  pylorus.  The  use  of  the 
gastric  juice  is  to  act  on  the  food  as  a  chemical  solvent,  and 
Uius  perform  the  first  process  of  digestion ;  the  office  of  the 
stomach  being  to  convert  the  nutritive  materials  of  food  into 
a  uniform  semifluid  mass,  called  chyme ;  which  change  is 
wrought,  as  many  experiments  have  shown,  through  the 
exclusive  influence  of  Uie  fluids  of  the  stomach.  [Diobs- 
tion.] 

GASTROCHiE^A,  a  genus  of  Acephalous  Mollusks  or 
Conchifers,  established  by  Spongier.  Lamarek  places  it  be- 
tween Phoku  and  SoUn,  and  Cuvier  between  Fistulana 
and  Teredina.  M.  Deshayes,  in  his  edition  of  the  '^jitt- 
maux  sans  vertebreSf  says  that  it  is  evident  that  Lamarck 
came  to  very  erroneous  conclusions  as  to  this  genus.  The 
animal,  observes  M.  Deshayes,  has  two  posterior  very 
short  siphons  when  it  is  contracted ;  the  lobes  of  the  niantle 
are  united  up  to  the  gape  of  the  valves  and  even  a  little  higher ; 
this  gaping  of  the  valves,  aa  well  as  tbe  divarication  of  tho 


^ 


6  A  S 


84 


GAT 


lobes  of  the  nitDtle,KJ*^M  pu3«Ke  to  a  gratt  ihoTt  cyUndricftl 
foot,  like  tb&t  of  theFftoladti ;  !>ut  thii  opening  is  not  at  all 
dealincd  for  Ihe  passage  of  tlio  siphons,a8  Lamarck  Bupposoil. 

Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby  ('  Genera  of  Recent  and  Fossil  Shells') 
remarks,  lliat  the  gunora  Pholai,  Mya,  Afylilus,  and  Cluima, 
have  by  lurns  sorted  as  a  receptacle  of  the  shclU  of  tbia 
genus.  He  observei,  that  Lamarck  baa  adopted  Spengter's 
name,  but  lias  placed  it  next  to  Pholat,  apparently  not  baving 
known  that  tbe  animal  fbrms  ita  own  testaceous  tube,  either 
as  a  lininR;  to  the  boUow  ithas  pret'iously  perforated,  or  as  a 
coverin^for  its  sbetl  in  those  initancesin  wliirh  it  has  not  per- 
forated at  oil,  but  inwhichithaitakenup  its  abode,  as  it  fre- 
qucnily  docs,  within  some  spiral  univalve.  Mr.  Sowerby  is 
further  of  opinion,  that  thefactof  the  shell  being  enclosed  in 
a  testaceous  tulie  of  its  own  depositing,  renders  it  proper  to 
remove  it  into  Lamarck's  family  of  Tabiaatts,  to  which 
indee<l  it  appears  to  Mr.  Sowerby  to  be  more  nearly  related, 
though  be  notices  a  very  considerable  analogy  between  tbe 
shelly  tuba  of  Lamarck's  Tubieolee,  and  the  coriaceous  epi- 
dermis, which  tiot  only  in  a  ^at  measure  coiers  the  shell, 
but  also  encloses  the  tubes  of  tbe  animal  of  Lamarck'n 
Ptioladacea,  and  Mr.  Sowerby  consequently  thinks  that  tba 
two  families  might  very  properly  bo  united. 

Mr.  Owen,  in  his  paper  on  ClavageUa,  remarks  how 
closely  Iliat  form  follows  the  modifications  which  have  been 
observed  in  Gattroc/uena.     [Olavaoella,  vol.  vii.,  p.  244.] 

Cuvier  says  that  it  appears  that  the  Gastrociiana  con- 
stantly have  a  calcareous  tube,  and  quotes  Dr.  TurLuu,  M. 
Dehbaycs  and  M.  Audouui  as  having  observed  it. 

M.  Rang  sayis  that  aU  the  Gaitroekance  have  not  a  cal- 
careous tube,  though  all  oF  them  burrow  in  stones  after  tbe 
manner  of  Pholadet.  If  this  is  to  bo  taken  literally,  it  does 
not  exactly  accord  with  tho  &ct ;  for,  somctimoa,  the  animal 
does  not  burrow  at  all,  at  others  (and  very  frequently)  it 
burrows  in  madrepores.  M.  Rang  adds  that  two  of  the 
(pecies  which  belonged  to  the  genus  Fittidana  of  Lamarck 
are  now  arranged  in  this,  and  that  this  arrangement  is  due 
to  M.  do  Blainville.  These  two  species,  he  says,  are  Fiitu- 
Uma  elaoa  and  F.  AmpuUaria.  Of  these,  Fitttdana  cfoivi  is 
referred,  among  tho  synonymcs,  to  Gatlroduena,  by  La- 
marck, and  Fistulanaampuilaria  is  declared  by  M.  Deshayes 
to  bo  a  true  Fi*tulana,  but  remarkable  in  this,  that,  accord- 
ing to  circumstaiioes,  it  forms  a  free  tubo  sunk  in  the 
taud,  or  perforates  calcareous  bodies,  and  its  tube  serres  as 
a  lining  to  the  cavity  which  it  inhabits ;  this  species  there- 
fore, he  observes,  would  belong  to  tho  Fislulaaiie  in  the 
first  case,  and  to  the  genus  Gattrocfuena  in  the  second;  if 
indeed  that  genus  be  preserved. 

M.  Rang  slates  that  M.Charles  Des  Houlins,w1ioaloiig 
time  ago,  and  before  tbe  obseivatii>ns  made  upon  this  sub- 
ject. Lad  discovered  the  existence  of  a  tube  in  the  Gattro- 
e/itrn<p,  had  shown  him  tliis  tube,  not  only  in  the  livinfc  spe* 
riua  on  the  French  coast,  but  in  the  fossil  at  Heiignac. 
Following  De  Blainville,  M.  Rang  would  divide  the  genus 
Ciulnich^na  into  the  two  following  groups. 

Species  whose  shell  is  smooth  and  without  a  distinct  tubo. 

Example.    Gattroehima  eunetformi4,  &c. 
& 
Species  whoM  shell  is  tiriated  from  the  umbo  to  the  baae, 
and  contained  in  a  distinct  tube. 

Example.     Gtalrochiena  clofo. 

M.  de  Blainville  states  that  the  animal  of  Gaitroe/uma 
has  evidently  the  greafeit  relationsliip  lo  that  of  Saxicava  ; 
but  ai  it  is  not  ectirely  contained  in  its  shell,  it  often  sup- 
plies llie  deficiency  by  forming  an  artificial  lube  adhering  to 
tbe  walls  of  the  cavity  which  it  inhabits  in  calcareous  stones. 

This  tube,  in  the  opinion  of  M.  do  Blainville,  offers  only 
an  accidental  character,  and  would  thus  make  of  species, 
or  even  of  individuals  which  are  provided  with  it,  FishUana 
of  Lamarck.  Thus,  he  observes,  M,  Deshayes  has  pro- 
posed lo  suppress  the  genus  Gaxtroehana,  but  he  would 
consider  it  more  convenient  not  to  admit  the  genus  Flitu- 
lana;  first,  because  it  is  founded  upon  the  presence  of  a 
tube;  and.  secondly,  because  it  was  established  some  time 
alUr  GtulroeAtena.  Ho  would  however  prefer  its  restric- 
tion as  he  ha*  restricted  it  in  his  Malaeologie.  In  uniting 
tbe  species  charactonzL-d  bv  the  true  shell,  whether  it  have 
■n  external  tulm  or  not,  tliere  exist  already,  he  remarks, 
many  species  of  known  GailmcJuFn^,  bolb  living  in  the 
seas  of  wann  cjitnatiia  and  fosfils  in  his  country.  M.  De- 
france.  ho  siatef,  neverllielcsK  quolex  ona  tirasil  species  only 
at  OiignoD.  and  an  oualuguu ;  and  be  couoluOM  bj  ob- 


serrins  that  Goiirochtean  elava  vould  perhaps,  if  it  vetm 
better linown.  furm  a  small  distinct  genus. 

Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby  (Zool.  Proc.  1834)  dcscrilM-s  five  ticvr 
species  brought  home  by  Mr.  Cuming  from  South  AnioriL  j, 
QiiJ  the  Gallapa;ios  and  Lord  Hood's  Islands. 

The  following  IS  M.Rang's  definition  of  the  genus:— 
Animal  oval,  having  the  mantle  closed  with  a  very  small 
anterior  rounded  opening  for  tbe  pussai;a  of  a  small,  oonit-al, 
or  lingtiiform  foot ;  tbe  tubes  elongated  and  united  througb- 

Sheit  delicate,  oblique,  oval,  cuneiform,  M]uivalva,  very- 
inequilateral,  gaping  extremely  at  it*  antero-mfBrior  part ; 
wnhonei  well  marked;  hinge  straight  and  linear  williuut 
teeth  ;  an  apophysis  often  showing  itself  below  the  hingo 
in  the  interior  of  each  valve  j  ligament  external ;  mutruliir 
impretsion*  distinct,  connected  by  a  slightly  marked  paUial 
impression  excavated  poeterioriy. 

Sometimes  a  calcareous  tube,  empulliform,  short,  vith  a 
rounded  aperture,  enveloping  tbe  shell  and  lining  tli« 
cavity  of  the  Stone. 


(Gridnoi .     

a.  ft  vara  fraffiDCDtof  ft  MftdrtpoR,  biolun  lotbDW  th*  xtAtt  Eu 

amtn  DrGniUuchkUft  CUQtitonnu.  l.un.  ;4Bn(15.  L*uiirw>ofllwtwgiALTFm.,r 

O.  it.  Smul^.  BOH  (Juurjr.  lUt)  !■  Uh  warn  of  yMmlim.  ud  ftlul 

compltw.) 

The  depth  at  which  living  GoMtrodtanm  hxn  been  fbuad 
ranges  &om  3  to  1 7  fathoms. 

Fossil  Gastrochxnk. 

Among  tho  fossil  Gattroehana,  Gattrochana  iorluata 
has  been  found  in  the  inferior  oolite  (PhilUps);  and  l>r. 
Fiitim,  in  bis  Slraligrapliical  Table,  records  Gattmc/urna 
(species  doubtful)  in  tho  lower  green  sand,  in  the  Portland 
stone,  in  the  Portland  sand,  in  the  Oxford  oolite,  and  lU 
perfuralions  in  dicotyledonous  (silicified)  wood ; — Gauil,  coal 
of  Folksione. 

GA'STROPLEX.     i;Ga*tuu>foda,  toI.  xi.,  p.  92 ;   P\- 

OATAKER,  THOMAS,  bom  in  London  in  1574,  atu- 
died  at  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degrees,  WU  after- 
wards  chaphuu  to  Sir  William  Cook,  and  also  pr«achi.T  to 


text,  and  wrote  several  works  in  illustration  of  Ibe  Old  Tea 
tamcnt.  Be  idso  wrote  'Of  tbe  Nature  and  Uae  of  Lots,' 
a  treatise  historical  and  theologica],  in  which  ho  dutiA- 
guishM  between  ianoceat  and  lawful  gaimi  of  dMiK«^  mad 


GAT 


95 


GAT 


those  which  are  unlawful  or  reprehensible.  His  arguments 
having  been  misrejyresented,  he  had  to  sustain  a  polemical 
correspondence  in  his  own  justification.  In  1611  ho  was 
appointed  rector  of  Rotherhithe.  In  1624  he  wrote  a  trea- 
tise against  Transubstantiation.  In  1642  he  was  chosen  to 
sit  in  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  Westminster,  where  in 
several  instances  he  differed  from  the  majority.  He  after- 
wards wrote  with  others  the '  Annotations  on  the  Bible,' 
which  were  published  by  the  same  Assembly ;  the  Notes  on 
Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  are  by  him.  In  1648  Gataker,  with 
other  London  clergymen,  to  the  number  of  forty-seven,  re- 
monstrated against  the  measures  taken  by  the  Long  Par- 
liament with  respect  to  king  Charles,  and  he  became  in 
consequence  an  object  of  suspicion  to  the  ruling  powers, 
but  by  his  mild  and  open  conduct  he  escaped  personal  annoy- 
ance. In  1652  he  published  a  Latin  translation  of  M.  Au- 
relius"  'Meditations,'  with  valuable  notes,  tables  of  refer- 
ence, and  a  preliminary  discourse  on  the  philosophy  of  the 
Stoics.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  nad  to  sustain  a 
controversy  against  the  pretended  astrologer  William  Lilly. 
He  died  above  eighty  years  of  age.  His  son  Charles  pub- 
lished his  *  Opera  Critica,'  2  vols.,  fol,,  Utrecht,  1698,  wnich 
contain,  besides  the  'Meditations,'  his  *  Cinnus,' and  *  Adver- 
saria Miscellanea,'  being  disquisitions  on  biblical  subjects, 
and  •  De  Novi  Testamenti  Stylo,'  a  philological  treatise  on 
the  antient  languages.  Gataker's  leamine  has  been  greatly 
praised  by  Boyle  and  other  competent  juages. 

GATES,  HORATIO,  a  distinguished  American  general 
of  the  Revolutionary  war,  was  born  in  England  in  1 728. 
He  received  his  military  training  in  the  English  army, 
served  in  the  West  Indies,  and  accompanied  General  Braa- 
dock  in  his  disastrous  expedition  a^^inst  the  French  set- 
tlements on  the  Ohio  in  1755.  [Braddocr.]  Being 
wounded  in  that  aflhir,  and  obliged  for  a  time  to  retire  from 
active  service,  he  purchased  an  estate  in  Virginia.  He 
took  the  popular  side  in  the  Revolutionary  troubles,  and 
was  appointed  adjutant-general  on  the  breaking  out  of  the 
war.  In  1776  he  was  sent  to  command  the  army  on  Lake 
Champlain.  His  conduct  at  first  was  not  approved  of,  in- 
somucn  that  he  was  superseded  in  the  spring  of  1777; 
but  in  the  following  August  he  was  appointed  to  oppose 
General  Burgoyne,  who  had  forced  his  way  from  the  Cana- 
dian frontier  to  the  Hudson.  An  indecisive  battle  was 
fought  September  18th,  and  a  second  October  8th«  in  which 
the  British  were  defeated.  General  Gates  then  blockaded 
])is  adversary  at  Saratoga,  who  being  disappointed  in  his 
hope  of  forming  a  junction  with  the  Royalist  troops  on  the 
Hudson,  and  cut  off  from  all  supplies,  fbund  it  necessanr 
to  capitulate  with  his  whole  army.   For  the  terms  obtained, 

see  BxjRQOYNE*. 

This  convention  of  Saratoga  was  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant successes  gained  in  the  whole  war :  for  near  6000 
men  surrendered  on  parole  not  to  serve  again,  and  their 
hrms  and  artillery  were  converted  to  the  use  of  the  victors. 
Gates  became  the  popular  hero  of  the  day :  and  attempts 
were  made  by  some  intriguing  partisans,  or  misjudging 
friends,  to  raise  him  over  the  head  of  Washington.  Fortu- 
nately for  America  these  attempts  came  to  nothing.  In  June, 
1780,  he  was  appointed  to  command  the  southern  army, 
which  at  that  time  was  in  a  wretched  state  of  disorganiza- 
tion. It  was  no  wonder  therefore  that  on  his  first  meeting 
with  the  British  troops  [Cornwallis]  he  received,  though 
superior  in  numbers,  a  total  defeat.  This  took  place  August 
1 6  th,  at  Camden,  in  South  Carolina.  By  great  exertion  he 
was  again  in  condition  to  take  the  field,  when  he  received 
news  that  he  was  superseded  by  General  Greene,  and  that 
Congress  had  resolved  to  submit  his  conduct  to  a  court  of 
inquiry.  The  investigation  lasted  until  after  the  close  of 
the  war  in  1782 :  in  the  end  be  was  fully  and  honourably 
acquitted  of  blame. 

General  Gates  then  retired  to  his  Virginia  estate,  from 
which,  in  1800,  he  removed  to  New  York;  to  the  freedom 
of  which  city  be  was  immediately  admitted.  In  1800  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  state  legislature.  Before  his 
departure  from  Virginia  he  performed  the  noblest  act  of  his 
life— the  e^i^eipation  of  his  slaves,  which  he  accompanied 
with  a  provision  for  those  who  needed  assistance.  He 
died  April  10,  1806.  (American  Encyclopadia ;  Hist 
Amer.  Revolution.) 

GAT£SH£AD,  an  antient  borough  and  parish  in  the 
eastern  division  of  Chester  ward,  in  the  county  palatine  of 


*!■  liuiaiiklf  tii«  pUa  of  BurfOfiie**  cuBpalgB  is  uuMUiedt 
Ma  C«tt4A  to  iIm  Uvdfao>— «ot  tm  the  Booioa  to  Cuiaiia. 


iMBHChcd 


Durham,  272  miles  N.  by  W.  from  London^  and  13  miles 
N.  by  £.  from  Durham.  It  is  situated  on  the  southern 
side  of  the  river  Tyne,  opposite  to  Newcastle^  with  which  it 
communicates  by  a  handsome  stone  bridge.  The  parish  is 
about  3)  miles  in  length,  its  greatest  width  being  somewhat 
more  than  two.  Gateshead  is  supposed  to  have  once  been  a 
fortified  Roman  station,  which  opinion  is  supported  by  the  an- 
tiquities discovered  here  at  various  times,  including  coins  of 
the  emperor  Hadrian.  Prior  to  1 833  it  was  merely  a  borough 
by  prescription,  there  being  no  charter  extant,  Aough  it  is 
believed  to  have  been  once  incorporated.  By  the  Reform 
Act  it  became  a  parliamentary  borough,  and  now  returns 
one  member.  As  late  as  1681  the  town  was  governed  by  a 
bailiff  appointed  by  the  bishops  of  Durham,  since  which 
time  the  government  has  been  vested  in  two  stewards, 
who  possess  no  municipal  authority  or  jurisdiction,  and  who 
are  elected  annually  by  the  borough-holders  and  freemen. 
There  are  two  principal  streets ;  the  one  descending  towards 
the  bridge  is  so  steep  as  to  be  almost  impassable  for  car- 
riages during  winter ;  the  other,  of  recent  erection,  is  of  gra- 
dual descent.  The  church  is  an  antient  and  spacious  edi- 
fice, built  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  surmounted  by  a  lofty 
tower.  There  are  two  livings ;  the  rectory  of  Gateshead 
and  that  of  Gateshead-fell.  The  annual  net  income  of  the 
former,  according  to  the  Scclesiastical-re venue  Reports,  is 
636/.,  and  that  of  the  latter  172/.  They  are  both  in  the 
archdeaconry  and  diocese  of  Durham,  and  in  the  patronage 
of  the  bishop  of  that  see.  There  are  several  charitable  insti- 
tutions, among  which  is  an  almshouse  for  poor  women.  On 
the  east  side  of  the  main  street  are  the  ruins  of  an  extensive 
monastery,  founded  in  1247  by  Bishop  Famham,  and  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Edmund.  The  town  is  said  to  be  thriving  and 
increasing  annually  in  manufacturing  and  commercial  im- 
portance. It  possesses  coal-mines,  extensively  worked, 
situated  within  the  borough,  and  which  employ  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  population  of  the  town.  The 
chief  manufactories  are  of  elass,  cast  and  wrought  iron,  and 
whitening;  and  at  Gateshead-fell  there  is  an  extensive 
quarry  for  grindstones,  which  are  exported  to  most  parts  of 
tne  kingdom.  The  population  of  Gateshead  and  Grateshead- 
fell  in  1831  was  15,177.  There  are  several  charity  schools, 
among  which  is  a  free  grammar-school  founded  in  1701  by 
the  Rev.  Theophilus  Pickering,  the  rector  of  the  parish. 
Besides  Greek  and  Latin,  the  children  are  taught  arithmetic 
and  navigation.  The  revenue  of  the  borough,  arising  from 
landed  property,  is  500/.,  which  is  incumbered  with  a  mort- 
gage of  1600/.  The  annual  expenditure  is  about  200/.  The 
amount  of  assessed  taxes  levied  in  1830  was  2036/.,  and 
that  of  the  parochial  assessments  in  the  following  year 
4709/. — (Parliamentary  PaperSt  &c.) 

GATINE  or  GASTINE,  a  district  of  Bas  (or  Lower) 
Poitou,  in  France ;  now  comprehended  in  the  department 
of  Deux  Sdvres. 

GATINOIS,  LE,  a  district  in  France,  partly  compre- 
hended in  the  government  of  lie  de  France,  partly  in 
that  of  Orl^nois ;  and  distinguished  accordingly  as  Gi- 
tinois  Fran9ois  and  Gatinois  OrI6anois.  Gitinois  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Hurepoix  and  Brie  Fran9ois,  on 
the  east  by  Senonois  and  Bourgogne,  on  the  south  by  Ni- 
vernois  and  Berri,  and  on  the  west  by  Orl^anois  Proper 
and  the  districts  of  Beauce  and  Chartrain.  It  extenaed 
from  the  Seine  to  the  Loire,  and  was  watered  by  the 
Loire,  the  Seine,  the  Loing,  the  Essonne,  and  their  tri- 
butaries. It  is  now  comprehended  in  the  departments  of 
Seine  et  Olse,  Seine  et  Mame,  Loiret,  and  Yonne.  Its 
chief  towns  were  as  follows  :  Le  Gitinois  Fran9ois— capital 
Nemours,  on  the  Loing  (population  3839),  Fontainebleau 
(pop.  8104  town,  8122  commune),  Moret,  on  the  Loing 
(pop.  1673),  Beaumont,  Chdteau  Laudon,  Egreville,  Milly 
(pop.  1881  town,  1941  commune),  Courtenoy,  on  the  Clery, 
and  Cheney,  on  the  Lunain,  feeders  of  the  Loing ;  Le  Gsl- 
tinob  Orl^anois — capital,  Montargis,  on  the  Loing  (pop. 
6781),  Chfttillon  sur  Loing  (pop.  1721  town,  2126  com- 
mune), Briare  (pop.  2243  town,  2730  commune),  Gien 
(pop.  4631  town,  5177  commune),  Puiseaux  (pop.  1876 
town,  1970  commune),  and  several  others. 

The  district  La  Puisaye,  capital,  St.  Fargeau  (pop.  1519 
town,  2132  commune),  was  a  subdivision  of  Le  G&tinois 
Orleanois. 

The  population  of  the  towns  is  from  the  census  of  1831. 

GATSHINA,  a  rcgulaily-built  town  on  the  Ishora 
where  it  expimds  into  a  lake,  about  forty  miles  south  of 
St.  Petersburg,  in  the  government  of  which  it  is  situated* 


G  A  U 


S6 


G  A  U 


It  was  a  favounto  Tmidenoe  of  Paul  the  Fint,  who  eonfeited 
municipal  privileges  on  it  in  1796.  It  contains  a  Greek 
church,  Protestant  and  Roman  CJatholic  chapels,  a  large 
hospital,  a  free  school,  an  asylum  for  800  foundlings,  a 
porcelain,  a  woollen  cloth,  and  a  hat  manufactory,  &c.»  and, 
including  its  dependencies,  nas  a  population  of  about  6500. 
Between  the  lake  and  the  hills  behind  it,  and  close  to 
Gatshina,  is  a  handsome  imperial  palace,  with  a  theatre, 
riding-house,  and  chapel,  all  of  freestone,  and  soacious  and 
very  picturesque  grounds  laid  out  in  the  English  style. 

GATTERKR.  JOHANN  CHRISTOPH,  bom  in  1727, 
near  Niirnberg,  became  professor  of  history  at  Gottineen, 
where  ho  published  numerous  useful  works  on  antient  his- 
tory, geography,  chronology,  genealogy,  heraldry,  and  di- 
plomacy, on  all  which  subjects  his  information  was  very 
extensive.  His  principal  publications  are: — 1.  *  Elementa 
artis  Diplomatica)  Universalis,'  4to.,  Gottingen,  1765,  a  work 
of  great  and  curious  research,  especially  concerning  the 
graphic  part,  or  the  various  characters,  monograms,  and 
symbols  used  in  old  diplomacy.  2.  'Handbuch  der  Uni- 
versal Historic,*  2  vols.  8vo.  1764-5,  in  which  he  gives  cata- 
logues of  numerous  writers  on  the  history  of  the  various  coun- 
tries of  Europe  and  Asia,  according  to  the  order  of  time.  3. 
•Stammtafeln  sur  Weltgeschichte.'  4ta,  1790.  4.  •  Ein- 
feitung  in  die  Synchronistische  Universal  Historic,'  2  vols. 
8vo.,  1771,  with  chronological  tables.  5.  •  Abriss  der Chro- 
nologic,' 1777.  6.  '  Handbuch  der  Neuesten  Genealogie,' 
1 772.  7.  •  Allgemeine  Historische  Bibliothek,*  1 6  vols.  8vo., 
Halle,  1771.     Gatterer  died  at  Gottingen  in  1779. 

There  was  another  contemporary  professor,  Christoph 
"Wilhelm  Jacob  Gatterer,  at  Heidelberg,  who  wrote  several 
works  on  geology  and  mineralogy. 

GAUBIL,  ANTHONY,  a  learned  Jesuit,  whose  labours 
greatly  advanced  our  knowledge  of  the  literature  of  eastern 
Asia,  was  born  in  Languedoc  in  1689.  He  entered  the 
<ociety  of  the  Jesuits  in  1 704,  and  was  sent  in  1 723  to  China, 
Inhere  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Chinese  and 
\iantchoo  languages,  in  which  he  made  such  proficiency  that 
'he  first  Chinese  scholars  sometimes  consulted  him  about 
obscure  and  difficult  passages  in  their  author:^.  Besides  the 
above-mentioned  literary  occupations  Gaubil  applied  himself 
with  great  success  to  mathematics,  and  particularly  to  astro- 
nomy, without  neglecting  tlie  numerous  avocations  of  his 
ecclesiastical  calling.  Gaubil  arrived  in  China  just  after 
the  death  of  the  celebrated  Emperor  Ching-Tsoo,  better 
known  in  Europe  under  the  name  of  Kang-Hi,  who  was 
very  partial  to  Europeans,  but  whose  successor  was  imbued 
with  a  strong  prejudice  against  the  Christian  missionaries. 
Notwithstanding  this  unfavourable  circumstance,  GaubQ 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  favour  of  the  monarch,  and  was 
nominated  director  of  the  college,  where  a  number  of 
Mantchoo  youths  are  instructed  in  Latin  and  Russian*. 
He  was  also  employed  as  interpreter  from  the  Mantchoo 
into  Latin,  and  from  Latin  into  the  Mantchoo,  for  the 
diplomatical  correspondence  between  China  and  Russia. 
Notwithstanding  his  multifarious  occupations,  Gaubil  found 
time  to  write  several  important  works  in  China,  the  first  of 
which  is  an  'Historical  and  Critical  Treatise  on  the  Chinese 
Astronomy,'  published  in  the  'Observations  Mathematiques, 
Astronomiques,  G6ographiques  et  Physiques  tir6os  des 
anciens  liyres  Chinois,  ou  Faites  nouvellement  aux  Indes 
ou  sk  la  Chine,  par  les  Missionnaires-Jesuites,  requeillies  par 
le  P.  Souciet(a  Jesuit),'  Paris,  1729,  1  vol.  4to.  The  same 
collection  contains  the  narrative  of  a  'Voyage  from  Peking 
to  Canton,*  by  Graubil,  which  has  been  likewise  inserted  by 
Prevot  in  the  5th  vol.  of  his  *  History  of  Travels.'  But  the 
work  which  reflects  the  greatest  credit  on  the  abilities  of 
Graubil  is  his  translation  into  French  of  the  'Choo<king,' 
which  contains  the  earliest  traditions  respecting  the  history 
of  China.  It  was  published  after  his  death  by  Desguignes, 
in  1771,  at  Paris.  Gaubil  published  also  a  'History  of 
Genghis  Khan  and  his  Dynasty'  (1739,  Paris),  which  alone, 

*  Aeeording  to  the  treaty  of  17S8  bctwoeo  Romu  and  Chhia.  all  tlw  diplo- 
natic  eorfrtpoBdanca  between  ihow  two  eonntrlca  b  can-ied  on  In  Latin,  Hat- 
■iaB,  and  Maatehoo,  and  vtexj  deapatdi  moat  ba  wxttlen  in  tk«M  threa  laa- 
IfOMgn,  A  ipadal  lebool  was  aaUbliahed  at  Peking,  in  ordar  to  taaeh  Rmaian 
to  twenty  yvtrng  Maatehooa.  wIm  are  afterwaida  placed  cltRer  in  the  office 
fcr  lbfei«nallkin,orinottecaoa  the  ftootier,  when  a  knowledge  of  the  Ru«- 
aian  bofoage  ia  rcqnisita.  Bat  notwithatanding  all  the  e0bita  of  the  govern- 
ment to  annpofft  thai  achodi.  It  ia  very^r  fttaa  being  in  a  atate  of  efficiency ; 
and  it  ia  aakl  that  ia  1006.  when  tha  Buaaian  embaesy  eame  to  Mongolia,  the 
Cbinaae  governor  of  that  pravinea  called  for  aome  tianalatora  educated  in  the 
above-mentioned  aehooL.  He  expected  to  And  in  tham  able  and  tnuty  inter- 
pretar8,withont  belag  obliged  to  apply  to  the{Rnaaiaae ;  bot  the  flrat  interview 
pfDved  that  ha  waa  nialakaa.  The  Mantchoo  Inlorprotora  eonbeaod  that  they 
did  not  nndairtnadswudaT  what  ths  Baailaw  wid,  asd  Ihay  wain  aanl 
Hack  to  Faking. 


aoeofding  to  the  celebrated  Chinese  fcholar  Abel  Remusst, 
would  be  sufRcient  to  establish  the  reputation  of  the  autitor. 
The  other  works  of  Gaubil  are  a '  Description  of  Peking.*  an<  I 
many  essays  on  China  and  the  adjacent  countries,  wlm  U 
are  inserted  in  that  celebrated  collection  published  by  ii«« 
Jesuits  under  the  title  of  *Lettres  curieuses  et  ^difiaittc-^. 
which  contains  the  description  of  the  countries  where  th«  > 
exercised  their  missionary  labours.  Gaubil  died  at  Pe  k  1 1 1 ,; 
in  1759,  aged  seventy-onct  after  having  resided  in  Clnna 
thirty-six  years.  For  further  particulars  the  reader  m.i% 
consult  the  3 1st  vol.  of  the  'Lettrea  curieuses  et  dditiantr^.' 

GAUDAMA,  or  GAUTAMA.  [Buddha,  vol.  v.,  p.  .527] 

GAUGING  is  the  method  of  determining  by  actual  mea- 
surement the  number  ofgallons  containtnl  in  any  ves««cl 
intended  to  hold  goods.  The  greatest  use  of  this  art  is  in 
the  collection  of  the  revenue,  in  which  it  is  nece&san'  to 
messure  the  bulk  of  vessels  without  disturbing  their  con- 
tents. For  this  purpose  a  number  of  rules  have  been  laid 
down  by  various  writers,  of  whom  the  reader  who  is  in- 
terested in  the  subject  may  consult  Leadbetter*s  *  Treatise 
on  Gauging,'  John  Ward's  *  Young  Mathematician's  Guide.' 
or  Dr.  Mutton's  *  Mensuration.'  The  rules  laid  down  were, 
in  many  cases,  of  uncertain  application ;  as  for  instance,  a 
close  cask  was  to  be  treated  eitner  as  a  frustum  of  a  sphcrtml. 
or  of  a  parabolic  spindle,  or  as  a  double  frustum  of  a  para- 
boloid, or  else  of  a  double  cone,  according  to  its  ap]H!aranrc. 
The  allowance  made  for  the  thickness  of  a  cask  whh  a 
guess,  and  the  method  of  using  ^mo/Zsliding-rules,  to  whirh 
supervisors  formerly  resorted  to  escape  calculation,  is  a  spe- 
cies of  estimation  which  would  never  have  been  tolerated  in 
money  transactions  between  man  and  man.  The  inference 
to  be  drawn  from  tlie  art  as  described  by  early  writers  i^ 
that,  generally  speaking,  the  results  of  excisemen's  mea- 
surements were  below  me  truth:  had  it  been  otherwi^r, 
the  fact  could  not  but  have  been  known  to  merchants  and 
tradesmen,  who  can  gauge  their  own  vessels  after  the  ctn- 
tents  are  removed,  or  who  learn  their  bulk  in  the  remox  al. 
If  the  methods  of  the  excisemen  were  tolerablv  uniform, 
which  is  perhaps  pretty  nearly  true,  if  we  may  judge  from 
writers  on  the  subject,  no  injustice  was  done  by  unequal 
taxation  ;  and  the  government  would  probably  have  fourid 
it  as  easy  to  increase  the  duties,  as  to  raise  an  adclitioti.il 
revenue  from  a  more  correct  method  of  collecting  the  old  one. 

With  larger  sliding-rules  for  calculation,  and  the  aid  «  t 
habit  derived  from  experience,  it  is  possible  very  accurately 
and  easily  to  measure  casks  which  do  not  depart  murL 
from  a  given  standard  of  form.  This  is  what  is  done  h\ 
gaugers  at  the  present  time ;  and  their  practice  has  attain*'tl 
considerable  accuracy.  In  a  particular  instance  which  h.t* 
come  to  our  knowledge,  and  in  the  case  of  a  vat  which  hci<l 
6500  gallons,  the  measurement  of  the  exciseman  did  n<>* 
diflfer  more  than  ten  gallons  from  the  truth.  This  de;::ivc 
of  accuracy  is  entirely  modern,  and  must  in  a  considerablv 
degree  arise  from  similarity  of  form  being  very  nearly  pr«- 
served  in  the  different  species  of  casks. 

The  great  variety  of  cases  which  occur  would  make  a  sum  • 
mary  inconveniently  long.  Wherever  a  content  is  to  he 
found,  either  the  figure  itself  is  simple  and  regular,  as  ni 
the  case  of  a  cylinder,  or  nearly  a  simple  figure,  as  in  iho 
case  of  some  casks,  which  may  be  consider^  as  the  frusta 
of  spheroids  [See  Barrel  as  an  instance  of  the  apprr)\i- 
mating  supposition],  or  so  irre^ilar  that  the  content  c<i:i 
only  be  found  by  dividing  them  into  a  considerable  numb»?r 
of  sections,  and  considering  each  section  as  a  small  cyliiidoi 
or  frustum  of  a  cone.  [Quadratures,  Method  op.] 

The  work  on  gauging,  which  is  most  commonly  used,  i> 
Svmon's  *  Practical  Uauger,*  which  has  been  throuph  sovcr.il 
editions.  Other  works  are,  those  of  Leadbetter,  ShiricMT.*. 
Moss,  Guttcridge,  and  Iley.  The  first  three  are  of  t))e  fir^t 
half  of  the  last  century,  and  that  of  Shirtcliffc  contains  the- 
oretical investigations.' Ward's '  Mathematician's  Guide.*  and 
Hutton's  andBonnycastle*s  'Mensuration,*  contain  small 
treatises  on  the  subject 

GAUL.    [France.] 

GAULNA.    [Candkish,  voL  vL,  p.  233."" 

GAULS.    [Celt^;  Frawcb.] 

GAURS.    [Guebreb.] 

GAUZE,  a  light  transparent  texture,  made  of  fine  si'Vcn 
threads.  Its  name  has  led  to  the  coniecture  that  this  fabr  i  * 
was  first  invented  in  Gaza,  a  city  of  raestine.  Spitalfie!«K 
was,  some  years  back,  the  principal  seat  of  the  silk-gau/c 
manufiicture  in  Great  Britain;  but  of  late  Paisley  and 
Glasgow  and  their  vidnitiea  have  almost  entirely  engrossed 


G  EB 


98 


G  E  C 


Carbonic  ioid 

•     28*66 

Soda    , 

•     20*44 

Lime    • 

•     17*70 

Water 

•     32*20 

.       !• 

100* 

6AYA.    [Baur.] 

GAZA,  now  called  Oasara,  a  town  of  Syria,  or  more  pro- 
perly tpMking,  of  Palestine,  on  the  S.W.  frontiers  of  that 
oountrv,  near  the  borders  of  the  desert  which  separates  it 
from  Egypt*  It  consists  of  the  upper  town,  with  a  castle 
situated  on  a  hill,  about  two  miles  from  the  sea,  and  a  lower 
part*  or  suburb,  in  the  Talley  below.  The  population  is  be- 
tween 3000  and  4000.  It  has  some  manuractories  of  soap 
and  cotton  stuffs,  and  carries  on  some  trade  by  sea,  espch 
cially  wiUi  Egypt,  and  also  by  land  through  the  desert  with 
Sues.  Gasa  is  greatly  (alien  from  its  antient  splendour ; 
but  it  still  exhibits  siffns  of  commercial  activity  and  pros- 
perity. It  is  repeatedly  mentioned  in  Holy  Writ,  especially 
in  Judges  (cxvl),  as  one  of  the  principal  towns  of  the  Phi- 
listines. It  was  besieged  by  Alexander  the  Great,  and  taken 
after  an  obstinate  defence.  It  was  afterwards  destroyed  by 
Alexander  Jannnus,  about  98  b.c.,  and  forty  years  after  was 
rebuilt  by  Gabinius,  the  Roman  governor  of  Syria.  The  town 
was  afterwards  destroyed  by  the  Jews  in  one  of  their  revolts 
against  the  Romans ;  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (viii.  26), 
it  is  mentioned  as  being  then  deserted.  It  was  however 
rebuilt,  and  is  mentioned  as  a  town  of  some  consequence 
nnder  Constantino,  who  ^ve  it  the  name  of  Constantia. 
At  a  later  period  we  find  it  mentioned  in  the  wars  of  the 
Crusades.  The  traveller  Sandys  gives  a  good  description 
of  Gasa  as  it  was  towards  the  beginning  of  tne  17th  century, 
when  there  were  still  many  remains  of  antient  buildings, 
marble  and  granite  pillars,  &c.  The  hill  upon  which  Gaza 
stands  is  about  two  miles  in  circumference  at  the  base,  and 
appears  to  have  been  once  wholly  enclosed  by  walls.  The 
town  being  surrounded  by  gardens  and  plantations  of  olive 
and  date  trees,  above  which  numerous  and  elegant  minarets 
rise,  has  a  pleasing  appearance  from  a  distance.  The  country 
around,  which  is  hilly,  is  remarkably  fertile.  (Jolliffe's 
Letters  /rem  Meetine;  Irby  and  Mangles*  TraveU; 
Richardson.) 

GAZA,  THEODORE,  a  learned  Greek  scholar,  bom  at 
Thessalonica  in  the  early  part  of  the  15th  century,  emigrated 
to  Italy,  like  others  of  his  countrymen,  at  the  time  of  the 
fall  of  the  Eastern  Empire.  He  found  liberal  patrons  in  his 
countryman  Cardinal  Bessarion,  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  and 
Kinir  Alfonso  of  Naples.  Gaza  translated  into  Latin  '  Aris- 
totle^s  History  of  Animals;'  the  'History  of  I'lants,'  by 
Theophrastus ;  the  '  Aphorisms*  of  Hippocrates,  and  other 
Greek  works.  He  also  wrote  a  Greek  Grammar,  which  was 
published  at  Rome  in  1495,  and  was  often  reprinted.  He 
was  one  of  those  who  contributed  powerfully  to  the  revival 
of  classical  studies  in  Italy.  Although  he  wrote  in  praise 
of  Aristotle's  opinions,  and  therefore  on  the  same  side  as 
Georgius  of  Trebizond,  in  the  then  pending  controversy 
concerning  the  comparative  merits  of  Aristotle  and  Plato 
[Bessakion],  yet  his  mildness  and  modesty  kept  him 
within  the  bounds  of  decorum,  and  he  thereby  became  ob- 
noxious to  the  more  violent  Georgius,  who  assailed  him 
with  invectives.  Gaza  died  at  Rome,  or,  as  some  say,  in  Cala- 
bria, at  an  advanced  age.  He  wrote  also  a  book  on  the  'Ori- 
gin of  the  Turks,'  and  a  treatise  *  De  Mensibus  Atticis.' 

GAZELLE.  [AivTELOPS,  vol.  ii.,  p.  63.]  Mr.  Ogilby 
(1 836)  has  elevated  Gcuselia  to  the  rank  of  a  genus  among 
his  CapricUr;  Type,  Gazella  Dorcas,  Antilope  Dorcat  of 
authors.     [(joat.J 

GAZETTE  (gazzetta  in  Italian,  Fae^/a  in  Spanish)  is  the 
name  i;iven  to  newspapers  in  several  ports  of  tne  Continent 
The  name  was,  according  to  Manage  and  others,  derived 
from  a  small  Italian  coin,  which  was  the  price  of  the  first 
newspaper  established  in  that  country.  In  England  the 
London  Gazette  is  an  official  newspaper,  containing  the 
pnK'laroaiions,  orders  in  council,  promotions,  bankrupt- 
cie^,  &CC. 

Gnzciteer  has  been  used  in  England  to  mean  a  geogra- 
phical dictionary,  such  as  Brookes'  *  General  Gazetteer,' 
and  other  similar  works.    [Dictionary.] 

GEBKRS.    [GuEBRKs] 

GEKH  ARDI,  a  German  author,  bom  in  1699  at  Bruns- 
wick, died  at  Liineburg  in  1764.  His  most  important 
work  is  a  *  Universal  Gencalogv,*  published  in  1730*31,  in 
Germau ;  it  is  divided  into  tnree  volumes,  each  with  a 


title ;  the  first  oonUins  Iha  pedigvse  of  the  sof»» 
reign  houses  of  Europe  which  existed  in  1731 ;  the  •eootid. 
the  pedigrees  of  the  dynastiea  that  were  already  extinct  at 
that  time ;  the  third,  the  genealogy  of  Moliammedan  and 
heathen  monarchs.  This  production  served  as  a  basis  to  all 
the  g^enealogical  works  published  by  the  Germans  dunns 
the  eighteenth  century.  Gebhardi  also  wrote  *  Historicai 
and  Genealogical  Memoirs,*  3  vols.,  8vo.  His  son  pub- 
lished, after  his  father's  death,  a  collection  of  materiaU  for 
a  genealogical  history  of  the  reigning  families  of  Germany* 
which  was  left  in  manuscript  by  Gebhardi. 

GEHBIA,  GE'BIOS.    [Thalassina.] 

GECARCI'NUS,  Dr.  Leach's  generic  name  for  thi»so 
brachyurous  decapod  crustaceans  known  fiuniliarly  to  tb« 
English  as  Land-crabe,  and  to  the  French  by  the  appella- 
tions of  Tourlouraux,  Crabeecetnte*,  or  Crabee  tioUU^  some 
of  these  terms  being  applicable  not  only  to  different  species, 
but  to  the  same  species  at  different  ages,  so  that  thoM 
various  names  cannot  be  depended  upon  as  specific  desig- 
nations. 

Latreille  placed  this  tribe  of  crabs  immediately  after 
Pinnotheret.  He  seems  to  admit  Plagusia  and  Oraptu* 
into  the  same  section  with  the  Land-crabs,  properly  so 
called;  and  next  to  Qrapeue  come  the  Orlrieuiata  (his 
fourth  sectionX  containing  Coryitee,  &o. 

Desmarest  places  Gecareinue  at  the  head  of  the  Quadn* 
kUhree  of  Latreille,  and  arranges  all  the  true  Land*craba 
under  that  generic  title,  which  is  preceded  by  PUumnus^ 
and  succeed^  by  the  Orbiculata  of  Latreille. 

M.  Milne  Edwards  makes  the  Gecardniane  the  second 
tribe  of  his  family  of  CatametopeM ;  and  in  his  arrangement 
they  stand  between  the  Thelphtmanst  the  first  tribe,  and 
the  Pinnotheriam,  the  second  tribe  of  that  &mily. 

According  to  the  last-named  author  the  tribe  of  Qecarei^ 
nians  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  groups  of  the  class 
Crustacea ;  for  it  is  composed  of  animals  breathing  hy 
means  of  branchis,  or  gills,  and  yet  essentially  terrestrial, 
so  much  so  indeed,  that  they  would  perish  tsook  asphyxia 
if  submerged  for  any  length  of  time.  They  may  be  distin* 
guished  easily  from  the  rest  of  the  fomily  by  their  nearly 
oval  carapace,  which  is  much  elevated  and  convex  abo«^ 
The  branchial  regions  are  in  general  very  distinct,  and 
project  much  below,  occupying  nearly  two-thirds  of  tha 
surface.  The  ihint  is  very  nearly  as  large  as  the  buccal 
fhune  {cadre  buccal),  and  strongly  curved  below.  The 
orbits  are  suboval,  moderate,  and  verv  deep.  The  lateral 
borders  of  the  carapace  are  very  mucn  anmed,  and  gene- 
rally describe  a  semicircle.  The  internal  antennte  are 
lodged  under  the  front,  and  fold  back  transversely  lu 
narrow  and  often  nearly  linear  excavations.  The  disposition 
of  the  external  antenna  varies,  and  so  do  the  jaw -feet 
(pates-mdchoiree)  ;  sometimes  the  fourth  joint  is  inserted 
at  the  external  angle  of  the  preceding,  and  remains  ex- 
posed, as  in  the  On/podiane,  ^nd  sometimes  it  is  entirely 
hidden  under  its  internal  surface.  The/eet  of  the  first  pair 
are  long  and  strong;  the  succeeding  feet  are  robust  and 
long,  and  very  nearly  equal^in  size,  and  their  tarsus  is 

'      ral 


pointed  and  quadrilateral.  The  abdomen  of  the  male  is 
ceived  in  a  deep  excavation  of  the  sternal  plaeirw,  and  its 
second  articulation  reaches  nearly  always  to  the  base  of  the 
posterior  feet  It  is  in  general  so  long  that  it  comes  up 
to  the  base  of  the  mouth,  and  the  appendages  hidden 
beneath  it  are  remarkably  large.  The  branchi»  are  gen^ 
rally  seven  in  number,  viz.,  five  fixed  to  the  vault  <^  the 
sides,  and  two,  in  a  rudimentary  state,  hidden  under  the 
base  of  the  preceding,  and  taking  their  origin  from  the 
jaw-feet ;  but  in  some  species  there  are  nine  on  eadi  side. 
The  respiratory  cavity  is  very  large,  and  is  raised  into 
a  vault  highly  elevated  above  the  branchi»,  so  that  above 
those  organs  there  is  a  large  empty  space.  Tlie  tegumen- 
tary  membrane  with  which  it  is  lined  is  also  very  sponfry, 
and  sometimes  forms  a  fold  along  the  lower  edge  of  the 
cavity,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  gutter,  or  longitudinal  trough 
for  containing  water  when  the  animal  remains  exposed  to 
the  air.  (Milne  Edwards.)  Observations  on  this  curious 
reservoir  were  communicated  to  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  France  by  MM.  Audouin  and  Milne  Edwards 
some  years  ago,  wherein  the  authors  show  that  in  all  the 
Crustacea  the  branchise  are  fitted  to  perform  the  functions 
of  respiratory  organs  in  the  air  as  well  as  in  the  water; 
that  the  more  or  less  rapid  death  of  the  aquatio  spedee, 
when  exposed  to  the  air,  depends  upon  various  causes,  of 
which  one  of  the  most  direct  is  the  evaporatioii  from  tba 


%x  B  C 


•  syif 


GEO 


bi«nnhi»,  whieh  produces  their  dasiocAtion;  that  coiue- 
quently  one  of  the  conditions  necessary  to  the  support  of 
lifo  in  animals  which  have  hranchiie,  and  live  in  the  air, 
is  the  having  these  organs  defended  against  desiccation ; 
and  lastly,  that  these  dispositions  actually  occur  in  the 
Land-crabs,  which  all  possess  various  organs  destined  for 
ab;»orbinf^  and  keeping  in  reserve  the  quantity  of  moisture 
necessary  for  maintaining  a  suitable  degree  of  moisture  in 
the  branchiflB.* 

Geographical  DUirilmUont  Habits,  Reproduction^  4^.— 
The  I^nd-crabs,  or  Gecarcinians,  inhabit  the  warm  coun* 
tries  of  the  New  and  Old  World,  and  Australasia;  but  as 
far  as  observation  has  hitherto  gone,  America  and  its 
islands  seem  to  be  the  places  where  the  form  is  most  highly 
and  most  numerously  developed.  Almost  every  writer  on 
the  Natural  History  of  the  countries  last  mentioned  treats 
largely  on  the  habits  of  these  creatures,  and  in  the  works 
of  Rocbefort  (Histoire  Naturelle  dee  Antilles) t  De  Feuillee 
iObeervations  faitee  eur  lee  Cotes  d^Amerique),  De  Labat 
{Souveau  Voyage  aux  Isles  d*Ainerique),  Sloane  (Natural 
History  qf  Jamaica),  Browne  {Citfil  and  Natural  History 
of  Jamaica),  Hughes  {Natural  History  qf  Barbados), 
Catesby  {Natural  History  qf  Carolina),  &c.  &c.,  will  be 
found  details  more  or  less  ample,  and  highly  interesting,  of 
their  manners ;  though  most  of  the  writers  do  not  deter- 
mine the  species  sufficiently  to  enable  us  to  judge  of  what 
particular  Land-crab  they  are  writing.  All  these  authors 
uiU  however  well  repay  the  trouble  of  consulting  them. 

Latreille  sums  up  what  he  considers  the  credible  parts  of 
these  narratives  thus : — ^The  crabs  pass  the  greatest  part  of 
their  life  on  land,  hiding  themselves  in  holes,  and  not  com- 
ing forth  till  evening.  Some  keep  about  cemeteries.  Once 
a  year,  when  they  would  lay  their  eggs,  they  assemble  in 
numerous  hands,  and  move  in  the  shortest  direction  to  the 
sea,  without  caring  for  any  obstacles.  Aiier  they  have  fin- 
ished their  deposit  they  return  much  weakened.  It  is  said 
tliat  they  hlock  up  their  burrows  during  their  moult ;  and 
while  they  are  undergoing  this  operation,  and  are  still  soft, 
they  are  called  Boursiers  (Purse-crabs),  and  their  flesh  is 
then  much  esteemed,  although  it  is  sometimes  poisonous. 
This  quality  is  attributed  to  the  fruit  of  the  manchineel,  of 
uhich  the  people  think,  falsely  perhaps,  that  the  crabs  have 
eaten. 

The  reader  will  find  under  the  article  Birovs  some 
extracts  giving  an  account  of  die  moulting  of  the  Land-crabs, 
and  showing  that  they  are  then  called  Crabes  Boursiires, 
in  the  attempt  to  point  out  that  Linnseus  was  misled  in  sup- 
poiing  the*true  Purse-crabs  to  be  inhabitants  of  the  Antilles, 
on  the  authority  of  Rochefort  (voL  iv.,  p.  433).  With  regard 
to  the  alleged  want  of  foundation  for  the  story  of  the  Land- 
crabs  being  sometimes  poisonous,  in  consequence  of  what 
they  have  eaten,  there  are  so  many  testimonies  to  the  fact, 
that  it  will  he  a  fault  on  the  right  side  to  be  cautious.  Thus 
Sloane,  who  praises  (as  who  does  not  ?)  their  delicacy  of  taste, 
says,  •  They  are  thought  to  bo  poysonous  when  they  feed  on 
the  Mansanilla-tree  leaves  or  fruit,  which  I  suppose  may 
come  from  some  of  it  sticking  to  their  chaps,  or  lying  undi- 
gested in  their  stomachs,  which  are  not  separated  before 
eating.'  Catesby  writes,  '  Some  are  black,  some  yellow, 
some  red,  and  others  variegated  with  red,  white  and  yel- 
low mixed.  Some  of  these,  as  well  as  of  the  fish  of  this 
country,  are  poisonous :  of  which  several  people  have  died, 
particularly  of  the  black  kind :  the  light  coloured  are  rdc- 
Kooed  best,  and  when  full  in  flesh  are  very  well  tasted.  In 
^me  of  the  sugar  islands  they  are  eat  without  danger,  and 
are  no  small  help  to  the  neero  slaves,  who  on  many  of  the 
islands  would  fare  very  ill  without  them.  Thev  feed  on 
'Vegetables.'  Hughes,  speaking  of  the  '  large  white  land- 
crab,'  and  its  feeing  on  grass,  &e.,  remarks, '  They  like- 
wise often  feed  upon  manchineel  apples,  as  well  as  upon 
the  leaves  or  berries  of  poison-trees.  At  such  times  they 
arb  dangerous  to  be  eaten,  unless  very  great  care  be  taken 
to  wa8h  the  fiit,  as  well  as  the  other  meat  on  the  inside,  with 
lime-juice  and  water.'  He  says  the  same  in  effect  of  '  the 
Mulatto  Crab.' 

M.  Milne  Edwards  thus  gives  his  summary : — The  greater 
number  ordinarily  haunt  humid  places,  and  hide  themselves 
io  holes  which  they  excavate  in  the  earth,  but  the  localities 
preferred  by  them  vary  with  the  species.  Some  live  in  the 
low  and  marshy  lands  near  the  sea,  others  on  the  wooded 

*  '  IH  1«  RMplratloa  afrienoe  det  Cnutaeei,  etdcf  modificAtiona  quo  i  apva- 
rai  bnnchki  eprouT*  daiM  1m  crabos  tenwlrei.* 


hills  fiir  from  the  shore ;  and  at  certain  epochs,' these  liat 
quit  their  habitual  dwelling  to  go  to  the  sea.  It  is  even  le- 
ported  that  then  these  crustaceans  unite  in  great  bands  and 
thus  make  very  long  journeys  without  sufiering  themselves 
to  be  stopped  by  any  obstacle,  and  laying  waste  everything 
in  their  route.  Their  principal  food  consists  of  vegetable 
substances,  and  they  are  nocturnal  or  crepuscular  in  their 
habits.  It  is  more  particularly  in  the  rainy  season  that  they 
quit  their  burrows,  and  they  run  with  great  rapidity.  It 
would  appear  that  it  is  at  the  time  of  laying  that  they  go  to 
the  sea  and  there  deposit  their  eggs,  but  we  know  of  no  de- 
cidedly positive  observation  on  this  point.  During  their 
moult  they  remain  hidden  in  their  burrows.  (Hist,  Nat, 
des  Crustaces.) 

We  select  Browne's  account  of  the  habits  of  the  '  black 
or  mountain  crab'  (Cancer  Ruricola,  Linn.),  because  ho  re- 
sided many  years  in  the  Island  of  Jamaica,  and  seems  to 
have  lost  no  opportunity  of  making  personal  observations. 
'  These  creatures  are  very  numerous  in  some  parts  of  Ja- 
maica, as  well  as  in  the  neighbouring  islands  and  on  the 
coast  of  the  main  continent ;  they  are  generally  of  a  dark 
purple  colour,  but  this  often  varies,  and  you  frequently  And 
them  spotted,  or  entirely  of  another  hue.  They  live  chiefly 
on  dry  land,  and  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  sea. 
which  however  they  visit  once  a  year  to  wash  off  their  spawn, 
and  afterwards  return  to  the  woods  and  higher  lands,  where 
they  continue  for  the  remaining  part  of  the  season ;  nor  do 
the  young  ones  ever  fail  to  follow  them  as  soon  as  they  are 
able  to  crawl.  The  old  crabs  generally  regain  their  habi- 
tations in  the  mountains,  which  are  seldom  within  less  than 
a  mile,  and  not  often  above  three  from  the  shore,  by  the  lat- 
ter end  of  June,  and  then  provide  themselves  with  conve- 
nient burrows,  in  which  they  pass  the  greatest  part  of  the 
day,  going  out  only  at  night  to  feed.  In  December  and 
JaJiuary  they  begin  to  be  in  spawn,  and  are  then  very  fat 
and  delicate,  but  continue  to  grow  richer  until  the  month  of 
May,  which  is  the  season  for  them  to  wash  off  their  eggs.  They 
begin  to  move  down  in  February,  and  are  very  much  abroad 
in  March  and  April,  which  seems  to  be  the  time  for  the  im- 
pregnation of  their  eggs,  being  then  frequently  found  fixed 
together ;  but  the  males  about  this  time  begin  to  lose  their 
flavour  and  richness  of  their  juices.  The  eggs  are  discharged 
from  the  body  through  two  small  round  holes  situated  at 
the  sides,  and  about  the  middle  of  the  under  shell ;  these 
are  only  large  enough  to  admit  one  at  a  time,  and  as  they 
pass  they  are  entangled  in  the  branched  capillaments,  with 
which  the  under  side  of  the  apron  is  copiously  supplied,  to 
which  they  stick  by  the  means  of  their  proper  gluten,  until 
the  creatures  reach  the  surf,  where  they  wash  them  all  off, 
and  then  they  begin  to  return  back  again  to  the  mountains. 
It  is  remarkable  that  the  bag  or  stomach  of  this  creature 
changes  its  juices  with  the  state  of  the  body ;  and  while 
poor  is  full  of  a  black,  bitter,  disagreeable  fluid,  which  di- 
minishes as  it  fattens,  and  at  length  acquires  a  delicate  rich 
flavour.  About  the  month  of  July  or  August  the  crabs  fat- 
ten again  and  prepare  for  mouldering,  filling  up  their  bur- 
rows with  dry  grass,  leaves,  and  abundance  of  other  mate- 
rials: when  the  proper  period  comes  each  retires  to  his 
hole,  shuts  up  the  passage,  and  remains  quite  inactive  until 
he  gets  rid  of  his  old  shell  and  is  fully  provided  with  a  new 
one.  How  long  they  continue  in  this  state  is  uncertain,  but 
the  shell  is  observed  to  burst  both  at  the  back  and  sides  to 
give  a  passage  to  the  body,  and  it  extracts  its  limbs  from  all 
the  other  parts  gradually  afterward.  At  this  time  the  fish 
is  in  the  richest  state,  and  oovered  only  with  a  tender  mem- 
branous skin,  variegated  with  a  multitude  of  reddish  veins, 
but  this  hardens  gradually  after,  and  becomes  soon  a  perfect 
shell  like  the  former ;  it  is  however  remarkable  that  during 
this  change  there  are  some  stony  concretions  always  formed 
in  the  bag,  which  waste  and  dissolve  gradually  as  the  crea- 
ture forms  and  perfects  its  new  crust.  A  wonderful  mechan- 
ism !  This  crao  runs  very  fast,  and  always  endeavours  to 
get  into  some  hole  or  crevice  on  the  approach  of  danger ; 
nor  does  it  wholly  depend  on  its  art  and  swiftness,  for  while 
it  retreats  it  keeps  both  claws  expanded,  ready  to  catch  the 
offender  if  he  should  come  withm  its  reach,  and  if  it  suc- 
ceeds on  these  occasions  it  commonly  throws  off  the  claw, 
which  continues  to  squeeze  with  incredible  force  for  near  a 
minute  after ;  while  he,  regardless  of  the  loss,  endeavours 
to  make  his  escape  and  to  gain  a  more  secure  or  a  more 
lonely  covert,  contented  to  renew  his  limb  with  his  coat  at 
the  ensuing  change ;  nor  would  it  l|rudge  to  lose  many  of 
the  others  to  preserve  the  trunk  entire,  though  each  comes 


100 


GEO 


4ff  with  tnore  Ubonr  and  reluctance^  m  tbeir  numben 

Thiu  much  of  the  bRbit*  of  the  Lnnd-crabs  of  the  Nav 
World.  Tb«  late  bishop  Heber  in  liis  *NuTative'  givM  an 
aeoouDt  of  some  Land-ctabt  in  India,  living  at  a  greal  dU- 
Unce  from  tba  lea,  and  obatructed  bv  R^^al  obslaele*  in  their 
pMMLgeloit.  'The  plain  of  Poonati.'writci  the  Bishop,  'ii 
very  Lara  of  traei.  and  though  there  aro  tome  gardens  im- 
nediatelv  around  the  city,  jet  a*  both  lh«w  and  the  cilj 
itself  be  m  a  small  hollow  on  the  bank*  of  the  river  Moota, 
ihejr  ara  not  sufficiently  conspicuous  to  interrupt  the  ^- 
neral  character  of  nakedness  in  the  pictutc,  any  more  ihan 
the  few  young  treei  and  ornamented  shrubs  with  which 
the  buiigaloivs  of  the  cantonment  are  intormincled.  The 
Drincipal  and  most  pleasing  feature  is  a  small  insulated 
nill  immediately  over  the  town,  with  a  temple  of  the  god- 
dess Parvati  on  its  summit,  and  a  la^e  tank  (which,  when  I 
saw  it,  was  nearly  dry)  at  its  base.  All  the  gnus-land  rounil 
this  tank,  and  generally  through  the  Deckan,  swarms  wilh 
a  smalt  laud-crab,  which  burrows  in  the  ground,  and  runs 
with  considerable  swiftness  even  when  encumbered  with  a 
bundle  of  food  almost  as  big  as  itself.  This  food  is  grass, 
or  the  green  stalks  of  rice,  and  it  is  amusing  to  see  them 
sitting  as  it  were  upright,  to  cut  their  hay  witli  their  sharp 
pincers,  then  waddling  off  with  the  sheaf  to  their  holes  as 


<mbt,  when  in  season  and  wall  nouriabed.  nay'lM  nn- 
sidercd  as  combining  the  qualities  of  wlmlesomeness  and 
deUcious  flavour.  We  have  conversed  wilb  men  of  virious 
tastes  who  have  partaken  of  this  luxurious  food,  and  all 
aeree  in  describing  it  as  exquisiie.  ludeiid  it  appear*  that 
wnen  aimply  cooked  in  its  own  juices,  in  its  own  Kliell,  it 
requires  no  condiment  but  a  squceie  of  the  fragrant  Iimo 
to  make  it  one  of  the  best  of  dishes.  '  Wlioii  the  blarlc 
crab  lGi:cardmii  Ruricola)  is  fot,'  says  Dr.  Patrick  Bnrsni-, 
'  anil  in  a  perfect  stale,  it  surpasses  everything  of  the  surt 
in  Havour  and  delicacy;  and  frequently  joins  a  little  of  tliv 
bitter  with  ita  native  riilincss,  which  lenders  it  not  only 
more  agreeable  in  gent^ral,  but  makes  it  sit  extremely  cany 
upon  the  stomach.  They  are  frwiuemly  boile<l  and  »lti<.i1 
up  whole ;  but  are  commonly  slewed  when  sened  up 
at  the  more  sumptuous  tables.'  Land-crabs  have  bcvn 
brought  alive  la  this  country.  We  saw  one  or  tuu  in 
apparently  good  health,  ruiming  about  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens  in  the  Regent's  Park.  They  wore,  as  well  us  nu 
recollect,  of  Ihe  species  last  named,  and  came  from  the  Wi-it 
Indies.  The  suggestion  may  be  rather  hard  upon  the  W<--t 
Indiana ;  but  why,  may  we  ask,  aro  not  these  crabs  impuruil 
for  our  tables  as  rcj^'ulurly  as  turtle?  Barrels  with  fro.-^ 
and  other  vegclables,  such  as  they  are  generally  kept  in, 
when  there  is  no  better  convenience,  in  their  naii\c 
country,  would  not  take  much  room  on  deck ;   and  if  tin 


ihe  position  orPoimah,  and  road  oflhe  noighbouiing  : 
and  tank,  we  may  feel  inclined  to  ask  whether  the  liv 
the  tank  might  not  be  the  eccnc  of  oripositin)); ;  and,  he 
adds,  ihal  it  is  not  improbable  that  there  may  be  a  rai 
)and-OTobk  appropriated  to  continental  or  even  insula 
tualiona  out  of  reach  oflhe  ocean,  and  that  fresh  n-ulcr 
Iw  as  neceanBry  to  their  reproduction  as  sea  water  is  tt 
land-ctabs  of  the  West  Indies.  Such  a  supposition,  he 
thinks,  is  in  unison  with  the  bountil\]l  provisions  of  nature 
for  the  general  diffusion  of  animal  life.  {Zoul.  Jaumal, 
vol.  iv.) 

Mr,  Weslwood  in  his  inlorceting  paper  'On  the  supposed 
existence  uf  Melamorpboscs  in  the  C'ruilacea'  (Fkil,  'ti-aru., 
IttSS),  notices  the  abdomens  of  seveml  female  crabs  having 
the  interior  surface  covered  with  hundreds  of  eggs  or  newly- 
batched  young,  which  wore  in  the  collection  of  the  late 
Rsv.  Lansdown  Guilding,  One  of  the  bottles  in  which 
of  these  was  deposited  vas  labelled  by  the  last- mentioned 
contlcman, '  Bggit  and  young  of  a  Land-crab  not  undmroing 
Metamorphosis.'  From  this  specimen  Mr.  Wcstwood  ob- 
tained cggi,  and  young  crabs  evidently  just  hatched,  and 
others  at  a  rather  later  slago  of  ihcir  growth.  The  eggs 
were  of  a  dark-rcddisb  colour,  showing  through  the  outer 
integument  the  rudimcntal  limbs  of  a  future  animal  of  a 
pnlcr  colour.  On  removing  the  thin  transparent  pellicle 
which  surrounded  one  of  these  eggs,  the  eyes  were  must 
conspicuous,  the  tail  was  teen  extended  as  a  narrow  plate, 
nearly  reaching  to  the  eyes,  and  along  its  sides  lay  the  large 
nulerior  cheliforous,  and  the  four  following  simnle  paiis  of 
limbs.  The  existing  organs,  although  perfectly  aiscurnible, 
occupied  oidy  a  small  portion  of  one  side  of  the  egg,  its 
greater  part  being  Riled  with  hardened  matter  composed  of 
minute  molecular  grains.  The  animal  was  in  a  sullicienily 
forward  stale  of  development  not  to  allow  the  least  doubt  to 
bo  entertained  as  to  the  uature  of  those  limbs,  nor  did  any 
organs  appear  answering  to  the  two  large  split  pairs  of  na- 
tatory oreans  of  Zo'ea.  The  branchin,  in  a  tlcshy  and  un- 
ort^nized  slate,  were  b1m>  found  at  the  Iwse  of  the  legs. 
The  cRRs  were  Ij  lines  in  diameter. 

Mr.  Westuood  gives  in  his  Memoir  figures  of  the  egg, 
and  of  the  young  crab  in  progressive  stages  of  growth.  His 
reputation  as  an  ohiterver  is  too  well  JoundctI  to  allow  a 
duubt  of  the  accuracy  of  his  illustrations  and  description  ; 
and  though,  it  Is  true,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Guilding  dues  not  slate 
the  species,  that  lamented  gentleman's  acquirements  ate 
too  Well  known  to  suppoite  it  possible  that  he  should  have 
misloken  the  tribe.  Itideed,  the  subject  oflhe  reproduction 
of  Land-crabs  was  one  most  likely  to  attract  the  attention 
ofa  naturalist  who  devoted  so  much  uf  his  attention  to  the 
loology  of  the  Caribean  Islands,  and  resided  to  long  in  one 
of  them,  Mr.  Westwood'^j  observations,  then,  anpear  to 
embody  a  conclusive  answer  to  the  arguments  adduced  by 
Mr.  Thompson  bum  the  habits  of  the  West  IndUn  Land- 
crabs  ;  fur  they  show  that  one  species,  at  least,  does  not  un- 
dereo  metamorphosis. 

VlUity  to  man.— At  an  aitklo  of  food  toiat  of  the  J^aad- 


crabs  were  collectcl  at  tho 


lime  and  allowed  • 


itn- 


cicnt  moisture  and  only  suflicient  to  keep  them  it 

an  ordinary  voyage  would  bring  them  to  us,  must  probably. 

in  very  fair  condition. 

M.  Milne  Edwards  separates  the  Gecarcinialu  into   (be 

following  genera : — 

Uja.  <Lfttre.llo.) 

Generic  Charaeter.—Carajmee  much  wider  than  it  n 
long,  of  a  suboval  shapo,  and  very  much  elcvalcd.  hrnni 
narrower  than  in  the  other  Gocarcinians,  very'  much  incliiic-l 
and  nearly  semicircular.  OrbiU  rather  large,  and  i>|«ii 
externally  below  their  external  angle.  Anterior  /otsrtlf 
suboval.  small,  and  separated  by  a  small  triangular  prulmi- 
galion  from  tho  epistome.  Tho  ejUnial antcinu  ocruj)..! 
the  orbitary  internal  cualhus.  The  buccal  frame  is  <>r  a 
rhomboidal  form.  The  second  ami  third  joint  of  the  ej/rr- 
nal  jaw  feet  are  quadrilateral,  nearly  of  the  same  siie,  and 
terminate  on  the  internal  side  by  a  straight  border.  Tl.u 
fourth  joint  is  inserted  at  the  external  an^lc  of  the  nrcou- 
ing,  and  is  applied  against  it*  anterior  border.  Tbc  J'^-I 
present  nothing  particular,  oxccpt  that  the  pincers  aio  i 
liulo  widened  at  the  end  and  slightly  spoon-shaped,  and  tlijt 
the  tarsi  are  flattened,  not  spinous,  and  nearly  of  the  tamu 
form  as  in  Ocvpode.  Thorocie  bronchia  five :  tho  mem- 
brane which  lines  tlie  vault  of  tho  branchial  cvviiv  u 
folded  below  and  within,  so  as  to  form  at  its  lover  pan  a 
son  of  gutter  or  trough.     (M.  E.) 

ioco/tiy.— The  land.     Particulnn  of  their  Manner*  oot 

Example,  fpo  una.  (Marcgrave.)  M.  MUne  Edward* 
considers  this  to  be  llic  Cancer  Uca,  and  Cancer  conlii-i^ 
of  Linnreus,  Cancer  cordatua  of  kerbst,  Orypode  mriiiin 
of  Latreillo  lUist.  Nat.  det  Cnitt.  el  Int.),  and  {/pa  I'liu  iif 
tho  same  author  (Encyc.  Mitfwd.),  and  Gccarchiiu  L'fn  of 


m 


6  E  C 


102 


G  E  C 


f  GECKO,  QSCKO-FAIOLY.  GECKOUDA,  anatural 

iamily  of  Saurians. 

Thair  head  is  wide  and  flatteaed,  with  the  mouth  wide ; 
the  nostrils  are  distinct  and  lateral ;  the  eyes  large,  hardly 
surrounded  by  short  lids,  the  lower  edge  of  which  in  the 
greater  numUer  of  species  does  not  project  outwards,  the 

f»upil  sometimes  rounded,  but  most  frequently  dentilated, 
inear,  and  lightly  fringed ;  and  the  auditory  opening  bor- 
dered with  two  folds  of  the  skin.  The  teeth  are  small, 
equal,  compressed,  sharp  at  the  point,  entire,  and  planted 
in  the  internal  edge  of  tne  jaws :  there  are  none  on  the  pa- 
late. The  tongue  is  short,  fleshy,  capable  of  but  little  elon- 
gation, and  free  at  its  extremity,  which  is  either  rounded  or 
flattened,  or  very  slightly  notched. 

Their  neck  is  apparently  little,  in  consequence  of  the 
width  of  the  back  part  of  Uie  bead  and  the  squareness  of 
the  shoulders.  Their  body  is  thick  and  short,  depressed, 
and  low  on  the  legs,  with  a  belly  flat  boluw,  dragging 
on  the  ground,  and  largest  in  the  middle.  There  is  no  crest 
on  the  back.  The  tail  varies,  but  is  not  long,  and  often  has 
folds  or  circular  depressions,  but  never  a  dorsal  crest. 

The  feet  are  shcNrt,  nearly  equal  in  length,  wide  apart, 
and  robust ;  the  toes  nearly  equally  long,  most  frequently 
flattened  below,  widened,  and  furnished  with  transverse, 
imbricated  plates ;  the  nails  vary,  but  they  are  ordinarily 
hooked,  sharp,  and  retractile.  Tlie  conformation  of  the 
feet  enables  the  Geckos  to  run  with  ease  on  the  smoothest 
surfaces  in  every  direction*  or  to  remain  stationary  on  them 
with  the  back  downwards,  after  the  manner  of  a  common 
house-fly. 

The  skin  is  defended  by  equal  granular  scales,  most  fre* 
quently  interspersed  with  other  tubercular  scales,  the 
points  blunt  or  angular.  There  are  femoral  pores  or  pores 
in  front  of  the  vent,  on  the  same  line  in  the  majority  of 
species,  and,  most  frequently,  in  the  males  only.  The  limbs 
and  sides  are  sometimes  bordered  with  fringed  membranes. 

Organization. 

Skeleton, — ^The  skull  of  the  Geckotidaa  is  marked  by  some 
peculiar  characters.  The  bones  are  well  defined,  nor  do 
the  sutures  seem  to  be  obliterated  by  age.  In  general  con- 
tour it  approaches  the  skull  of  the  CrocodilidUe  by  its  width, 
its  flatness,  and  its  length ;  its  particular  resemblances  to 
the  same  part  in  that  family  are  to  be  found  in  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  orbits  and  in  the  articulation  of  the  jaws.  The 
excavations  for  the  eyes  are  vexv  large  and  apparently  in- 
complete, inasmuch  as  the  orbital  frame  is  not  entirely  bony 
in  its  back  part,  nor  has  it,  so  to  speak,  any  flooring,  so  that 
when  deprived  of  the  softer  parts  the  cavity  communicates 
with  the  mouth.  The  articulation  of  the  jaw  is  quite  back- 
wards, and  the  oequadraium  or  interarticular  bone  is  wide, 
short,  and  hollowed  on  its  posterior  surface,  for  the  purpose 
of  receiving  the  muscle  wnos^  office  it  is  to  open  the  jaws 
and  keep  them  open.  The  skull  differs  from  that  of  the 
other  lisards  generally  in  the  extreme  smallness  of  the  jugal 
and  temporal  bones,  and  in  having  the  parietal  bones  oi- 
Tided  longitudinally  into  two. 


Bknfl  of  Gedu) :  a,  eraoiom :  h,  lower  kw ;  c,  a  tooth  cnUiied. 

(Cut.  *  Om.  Fota/) 

The  vertebrs  vary  in  number,  and,  according  to  Meckel, 
their  body  is  hollowed  into  two  conical  cavities,  very  nearly 
like  those  of  fishes :  the  spinal  column  is  without  any  spi- 
nous processes  or  projections.  The  three  or  four  first  cervical 
vertebrs  only  are  without  false  ribs  or  transverse  articulated 
a|)ophyses.  These  are  gradually  developed,  and  go  on  in- 
creasing in  length  and  curvature  to  tlie  fifth  or  seventh, 
but  none  of  them  are  actually  joined  to  the  great  anterior 


portion  of  the  sternum.    Those  which  follow  readi  and 

articulated  with  that  bone.  They  acp  aucceeded  by  tho  free 
or  abdominal  ribs,  which  nearly  equal  in  number  the 
vertebra)  which  precede  the  pelvis,  at  least  in  the  Banded 
Gecko, 

The  sternum  in  the  Common  Gecko  iPltUwiactylits  ^Ua- 
tuaot  Cuvier ;  Gedio  verue  of  Merrem  and  Uray )  coiuiitots  of 
a  very  solid  plate,  which  receives  anteriorly  and  laterally  in 
two  angular  notrhes  the  coracoid bones,  which  are  wide  and 
delicate,  and  the  clavicles,  which  are  narrow,  elongated*  and 
flattened,  more  especially  at  their  sternal  extrtimity.  '11m- 
rhomboid  and  backward  portion  of  this  sternal  platc'affonU 
attachment  on  the  two  posterior  facings  to  three  pair^  uf 
ribs.  From  the  posterior  or  abdominal  angle  of  this  Ihhk* 
two  small  parallel  bones  or  sternal  prolongations  are  gi%rn 
off,  along  which  three  other  pairs  of  ribs  are  affixed  by  liga- 
ments. After  these  six  pairs  of  sternal  ribs  come  Ht'\ia 
other  pairs,  which  are  curved  at  their  free  or  abdominal  ex- 
tremity into  an  obtuse  angle,  so  that  they  are  at  thifi  end 
directed  forwards  without  any  junction  to  a  mesial  line  a« 
in  the  Chameleons.  M.  Dum6ril  says  that  generally  he  ha^ 
only  counted  seventeen  ribs,  but  he  observes  that  there  ar>* 
twenty-four  in  the  Banded  Gecko  {PUUvdactylue  vittatw  <>t 
Cuvier;  Gecko  vittatus  of  authors).  Hence  M.  Dum/'iii 
concludes  that  the  number  of  ribs  varies  according  to  tlf 
species. 

The  caudal  and  pelvic  vertebrsB  require  notice.  TIm*  ar- 
ticulation of  the  former  is  either  weak,  or  the  body  of*  tlu* 
vertebra  itself  is  apt  to  break  in  the  middle,  so  that  a  slt^'  lii 
effort  separates  them,  and  many  individuals  conseaucntt;^ 
lose  their  tails.  When  these  are  regenerated,  cariuace  )> 
generally  found  in  the  place  of  the  former  bone,  and  tl..- 
tail  then  presents  a  variety  of  forms. 

The  bones  of  the  limbs  do  not  differ  from  those  of  tl.c 
other  Saurians  so  as  to  require  any  particular  de»rriptic»ri. 
with  the  exception  of  those  of  tho  feet,  and  there  the  dii- 
ference  is  striking  with  relation  to  the  greater  portiun  ui 
the  class.  In  the  Geckotids  the  bones  of  the  feet  are  «<• 
disposed  as  to  receive  the  five  toes  of  equal  or  tiearly  rquul 
length,  and  which  radiate  as  it  were  irom  a  centre  so  as  t' 
form  a  nearly  complete  circle  ;  for  the  external  or  great  ft  i 
cannot  separate  itself  from  the  others  to  extend  itself  bsi-k- 
wards.  The  toes  are  not  always  furnished  with  nails:  l»ut 
they  are  often  provided  with  very  remarkable  ones,  whi<  h 
by  their  mobility  and  retractility  remind  the  observer  of  the 
organization  of  the  same  parts  in  the  cats  {Felida*). 

Muscular  System  princij  ally  as  relating  to  Loromottt^t,. 
— ^The  muscles  of  the  Geckotida*  are  highly  irritable,  a&  nii^'  !.t 
be  expected  in  such  nimble  creaturest  Their  powder  of  u«l- 
hering  to  smooth  surfaces  makes  it  necessary  that  the  n- 
sistance  produced  by  the  adhesion  should  be  instanm- 
neously  overcome  in  case  of  danger ;  and  we  according!  >  H  nci 
that  a  Gecko  which  at  one  moment  is  fixed  motionU'^  i*.  :i 
spot,  vanishes  as  it  were  in  tho  next  from  under  the  hnvA 
stretched  forth  to  capture  it. 

Brain^  Nervous  System^  and  Senses. — ^The  brain  and 
nervous  system  are  considerably  developed  in  the  Geckotidf, 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  senses  are  acute. 

Sight-— The  orbits,  as  we  have  seen,  are  large  and  fiiil.- 
out  any  flooring  or  base,  and  as  the  eye  in  this  faniil>  is 
very  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal,  the  pt*- 
jection  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  globe  may  be  seen  m 
the  inside  of  the  mouth  much  in  the  same  way  as  i&  <>tt- 
servable  in  some  fishes.  There  is  scarcely  any  li«l,  aii  1 
what  there  is  is  so  small  that  an  additional  appeaniure  •  i 
prominence  is  given  to  the  eyeball.  This  lid  is  simple,  nr- 
cular,  and  adherent  to  the  globe  of  the  eve  by  nn  intern..! 
fold.  There  is  a  nictitating  membrane,  ilost  persons  ha>»* 
seen  that  an  epidermic  scale  which  seems  to  be  the  extent  il 
layer  of  the  cornea  comes  off  in  serpents  with  the  re>i  1 1* 
the  skin,  and  in  the  Geckos  also  the  integument  passcb  o\i  r 
the  front  of  the  eyeball.  The  eye  in  such  animals  nc\tr  .*»]» 
peers  humid.  M.  Jules  Cloquet  has  shown  that  in  tho 
serpenta  the  tears  probably  are  diffused  between  the  epMhr- 
mic  scale  and  cornea  in  order  to  arrive  at  the  nostriU.  TLe 
pupil  is  sometimes  rounded,  but  most  frequentlv  pre>ent« 
a  Imear  slit,  the  edges  of  which  are  fringed,  so  that  the  animal 
can  at  its  pleasure  dilate  or  diminish  the  opening  throui^h 
which  the  light  and  the  images  are  to  be  admitted  to  ih.- 
retina.  Like  the  cats  therefore,  the  Geckos,  though  said  u> 
be  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  can  also  see  perfectlv  well  m 
broad  daylight. 

/fran'n^.— Tho  auditory  apertures  in  this  family  axe  some 


GEO 


104 


6  £  C 


Tlie  (CHophagus  is  very  wule,  ami  M.  Dumi^ril  notices  ui 
cxtranrdiuar}'  appearance  therein,  when  it  is  remembered 
that  the  part  is  not  exposed  to  the  lic^ht  In  many  species, 
both  living  and  dead,  which  ho  examined,  be  found  the  in- 
terior of  this  canal  strongly  coloured  with  different  but 
uniform  shades,  sometimes  of  an  orange-yellow,  but  prin- 
cipally of  a  deep  black.  There  is  no  distinct  limit  between 
the  (Bsophagus  and  the  stomach ;  the  crop  ( jabot)  is  con- 
tinuous, and  the  whole  forms  a  kind  of  longitudinal  sac, 
which  appears  to  be  suddenly  narrowed  at  the  point  corres- 
ponding to  the  pylorus,  which  is  not  to  be  detected  except  by 
this  diminution  of  diameter  and  its  position  on  the  free  and 
lower  edge  of  the  liver.  The  intestine  is  arranged  in  sinuous 
folds,  and  about  three  times  the  length  of  the  CBsophaeus 
and  ventriculus  taken  together,  it  turns  to  the  left,  and  it 
lost  on  the  side  of  a  true  and  large  ooecum,  furnished  with 
an  appendage,  and  terminating  by  a  large  tube  which  has 
its  opening];  in  the  cloaca. 

The  tnangular  liver  is  placed  in  the  mesial  line,  but  its 
upper  angle  is  so  much  elongated,  that  in  some  species  it 
forms  a  conical  point,  at  least  twice  as  long  as  ttie  base. 
This  point  lies  in  ftont  of  the  stomach  in  the  space  left  by 
the  two  lungs  when  they  are  filled  with  air.  Below,  the 
liver  enlarges,  and  is  divided  into  many  lobes  or  indistinct 
strips,  with  the  exception  of  that  on  the  left,  which  is  longest 
The  gall-bladder  is  situated  under  the  mesial  lobe.  M. 
Dum6ril  states  that  there  does  not  appear  to  be  a  pancreas, 
but  he  observed  in  the  Common  Gecko  and  in  the  Fimbri- 
aied  Gecko  {Ptyodactyliu  flmbriatm)  a  very  small  spleen 
situated  on  the  left  side  of  the  stomach. 

Circtdating  System. — ^The  shape  of  the  heart  varies.  In 
the  Common  Gecko  it  is  large  and  flat,  but  has  neverthe- 
less a  tolerably  regul<^r  conical  form,  the  point  of  the  cone 
being  below,  and  the  base,  which  is  slightly  notched,  leaning 
on  the  root  of  the  two  lungs.  In  the  Fimbriated  Gecko,  on 
the  contrary,  M.  Dum^ril  states  the  heart  to  be  propor- 
tionally smaller,  and  apparently  formed  of  three  distinct 
but  approximated  portions,  the  two  upper  rounded  and 
pval,  resembling  auricles,  and  the  other  and  lower  portions 
small  and  conioal.  He  acknowledges  that  he  has  not  fol- 
lowed out  the  vascular  system,  but  presumes  that  it  re- 
sembles in  its  distribution  that  of  the  other  Saurians. 

Respiratory  System  and  Organ  qf  Voice,— Tha  glottis 
consists  of  a  longitudinal  slit  with  two  large  lips,  which 
form  a  sort  of  tubercle  behind  the  posterior  notched  portion 
of  the  tongue,  the  movements  of  which  it  follows,  and  can 
consequently  bo  lifted  up  and  applied  to  the  concavity  of 
the  palate.  The  trachea  is  very  large,  and  the  rines, 
which  are  cartilaginous  anteriorly  but  membranous  on  the 
sidi;  next  to  the  cBsophagus,  cause  it  to  be  considerably  flat- 
tened. The  lungs  form  two  sacs,  as  ih  the  Salamanders, 
and  are  nearly  equal  in  volume  and  length.  Their  internal 
cavity  is  simple,  but  there  are  polygonal  cellides  on  their 
internal  membranous  linings,  and  in  the  lines  forming  these 
tlic  arterial  and  venous  vessels  are  ramified.  The  Gecko- 
tidflo  are  without  anv  goitre,  and  M.  Dum^ril  is  unable  to 
account  for  the  proiluction  of  the  voice,  but  he  inquires 
whether  the  cry  which  they  emit,  and  which  is  supposed  to 
be  in  some  degree  imitated  by  their  names  of  'Gecko,* 
'  Geitje,*  &c.,  may  not  be  assisted  by  the  movements  of  the 
tons^uc,  and  its  reception  in  the  concavity  of  the  palate ; 
analogous,  we  suppose,  to  the  production  of  the  sound  with 
which  a  coachman  or  groom  stimulates  his  horses  by  apply- 
ing the  tongue  to  the  upper  port  of  the  mouth  and  sud- 
denly withdrawing  it. 

Urinary  and  Genital  Organs,— There  is  no  urinary 
bladder,  nor  do  the  rounded  kidneys,  whose  ureters  are  not 
long  and  open  directly  into  the  cloaca,  reauire  particular 
nonce.  Tlie  organs  of  generation  in  the  males  (which  are 
smaller,  more  agile,  and  more  brightly  coloured  than  the 
females)  are  double,  and  lodged  on  earn  side  of  the  base  of 
the  tail,  which  has  consequently  a  swollen  appearance.  The 
^gg'if  which  are  often  deposited  between  stones,  are  auite 
round,  with  a  rather  solid,  slightly  rough,  calcareous  shell,  of 
a  uniform  dirty  whiter  M.  Dumerilhas  seen  these  eggs  pro* 
duce  the  young  ones,which  were  well  formed  and  very  nimble* 

Peculiar  Secretions,— The  author  last  named  states  that 
ho  has  observed  in  many  species  some  peculiar  organs, 
liomettmes  double,  sometimes  united  in  a  single  flattened 
elongated  mass  under  the  abdominal  parietes  in  front  of  the 
pubis,  in  place  of  a  urinary  bladder.  They  appeared  to  be 
ot  n  fiiUy  nature,  and  were  sustained  in  one  part  bv  the  os 
pubi»,  oud  on  iho  other  possessed  vascular  or  membranous 
single  or  double  pro]ongationS|  psitt'^  in  tho  (bickne^a  of  I 


the  peritoneum  as  far  as  tbe  liver.  Though  he  knows  nol 
the  office  of  these  organs,  he  thinks  it  probable  that  tin  > 
may  be  destined  to  afford  nourishment  to  the  animal  in  u 
state  of  hybernation.  The  pores  of  the  thighs,  &c.  secrete 
a  thick  humor ;  and  M.  Dum6ril  observes  that  these  porvi 
afford  no  generic  character. 

Habits,  Foody  ^. — ^The  Geckotids  are  none  of  them 
large  in  size,  and  the  greatest  number  feed  on  small  ani- 
mals, such  as  insects,  tneir  lan-n  and  pups,  lliese  \\m\ 
catch  either  by  lying  in  ambush  or  by  pursuing  their  feel  do 
prey  in  the  holes  and  dark  crevices  to  which  it  retires.  TLo 
structure  of  their  feet  enables  them  to  run  in  every  direc- 
tion over  the  smoothest  surfaces,  and  they  can  e\*en  remain 
suspended  beneath  the  large  leaves  which  a  luxuriant  tr«>- 
pical  vegetation  so  frequently  puts  forth.  The  sharp  an* I 
retractile  naiU  with  which  the  feet  of  the  greater  nimiUcr 
are  armed  enable  them  to  cling  to  and  make  rapid  progn  -.« 
on  trees  with  the  smoothest  bark,  to  penetrate  the  nole&  uf 
rocks,  and  to  climb  walls.  Of  sombre  or  varying  eoluurv 
adapted  generally  to  the  locality  where  their  lot  is  cast.  tl>r> 
will  often  remain  for  hours  in  positions  as  extraordinar}-  a^ 
the  flies  and  insects  for  which  they  watch,  the  wonder ( id 
apparatus  with  which  their  feet  is  furnished  enabling  tltcm 
to  overcome  the  general  law  of  gravity,  and  without  wlurh 
they  would  instantly  fall  to  the  earth.  The  hues  of  their 
skins  thus  render  them  less  objects  of  suspicion  to  the  little 
animals  for  wliich  they  lie  in  wait,  and  also  serve  to  do«lu'o 
even  the  acute  eye  of  the  bird  of  prey  that  seeks  to  desi  r<>> 
them.  Their  eyes,  as  we  have  seen,  enable  them  to  disrei  ii 
objects  in  tbe  dark,  and  are  at  the  same  time  capable  of 
bearing  the  rays  of  a  bright  sim ;  for  many  insects  are  n*  «- 
turnal  or  crepuscular,  whilo  the  great  mass  of  them  urc 
diurnal.  The  pursuit  of  their  prey  leads  them  near  xUv 
habitations  of  man,  whose  dwelling  always  attracts  certain 
kinds  of  insects,  and  they  sometimes  fall  victims  to  th.-.r 
appearance,  which  frequently  inspires  terror,  ond  aVu  u 
disgust.  A  Gecko,  confident  in  his  powers  of  flij^ht,  ;i^. 
pears  boldly  to  await  his  adversary,  and  his  sudden  di-;.^. 
pearance  at  a  nearer  approach  ad'ls  to  the  horror  whu.ii  tu> 
uncouth  form  inspires.  The  poor  Geckos  too  have  a  1...  1 
name.  They  are  supposed  to  poison  whatsoever  they  tot.t  h. 
be  it  animate  or  inanimate,  and  their  i^aliva  is  said  to  vex  tlu 
skin  of  those  on  whom  it  falls  with  foul  eruptions.  Many  •* 
these  cuticular  irritations,  when  they  have  actually  exi^u  . 
from  the  intervention  of  these  animals,  may  liave  oii-« 
from  the  extremely  sharp  claws  of  a  Gecko  running;  u\  i .-  .. 
sleeping  man,  or  small  blisters  may  liave  been  raised  b  %  ;  i  • 
adherent  appaiatus  at  the  bottom  of  its  feet. 

Geographical  Distribution. — ^The  form  is  found  in  u"i 
the  foiur  Quarters  of  the  globe,  and  is  widely  distrihii(«  I 
in  warm  climates.  In  this  distribution  Europe,  as  fur  :i> 
observation  has  yet  gone,  claims  by  far  the  fewest  nuiulcr. 
Two  species  only  have  yet  been  found  in  this  quarter  uf  \\ 
globe,  and  even  these  are  common  to  the  northern  coast  >  ,  r 
Africa.  Tbe  Prince  of  Musignano  has  noticed  them  in  (1  .» 
*  Fauna  Italica,*  under  the  names  of  Ascalabotes  Jif^^un- 
tanicus  and  Hemidactylus  triednts.  The  former  is  a  Pla;  \  - 
dactyl  us  of  Dum^ril  and  others.  In  Asia  tbe  grentt.>: 
number  are  found:  thirteen  species  are  recorded  as  Assiat  .*. 
Africa  is  said  to  possess  twelve,  and  America  eleven  siK^rit- «, 
as  far  as  researches  have  hitherto  gone.  In  Austiala^-.n 
and  Polynesia  there  ore  said  to  have  been  found  tut!\«* 
species.  M.  Dum^ril,  in  his  Table,  gives  the  follow  it..' 
numbers: — In  Europe,  2;  in  Asia,  13;  common  to  ImiiI. 
none.  In  Africa,  12;  in  America,  12;  common  to  l>utlt. 
none.  In  Australasia  and  Polynesia,  12.  Of  unknot, 
origin,  4:  =  55.  In  addition  to  the  13  Asiatic  s|)ecies,  thcr. 
is  another  which  is  also  found  in  South  Africa  and  in  t'.<o 
neighbouring  islands.  Some  of  the  African  sperieA  arc 
found  also  in  Madagascar,  the  Mauritius,  and  the  island'*  >  f 
Seychelles,  Tenerine  and  Madeira.  It  is  not  clear  that  Mr. 
Gny*s  genus G^Ayra,  which  he  characterizes  from  a  Geek  t 
found  in  an  island  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  is  included  in  th  <« 
enumeration.  Besides  the  species  which  Mr.  Gray  desmlu  , 
in  the'Zool.  Proc'  (1834),  he  aUudes  to  the  probabi}.*> 
of  two  other  species,  one  in  the  British  Museum,  atid  an.^ 
ther  in  the  Museum  d*Histoire  Naturelle,  at  Paris. 

SvsTXKATic  Arrangement,  &c. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  ^ k9Kakap^^r^c  of  Ari^t  r  *  1  tr 
and  of  the  Greeks  generally  was  a  Gecko.  Aristopham  > 
and  Theophrastus,  as  Gesner  has  shown,  speak  of  tht^^o 
lizards  which  the  Italians  called  Tarentola,  whose  UkIk  -» 
)v^r<?  short  tmd  Unck,  and  which  claiiib«|re4  ftbQUt  tbe  walU 


L  PUIyliietflM  f>«T«WIUiiiih    (DsnfrlL) 


loctilily.  llie  Seychelles  Iilands. 


Loea/ilff.  New  Holland. 

The  siudcnl  wlio  wishca  lo  follow  out  the  natuTsI  history 
or  lliis  fumily  of  Saurians  should  consult  the  works  of  Al- 
'Inivundi.  Aristotle.  Ilunnimrle  (Prince  of  Musii^nano), 
llruiiKuiarl,  Creveldl,  Cuvier.  Dum^ril.  Edwanls,  Eicbvald, 
l'i-iii1Ii'v„  Flucourl,  GcutTruy.  Gesner,  Gmelin.  Gray,  Her- 
inuiiLi.  lliuiituvn.  Knorr,  Kuhl. Lac^pMe. l^trei lie. Lesson, 
Lii'liiuii'.iuiii,  Linnmus,  tlic  Prince  uf  Neuwlod.  Oppel, 
OsLink,  PiiUns,  I'vrraull,  Pisa,  Pliny,  Ra[lneK|Uc,  Risso. 
Kiipiwl.  Ruvsch,  Schneidi-r,  Scliini.  Scba.  Sparmann,  Si>ix, 
nr.  -ins.  Wnit't-r,  Wliiie.  Wi.Kmann.  and  Wormius. 

Oi;i>lJES,  ALEXANDER,  LL.D..  was  born  at  Arra- 
iIiimI,  in  lliu  parish  of  Ruthven  and  county  of  Banff,  in 
-;<-..:l,-iiid.  Ill  AD,  173r.  Hi*  parents,  who  were  in  humble 
<M'uni 'lances  "crc  enabled,  by  the  kindness  uf  ihu  laird  of 
iLi'  mIIu);o.  til  ijlvu  ilieir  i-on  a  resniclnlile  education.  After 
v'cnditii;  seven  icars  at  Scalan,  a  Roman  Catholic  Eeminary 
111  ilie  Hu'lilandit.  he  was  removed  at  the  agcuflweniy-onc 
lu  itie  Si-olch  ciiUene  in  Paris,  where  Le  diligently  studied 
i)Kvlo(;y.  and  madu  himMlftnasler  of  moat  of  the  modem 
European  lanKuagos.  On  hurelum  to  Scotland  he  resided 
fur«oiDU  linio  in  the  houae  of  the  Earl  ofTraquairc  ;  and, 
aflur  paying  another  visit  lo  Paris,  he  accepteil,  in  ITfiO, 
the  cliurge  uf  a  Catholic  congregation  al  Auchinhulri^  in 
ihui'ouutyufBanff.  where  he  remained  for  ton  years,  beloved 
liy  liis  people,  end  nt'cniivc  to  the  duiirs  of  hni  station.  Ht 
''"'  resolved — in  the  early  yean  of  liis  life  lo  make  a  new 


.    (Dun, 


no 


translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  English  lanpiage,  for  th- 
use  of  the  Roman  Catholics  ;  but  pecuniary  diJBcultie8p:c- 
venled  him  during  his  residence  at  Auchinbalrig  Arom  ob- 
taining the  necessary  booka.  On  his  removal  to  L.un<lt'ii. 
in  17j9,  he  was  introduced  to  Lord  Poire,  who  warmly  u)i- 
proved  of  his  purpose,  and  engaged  to  allow  him  HH'/.  a- 
vear  for  his  hie,  and  to  procure  for  him  all  the  works  ih.it 
he  considered  requisite.  Thus  encouraged  he  pubtishud,  in 
)7HI),  a  pamphlet  under  the  title  of  an  '  Idea  of  a  new  \\i- 
sion  of  the  Holy  Bible,  for  the  use  of  iho  EngU=h  Calhul..--.- 
in  which  ha  proposed  to  make  the  V.ilgate  the  basis  uf  li,. 
new  translation.  This  plan  being  oHerwards  ahandonol.  |. 
rcHolvcd  to  miike  an  entirely  new  translation  from  ibc  Ilo- 
brew  andGrcek;for  if  he  had  adopted  the  former  mitln"!. 
he  slated  '  that  he  must  have  been  perpetually  confrwniinu' 
Ihe  Vulgate  with  the  originals,  and  very  often  correciiii.:  r. 
by  them;  or  presented  his  readers  with  a  very  unfair  i<r,.: 
imperfect  representation  of  the  sacred  text.'  In  acr>iiLi- 
plishing  this  work,  his  first  object  was  directed  to  oblaim  -^ 
an  accurate  text,  and  no  labour  was  spared  by  this  indrf.t: 
gable  scholar  to  render  the  tranidatiun  ns  complete  as  )»'• 
Bible.  Ho  consnlled  the  most  eminent  biblical  scholars  .  f 
■be  day.  amunv  whom  were  Dr.  Kcnnicott,  and  Dr.  Loull'. 
the  bishop  of  London,  who  assisted  him  with  then  advi- 1 . 
The  I'rospectus,  which  contained  an  account  of  hia  plan,  u  ^i  ~ 
pubUaUedinl7tf'    ■'-' f-..-_  ..  ^  .  _  . 


;  (his  was  soon  followed  by  a  letter  ii 


0  E  L  I' 

ono  of  Ihe  mort  powrtful  of  th«  Gfenan  "eolonle*  in 
Sicily,  and  i-onliiiucd  u  U  Ihe  time  oTGelim  [Gklo^].  who 
n-inured  ibe  gremlcr  put  of  iU  inhlfailmdli  to  Sjraeuie : 
ktler  which  it  npiiilr  lunk  in  importtrw*.  and  never  again 
obiiined  i<»  former  power.  The  tnodem  town  of  Terra 
^ww  U  mppoied  to  haro  beett  built  npwi  i«  wte.  The  Mi- 
noianr  on  Ibe  coin  of  Oela,  below,  it  ^ntwlical  of  the  origin 
of  (he  citf . 


CttattOAL 
nrilUh  Uirnm.     AHulili^     Slim.    Wriil>l.3«»llimli 

GRLVRIMUS,  a  genu  of  Braehyunius  Cnislaceani. 
rOcv?ODi*Ni.] 

GBLA'tilUS  I.  luweeiled  Felix  II.  a*  bishop  of  Rome, 
A.D.  A9i,  and  carried  on  tba  rontrorerey  with  the  Greek 
cliuri-h  which  had  begun  under  bii  predecessor,  but  wilhoul 
bringing  it  to  any  conciuiion.  He  died  in  -lOe,  and  waa 
■u.  CL-c^leil  by  Anaitaiiu«  II.  Geianiui  wrote  screra)  (heo- 
luffical  works,  such  ai  *  De  IhiKbui  NaturU  in  Chrialo,'  '- 
which  Iw  exprcBfc*  Ktitimenta  which  are  coniidered 
oppotcd  10  Iransubatanlblbn.  It  a  fuuod  in  the  Lyon 
liiUiiithxfa  MiiTima  Patrum. 

GKLA'SIUS  II., aBenedicIinc  monk, succeeded  PaH-hal 
II..  *.]>.  II  IB.  The  popes  wen;  tlwn  al  open  war  with  the 
cnijierara  of  Germany ;  and  Ihc  paniiani  of  iho  Utter 
Roino,  headed  by  Ihe  powerful  family  of  Fnuigipani,  opposed 
the  clcc^lion  of  Gelatiua,  and  afieruardg  seized  him  and 
personally  ill-lrcatc<l  him,  unltl  he  was  rescued  from  their 
hands  hy  the  prvfect  of  Rome.  Soon  ndcr,  ihe  Emperor 
Ileiiry  V.  came  himself  with  troops,  and  the  pope  having 
run  away  to  Gaela,  nn  anli-pope  was  eleclcd  1^  the  Im- 
perial pnrly,  who  styled  himself  Gregory  VIII,  Gelasius, 
after  many  wanderings,  repaired  to  France,  where  he  held 
a  uiuncil  at  Rheitns.  He  died  at  ibo  convent  ofCluny,  in 
January.  1 1  IU,  aDer  a  short  hut  stormy  poniiflcate,  and  was 
BUccpedeil  liy  Calixlus  II. 

GELATIN.    [FiJOD.  vol.  s.,  p.  343  ] 

GELDER  ROSE,  or  rather.  GUELDRES  ROSE,  a 
douklo  variety  of  iho  Viburnum  Opulua,  a  marsh  shrub, 
common  in  this  country  and  nil  the  north  of  Europe,  The 
uama  of  lliis  variety  is  suppused  to  iiidirate  its  nngin  in  the 
Low  Counlriea:  it  is  aUo  called  the  snowball- tree,  in 
allusion  to  its  large  while  balls  of  llowen. 

OELE'E.  CLAUDE.    [Clauob  Lokbaine.] 

GELLERT,  CHRISTIAN  FURCIITEGOTT.  bom 
nenr  C'licinuiti.  in  Saxony,  acquired  a  ^rcat  reputation  as  a 
vrirer  of  fiiblos  and  as  a  momlist.  'Jlic  timplicily  of  his 
manner*,  his  canduur,  and  goudiiuM  of  heart,  contributed  to 
render  him  popular  with  alli-las^-s.  Frederic  II.  and  Prinre 
Henry  were  very  partial  to  him,  notwithstanding  his  habitual 
shyncia  His  '  Vaboln  und  Eriiihlungen'  had  a  prodigiou* 
■ucrcA*  in  Germany.  Ha  also  wrote  '  Sacred  Odes  and 
N<>ni;ii.' which  are  much  esteemed.  His  'Letters'  have  also 
Ihi'ii  publislicd.  Tlie  cullectiun  of  his  work*.  '  Sammtlicbe 
Werke,'  form*  part  of  ihe  '  KarlsruherDcutseherClassiker.' 
IH'J.1  C.  His  fables  and  lolter!i  were  translated  into  Frencli, 
S  tills.  Hvo,  with  a  biographical  notice  of  the  aulhor.  Gel- 
Icrt  died  al  Leipiig,  where  he  was  professor  of  philosophy, 
in  December,  1 7r>'j,  and  a  monument  waa  raised  td  him  in 
the  church  of  SL  John,  with  a  caul  uf  hit  he«d  in  bronie. 
The  boukaeller  ^Voiidler.  who  published  his  works,  aln  raised 
a  monument  to  ihe  memory  uf  Gellert  in  his  garden. 

GE'LLIUS.  AULUS  (or.  according  lo  some  writers, 

Aticlliuaj,  the  aulhorofthe'Noclus  Allien),*  was  bom  at  Rome 

HI  llic  early  ).urlof  the  second  century,  and  died  at  the  be- 

L'ititimK  iif  tlie  rcii;n  of  the  Emperor  Morbus  Aurelius.    We 

lijve  Im'  particulars  of  his  Ufe;  we  know  that  be  studied 

rhetoric  under  Curnclius  Kmnlo  at  Rome,  and  philoeophy 

under  I'liavorinus  at  Athens,  and  that  he  was  appoinled  at 

■u  early  site  lo  a  judicial  office,  (Noet.  All.  ziv.  a.)    Tlie 

'IJCK*  was  written,  as  lie  informs  ns  in  the  pre- 

uuik,  during   ll>e   winter  oveninits  in  Allies, 

.c^iitdren  in  their  hours  of  rclasalion.    It  ap- 

lis  own  Mcount,  lliat  be  luul  been  accuslomeo 


C  E  L 

keep  a  eommon-plaee  book,  in  whielibettnleredwbalcTf-t- 
he  heard  in  conversation  or  met  with  in  bis  private  rcadm  _: 
Ibat  appeared  worthy  of  roeiOTy.  In  composing  his  '  Nwu-  ■• 
Atlicw.  he  seems  mcrelv  lo  have  copied  the  contents  of  li  i* 
common-place  book  with  a  little  ollention  in  the  langua^-, 
but  wilhonl  'any  ailempt  at  claMillcation  or  arrmngomcni. 
This  work  contains  aneobtes  and  erKunenls,  scraps  of  hi'*- 
tory  and  pieces  of  poetry,  and  dissertalioiu  on  various  points 
in  pfailoaophy.  geometry,  and  grammar.  Amidst  much  tliat  i-> 
iriHing  and  puerile,  we  obtain  information  ou  manr  suUerc> 
relating  to  aniiquiiv,  of  which  we  must  otherwise  faai'e  t><t:ii 
ignorant.  It  isdivi'ied  into  twenty  books,  which  are  still  ex- 
tant, wiih  the  exception  of  the  eighth  and  the  bcpinning  of 
the  seventh.    He  roenlions,  in  the  conclusion  of  his  preface. 


for  the  first  lime  atRome.  14(19,  and  has  been  frequenily 
reprinted;  the  most  valuable  editions  are  tlieBipont,  2  vuli. 
Bvo.  1 784.  the  one  published  by  Gronoviua,  4to.  I  706,  and  a 
recentoneby  Lion,  2  vols.  Svo,  Gijllingen,  1824.  The  work 
bos  been  translated  into  Enclisli  by  Beloo.  3  vol*.  Svo.,  Lon- 
don, Ii9j  ;  and  into  French,  by  Doui£  de  Vertcuil,  3  vul^ 
l2roo.  Pari-,  1776  — IT;?.' 

GELON.  a  naiive  of  Gcla,  rose  from  the  Elation 
of  a  private  ciliien  to  be  supreme  ruler  of  Gela  *iid 
Siraruse.  He  was  descended  from  an  ancient  family, 
which  originally  came  from  Telus.  an  island  off  ifae  rtta-t 
ofCoria,  and  settled  at  Gcla  when  it  was  first  colonizril 
by  the  Rliodians;  at  which  place  hi<>  ancestors  held  tlio 
olUce -of  lioredilary  minister  of  the  infernal  gods  (x'^urux 
SiDJ  (Herodotus,  vii.  I.SIl).  During  Iho  time  that  Hii>[H>- 
rrates  rcigned  at  Gela(B,c.  4'JS — 4'Jl).  Gdon  was  appoiii  Itil 
commander  of  the  cavalry,  and  greatly  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  various  wars  that  Hippocralet  carried  on  oigaiiitt 
the  Grecian  citie>  in  Kicily.  On  the  death  of  Hipnocntli",. 
who  fell  in  a  batlle  against  the  Siceli,  Gelon  seiiea  the  su- 
preme power  (H.c.  491  >.  Soon  afterwards  a.  more  spleiidiJ 
prise  fell  in  his  way.  The  nobles  and  landholders  iya^Af>p< ) 
of  Syracuse,  who  had  been  expelled  from  Ihe  cily  by  an 
insurreclion  of  their  slaves  supported  by  (hcrc«t  of  the  pop- 
ple, applied  to  Gelon  for  assistance.  ThiscrafWprinceiilaiili 
avading  himself  of  the  opportunity  of  exteniling  his  diiriii- 
nions,  marched  to  Syracuse,  into  which  be  was  lidmlttcil  b; 
Ihe  popular  party  (B.c.4H&).'iihQ  had  not  the  means  of  ic>':M- 
ing  so  formidable  an  opponent,  (Herodotus,  vii.  |j4,  l  j;,| 
Huving  thus  become  mB«IcrofSyraciisc,hespniintcd  his  Im^ 
tlierHi^ron  governor  of  Gel*,  und  exerted  all  his  endcavuLr- 
lo  promote  the  prosperity  of  his  new  acquisition-  In  onter  lu 
increase  the  population  of  Syiacu^ie,  he  destroyed  Camarii.  ■. 
and  removed  all  ils  inhabitants,  together  with  a  great  num- 
ber of  ihe  citizens  of  Gela,  to  his  favourite  city.  As  lie  \>  li 
indebted  fur  his  power  in  Syracuse  lo  the  aristocrain"! 
party,  ho  took  care  lo  strengthen  it  against  Ifae  p<'ii|,l>'. 
Thus  when  ho  conquered  the  Megarians  and  Eubcean- i>I 
Sicily,  he  Irons  plan  teil  to  Syracuse  all  those  wlio  a>ii.- 
po^iieased  of  wealth,  hut  sold  1lie  remainder  as  ularea.  <1K'- 
rod.  vii.  IJG.)  Ky  his  various  conquests  nnd  his  gr>'.<! 
abilities  he  had  become  a  very  powerful  monarch;  o.,! 
therefore,  when  the  Greeks  expected  Ihe  invasion  of  XerTt-. 
amUisitadors  were  sent  to  S)Tiicuse  to  secure  if  possible  li.< 
assistance  in  the  nar.  Gelon  promiiied  lo  send  to  tlwir  a"l 
jOO  triremes,  au,000  heavy-Brmud  troo]>s,  SUDD  i-avalry,  and 
60U0  light-armed  trooM,  proviiled  ibe  supreme  comma^l 
were  given  to  him.  This  offer  being  Indignanlly  rvioriil 
hy  the  Loredamonian  and  Athenian  ambassadors,  Geli  ii 
sent,  according  to  Herodotus,  an  individual  named  Cadmi.i 
to  Delphi  with  great  treasures,  with  orders  lo  present  ib<m 
to  Xerxes  If  he  proved  victorious  in  the  coming  w«r.  (He 
rod.  vii.  157—164.)  This  statement  however  was  deni  <! 
by  ihe  Syracusans,  who  said  that  Gelon  would  haieas'i-lol 
the  Greeks,  if  he  had  not  bocn  prevented  by  an  invasion  . ! 
the  Carthaginians  with  a  force  amounting  lo  SOO.OUD  nioii 
under  the  command  of  Harailcar.  This  great  army  was  entirrli 
defeated  near  Himern  by  Gelon,  and  Theruii,  inonsrch  Jl 
Agrigeiitum.on  thesameday  on  which  the  batlleofSalanii^ 
was  fought.  (Herod,  vii.  161  —  167.)  An  account  of  Dns 
expedition  is  alsogiven  by  Dioilorus  (b.  xi.p.  S&4,  8lepb-).ali<> 
Slates  that  the  battle  between  Gelon  and  the  Carlhagiiitaiit 
was  fought  on  the  same  dav  as  that  of  TbermopylB. 
Gelun  appears  10  have  used  with  moderation  the  power  wh  irh 
he  had  acquired  by  violence,  and  to  have  endcvvd  him-eif 
to  Ihu  Syracusans  by  the  equity  of  his  government  and  the 
I  eneouragemefli  be  gan  lo  ooniDeiM  and  the  fne  wt*. 


6  B  N 


110 


GEN 


all  oTor  Wanee;  it  fternitheB  paUob,  amsta  oriniiiial% 
examines  the  passports  of  traveUers,  aad  contributes  to  the 
maintenance  of  good  order.  Gendarmes  are  eenerally 
stationed  at  the  barriers  or  gates  of  the  towns,  at  the  prin- 
cipal  inns  on  the  roads,  at  markets  and  fairs,  and  along  the 
lines  of  the  frontiers.  Thev  are  divided  into  foot  and  hone : 
gendarmeB  d  pied^  geniarfnti  d  ckeval.  They  form  a 
distinct  corps  in  the  army,  under  their  own  superior  officers^ 
who  are  under  the  orders  of  the  ministers  of  the  interior 
and  of  police ;  but  in  case  of  war,  they  may  be  called  into 
active  service  like  the  other  corps  of  the  army.  The  gend* 
armerie  is  mostly  recruited  from  old  and  deserving  soldiers 
of  other  regiments,  who  consider  it  as  a  promotion,  as  they 
have  better  pav  and  enjoy  greater  liberty.  This  explains 
why  the  gendarmes,  generally  speaking,  are  remarkably 
well  behaved  and  truster  men,  who,  while  strictly  executing 
their  duties,  behave  with  considerable  civilitv  towards  un- 
offending people,  such  as  travellers,  and  especially  foreigners. 
The  same  description  of  troops  exists  in  the  Italian  states, 
where  they  are  called  Carabineers. 

GENDER  is  a  grammatical  principle  entering  into  the 
structure  of  nearly  every  language,  according  to  which 
nouns  are  distributed  into  classes.  There  are,  strictly 
speaking,  but  two  genders,  masctUin$  and  feminine  ;  those 
which  belong  to  neither  of  those  classes  were  said  to  be 
neuiriue  generie,  of  neither  gender:  this  third  class  are 
called  somewhat  incorrectly  neuters,  and  hence  by  a  second 
irregularity  it  is  the  ordinary  practice  of  grammarians  to 
speak  of  three  genders. 

That  sexual  distinction  was  the  fountain  from  whence 
the  doctrine  of  grammatical  gender  was  derived  cannot  be 
reasonably  disputed.  As  a  consequence  of  this  the  principle 
must  have  been  confined  originally  to  living  beings,  and 
among  these  it  must  have  been  stiU  further  limited  to  those 
animals  where  the  distinction  of  the  sex  was  readily  per- 
ceived, as  in  the  mane  of  the  lion,  the  plumage  of  the  pea- 
cock, or  the  magnitude  of  the  bull.  In  the  smaller  animals 
it  would  be  often  difficult  to  ascertain  the  sex,  and  useless 
to  denote  it.  But  utility  and  truth  are  not  the  sole  govern- 
ing principles  of  language ;  they  are  often  sacrificed  to  tha 
love  of  imagery  and  personification.  Thus  the  beautiful 
and  pleasing  absurdity  which  characterises  the  language  of 
fable  recommends  itself  to  the  infant  mind  whether  of  the 
savage  or  the  child.  The  rose,  the  lily,  (he  sun,  the  moon, 
are  all  endowed  with  the  faculty  of  speech,  and  it  then  be- 
comes almost  necessary  to  add  the  distinction  of  sex.  Here 
the  choice  roust  depend  upon  the  association  of  ideas.  Ac- 
tion, freedom,  strength,  magnitude,  and  violence,  are  the 
marked  attributes  of  the  male ;  sufferance,  subjection,  timi- 
dity, together  with  pregnancy,  of  the  female.  In  the  appli- 
cation of  these  notions,  the  realities  of  nature  are  often  neg- 
lected. The  domestic  animals,  having  lost  all  the  violence 
of  the  natural  state,  convey  to  the  mind  the  idea  of  some- 
thing feminine.  Thus  among  the  Romans  even  the  dog 
was  in  ordinary  language  considered  to  be  of  that  gender ; 
while  the  English,  contrasting  that  noble  and  powerful 
animal  with  the  clean  and  delicate  but  irritable  cat,  have 
allotted  the  masculine  gender  to  the  dog,  to  the  other  the 
feminine.  The  feather^  creation  again,  by  their  small  size, 
their  weakness,  and  the  delicacy  of  their  plumage,  are  na- 
turally associated  with  the  tender  sex,  with  the  exception 
commonly  of  the  eagle,  kite,  hawk,  &c. 

In  the  meanwhile  the  neuter  is  employed  to  denote  that 
the  notion  of  gender  is  not  entertained ;  it  is  therefore,  as 
Grimm  has  well  observed,  the  proper  grammatical  form  for 
the  young  of  animals  where  the  sexual  distinctions  are  im- 
perfectly developed.  Thus  in  the  greater  part  of  the  Teu- 
tonic languages,  the  terms  for  /ocU,  calf,  lamb,  child,  &c., 
arc  of  the  neuter  gender ;  and  in  the  Greek  there  occur 
many  similar  forms,  as  rcrvov,  /Spc^Ci  &c.  Hence  by  an 
easy  connexion  the  diminutives  generally  in  the  Greek  and 
Teutonic  languages  are  of  the  same  gender.  In  the  further 
extension  of  the  idea  of  gender,  first  to  material  objects 
without  life,  and  then  to  abstract  terms  and  mental  notions, 
the  directing  associations  are  weaker,  and  the  mind  is  in  a 
state  of  oscillation.  It  may  be  observed  however  that  ab- 
stract nouns,  or  to  speak  more  correctly,  general  terms,  are 
usually  included  among  the  feminines,  perhaps  from  a 
notion  of  pregnancy,  the  one  term  including  a  large  aggre- 
gate of  concrete  ideas.  There  arc  indeed  exceptions  to  this 
principle ;  for  instance,  in  the  large  family  of  Latin  words 
which  have  the  suffix  or  {honor,  pudor,  &c.),  but  this 
y  u  probably  to  be  explained  by  the  similarity  of  tlia 


I* 


It 


termination  to  the  maseuline  suflix  ior.    The  French  lan- 
guage has  corrected  this  anomaly  in  la  jmdeur,  &c. 

Tlie  mode  of  denoting  gender  is  also  deserving  of  c«  »uh'  •!  <•  r- 
ation.  One  of  the  most  direct  methods  would  appear  to  W  •  > 
assign  names  absolutely  different  to  the  male  and  female  1 1  ..ii 
is,  in  tliose  cases  where  the  terms  are  used  in  their  natui  .il, 
not  their  metaphorical  sense.  Thus  we  have  in  our  o ..  n 
language  boiy  and  girU  horse  and  mare,  bull  and  cote.  k<-. 
Ghie  of  the  defects  of  such  a  principle  would  be  the  want  «.f 
a  general  rule  by  which  to  aenote  the  gender  in  any  r«  « 
instance,  and  the  consequent  multiplication  of  terms.  But 
independently  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  ;l.:^ 
notation,  there  are  good  reasons  for  believing  tliat  in  Urt 
the  distinction «of  sex  was  not  originally  denoted  b>  ...i 
absolute  difference  of  term. 

The  word  mant  for  instance,  in  the  oldest  Teutonic  laiu « :  jc 
had  the  general  meaning    of  a  human  being,  like   ii.. 
Greek  ay^pn^iroc, or  Latin  homo,  and  only  gained  the  cx«  lu- 
sive  notion  of  a  male  when   its  derivative  moftntAr.,  i.r 
mensche  was  formed  to  express  the  general  idea.    'II*" 
German  term^ou  again  is  now  confined  to  the  female.  I  t 
there  is  found  in  nearly  all  the  older  dialects  of  tliv  (m  r- 
man  a  masculine  so  nearly  identical  {frauha,  Gothic;  ^  «. 
old  high  German;  froho,  old  Saxon;  frea,  Anjrlo-Sax  ii.i 
that  the  notion  of  the  female  can  scarcelv  have  lieen  \xn  c- 
rent  in  the  word.     Similar  results  would  be  ^iven    h)  a:i 
examination  of  the  English  word  maid,  the  Latm  fnur,  h^--. 
In  the  animal  kingdom  the  same  confusion  prevaiU.     Ti . 
Latin  ovis  is  commonly  feminine;  and  in  fact  our  En^'i.  b 
term  ewe  may  be  indisputably  proved  to  be  the  same  w^tl . 
still,  in  the  earlier  form  of  the  Latin  language,  the««.iii 
was  also  applied  in  the  sense  of  ariee*    It  occurs,   for  .t 
stance,  in  the  name  of  the  sacrifice  Suovetaurilia^  ulkn 
the  word  taurus  leads  us  to  expect  the  idea  of  a  ram  . 
ovis,  and  of  a  boar  in  sue;  and  in  fact  antient  reliefa  pr.^u 
that  the  animals  sacrificed  at  this  festival  were  uncas>irn:>»i 
males.    Tlie  word  siu,  corresponding  in  ordinary  si(^niti<  :)- 
tion,  as  also  in  form,  to  the  English  sow,  is  a  parallel  i-<^«'. 
Indeed  the  Greek  language  exhibits  this  very  word  as  n* ; 
confined  to  either  sex.    A  long  enumeration  of  similar  in- 
stances, with  the  necessary  proofi^  would  be  out  of  p!j  e 
here.    It  will  be  sufficient  to  notice  that  the  English  tenui 
mare  and  hen  appear  in  other  branches  of  the  Teuu  i.. ' 
language  as  representatives  of  the  male.    Lastly,  those  w  i.^ 
attribute  to  these  monosyllabic  forms  a  distinct  notu  n  •  f 
gender  will  find  it  difficult  to  avoid  the  inference  tli..:  ..' 
gallus,  for  example,  originally  meant  a  cock,  and   ii<u  u^ 
is  here  maintained,  a/ou?/ generally,  £^a//t>ia  included  t:.c 
notion  of  both  sexes,  ^/emale  cock,  A  more  simple  in<  <I .    i 
denoting  gender  is  by  the  addition  ofas})ecial  suffix.  Thu^  ii  e 
Latin  termination  on,  like  the  Italian  one,  appears  to  ba\e  r.^r- 
ried  with  it  the  idea  of  magnitude,  as  in  the  familiar  cu.     - 
mina  Nason,  Caption,  &c.    It  was  therefore  well  a(la)>  •  <.  tj 
denote  the  male  gender,  which  is  commonly  accompunici:  .  ^ 
superior  magnitude.    Thus  leon,  a  lion,  is  in  reality  foru).*! 
of  two  words,  le  or  Ii,  the  simple  name  of  the  animal,  ual 
ort,  great.    The  form  Ii  (nom.  Xi^)  occurs  in  the  Gre«k  ].ir,- 
guageas  well  as  Xfwv;  and  moreover,  if  the  name  of  tic 
animal  was  thus  monosyllabic,  it  is  seen  at  once  how  luiu- 
ral  it  was  to  adopt  it,  as  was  in  fact  the  case,  for  the  hu-:>  - 
glyph ical  symbol,  or  at  any  rate  for  the  Hebrew  character  >t' 
the  letter  2.    The  addition  of  the  feminine  suffix  t»a  it 
aina  to  the  same  root  le  gave  the  female  leaena;  and  in- 
deed the  same  suffix  appears  in  gallina,  regina,  the  Gn «  k 
fiaeiXiwa,  the  German  kbniginn,  &c.    O?  the  male  ^•  !i  \ 
other  examples  maybe  seen  in  centurion,  coupon, /al-  ". 
pavon,^o»\  the  last  of  which  maybe  compared  with  \Uk 
Greek  rao^^c*  and  the  English  pea-cock.     The  mo»t  fi*- 
quent  suffix  in  the  Greek  language  to  denote  the   U  tw- 
niiie  is  the  syllable  «a,  as  in  rhnnissa,  Kiltssa,  and  : 
participles  tuptont-sa,  the  parent  of  iuptuusattui'hfhfnt  a  i, 
afterwards  tuphtheisa.    The  same  suffix  is  founa  ui  the  (*  '- 
thic,  as  gait'Sa,  cajira  ;  and  in  German,  as/arr^»  a  hull.  /< ' ' ' 
a  cow.    Our  own  language  too  is  familiar  wiih  what  v*  y  •• 
bably  the  same  suffix  in  seamstr-ess,  laundress  (from  /.i«  •    - 
der-ess).  In  the  Greek  language  this  sufhx  appears  at  in     - 
to  have  lo^t  its  sibilant,  as  was  so  common  in  that  lanci  •.:>'. 
Hence  the  forms  /3a<riXf-ia,  otfia,  rtrv^vta,  fur  rcri^ar  ..*. 
Thus,  at  last,  the  vowel  a  appeared  to  be  the  charin'  •  ' 
istic  of  the  feminine  gender;  and  it  would  ap|}ear  t.«  !•• 
result  of  error  rather  than  of  principle,  that  in  the  Li     . 
language  the  first   declension    got   connected   with    in.-i 
gender.    The  forms  seribOp  uicom,  &c.,  with  the  numervui 


6  £  N 


111 


(J  fe  N 


proper  names,  Oinna,  SuHa,  &c.,  prove  that  the  notion  of 
the  female  was  not  inherent  in  this  declension ;  and  proba- 
bly the  fact  was  that  there  c^^existed  in  Italy  two  dialects, 
one  preferring  a,  the  other  o  (precisely  as  in  our  own  island, 
there  are  the  two  forms  two  and  two,  who  and  wha,  one  and 
ane) ;  and  secondly,  that  by  a  false  refinement  in  language, 
an  arbitrary  distinction  of  gender  was  set  up  between  them. 
Tlie  ^ame  argument  of  course  applies  to  the  Greek  form 
nya9o-c  and  ayaOa  or  ayaOtf,  in  which  it  must  be  caredilly 
recollected  that  the  sibilant  at  the  end  of  oyaBo^  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  question,  as  it  is  simpiy  the  representative  of 
the  noTiiinative  case.    It  should  also  be  recollected  that  the 
older  Greek  language  abounds  in  the  common  adjectives, 
such  as  6  and  17  adavaroc.    Moreover  the  advocates  of  an 
ori<;inal  distinction  of  gender  in  the  two  first  declensions 
have  to  explain  the  anomalies  of  such  forms  as  ^  oSoq,  &c, 
and  the  Latin  manust  /agu9,  &c.    Again,  that  the  Latin 
forms  bono  and  bona  were  originally  but  dialectic  varieties 
appears  to  be  established  by  the  consideration  that  nearly 
all  derivatives  ftom  the  second  declension  take  an  a,  as 
aibare,  aurare,  &c.,  a  strange  consequence  of  which  is, 
that  the  Latin  language  is  almost  wholly  deprived  of  a  con- 
jugation of  verbs  in  0  corresponding  to  the  Greek  ^ovXo^ta, 
It  is  a  strange  hct  too,  that  in  Gothic  the  forms  in  a  are 
masculine,  those  in  o  feminine. 

On  this  subject  it  may  be  permitted  to  quote  a  passage 
containing  a  similar  argument  from  Coleridge  s  'Table  Talk,* 
i.  119:— •  Oricjnally,  I  apprehend,  in  the  •  Platt-Deutsch  * 
of  the  north  of  Germany  there  were  only  two  definite  arti- 
cles, die  for  the  masculine  and  feminine,  and  da9  for  the 
neuter.  Then  it  was  die  sonne  in  a  masculine  sense,  as 
wte  say  the  sun.  Luther,  in  constructing  tiie  Hoch-DetUsch 
(for  really  his  miraculous  and  providential  translation  of  the 
Bible  was  the  fundamental  act  of  construction  of  the  lite- 
rary German),  took  for  his  masculine  article  the  der  of  the 
Ober-Deutsch,  and  thus  constituted  the  three  articles  (^  the 
present  high  German,  devj  die,  das* 

Lastly,  every  language  has  the  power  of  denoting  gender 
oy  the  addition  0$  a  distinct  wora,  as  in  jack-snipe,  cock- 
sfHzrrow,  tom-cat.  This  use  of  the  names  of  men  is  seen 
in  other  languages  besides  our  own.  Thus  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  employs  carl  for  this  purpose ;  and  the  suffix  erick, 
or  erich,  or  erock,  would  also  appear  to  have  been  originally 
a  proper  name,  though  attachea  to  the  names  of  male  birds, 
as  taub-erich,  gdnserich,  &c.,  in  German.  Violent  cor- 
ruptions of  this  form  exist  in  our  owp  tongue  in  lark,  abbre- 
viated from  laverock,  a  term  still  used  in  Scotland ;  and 
drake  from  andrake^  itself  a  corruption  from  anat-erock. 

Many  suffixes  which  denote  simply  an  agent  are  erro- 
neously supposed  to  include  the  idea  of  gender.  Thus  the 
word  spinster  is  in  modern  use  solely  significant  of  a  female ; 
but  this  arises  from  the  accident  that  in  the  olden  time  the 
duty  of  spinning  was  confined  to  the  female.  The  same 
termination  ster  is  seen  in  the  old  words  brewsier,  Webster, 
bm^ster,  now  more  commonly  expressed,  at  least  in  England, 
by  breicer,  tteaver,  baker ;  and  these  certainly  belong  not 
exclusively  to  the  female. 

Nothing  has  been  said  of  sufl^xes  to  denote  the  neuter 
g»*iider ;  simply  because  there  exist,  strictly  speaking,  no 
such  suffixes.  There  are  indeed  appearances  of  such 
aflilttions ;  first,  in  the  Greek  neuters  ayaOov  and  the  Latin 
bonum;  secondly,  in  the  neuter  pronouns  of  the  Latin 
language  terminating  with  a  d,  which  correspond  to  an  s  in 
Gcrmuu  and  a  /  in  English ;  as  quod,  uhis,  what;  id,  es^  it, 
&c.  Oi  the  first  class  it  is  enough  perhaps  to  throw  out  a 
su5picion  that  the  letter  n  is  merely  an  outgrowth  from  the 
preceding  vowel  0.  [See  O.]  As  to  the  second,  if  the 
letter  had  been  really  representative  of  the  neuter  gender, 
it  ought  to  have  run  through  the  genitives  and  datives  as 
well  as  the  nominatives  and  accusatives ;  so  that  the  Latin 
language,  for  instance,  should  have  given  us  the  forms  idius 
T(ir,  not  eius  ei  for  the  neuter.  The  English  form  its  is  no 
answer  to  this  objection,  as  it  is  well  known  that  this  little 
word  has  been  but  a  short  time  naturalized.  In  the  age  of 
Shakspcare  the  only  form  for  the  neuter  genitive  was  his, 
0^  appears  in  the  original  editions.  But  in  fact  it  would  be 
ridiculous  to  have  a  suffix  to  denote  a  negation. 

GENDRE,  LE.    [Leoendre.] 

GENEALOGY.    [Pedigree.] 

GE'NERA.  in  ancient  Greek  music,  were  of  three  kmds, 
-^the  Diatonic,  Chromatic, and  Enharmonic  [Diatonic: 
Cheoxatic;  Enharmonic]  These  were  subdivided  into 
Q^aay  species,  which  are  enumerated  by  Gaudentiua  and 


Aristoxetius.  '  Indeed,*  says  Bir  J.  Hawkins,  ^  the  repre* 
sentations  of  the  genera  and  their  species,  as  well  by  dia- 
grams as  in  words,  are  almost  as  numerous  as  the  writers 
on  music'  To  that  erudite  historian  of  music  we  refer  the 
reader  who  wishes  for  more  information  on  a  subject  in 
Which  so  few  now  take  the  slightest  interest.  The  modem 
diatonic  and  chromatic  genera,  or  scales,  are  probably  much 
the  same  as,  or  nearly  allied  to,  those  of  antiquity.  Our  En- 
harmonic is,  practically — ^at  least  on  most  instruments — but 
a  convenient  evasion,  the  mere  bestowal  of  two  names  on 
one  and  the  same  sound. 

GENERAL,  a  title  conferred  on  military  men  above  the 
rank  of  field-officers.  In  all  the  states  of  Europe  it  indi> 
cates  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  of  the  nation ; 
the  commander  of  an  army  or  grand  division,  and  also  those 
whob  under  the  latter,  exercise  his  functions,  with  the 
particular  designations  of  lieutenant-general  and  major- 
general. 

The  origin  of  the  tiUe  appears  in  the  history  of  France, 
in  which  country  it  seems  to  have  been  conferred  on  the 
commander  of  the  royal  army  about  the  middle  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  when  something  like  a  regular  military 
force  was  first  established  in  Europe.  The  kings  were  then 
considered  as  holding  the  chief  command  of  the  army  in 
virtue  of  their  birth ;  and,  on  appointing  persons  under  tlicm 
to  exercise  a  general  superintendence  of  the  forces,  they 
gave  to  such  otficers  the  title  of  lieutenant-general,  in  order 
to  designate  at  the  same  time  the  extent  of  their  duties 
and  their  dependence  on  the  sovereign  whom  they  repre- 
sented. By  a  decree  made  in  the  year  1450,  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  VII.,  John,  count  of  Dunois,  was  so  qualified;  and 
the 'title  of  lieutenant-general,  denoting  the  immediate 
commander-in-chief  of  an  army,  was  long  retained  in  the 
French  service.  In  the  course  of  time,  by  an  abbreviation 
in  language,  the  prefix  of  the  title  was  omitted,  and  the 
term  general  alone  was  applied  to  persons  holding  such 
command. 

Previously  to  the  epoch  above  mentioned  the  title  ot 
Grand  S6nechal  of  France  appears  to  have  conferred  the 
right  of  commanding  the  royal  armies  ;  but  the  dignity 
being  hereditary  in  the  counts  of  Anjou,  when  that  pro- 
vince passed  to  the  crown  of  England  m  the  reign  of  Henry 
II.,  the  right  ceased,  and  the  kings  of  France  delegated 
their  authority  to  noblemen  chosen  at  pleasure.  In  1218 
Philip  Augustus  conferred  the  command  on  Mathieu  de 
Montmorenci,  the  constable  of  France ;  and  the  successors 
of  that  high  officer  held  it  till  the  re-formation  of  the  army 
in  the  reign  of  Charies  VII. 

It  must  be  remarked,  however,  that  at  a  period  more  early 
than  that  of  the  creation  of  lieutenant-generals  under  the 
sovereign,  the  title  of  captain-general  had  been  conferred 
on  certain  officers  with  military  jurisdiction  over  particular 
districts.  This  species  of  command  is  supposed  to  have 
been  first  instituted  in  1349  by  Philip  of  Valois,  who  placed 
Guy  de  NSle,  already  Mar^chal  de  France,  over  the  district 
of  Aaintonge;  within  which  he  was  authorised  to  inspect 
the  castles  and  fortified  towns,  and  to  superintend  all  the 
mQitary  affiiirs.  Tlie  nature  of  the  duty  therefore  seems  to 
have  resembled  that  of  the 'inspecting  field  oflicGrs  now 
appointed  to  particular  divisions  of  this  country  and  the 
colonies.  But  in  1635,  that  is,  about  eight  years  after  the 
suppression  of  the  post  of  constable  of  France,  Louis  XIII. 
gave  the  title  of  captain-general,  for  the  army  of  Italy,  to 
the  duke  of  Savoy;  and  this  appointment  was  precisely 
that  of  commander-in-chief,  since  it  placed  the  duke  above 
the  mar^chal  de  Cr^ui,  who  was  previously  at  the  head  of 
the  army. 

It  is  about  this  time  that  the  term  lieutenant-general,  in 
the  sense  which  it  now  bears,  first  appears.  For,  according 
to  Pdre  Daniel,  who  quotes  the  history  of  Cardinal  Riche- 
lieu for  the  fact,  when  the  prince  of  Cond6  was  made  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  destined  against  Spain,  the 
Marquis  de  la  Force  was  appointed  his  lieutenant-general, 
and  M.  de  Feuquidres  held  the  same  rank  under  the  Due 
de  Longueville,  who  was  to  act  with  an  army  in  Franche- 
Compte.  We  have  here  but  one  lieutenaal-general  for 
each  army:  but  the  writer  above  mentioned  observes  that, 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  the  armies  of  France  being 
much  more  numerous  than  before,  the  officers  were  also 
greatly  multiplied ;  and  adds  that,  in  1 704,  there  were  moro 
than  sixty  who  had  the  title  of  lieutenant-general. 

The  title  of  captain-general  above  mentioned  must  not  bu 
confounded  with  that  which  was  created  by  Cardinal  Richo- 


GEN 


U2 


G  K  N 


lieu,  in  1656,  in  (kvoor  of  the  IfitrqQis  de  Gastelnwit:  this 
officer  was  placed  above  the  Iteutenant-grneralfl  of  the 
army,  but  wa^  subordinate  to  the  marshal  of  France,  who 
rommaniled  in  chief:  and  it  appears  that  some  of  the 
former  having  retired  fh>m  the  service  in  disgust,  in  con&e- 
queuce  of  the  new  appointment,  the  cardinal  was  obliged  to 
create  others  in  their  places. 

In  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  the  title  of  rx>1onelgcneral 
was  instituted  ;  and  it  was  first  in  1544  conferred  on  M.  de 
Taix,  with  the  command  of  all  the  infantry  of  the  nation. 
The  title  existed  however  only  to  the  time  of  Louis  XIV., 
by  whom  it  was  abolished. 

'  The  English  nation  has  nearly  followed  the  practice  of 
France  in  matters  appertaining  to  the  military  service. 
Thus  the  lord-high-constablo  and  the  lord-marshal  of  Eng- 
land, in  former  times,  were  at  the  head  of  tho  military 
establishments  of  the  country ;  and,  when  the  first  office 
was  suppressed  by  Henry  Vlll.  in  1521,  the  title  of  cap- 
tain-general appears  to  nave  been  adopted  for  the  com- 
mnnder-in-chief.  This  title  occurs  in  the  list  of  the  army 
which  served  at  St.  Quintin  in  1557,  of  which  list  a  copy  is 
given  by  Grose  from  a  MS.  in  the  British  Museum.  From 
iho  same  list  it  appears  that  a  lieutenant-general  for  the 
whole  army  was  immediately  subordinate  to  the  former; 
and  that  under  the  last  was  a  general  of  horse,  a  captain- 
general  of  foot,  with  his  lieutenant,  and  a  sergeant-major 
(corresponding  to  a  present  major-general).  But  the  title 
of  captain-general  probably  did  not  loni;  remain  in  use ; 
for,  in  the  list  of  the  army  raised  by  Elizabeth  in  1588, 
the  highest  officer  is  styled  lieutenant-general,  the  queen 
herself  being  probably  considered  as  the  commander-in- 
chief.  In  the  army  which,  in  1620,  it  was  proposed  to 
raise  fur  the  recovery  of  the  Palatinate,  and,  in  that  raised 
by  Charles  Lin  1639,  the  commander  is  entitled  the  lord- 
general  ;  a  lieutenant-general  appears  as  the  second  in 
command,  and  the  third  is  designated  serjcant-major-gcne- 
rul.  It  was  probably  soon  after  this  time  that  the  last  offi- 
cer was  called  simply  major-general ;  for  we  find  that  in 
1656  Cromwell  appointed  twelve  officers  under  that  title  to 
have  civil  and  military  jurisdiction  over  the  counties  of  Eng- 
land.   (Clarendon,  b.  15.) 

It  is  evident,  from  the  histories  of  the  northern  states, 
that  the  armies  in  that  part  of  Europe  have  always  been 
commanded  nearly  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  France 
and  England.  Sir  James  Turner,  who  wrote  his  'Military 
Essaves'  in  1670,  states  that  in  Germany,  Denmark,  and 
Sweden,  the  commander-in-chief  was  designated  feld- 
marshal,  and  that  he  had  under  him  lieutenant-generals  of 
the  whole  anny,  besides  generals  and  major-generals  of 
horse  and  foot.  With  respect  to  the  first  title,  ho  considers 
it  to  have  been  granted,  as  a  more  honourable  distinction 
than  that  of  lieutenant-general,  only  within  about  fifty 
years  from  his  time;  and  he  appears  to  ascribe  the  intro- 
duction of  it  to  the  kini>  of  Sweden  (Gustavus  Adolphus), 
who,  when  he  invaded  Poland,  thought  fit  to  gratify  some 
of  his  generals  by  designating  them  lieutenant-feld- 
marshals.  {FaUoi  Armetta,  ch.  13.)  From  that  time,  both 
in  Germany  and  Great  Britain,  such  title,  omitting  the 
word  lieutenant,  has  been  considered  the  highest  in  the 
army. 

In  France,  dnrino;  the  reign  of  I>ouis  XIV.,  and  perhaps 
at  an  earlier  time,  the  naval  commander  immediately  below 
the  rank  of  vice-admiral  was  entitled  lieutenant-general. 
A  similar  designation  seems  to  have  been  early  employed 
in  the  EnglisH  service,  for  in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
the  commander  of  a  squadron  was  called  the  gefiercd ;  and, 
as  late  as  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth,  a  joint  commission 
of  admiral  and  geneml  was  ^iven  to  Blake  and  Mountague, 
though  the  expedition  on  which  the  fleet  was  sent  was  con- 
fined to  an  object  purely  naval. 

The  admmistration  of  military  affairs  in  the  great  na- 
tions of  Europe  becoming  highly  complicated  during  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  commanders-in-chief,  even  when 
not  actually  on  the  field  of  battle,  found  themselves  frilly 
occupied  with  the  higher  departments  of  the  serA'ice ;  and 
it  became  indispensable  that  the  number  of  subordinate 
generals  should  be  increased,  in  order  that  all  the  steps 
which  were  to  be  taken  for  the  immediate  security  of  the 
armies,  and  for  the  acquisition  of  the  necessary  supplies, 
might  be  duly  superintended  by  responsible  officers.  The 
division  of  an  army,  for  the  purpose  of  occupying  important 
positions  or  of  obtaining  subsistence,  led  also  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  several  distinct  oomniuidersi  each  of  whom  re- 


quired his  own  particular  staff;  and  this  cirettinstanc*, 
added  to  the  necess»ity  of  having  a  number  of  officers  pre- 
pared at  once  to  assume  the  command  of  troops  when  cir- 
cumstances should  require  it,  will  explain  uby  military 
men  holding  the  rank  of  general  app<^ar  now  to  be  i»o  nu- 
merous. 

In  the  British  service  there  are  about  75  full  gcnrrals, 
and  about  360  lieutenant  and  major-generals;  but  of  tin* 
number  many  command  particular  regiments  as  c<;1i»ikI<s 
or  hold  militarv  governments  in  the  country  and  ouluuii « ; 
many  of  them  have  only  local  rank ;  and  many  have  reUrttl 
from  the  scrA'ice,  retaining  the  title,  but  without  rccciM> .; 
the  pay  or  being  quaUfled  for  obtaining  any  pn»g re  «-»..<' 
promotion. 

The  staf  of  the  whole  military  force  of  Great  Bn<.iin 
consists  of  the  general  commanding'-in-chief,  the  adjuiiiui- 
gencral,  and  the  quartermaster-general. 

The  duty  of  the  adjutant-general  falls  partly  under  tli.it 
of  the  sergcant-major-gcneral  in  the  sixteenth  centurv :  in 
the  field  he  nM:eive:i  the  ordcis  from  the  general  (ifli<-rr  ..f 
the  day,  and  communicates  them  to  the  generals  «•!'  tm- 
gades;  he  makes  a  daily  re{x>rt  of  the  situations  of  nli  i.:< 
posts  placed  for  the  security  of  the  army;  and,  in  a  m«  .*  . 
ne  ins^Hicta  the  guards  of  the  trenches. 

The  quartcrmaster-gcncral  corresponds  in  part  tu  (l.«* 
harbinger  of  the  army  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Ih.i 
officer  has  the  charge  of  recounoitring  the  country  )<r>*- 
viously  to  any  change  being  made  in  the  position  of  \\\" 
army;  he  reports  concerning  the  ground  which  may  U* 
favourable  for  the  site  of  a  new  encampment,  and  upon  tl»'> 
practicability  of  the  roads  in  the  direction  of  the  int<Mi'!  •  1 
lines  of  route.  He  also  superintends  the  formation  of  t'  c 
encampment  and  the  disposition  of  the  troops  m  their  v^n 
tonments. 

The  first  notice  of  a  commander  of  the  artillery  o<^curs  .n 
the  time  of  Richard  III.:  this  officer  was  de<^i);nn'>  1 
simply  master  of  the  ordnance  till  1GU3,  when  the  earl  rt 
Devon  was  dignified  with  the  title  of  general.  Tho  he.ifl  ••! 
this  department  is  now  styled  master-general  uf  Ua 
ordnance. 

GENERAL  ASSEMBLY  OF  THE  CHURCH  OK 
SCOTLAND.    This  is  the  Scottish  ecclesiostical  pHii.i 
ment ;  it  is  a  representative,  legislative,  and  judieial  L*-i« 
which  differs  essentially  in  its  constitution  from  the  C'tM  > 
cation  of  the  English  church    [ConvocationJ  in  Ui..; 
compoi^ed  of  representatives  of  the  laity,  as  well  as  ^f  n 
clergy ;  and,  therefore  (like  the  British  Hou>e  of  Conim.<'.". 
may  be  considered  as  a  delegation  from  its  const ituonc),  iL  ■ 
church.    [Chitrch.I     The  following  is  the  compositi  m  <.  t 
the  General  Assemoly:— 

Eighty  presbyteries,  each  of  which  consists  of  a  r«Ttr..'\ 
number  of  parishes,  varying  from  six  to  thirty-six,  scnA  \ . 
the  Assembly  218  ministers  and  94  elders;  tho  c\\\  *A 
Edinburgh  sends  2  elders,  and  65  other  royal  biu^lis  %  .:  i 
each  one  elder;  the  four  universities  send  each  a  rrprc^i-;.- 
tative, andan  additional  one  U  sent  from  Marischall  cu!).  ^.. 
Aberdeen — these  five  maybe  either  ministers  or  cM«  ; 
one  minister  and  one  elder  represent  the  churches  iu  Ir.  .u 
in  connexion  with  the  church  of  Scotland.  Tho  kua  ui 
Scotland  has  1023  porishes,  with  105U  minibters. 

The  General  Assembly  meets  annually,  in  the  month  f 
May,  in  Edinburgh.  Tlie  session  la^ts  only  ten  days  ;  b  t 
special  business  not  decided  within  the  period  of  ihc  ^t-s^.  .i 
may  be  referred  to  a  commission,  which  is,  in  fact,  ww 
Assembly  under  another  name ;  the  commission  can  h<  > 
quarterly  meetings.  The  speaker,  or  president  of  ii.<7 
assembly,  is  called  moderator;  he  is  chosen  annualU,  a.  1 
is,  in  modern  times,  a  clergyman,  it  being  a  rule  that  ilic 
moderator  should  preach  a  sermon  before  the  opening  <  ( 
the  Assembly;  but  laymen  have  occasionally  filled  t^'. 
choir.  [Buchanan.  Gk'orob.] 

Each  parish  in  Scotland  has  its  kirk  session,  composed  •  f 
the  minister  and  lay  eldera  of  the  parish,  which  maudg**^ 
the  parochial  business.     From  the  decision  of  the  k.r^ 
session  there  is  an  appeal  to  the  presbytery  in  which  i::c 
parish  lies.     Each  presbytery  is  composed  of  the  ministers 
and  eldera  of  a  certain  number  of  parishes ;  but  the  pro 
byteries  vary  considerably  in  the  number  of  parishes  of 
which  they  are  formed.    A  higher  court,  culled  a  svn^ML  > 
composed  of  two  or  more  presbyteries.     From  the  (icci-:    > 
of  m  synod  an  appeal  lies  to  the  General  Assembly,  «ho<«' 
decision  is  final.    The  functions  of  the  Assembly  are  ana 
logous  to  a  combinstion  of  the  functions  of  both  bouses  uf 


GEN 


113 


G  fi  N 


IwrliftineDt.  lU  memben  speak  mnd  vote;  it  judges  all 
matters  connected  with  the  ii^vemment  of  the  church;  and 
it  can  proceed  judicial^  against  any  member  of  the  chuich, 
clerical  or  laical,  ibr  alleged  impropriety  or  ineonsisteney  of 
condact  or  doetr  Jie. 

The  connexion  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  with  the  State 
is  indicated  in  tae  General  Assembly  by  the  presence  of  a 
fiinctionafy.who,  under  the  title  of  lord-hi^h-commissioner, 
represents  the  king  or  queen.  The  Scottish  church  how- 
erer  does  not  recognise  the  king  or  queen  as  head  of  the 
church,  but  as  head  of  the  state,  with  which  the  church  is 
allied,  for  purposes  of  protection  and  civil  authority.  The 
lord-high-commissioner  has  no  voice  in  the  assembly ;  busi- 
ness is  not  necessarily  interrupted  by  his  absence ;  and  his 
presence  merely  implies  the  sanction  of  the  civil  authority. 
On  the  conclusion  of  the  session  of  the  General  Assembly, 
the  moderator,  after  mentioning  the  day  in  the  following 
year  on  which  the  Assembly  meets  again,  dissolves  the 
meeting  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  head  of 
the  church  (sometimes  the  words  '  the  only  head '  are  used), 
and  then  the  lord-high-commissioner  add[s  the  sanction  of 
the  civil  authority  by  appointing  in  the  name  of  the  king  or 
queen  the  Assembly  to  meet  on  the  day  named  by  the 
moderator. 

GENERALISSIMO,  the  commaMer-in-chief  of  an  army 
which  consists  of  two  or  more  grand  divisions  under  sepa- 
rate commanders.  The  title  is  said  by  Balzac  to  have  been 
first  assumed  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  when  he  led  a  French 
army  into  Italy,  and  it  has  been  since  occasionally  given  to 
officers  at  the  head  of  armies  on  the  Continent,  but  it  has 
never  been  adopted  in  this  country. 

GENERATING  FUNCTIONS.  The  term  generating 
/unction  is  a  name  given  by  Laplace  to  any  function  of  x, 
considered  with  reference  to  the  coefficients  of  its  expansion 
in  powers  of  x,  as  follows :  if 

then  ^  is  the  generating  function  of  ifnL  Thus  the  gene- 
rating function  of  n  is  x-t-  (1  -x)*,  since  the  coefficient  of 
X"  in  the  expansion  of  the  preceding  is  n. 

The  theory  of  Generating  Functions  was  investigated  by 
Laplace,  and  it  maybe  found  in  his'Th^orie  des  Proba- 
bilit^s,*  or  in  Lacroix,  'Treatise  on  the  Differential  Calculus' 
(in  the  third  volume  of  the  quarto  edition),  or  in  the  Ap- 
pendix to  the  Cambridge  translation  of  Lacroix.  Its  prin- 
cipal use  is  in  the  solution  of  equations  of  differences,  and 
in  the  deduction  of  theorems  connected  with  that  sub- 
ject. 

GE'NESIS,  THE  BOOK  OF,  is  the  first  of  the  five  books 
of  Moses,  and  derives  its  name  from  the  principal  event 
recorded  in  it,  namely,  the  creation  of  the  world  and  the 
human  race,  which  in  the  Septuagint  Greek  translation  is 
expressed  by  the  word  Geneiis  {Vkvunc)  '  creation'  or  '  pro- 
duction.' In  the  original  Hebrew  it  is  named,  according  to 
the  usual  custom,  from  the  first  word  in  the  book,  Bereshith 
irWtXyXi  *  In  the  beginning ;'  it  is  not  un frequently  cited 
by  the  Rabbins  as  Sepher  Yezirah  (HTS^  "^BO)  *  The 
tiook  of  the  Creation ;'  and  Josephus  in  his  treatise  against 
Apion  (i.  8)  called  it  *  Uie  account  of  the  creation  of  man,' 
(i|  r^c  av^pMiroyoviac  icttpa^ofno). 

It  has  been  thought  by  many  critics  that  the  Book  of 
Genesis  was  not  written  by  Moses.  There  are  some  passa^^es 
in  it  which  evidently  could  not  have  been  the  composition 
of  Moses,  since  they  refer  to  events  which  happened  after 
his  death.  See  c.  xiiL  18,  c.  xxiiL  2,  and  c.  xiv.  14,  where 
Hebron  and  Dan  are  mentioned,  which,  we  learn  from  other 
parts  of  the  Bible,  had  different  names  in  the  time  of  Moses. 
See  also  Gen.  xxxvi.  31,  where  an  allusion  is  made  to  the 
kings  of  Israel*  and  a  list  is  given  (31 — 43)  of  the  princes 
of  Edom  which  is  the  same  as  the  list  given  in  Chronicles, 
I.,  c.  i.  43 — 54.  But  these  and  similar  passages  might 
easily  have  been  inserted  in  later  times.  Dr.  Graves  in  his 
Lecture*  on  the  Pentateuch,  and  Faber  in  bis  Hor^e  Mosaicw, 
vol.  i.  p.  305--336,  show  that  there  is  no  other  period  in  the 
history  of  the  Jews  to  which  its  composition  can  be  so  well 
referred.  The  preface  to  the  first  volume  of  the  last  edition 
of  RosenmuUei^s  Scholia  contains  a  fair  view  of  the  contro- 
versy ;  in  which  he  gives  many  reasons  for  relinquishing 
the  opinion  he  formerly  held,  that  the  book  of  Genesis  was 
not  written  by  Moses. 

Supposing  Moses  to  have  been  the  author,  it  becomes  an 
interesting  question  to  ascertain  in  what  manner  Moses  was 
enabled  to  give  a  faithful  history  of  eveqts  which  happened  so 
P.  a.  No.  672. 


many  oenlunes  before  his  own  age.  The  book  miiit  have  beea 
composed  in  one  of  three  ways :  Ist,  by  immediate  revelation 
of  every  circumstance  from  God ;   2nd,  bv  a  collection  of 
antient  traditions;  or  3rd,  from  former  doouments.    The 
first  supposition  is  generally  abandoned  in  the  present  day 
by  all  theologians,  with  the  exception  of  those  who  believe 
in  the  verbal  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures.  The  second,  which 
is  a  common  opinion  amongst  theologians  in  this  oountrv, 
would  not  ii\)ure  the  credibility  of  the  book ;  since  Lamech, 
the  fiither  of  Noah  was  oontemporarv  with  Adam,  Sbem  the 
son  of  Noah  lived  in  the  time  of  Abraham,  his  son  Isaae 
was  contemporary  with  Joseph,  and  some  of  the  contempo- 
raries of  Joseph  might  have  known  Moses ;  so  that  few  per- 
sons were  required  for  the  transmission  of  the  traditions. 
The  third  oninion  is  the  one  generally  received  by  the 
German  theologians  of  the  present  day,  and  was  maintained 
by  many  former  writers.  (See  Carpzov.,  IrUrod^  part  i.  p.  67 ; 
Yitringa,  Obgerv,  Sacr^  1.  L, dissert,  i,  c  4. ;  Le  Clerc,  Pro- 
leg^  dissert.,  iiL  p.  30 ;  Calmet,  Commentaire  Litteral,  vol. 
i.,  part  i.,  p.  13.)    Astruc  believed  that  this  book  of  Moses 
was  composed  from  twelve  such  documents.    (Conjecturee 
eur  lee  Memoiree  Originaux  dont  il  paroit  que  Moue  e^eet 
servi  pour  eompoeer  le  Livre  de  Gencse,  1753.)    Ilgen 
reduced  the  number  to  three  {Die  Urkunden  dee  ereten 
Buche  von  Moeee  in  ihren  Urgeetaltt  1798) ;  and  Eichhom 
in  his  '  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,*  vol.  iii.,  p. 
42 — 135,  maintains  there  were  only  two.     There  is  how- 
ever considerable  difficulty  in  assigning  the  number,  though 
there  are  strong  reasons  for  believing  that  the  general 
hypothesis  is  correct.    Our  limits  will  only  permit  us  to 
give  two  examples.     It  is  supposed  that  the  first  three 
chapters  were  composed  from  two  separate  documents ;  one 
containing  the  first  chapter  and  the  first  four  verses  of  the 
second,  the  other  the  remainder  of  the  second  chapter  and 
the  whole  of  the  third.  The  second  document,  which  begins 
with  the  words, '  These  are  the  generations  of  the  heavens 
and  the  earth,'  contains  another  account  of  the  creation, 
which  would  hardly  have  been  given  again  after  the  full 
account  of  the  same  event  in  the  first  chapter,  if  all  three 
had  been  written  by  one  person.    In  addition  to  this,  the 
name  of  the  Deity  is  different  in  the  two  documents ;    in 
the  first  he  is  invariablv  called  £/oAtm  (D^ni7M)t  and  ii) 
the  second  Jehovah  Elokim  iU*rfX?H  nVT).    The  frequent 
repetition  of  the  same  cLroumstancea  in  the  history  of  the 
Deluge  have  induced  critics  to  believe  that  it  was  composed 
from  two  documents.  Compare  vL  5,  with  vi.  1 2 ;  vi  9,  with 
vii.  1 ;   vi.  19,  20,  with  vii.  2,  3;  vi.  17,  with  vii  4 ;   vL  22, 
with  vii.  5 ;  vii.  6 — 9,  with  viL  1 1 — 16 ;  vii.  18,  with  vii.  19 ; 
vii.  21,  22,  with  viL  23;  viii.  21,  22,  with  ix.  8—11.    The 
whole  of  the  book  of  Grenesis  is  divided  by  Eichhom,  in  his 
'Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,'  and  by  Jahn,  in  his 
*  Hebrew  Bible,'  (Vienna,  1806),  into  the  original  documents 
from  which  thev  believed  it  was  compiled.    Dr.  Lamb,  ic 
his  work  on  '  Hebrew  Letters  taken  from  Hieroglyphics,' 
supposes,  without  a  shadow  of  reason,  that  Moses  copied  the 
first  eleven  chapters  from  hieroglyphics. 

The  book  of  Genesis  may  be  divided  into  two  parts ;  the 
first  extending  firom  the  beginning  of  the  book  to  the  9th 
verse  of  the  11th  chapter,  and  the  second  containing  the 
remaining  chapters.  The  object  of  the  author  was  to  give 
the  history  of  the  Jews  from  the  earliest  times ;  and  the 
first  part,  which  contains  the  histoiy  of  the  world  from  the 
creation  to  the  birth  of  Abraham,  is  merely  introductory. 
The  real  history  commences  with  his  birth,  preceded  by  a 
genealogical  table  of  his  pedigree. 

I.  The  first  part  (i. — xi.  1'9,>  gives  an  acconnt  of  the 
creation  ana  of  the  institution  ol  the  Sabbath  (i.  iL  1—3) ; 
of  the  fall  of  man  and  his  expulsion  from  Paradise  (iu  4 — 
25,  iii.) ;  of  the  history  of  Adam  and  his  descendants  till 
the  Deluge  (iv.  v.) ;  of  the  Deluge  (vi.  vii.) ;  of  the  restora- 
tion of  the  world  (viiL) ;  of  the  history  of  Noah  and  his  sons 
(ix.) ;  of  thp  peopling  of  the  world  by  his  descendants  (x.) ; 
and  of  the  confusion  of  tongues  and  dispersion  of  mankind 
(ix.  1—9).  Many  theologians,  from  a  supposed  difficulty  in 
the  literal  interpretation  of  the  fint  three  cnaptera,  have  sup- 
posed them  to  be  mythicaL  The  arguments  tor  such  a  mode 
of  interpretation  may  be  seen  in  Seller's  Biblical  Herme- 
neutice,  transl.  by  Dr.  Wrieht,  p.  163 — 169.  To  this  it  is 
replied  that  the  style  is  purdy  historical,  that  the  difficultiea 
are  imaginary,  and  that  the  writera  of  the  *  New  Testament' 
refer  to  the  events  contained  in  the  first  three  chaptera  as 
real  transactions.  (Mat.  xix.  4;  JohnviiL  44;  1  Tim.  ii. 
13,  14 ;  2  Cor.  3^i»  3 ;  I  John,  iii  8.)     ^^      ^^ 

Vol.  XI.« 


GEN 


114 


GEN 


The  poBitiTe  entAtments  of  the  ptttriuchal  leligioa  were 
few  and  were  all  retained  in  the  lawi  of  Moms,  They 
related  to  the  Sabbath  (iL  3 ;  viiL  10 — 12Kto  tacriftcet(iT.  3, 
4 ).  and  to  abatinence  ftom  the  tlesh  of  animala  with  the 
blojd  in  it  (ix.  3,  4). 

11.  The  leoond  part  (xL  9,  to  the  end  of  the  book)  givea 
4n  account  of  the  family  of  Abraham  and  hia  journeys  into 
Canaan  and  Egypt  Cxi.  10 — ^32,  xiu) ;  of  the  wanderings  of 
Lot  and  Abraham  in  Canaan  (xiiL) ;  of  the  defeat  of  the  four 
kings  by  Abraham  (xiv.) ;  of«the  promise  of  God  to  Abraham 
(XV.) ;  of  the  birth  and  early  life  of  Ishmael  (xvL) ;  of  the 
institution  of  circumcision  and  the  renewal  of  the  promise 
(xviL) ;  of  the  deatruction  of  Bodom  and  Gomorrah  (xviii^ 
xix.) ;  of  the  sojourning  of  Abraham  at  Qerar  and  the  birth 
of  Isaac  (xx^  xxi.) ;  of  the  trial  of  Abraham  (xxii.) ;  of  the 
death  of  Sarah  (xxiiL) ;  of  the  marriage  of  Isaac  (xxiv.) ;  of 
the  birth  of  Bsau  and  Jacob  (xxv.) ;  of  the  history  of  Isaac 
(xxvi.,  xxviL) ;  of  the  departure  of  Jacob  to  Padan-Aram, 
and  of  his  return  to  Canaan  (xxviiL — xxxiii.);  of  the 
cruelty  of  Simeon  and  Levi  to  the  Shechemites  (xxxiv.)  $ 
of  the  death  of  Isaac  (xxxt.)  ;  of  the  history  of  Esau  and 
hia  descendants  (xxxyl)  ;  of  the  selling  of  Joseph  into 
Egypt  (xxxvii.);  of  the  incest  ofTamar  (xxxviii.);  of  the 
history  of  Joseph  in  Egypt  (xxxix.^xly.) ;  of  the  descent 
of  Jacob  into  Egypt,  and  his  settlement  thero  with  his 
ikmily  (xlvi. — xlix.)  ;  and  of  the  death  of  Jacob  and 
Joseph  (1.). 

The  chronology  of  the  book  of  Grenesis  has  occasioned 
fcreat  difficulty.  This  arises  from  the  difiference  of  the 
Hebrew  text  from  the  Septuagint.  According  to  the 
Hebrew  text  the  deluge  happened  a.m.  1666,  according  to 
the  Septuagint  a.m.  2262 ;  the  former  giving  b.c.  4004, 
and  the  latter  b.c.  541 1,  as  the  epoch  of  the  creation.  Dr. 
Hales,  with  many  other  critics,  considers  the  dates  of  the 
Septuagint  to  be  more  in  accordance  with  profane  history 
and  with  the  various  events  related  in  the  first  chapters  of 
Genesis.  Our  limits  prevent  us  from  giving  an  account  of 
the  controversy ;  we  can  only  refer  to  the  arguments  in  I^. 
Hales*  Anaiyma  of  Ckronoiofry,  vol.  L  273 — 303,  and  Clin- 
ton's FhHi  Hellemci,  vol.  l,  p.  283--301;  the  latter  of 
whom  defends  the  chronology  of  the  Hebrew  text,  and 
observes  with  much  justice  that  there  does  not  appear  any 
sufficient  reason  for  inducing  the  Jews  to  change  the  num- 
bers, while  the  translatora  of  the  Septua^nt  were  naturally 
anxious  to  make  the  epoch  of  the  creation  more  conform- 
able with  the  high  pretensions  of  the  Egyptians  and  Chal- 
dflsans.  From  the  Deluge  to  the  common  date  of  the  birth 
of  Abraham,  the  Hebrew  text  gives  292  years,  the  Septua- 
gint 1072.  This  date  is  given  on  the  authority  of  Gen.  xi. 
26,  *  And  Zerah  lived  70  years,  and  begat  Abram,  Nahor, 
and  Haran.*  But  there  is  sufficient  reason  for  believine 
that  Abraham  was  not  bom  till  60  years  afterwards,  ana 
that  his  name  is  only  placed  first  on  the  catalogue  on 
account  of  his  celebrity,  not  because  he  was  the  first-born. 
Adding  60  years  to  the  former  numbers  we  obtain  the  birth 
of  Abraham,  according  to  the  Hebrew  text  a-m.  2008  or 
B.C  1996  ;  aocording  to  the  Septuagint,  as  corrected  by  Dr. 
Hales  and  Mr.  Clinton,  a-m.  3258  or  b.c.  2153.  Having 
obtained  tbe  birth  of  Abraham,  there  is  no  great  difficulty 
in  asceruining  the  dates  of  the  principal  events  that  follow. 
The  following  Uble  is  abridged  fVom  Clinton's  '  Fasti  Hel- 
lemci;* the  dales  are  reckoned  from  the  birth  of  Abra- 
ham: 

Birth  of  Abraham  in  130th  year  of  SSerah.  GreO.  zl  32, 
xii.  3 — 5,  compared  with  Acts  viL  4. 
10.  Birth  of  Sarah*  ten  years  younger  than  Abraham. 

Gen.  xvii.  17. 
75.  The  call  of  Abraham.    Gen.  xiL  1—4. 
86.  Birth  of  Ishmael.    Gen.  xvi.  16. 
100.  Birth  of  Isaac.    Gen.  xvii.  17. 
137.  Death  of  Sarah,  at  the  age  of  127.    Gen.  xxiii.  1,  2. 
140.  Martiage  of  Isaac,  at  the  age  of  40.    Gen.  xxv.  20. 
160.  Birth  uf  Esau  and  Jacob.    Gen.  xxv.  26. 
176.  Death  of  Abraham.    Gen.  xxv.  7,  8. 
237.  Jacob  goes  to  Haran  at  the  age  of  77. 
257.  Jacob  returns  to  Canaan.    Gen.  xxxi.  41. 
268.  Joseph,  at  the  age  of  1 7,  sold  into  Egypt.  Gen.  xxxviL  2. 
2»0.  Death  of  Isaac,  at  the  age  of  1 80.    Qen.  xxxv.  28. 
281.  Joseph,  at  the  age  of  30,  governor  of  Egypt    Gen. 

xli.  46. 
290.  Jacob,  at  the  age  of  130,  goes  into  Egypt  Gen.  xlvii.  9. 
307.  Death  of  Jacob,  at  the  age  of  147.     Gen.  xlvii.  29. 
360.  Death  of  Joseph,  at  th«  ageof  HO.    Gen.  L  86.  ^ 


The  following  parages  aw  suppoaed  by  moal  Christian 
divines  to  be  propheciea  rehtting  to  Ghriat:—!!!.  15;  xii  3; 
xvitL  18;  xxii  18;  xkvl  4;  xxviil  14;  xlix.  10. 

(Eichhnm'a  EMeitung  in»  ALU  Te$iameni^  vol.  iai.  p. 
18—176;  Augusti's  Grundriu  einer  hutorueh-kritiscken 
MifMiung in*9 AUe  T^tamMt.^.  157—162;  Fabers  Horte 
Moioicm ;  Graves  Qit  th$  Pentateuch;  RosenmuUrr's 
Sckoiia ;  Holden's  DueertatUM  on  the  FM  €f  Man  ; 
Home's  Jntroduetion  to  the  Seriptmree,  toL  iv.  p.  3— 

».) 

GENBSSEB.    [NxwYowc] 

GENETTA  (Zoology),  Oennet    [ViTBBftn>«.] 

GBNE'VA.  GENE'VB  (Gaff/*  in  Germsn,  Ginerra 
in  Italian),  a  town  and  canton  of  the  Helvetic  Confederauon, 
situated  at  the  south-west  extremity  of  Switxerland.  ts 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  canton  of  Yaud  and  the 
Leman  Lake,  on  the  east  and  south  br  Savoy,  and  on  tbe 
west  by  the  French  department  De  I  Ain.  It  consists  ot 
the  territory  of  the  old  republic  of  Greneva,  of  the  disuict 
of  Versoix  ceded  bv  France,  and  of  the  districts  of  Carouge, 
Hermanoe,  and  otWs,  ceded  by  the  king  of  Sardinia  by 
the  treaties  of  Paris,  1814,  and  of  Turin,  1816.  The  area 
of  the  canton  is  reckoned  at  about  93  souare  milea,  it  being 
the  smallest  canton  in  Switzerland,  though  by  no  means 
one  of  the  lowest,  either  in  population,  industrv,  wreaUl)« 
or  political  importance.  The  population  of  the  canton 
amounted,  accoraing  to  the  census  of  1834,  to  56,655  in- 
habitants,  of  whom  27,177  were  in  the  town  of  Geneva. 
Of  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  about  17,000  were  Geneves 
by  birth,  5000  were  Swiss  of  other  cantons,  and  tbe  rest 
were  natives  of  France,  Savoy,  Itidy,  Germanv,  and  other 
countries,  among  whom  were  two  or  three  hundred  Engl  121  h. 
The  greatest  length  of  the  canton  is  about  17  mile*,  from 
Hermance,  on  tlie  extreme  north-east  frontier,  towards  the 
Chablais,  to  Chancy,  a  commune  on  the  left  bank  of  tbe 
Rhdne,  south-west  of  Geneva,  near  the  Fort  de  l^clu»e, 
which  is  a  French  military  outpost  on  that  side. 

The  territory  of  Geneva  extends  along  both  banks  of  the 
lake  and  the  valley  of  the  Rhdne,  beine  confined  on  the  W(*»t 
by  the  lower  offsets  of  the  Jura,  and  on  Uie  east  and  south-csu 
by  the  mountains  of  Voirons  and  Saldve,  which  are  sbout 
4000  feet  above  the  sea.  These  mountains  however  are 
out  of  the  territory  of  Geneva,  which  contains  only  »>rDe 
hills,  the  highest  of  which  are  not  400  feet  above  the  U-iel 
of  the  lake.  The  territory  of  the  canton  is  divided  into 
three  districts:—! .  The  district  north  of  the  RhOne,  including 
a  strip  of  land  along  the  west  bank  of  the  lake  as  fttr  as  the 
borders  of  the  canton  of  Vaud,  beyond  Versoix.  2.  The 
district  south  of  the  Rh6ne,  and  between  it  and  the  left 
bank  of  tbe  Arve,  which  includes  Carouge,  a  neat  well-buiU 
town,  with  4000  inhabitants,  about  one  mile  south  of  Genctm. 
3.  The  district  north  of  the  Arve,  and  between  it  and  the 
east  bank  of  the  lake,  along  which  it  c^xtends  in  a  narrvv 
strip  as  fkr  as  Hermance.  l^e  principal  place  of  this  la>t 
district  is  Chesne,  consisting  of  two  large  villages  adjoin uig 
each  other,  which  reckon  together  about  2000  inhabiisbt«. 
Numerous  other  villages  are  scattered  about  the  whole 
territory ;  and  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Gt^nerx 
both  along  the  banks  of  the  lake  and  in  the  direction  of 
the  principal  avenues  leading  to  the  town,  exhibits  extensire 
lines  and  groups  of  country-houses,  which  fbrm  handmime 
suburbs. 

The  territory  of  Geneva,  though  not  naturally  fertile,  is 
rendered  productive  by  the  industry  of  the  inhabitants: 
about  one-tlurd  of  it  is  sown  with  com,  another  third  11 
pasture-land,  a  much  smaller  proportion  is  planted  w.th 
vines,  which  yield  an  indifferent  sort  of  wine ;  the  re4 
consists  of  woods,  orchards,  and  gardens.  In  1835  thm; 
were  about  7650  head  of  cattle.  The  deficiency  in  curn. 
cattle,  and  wine,  for  the  consumption  of  the  town  of  Geuevs, 
is  supplied  by  the  neighbouring  countries. 

Manufactures,  and  the  employment  of  capital  tn  foreign 
fhnds,  banking  and  exchange,  and  commercial  speculationi, 
form  tbe  principal  sources  of  wealth  of  the  Gene%-ese. 
There  are  among  them  many  capitalists ;  and  Geneva,  n  hich 
is  the  most  nopulous  town  of  Switzerland,  is  also  tb^ 
wealthiest,  witn  the  exception  perhaps  of  Basel.  Industry, 
calculation,  and  economy  are  characteristics  of  the  |io*|'Ie 
in  general.  Watches  and  jewellery  are  now  the  prinrpi*. 
manu&ctures:  about  100,000  watches  are  made  annu^.lti 
and  exported  to  France,  Italv,  the  Levant,  and  o:l«'r  ^ 
countries.  This  branch  of  industry  employs  nearly  '2i*''0  ' 
2^As_ij.._._  ^^  jewelleiy  naarly  1000  more.    There' ve  m 


CE« 


115 


CE  N 


fhd  town  about  1600  tmdespeopla,  and  about  8500  servants, 
of  whom  1600  are  foreigners,  chiefly  from  Savoy  and  the 
canton  Do  Vaud. 

Three-fifths  of  the  population  are  of  the  Reformed  or  CSal- 
▼inifit  communion ;  the  rest  are  Gktholies,  the  number  of 
whom,  formerly  consisting  chiefly  of  foreign  residents,  has 
mueh  increased  since  1814  by  the  incorporation  of  the  ceded 
districts  of  France  and  Savor.    The  toWn  of  Geneva  is 
divided  into  14  parishes,  and  the  old  territory  of  the  repub- 
lic, which  is  mostly  inhabited  by  Protestants,  into  14  more. 
The  Cktholic  rural  districts  contain  28  parishes,  which  are 
included  in  the  diocese  of  Freyburg,  whose  bishop  styles 
himself  bishop  of  Lausanne  and  Geneva.    In  the  town  of 
Geneva  there  is  a  Catholic  church,  the  curate  of  whicii 
superintends  the  Catholic  fitmilies    scattered  about  the 
town.    The  Jews  have  a  syna^gue  at  Carouge,  but  they 
bave  not  the  freedom  of  the  city  of  Geneva. 

The  roads  of  the  canton  are  kept  in  very  good  order  by  the 
State  Government,  at  the  annual  expense  of  136,000  torins 
(the  Geneva  florin  is  about  4^),  The  other  principalheads 
of  expenditure  are-  administrative  and  judicial  depart- 
ments, 310,000  florins;  support  of  the  Protestant  clergy, 
135,000 ;  ditto  of  Catholic  clergy,  92,000 ;  public  instruc- 
tion, 230.000 ;  military,  525,000 ,  police  and  prisons, 
200,000 ;  pensions,  30,000 ;  emoluments  of  the  deputies  to 
the  Diet  and  other  expenses  fbr  federal  objects,  30,000; 
public  works,  90,000  florins.  The  revenue  of  the  canton 
amounts  to  about  2,000,000  florins,  derived  from  the  fol- 
lowing sources:  land  and  house-tax,  204,000  florins; 
stamps,  registry  of  sales,  and  deeds  and  mortgages,  and 
legacy  duty,  950,000;  income  tax*  called  tax  &s  gardes, 
189,000;  post-office,  169,000;  customs,  144,000;  monopoly 
of  salt,  214,000;  tax  upon  servants,  45,000;  patents  and 
licenses,  35,000 ;  tolls  at  the  gates,  39,000.  All  this  is 
exclusive  of  the  municipal  taxes  of  the  city  of  Geneva. 

There  are  41  elementary  schools  in  the  various  com- 
munes of  the  canton,  attended  by  about  3860  children.  For 
administrative  purposes  the  canton,  exclusive  of  the  capital, 
is  divided  into  37  communes,  of  which  15  belong  to  the  old 
territory  of  the  republic,  16  have  been  dismen£ered  from 
Savoy,  and  6  ceded  by  France.  Ineverv  commune  there  is 
a  municipal  council,  elected  by  the  inhabitants  ahove  21 
years  of  a^e,  and  who  pay  at  least  two  florins  of  direct  taxes. 
The  council  is  presidea  by  the  maire,  who  is  appointed  by 
the  council  of  state. 

The  canton  is  bound  to  funiish  to  the  Swiss  Confedera- 
tion, when  summoned  by  the  Diet,  a  contingent,  of  2  batta- 
lions of  infantry,  3  companies  of  artillery,  and  a  company 
of  cavalry;  in  all,  1760  men.  The  militia  of  the  canton, 
including  all  citizens  from  20  to  45  vears  of  age,  and 
amounting  to  about  5500  men,  is  exercised  and  reviewed  every 
year.  Besides  these  tjiere  is  for  the  service  of  the  towh  and 
the  police  a  garrison  of  120  salaried  artillery-men,  and  80 
gendarmes,  almost  all  foroigners.  The  arsenals  of  the 
canton  contain  79  pieces  of  artillery,  and  3900  muskets. 

Geneva  is  one  of  the  oldest  sites  in  Western  Europe.  It 
is  mentioned  in  the  Gallic  War  of  Csesar  (1.7). 

The  republic  of  Geneva  originated  in  the  municipal  go- 
vernment of  the  town,  to  which  Charlemagne  granted  cer- 
tain privileges  and  franchises,  subordinate  however  to  the 
bishop,  who  was  sWled  Prince  of  Geneva  and  was  an  imme- 
diate feudatory  of  me  empire.  Frequent  dissensions  occurred 
between  the  citizens  and  the  bishop  on  one  side,  and  the 
counts  of  Genevois, '  Comites  Gehennenses,'  or  *  Geneven- 
sium,'  a  feudal  dynasty  grown  out  of  the  wreck  of  the  old 
kingdom  of  Burgundy,  and  whicli  ruled  the  adjoining  pro- 
vince of  Savoy,  which  is  still  caUed  Genevois  or  Genevese, 
and  of  which  Annecy  is  the  capital.  These  counts  claimed 
jurisdiction  over  the  town  of  Geneva.  The  line  of  the 
counts  of  Genevois  becoming  extinct  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, their  inheritance  escheated  to  the  bouse  of  Savoy, 
who  obtained  the  investiture  of  it  from  the  Emperor  Bigis- 
mund  in  1422 ;  and  hence  are  derived  the  claims  of  the  dukes 
of  Savoy  over  Geneva,  claims  however  never  completely 
enforced.  At  the  Reformation  the  bishop  quitted  Geneva, 
and  retired  to  Annecy,  and  from  that  epoch  the  town  go- 
verned itself  as  an  independent  municipality,  and  fbrmed 
an  alliance  with  the  Swiss  cantons  of  Bern  and  Freyburg, 
and  afterwards  Zurich.  The  dukes  of  Savoy,  after  several 
fruitless  attempts  to  reduce  Geneva  by  force  or  surprise, 
acknowledged  its  indepen^ce  hy  the  treaty  of  St  Julian 
in  1603. 
In  the  eighteenth  oentory  Geneva  was  distrseied  by  interior 


feuds  between  the  popular  party,  or  reprtontans,  and  the 
aristocratic  fiimilies,  or  n^gatlfs.  [Dsluc]  These  troubles 
furnished  the  FVench  Directoiy  with  a  pretence  for  seizing 
it  by  force,  and  incorporating  it  with  France  in  April,  1 798. 
It  then  became  the  head  town  of  the  new  department 
'  Du  L6man.'  In  1814  it  was  occupied  b^  the  Ausirians, 
and  was  restored  by  the  allied  powers  to  its  independence 
as  a  canton  of  the  Swiss  Qon/ederation,  to  ihe  great  satisfrte- 

I'  tion  of  its  inhabitants. 
The  town  of  Geneva  is  built  on  two  hills  divided  by  the 
Rhdne,  where  it  issues  out  of  the  Leman  lake,  the  higher 
of  which,  oil  the  south  bank  of  the  river,  is  about   100 
feet  above  the  lake.    The  larger  part  of  the  town  lies  on 
that  side.  The  river  fbrms  an  island  within  the  town,  which 
is  also  built  unon  and  is  a  separate  district,  joined  to  the  two 
banks  by  bridges.    The  district  on  the  north  bank  is  called 
St.  Grervais.    A  smaller  island,  at  the  very  point  where  the 
Rhdne  issues  from  the  lake,  is  planted  with  trees  and  forms 
a  public  promenade,  which  is  adorned  with  the  statue  of 
Rousseau.    A  handsome  suspension-bridge  has  been  lately 
thrown  across  the  river  to  connect  both  banks  and  the 
island.    A  handsome  quay  with  fine  buildings  has  also  been 
constructed  along  the  south  bank  of  the  river.    The  streets 
in  the  old  part  of  the  town,  or  cit£,  as  it  is  called,  ai*e  narrow 
and  steep,  the  houses  high,  and  the  appearance  of  the  streets 
rather  gloomy.    The  most  remarkable  buildings  are,  1,  the 
church  of  St.  Peter,  the  handsome  front  and  portico  of 
which  were  restored  in  the  18th  century;  2,  the  Hdtel  de 
Ville,  which  is  a  very  old  and  massive  building;  3,  the 
hospital ;  4,  the  Mus6e  Rath,  which  has  some  good  paint- 
ings ;  5,  the  College,  with  a  library  of  50,000  volumes ;  6, 
the  Botanic  Garden;  7,  the  Observatory ;  8,  the  new  H6tei 
des  Bergues,  one  of  the  largest  and  finest  in  Europe ;  9,  the 
Penitentiary,  where  a  strict  discipline  ii  enforced ;  the  con- 
victs work  together  in  silence,  and  are  separated  for  the 
night.    The  iUiterate  are  taught  to  read  and  write     There 
is  another  prison  fbr  individuals  waiting  for  trial,  or  con- 
demned for  misdemeanors  b^  the  correctional  police.    The 
town  is  re^larly  fortified  with  ramparts,  ditches,  and  bas- 
tions, but  IS  commanded  by  the   nills  of  La  Batie  and 
St.  Jean,  which  makes  it  unfit  to  stand  a  regular  siege. 
There  are  three  gates,  two  on  the  Savoy  or  south  side,  and 
one  on  the  French  or  Swiss  side.  * 

The  municipal  expenditure  of  the  town  amounts  to  about 
half  a  million  of  florins  annually,  the  revenue  being  derived 
chiefly  fkom  the  octroi,  or  duty  on  provisions  levied  at  the 
^tes.  Geneva  abounds  with  means  of  instruction.  There 
IS  the  Academy  or  University,  with  four  faculties — theology, 
law,  sciences,  and  belles  lettres,  with  forty  professors ;  the 
schools  of  drawing  and  architecture,  mechanic  schools 
(^les  industrielles)  where  they  teach  mathematics,  physics, 
and  chemistry,  applied  to  the  arts ;  a  school  for  music ;  a 
school  of  gymnastics ;  a  school  for  watchmakers*  appren- 
tices ;  besides  elementary  schools,  infant  schools,  ana  other 
schools  both  public  and  private.  There  are  also  societies  of 
arts,  of  medicine,  of  physics,  and  natural  history,  a  mecha- 
nics' society,  a  military  society,  and  a  reading  society,  which 
has  a  library  of  30,000  volumes,  receives  foreign  journals 
and  papers,  and  has  about  300  subscribers;  a  museum  of 
natural  historv,  which  is  very  rich ;  a  cabinet  of  medals,  a 
botanical  garden,  under  the  direction  of  Professor  De  Can- 
dolle,  and  other  scientific  institutions. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  name  a  town  of  equal  size  which 
has  produced  so  many  illustrious  men  as  Greneva.  The 
most  distinguished  names  are  those  of  Turretin,  Diodati, 
Tronchin,  Burlamaqui,  Godefroi,  Leclerc,  Bonnet,  Saussure 
Deluc,  Pictet,  Odier,  Tirembley,  S^nebier,  Delolme,  Dumont, 
Say,  Mallet,  Rousseau,  Madame  de  Stael.  Am  mg  the 
living  are  Sismondi,  Lullin  de  Chdteauvieux,  De  Candolle, 
Huber,  the  engineer  Dufour,  Prevost,  &c 

The  social  and  moral  state  of  Geneva  bears  still,  after  a 
lapse  of  three  centuries,  marks  of  the  strong  impression 
which  John  Calvin  stamped  upon  it.  He  found  a  society 
disjointed,  disorderly,  ignorant,  and  licentious;  and  left  it  at 
his  death  orderly,  religious,  moral,  and  patriotic  A  mere 
speck  on  the  map  of  Europe,  exposed  to  the  politioal  and 
religious  antipathies  of  its  powerful  neighbours  of  France, 
Savoy,  and  (he  Spanish  government  of  Lombardy,  an  object 
of  the  fixed  hostility  of  tbe  Court  of  Rome,  Geneva  with- 
stood all  attecks  through  the  pubhe  spirit  of  its  citizens  and 
the  wisdom  and  policy  of  its  councils.  Henij  IV.  ^  France 
protected  it  It  was  assisted  by  Bern  and  Zurich  against  the 

Dukes  of  Savoy ;  and  the  States  of  Holland,  the  Protestant 

Q2 


GEN 


116 


G£N 


pitnces  of  Germany,  and  the  government  of  Great  Britain 
interested  themselves  in  its  favour,  B^  these  means  Geneva 
maintained  its  political  and  religious  mdependenoe, and  was 
iouked  upon  as  tne  rallying  point  of  the  Reformed  communion 
in  western  Europe,  so  as  to  he  styled  hy  some  the  '  Rome  of 
the  Protestants.  It  supplied  the  Reformed  churches  of 
France  with  pastors  aua  teachers,  and  when  Louis  XIV. 
persecuted  his  Reformed  suhjects,  manv  of  them  found  an 
nospitable  asylum  within  its  Vails.  Religious  emigrants 
from  Italv  came  also  to  swell  the  number  of  its  citisens. 
Even  to  this  day  it  is  considered  as  a  sort  of  metropolis  by  the 
Reformed  or  Calvinist  churches  of  the  Continent.  Religious 
di^sent  however  has  broken  out  within  its  own  hosom.  A 
party  of  zealous  religionists  have  arisen,  who  seem  to  charee 
the  rosjurity  of  the  clergy  of  Geneva  with  having  forsaken  tne 
tenets  of  their  Reformer.  This  party  have  their  chapels,  their 
own  school  of  theology,  and  they  form  an  association  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Evangelical  Society.  Much  has  been 
written  upon  this  controversy,  and  the  clergy  of  Geneva 
have  bad  a  defender  in  the  Rev.  J.  L.  Pons:  'xhe  Doctrine 
of  the  Church  of  Geneva,  illustrated  in  a  series  of  Sermons 
preached  by  the  modem  Divines  of  that  City,'  2  vols.  Svo., 
1 83*2  The  clergy  of  Geneva  are  under  the  discipline  of  a 
synod,  called  La  Compagnie  des  Pasteurs,  presided  by  a 
moderator  who  is  changed  annually. 

By  the  present  constitution  of  Geneva  the  council  of 
state,  or  executive  of  twenty*four  members,  has  alone  the 
initiative  of  laws.  The  projects  of  laws  are  laid  hefore 
the  representative  council,  consisting  of  274  members, 
which  accepts  or  refuses,  and  may  make  amendments,  with 
certain  restrictions.  The  members  of  the  representative 
council  are  elected  for  nine  years  hy  all  the  citizens,  that 
is  to  say,  all  the  natives  of  either  town  or  territory  above 
twenty-five  years  of  age,  who  pay  seven  tlorins  of  direct 
taxes,  and  who  are  neither  paupers,  bankrupts,  nor  ser- 
vants, and  have  not  heen  condemned  in  any  criminal  process. 
The  representative  council  names  the  members  of  the 
council  of  state  for  eight  years ;  it  also  fixes  the  annual 
budget  of  the  canton,  and  iXio  the  municipal  budget  of  the 
town,  and  appoints  the  judges  and  magistrates.  The  sit- 
tings of  the  representative  council  are  public.  The  liberty 
of  the  press  is  guaranteed.  (Leresche,  Dictionnaire  Ge<h 
graphique  de  la  Suisse.) 

A  good  account  of  the  old  republic  of  Geneva,  of  its 
domestic  troubles  and  external  affairs,  is  given  in  Berenger, 
Histoire  de  Gendve,  S6nebier  has  written  an  account  of  its 
learned  men :  Histoire  Littiraire  de  Genive,  Cox,  in  bis 
*  Travels,'  has  given  a  sketch  of  its  antient  constitution,  and 
numerous  other  travellers  have  described  the  peculiarities 
of  this  little  state. 

Geneva  is  33  miles  south-west  of  Lausanne,  and  80  miles 
south-west  of  Berne. 

GENEVA,  LAKE.    TLeman,  Lake.] 

GENEVA,  a  spirituous  liquor,  which  is  frecjuently  con- 
founded with  gin.  It  is  however  a  fermented  liquor,  which 
hears  the  same  relation  to  gin  as  wine  does  to  any  distilled 
spirit  It  is  procured  by  the  fermentation  of  the  berries  of 
the  Juniperus  communis.  These  berries  consist  of  a 
peculiar  saccharine  principle  (which  exists  to  the  amount 
of  about  33  per  cent  along  with  acetate  of  lime),  and  a 
volatile  oil,  wnich  is  contained  in  ten  peculiar  cells,  which 
lie  clo.'ie  to  the  seeds ;  as  the  oil  assumes  a  resinous  state 
in  old  berries,  these  cells  may  be  easily  seen  in  such  spe- 
cimens. The  green  one-year-old  berries  contain  much 
more  volatile  oil,  and  are  to  be  preferred  to  the  ripe  berries. 
The  oil  rarely  exceeds  1  per  cent.  From  the  quantity  of 
sugar  which  they  contain  they  can  easily  be  caused  to  fer- 
ment and  yield  a  spirit,  or  vinegar  may  be  made  from  them. 
Geneva  is  a  very  powerfully  stimulating  liquor,  containing 
a  large  proportion  of  alcohoL  The  volatile  oil  having  a 
special  action  on  the  kidnies  renders  it  the  most  proper 
cordial  in  cases  of  dropsy  from  debility,  or  even  connected 
with  diseased  heart,  when  the  system  reouires  support  The 
liavour  is  attempted  to  he  communicatea  to  English  gin,  by 
adding  oil  of  turpentine  to  brandy  ;  but  it  is  very  inferior. 

GENEVRE,  MONT.    [Alps.] 

GENGIS  KHAN  was  the  son  of  a  Mogul  chief  named 
Piftoucay  or  Yesoucay,  who  ruled  over  thirty  or  forty  thou- 
»and  families.  He  was  bom  ah.  559  (a.d.  1164),  at  a 
place  called  Blun  Yuldyck.  His  original  name  was  Temu- 
mn  which  he  exchanged  for  that  of  Gengis  Khan,  t.  e, 
'  Khans,'  when  he  hecame  the  supreme  ruler  of 
is  and  Tartars. 


Gengis  Khan  was  early  trained  to  the  art  of  war.    His 
&ther  died  when  he  was  in  his  fourteenth  year ;  and  the 
neighbouring  princes  took  advantage  of  hia  *'outh  to  invade 
his  dominions.    At  this  early  age  he  marched  in  penun 
against  his  enemies,  hut  was  obliged  to  retreat,  and  lied  fur 
protection  to  Oungh,  the  powerful  Khan  of  the  Keraites» 
who  was  known  in  Europe  under  the  name  of  Prester  John. 
[Prxstxr  John.]  Gengis  Khan  remained  for  many  years  m 
the  ooiurt  of  Oungh  Khan,  who  gave  him  his  daughter  in 
marriage,  and  advanced  him  to  Uie  highest  dignities  in  his 
kingjdom.    Gengis  Khan  at  length  incurred  the  suspicions 
of  his  patron,  and  orders  were  given  for  his  arrest    lie  es- 
caped this  danger, and  returned  to  his  own  dominions,  where 
he  defeated  the  troops  that  were  sent  against  him,  and  per- 
suaded many  of  the  Mogul  hordes  that  were  subject  to 
Ouneh  Khan,  to  rebel  against  his  autliority.  Oungh  Khan 
mardied  in  person  against  them,  hut  was  entirely  defeated 
by  Gengis  Khan,    a.h.  599   (a.d.  1202),  who  obtainea 
the  dominions  of  his  father-in-law  in  consequence  of  thu 
victory.    He  next  conquered  the  Naimans,  and  compelled 
the  most  celebrated  of  the  Mogul  and  Tartar  chiefs  to  sub- 
mit to  his  authority.  Having  thus  united  the  various  horde« 
that  wander  over  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia,  he  summoned 
a  great  council  consisting  of  Mogul  and  Tartar  chiefs,  in 
which  he  was  proclaimed  Khan  of  the  whole  nation,  a.h. 
602  (a.d.  1205):    In  the  same  assembly  he  disclosed  his 
intention  of  invading  China  and  Southern  Asia,  and  pre- 
tended to  have  received  from  heaven  a  commission  for  the 
conquest  of  the  world.    With  this  object  in  view,  be  pub- 
lished a  code  of  laws,  and  introduced  stricter  discipline  into 
the  armv,  which  he  divided  into  bodies  of  tens,  hundreds, 
thousanos,  and  tens  of  thousands ;  called  respectively  in 
the  Mogul  language  Dehe,  Sede,  Hezare,  and  Toman,  Be- 
fore he  could  carry  his  projects  into  effect,  he  was  obliged 
to  defend  himself  against  thoHs  Mogul  chiefs  who  refuB<;d 
to  submit  to  his  sovereignty.  These  chiefs  were  subdued  in 
the  course  of  five  years  ;  and  Gengis  Khan  was  at  length 
able  to  commence  his  career  of  coiu|uest.    China  first  ox|ie- 
rienced  the  devastations  of  the  Moguls,  a.h.  607  (a.d.  12  lu  i ; 
but  a  temporary  peace  was  concluded  between  the   tw^i 
countries,  and  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  China  was  mar- 
ried to  Gengis  Khan.    Three  years   afterwards    another 
Mogul  army  invaded  the  country,  and  aAer  defeating  the 
Chinese,  took  the  city  of  Pekin.    The  northern  provinces  of 
China  were  from  this  period  annexed  to  the  Mogul  empiie. 

The  most  powerful  monarch  in  southern  Asia  at  thu 
time  was  Mohammed  Kothbeddin,  king  of  Carizroe,  whosi* 
ancestors  had  established  an  independent  monarchy  on  tlii* 
decline  of  the  power  of  the  Seljuke  Sultans.  [SxLJrKiD&s] 
He  ruled  over  almost  all  the  countries  of  southern  Asia 
from  Syria  to  the  Indus,  and  had  demanded  of  the  Abba- 
side  Caliph  to  be  idlow^  to  reside  at  Bagdad  as  Emtr  al 
Omara,  a  dignity  which  had  fbrmerlv  belonged  to  the  S«;l- 
juke  Sultans.  This  demand  wa^  refused ;  and  the  Caliph 
fearing  the  power  of  Mohammed,  sent  an  ambassarlur  tt> 
Gen^  Khan  to  implore  his  assistance.  Gengis  Khan  did 
not  immediately  comply  with  the  Caliph*s  request ;  but 
anxiously  waited  for  some  act  of  hostility  on  th«>  nart  of 
Mohammed  to  justify  him  in  breaking  the  peace  whicL  then 
subsisted  between  them.  This  was  soon  given  him  by  the 
murder  of  some  Mosul  ambassadors  and  merchants  at 
Otrar,  a  town  on  the  Jaxartes,  in  the  dominions  of  Moham- 
merl.  Gengis  Khan  collected  all  his  forces,  and  with  an 
army  of  700,000  men,  according  to  Oriental  historians,  ad- 
vanced to  the  Jaxartes,  a.b.  615  (a.d.  1218).  Near  thi^ 
river  he  vras  met  by  Mohammed  with  an  army  of  400.0uu 
men,  and  though  the  issue  of  the  battle  was  doubtful,  Mo- 
hammed dared  not  haxard  a  second  contest,  but  retreatd 
to  the  south  after  placing  strong  garrisons  in  all  the  forti- 
fied towns.  The  conquest  of  Transoxiaoa  was  completed 
in  two  years,  and  all  its  cities  taken,  after  an  obstinate  re- 
sistance. A  body  of  30,000  men  was  sent  into  Khorasan  to 
pursue  Mohammed,  who  escaped  to  an  island  in  the  Cas- 
pian Sea«  where  he  died  shortly  afterwards. 

In  A.H.  618  (A.D.  1221)  Gengis  Khan  advanced  eastward 
and  entered  the  city  of  Balkh,  whose  inhabitants  he 
massacred  on  account  of  the  assistance  they  had  rendered 
to  Gelal-eddin,  the  son  of  Mohammed.  While  he  was  rii- 
gaged  in  the  conquest  of  the  neighbouring  countries  ho 
sent  part  of  his  forces  to  subdue  Khorasan,  part  to  cunqi:vr 
the  western  nrovinces  of  Persia,  and  an  army  of  80.000  m«ii 
to  pursue  Gelal-eddin,  who  had  fled  into  the  countries  i»c>t 
of  the  Indies.    These  expeditions  were  successful,  with  the 


GEN 


117 


GB  N 


exeeption  i^  the  last  Gelal-eddin»  who  appears  to  nare 
been  a  brave  and  enterprising  prince,  defeated  the  Moguls, 
but  was  soon  afterwaros  conquered  by  Gengis  Khan,  who 
had  marched  in  person  against  him.  In  the  two  following 
years  the  lieutenants  of  Gengis  Khan  conquered  Azerbijan 
and  all  the  other  provinces  of  the  Persian  empire.  In  a.h. 
620  (ajx  1224),  he  again  crossed  the  Jaxartes,  and  re- 
turned to  his  capital.  Oira-corom,  after  an  absence  of  seven 
years,  during  which  period  he  had  laid  waste  the  most 
fertile  regions  of  Asia,  plundered  the  cities  of  Carizme, 
Herat,  Balkh,  Candahar,  Bokhara,  Samarcand,  and  many 
others  of  leas  note,  and  destroyed,  according  to  the  calcula- 
tion of  Oriental  historians,  five  millions  of  human  beings. 
His  empire  now  extended  from  the  Volga  to  the  Pacific,  and 
from  Siberia  to  the  Persian  Gulf;  but  he  still  meditated  new 
conquests,  and  in  the  following  year  led  his  victorious  Mo- 
guls through  the  desert  of  Grobi  against  the  King  of  Tangut, 
whom  he  defeated  and  subdued.  He  then  continued  his 
march  towards  the  southern  provinces  of  China,  but  died 
on  the  borders  of  that  country  on  the  1 0th  of  Ramadhan, 
A.H.  624  (24th  August,  1227),  in  the  sixty-fourth  year  of 
his  age.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  OctaL  His  two 
other  sons  had  the  provinces  of  Transoxiana  and  Khorasan 
assigned  to  them.  The  Mogul  princes  have  always  claimed 
descent  from  the  family  of  Gengis  Khan ;  but  his  descend- 
ants lost  all  real  power,  though  they  still  retained  the  title 
of  Khan,  in  the  time  of  Tamerlane.  [Tambrlanb.] 

The  code  of  laws  published  byG«ngis  Khan  is  still  known 
in  Asia  under  the  title  of  ha  Gengis  KhanU  'The  Laws  of 
Gengis  Khan.*  An  interesting  account  of  them  is  given 
by  M.  Langlds  in  the  fifth  volume  of  Notices  et  Extraiis 
des  Manuserits  de  la  Bibliotheque  du  Roi. 

(Petit  de  la  Croix's  History  qf  Genghizcan  the  Greaiy. 
Eng.  Trans. ;  De  Guignes,  HisUAre  des  Hunst  vol.  iii. ;  D'Her- 
belot,  Bibliotheque  OrientcUe,  arts.  Genghiz  Khan,  Mo- 
hammed Kothbeddint  &&;  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall, 
c.  Uiv.) 


GENII,  called  in  the  East  Ginn  (Arabic         ),  are  sup- 


posed to  be  a  race  of  beings  created  from  fire,  capable  of 
assuming  any  form  and  becoming  invisible  at  pleasure.  All 
Moslems  are  obliged  to  believe  in  their  existence,  since 
they  are  said  in  the  Koran  (c.  vi.)  to  be  created  by  Gfod. 
It  is  imagined  that  they  inhabited  this  world  many  ages 
before  man  was  created,  and  were  governed  by  forty  succes- 
sive monarchs  of  the  name  of  Solomon,  the  last  of  whom  was 
called  G&n  Ebn  Giln,  and  that  from  him  they  derived  their 
name.  It  is  also  said  that  thev  frequently  rebelled  against 
God,  who  at  length  deprived  them  of  their  possessions  and 
gave  them  to  man.  We  learn  from  the  Koran  (c.  73)  that 
many  of  these  wicked  spirits  were  converted  by  hearing 
Mobammed  reading  a  portion  of  it,  and  that  those  who 
continue  unbelievers  (called,  in  c.  27,  Jfrtt)  will  be  con- 
demned to  the  fires  of  hell.  Thev  are  believed  to  take 
great  interest  in  human  affairs,  and  to  be  the  authors  of 
much  happiness  and  misery  to  mankind.  (An  interesting 
account  of  the  superstitions  of  the  modern  Arabs  respecting 
Genii  is  given  in  Lane's  Modem  Egyptians^  vol.  L  283— 
290;  ii.  164—166.) 

GRNITIVE.    [Ablative  Case.] 

GENIUS,  in  its  original  acceptation,  denoted  the  tute- 
lary god  or  dsBmon  which,  according  to  an  antient  and 
common  superstition,  was  allotted  to  every  individual  at  his 
birtb,  to  guide  and  rule  him  during  life,  to  preside  over  his 
fortunes  and  destiny,  and  eventually  to  lead  him  from  ex- 
istence ;  and  it  was  supposed  that  the  variety  observable  in 
the  characters  and  capacities  of  different  men  was  dependent 
upon  the  higher  or  lower  nature  of  their  attendant  genii. 
Afierwarfls  the  word  came  to  signify  the  disposition  itself, 
without  reference  to  its  supposed  cause ;  and  lastly,  in  mo- 
dem times  it  has  been  employed,  in  a  restricted  but  pecu- 
liar sense,  to  designate  either  that  high  mental  pre-eminence 
which  is  occasionally  found  in  a  raw  individuals,  or,  by  a 
metonymy,  the  person  possessed  of  such  rare  excellence. 

Like  every  thing  else  that  is  truly  beautiful  and  great. 
Genius  has  in  it  a  something  undefinable ;  and  hence  the 
variety  of  notions  as  to  its  origin  and  nature,  in  all  of  which 
there  is  and  must  be  something  deficient  Dr.  Johnson's 
definition  ('  Life  of  Cowley,*)  is  this:  *The  true  genius  is  a 
mind  of  large  general  powers  accidentally  determined  in 
8ome  particular  direction.'  Generally  it  is  understood  to 
be  the  perfection  of  human  intelligence.  And  as  this  con- 
sists in  the  highest  possible  activity  of  the  mental  energies, 


genius  is  esaentxally  creative,  and  aU  its  productions  are  in* 
delibly  stamped  with  the  impress  of  ori{];inality  and  gran* 
deur.  It  is  at  once  a  law  and  a  model  to  itself;  it  produces 
what  has  never  before  been  accomplished,  and  which  all,  in 
all  ages,  are  constrained  to  admire.  It  receives  therefore 
its  impulse  from  enthusiasm,  for  nothing  great  can  be  ac- 
complished without  that  enthusiasm  which  is  enkindled  by 
some  dominant  idea,  to  which  all  else  is  made  subordinate 
and  postponed ;  and  its  chief  ikculties  are  the  reaspn  and  the 
imagination,  which  alone  are  inventive  and  productive. 

But  according  as  one  or  other  of  these  faculties  predomi- 
nates, Crenius  ^comes  either  scientific  or  artistic.  In  the 
former  case  it  seizes  at  once  those  hidden  affinities  which 
otherwise  do  not  reveal  themselves,  except  to  the  most  pa^ 
tient  and  rigorous  application ;  and  as  it  were  intuitively  re- 
cognising in  phenomena  the  unalterable  and  eternal,  it  pro- 
duces truth.  In  the  latter,  seeking  to  exhibit  its  own  ideal 
in  due  and  appropriate  forms,  it  realises  the  infinite  under 
finite  types,  and  so  creates  the  beautiful. 

But  even  the  most  eminent  genius  must  duly  form  and 
develop  itself  by  a  carefiil  contemplation  of  the  beautiful 
and  true  which  the  great  geniuses  of  past  time  may  have 
created  and  discovert.  It  is  by  looking  exclusively  to  this 
circumstance,  that  those  who  deny  any  original  inequality 
among  men  have  been  led  to  maintain  that  what  is  called 
genius  is  simply  a  result  of  education  and  culture ;  while  on 
the  other  hana  an  equally  partial  consideration  of  those 
extraordinary  powers  which  have  occasionally  been  exhi- 
bited in  totally  uneducated  minds,  and  under  the  most 
unfavourable  eircumstances,  has  deceived  the  zealous  par- 
tizans  of  original  genius. 

In  active  life  the  grand  and  ambitious  desigpis  of  suc- 
cessful statesmen  and  conquerors  are  often  ascribed  to 
genius,  but  they  belong  more  properly  to  the  eneTgy  of  the 
will  than  to  that  of  the  intellect,  to  force  of  character  rather 
than  to  power  of  mind. 

The  pnrase  '  universal  genius,'  in  order  to  be  legitimate, 
requires  to  be  limited  in  one  or  other  of  its  terms.  When 
applied  to  a  Fontenelle  we  must  restrict  the  signification  of 
genius  to  the  power  and  capacities  of  the  human  mind  in 
general ;  and  it  is  only  by  confining  the  term  universal  to  all 
the  subordinate  branches  either  of  art  or  science,  that  it 
is  even  allowable  to  ascribe  it 'to  the  genius  of  a  Michael 
Angelo  or  a  Leibnitz. 

Genius  and  fancy  are  often  confounded :  the  latter  is  un- 
deniably a  pre-eminent  capacity,  but  it  exerts  itself  rather 
to  imitate  than  to  invent,  and  is  devoid  of  all  enthusiasm. 

Consult  Sharpe's  '  Dissertation  on  Grenius,'  London,  1 755  ; 
Duff's  *  Essays  on  Original  €h$nius,  and  its  various  Modes 
of  Exertion  in  Philosophy  and  the  Fine  Arts,'  London, 
1767 ;  and  'Leolius  and  Hortensia,  or  Thoughts  on  the  Na- 
ture and  Objects  of  Taste  and  Grenius,*  Edinburgh,  1782. 

GENLI'S,  STEPHANI'E  FELICITE'  DUCREST  DE 
ST.  AXJBIN.  COUNTESS  DE,  was  born  near  Autun  in 
1746,  of  a  respectable  but  not  rich  family.  She  became  at 
an  early  aee  a  proficient  in  music,  and  her  skill  as  a  player 
introduced  her  to  some  persons  of  distinction,  in  whose 
company  she  had  an  opportunity  of  studying  the  manners 
and  adopting  the  language  of  refined  society.  Her  first 
writings  exhibited  a  remarkable  elegance  and  fluency  of 
diction,  which  attracted  attention,  and  excited  the  interest 
of  the  count  de  Genlis,  who  married  her.  She  was  soon 
after  entrusted  with  the  education  of  the  children  of  the 
duke  of  Orleans,  and  one  of  her  pupils,  Louis  Philippe,  is 
the  present  king  of  the  French,  in  the  course  of  her  task, 
to  which  she  brought  great  assiduity  and  zeal,  she  wrote 
several  works  for  the  use  of  her  pupils,  which  were 
afterwards  published,  namely,  *  Les  Veill6es  du  Chfiteau,' 
•Les  Annales  de  la  Vertu,'*Le  Th^tre  de  TEducation/ 
•  Addle  et  Theodore,'  &c.  These  rank  among  her  best  and 
most  useful  works,  and  they  have  had  and  still  have  a  de- 
served popularity.  After  the  French  revolution  broke  out, 
Madame  de  Genlis,  who  had  been  at  first  its  partizan, 
was  obliged  to  seek  safety  in  flight;  she  went  succes- 
sively to  England,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  and  lastly  to 
Hamburg,  followed  everywhere  by  the  suspicions  which 
her  avowed  sentiments,  her  connexions  with  several  lead- 
ing revolutionists  (among  others  with  Lord  Edward  Fitz- 
gerald, who  married  her  adopted  daughter  Pamela),  aiid 
the  slander  of  the  royalist  emigrants,  raised  against  her. 
At  Hamburg  she  wrote  a  kind  ofpolitical  work  styled  •  Les 
Chevaliers  du  Cygne,*  which  did  not  add  to  her  reputation 
either  as  an  author  or  a  moralist.  She  afterwarda  attempted 


PEN 


11» 


GEN 


a  justiftoation  of  h«r  own  oooduet  and  soiitimenti, '  Prfeit 
de  la  Conduite  de  Madame  de  Genlia.'  She  returned  to 
France  under  the  oonsulahip  of  Bonaparte,  who  had  a 
favourable  opinion  of  her  talents,  and  she  became  one  of 
bis  admirers  and  panegyrists.  After  her  return  to  Paris 
she  wrote '  De  Tlnfluenoe  des  Femmea  sur  la  Litt£rature»* 
in  which  she  replied  to  the  attacks  of  some  of  the  principal 
literary  men  of  Faris,  and  Gingueni  among  the  rest ;  and  she 
also  assailed  some  authors  of  her  own  sex — among  others, 
Madame  Cottin. 

The  pen  of  Bfadame  de  Gtonlis  seemed  inexhaustible. 
Af^er  the  Restoration  she  wrote  in  defence  of  monarchy  and 
of  religion ;  her  work, '  Les  Dtncrs  du  Baron  d'Holbach,' 
which  is  in  a  ereat  measure  historical,  and  in  which  she  ex- 
poses the  weaknesses  and  the  intrigues  of  the  so-called 
philosophers  of  the  eighteenth  century,  made  a  great  sen* 
sation,  and  roused  the  anger  of  the  freethinking  party  in 
France.  It  is  a  work  that  contains  some  curious  inlbr- 
mation.  She  also  wrote  '  Dictionnaire  Critique  et  Rai- 
8onn6  des  Etiquettes  de  la  Cour,'  2  vols.  8vo.,  1818.  When 
she  was  past  eighty  years  of  ase  she  wrote  her  memoirs. 
She  lived  to  see  the  events  of  July,  1830,  and  her  farmer 
pupil  raised  to  the  throne.  She  died  on  the  3UI  of  De- 
cember, 1 830,  aged  84. 

Besides  the  works  mentioned  aboye,  Madame  de  Genlis 
wrote  numerous  novels,  of  which  those  styled  '  LaDuchesse 
de  la  Valliere,*  <Les  Battuecas  et  Zuma,*  ou  la  Decouverte 
du  Quinquina,'  are  the  best  Her  works  have  been  pub- 
lished toother  in  84  volumes,  12mo. 

GENNESARBT.    [Palxstinb.] 

GE'NOA,  GE^OVA,  a  city  of  Italy,  situated  on  the 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  at  the  foot  of  the  Ligurian 
Apennines,  in  the  recess  of  a  wide  gulft  which  extends  m 
the  form  of  a  crescent  from  the  frontiers  of  France  to  those 
of  Tuscany,  and  which  washes  the  coasts  of  the  territory  of 
the  old  Republic.  That  territory  now  forms  part  of  the 
Sardinian  monarchy,  under  the  name  of  Duchy  of  Geneva, 
and  is  divided  into  several  administrative  provmoes,^  Geneva, 
Chiavari,  Novi,  Albenga,  San  Remo,  Savona,  and  Spezia. 
The  province  of  Genoa  is  bounded  to  the  north  by  that  of 
Novi,  east  by  that  of  Chiavari,  west  by  that  of  Savona,  and 
south  by  the  sea,  and  contains  60  communes  and  208,000 
inhabitants.  It  includes  the  town  of  Genoa  with  94,000 
inhabitants  within  the  walls,  its  extensive  suburbs  of  San 
Martino  with  15,300,  and  S.  Pier  d^Arena,  6800;  the 
adjoining?  valleys  of  Poloevera  andBisagno ;  and  the  maritime 
towns  of  Recoo,  4000  inhabiUnts ;  Nervi,  3300 ;  PegU,  3000 ; 
Scstri  di  Ponente,  3500 ;  Voltri,  7400 ;  and  Arensano,  2700. 
The  soil  is  mostly  rocky,  but  the  industry  of  the  inhabitants 
has  taken  advantage  of  every  spot  of  cultivated  ground. 
The  chief  productions  are  oranges  and  lemons,  light  wine, 
and  chesnuts.  Maritime  trade,  fishing,  and  manufactories 
constitute  the  chief  resources  of  the  population.  The  town 
of  Genoa  stands  partly  on  the  declivity  of  several  hills  risins 
in  the  form  of  a  semicircle  round  the  spacious  harbour,  and 
partly  on  a  narrow  strip  of  ground  between  them  and  the 
sea.  It  is  enclosed  on  the  land-side  by  a  double  line  of  for- 
tidcations,  the  external  one  bein^  above  eight  miles  in 
lenp:th.  The  higher  Anennines  rise  immediately  behind, 
dividing  the  waters  whicn  run  to  the  Mediterranean  by  the 
valleys  of  Bisagno  and  Polcevera,  from  those  which  flow 
northwards  into  the  Scrivia  and  the  Bormida,  two  affluents 
of  the  Po.  Upon  the  summits  of  these  mountains,  which 
arc  near  enough  to  command  Genoa,  aro  several  detached 
forts,  called  (1  Diamante,  I  Due  Fratelli,  Sta.  Tecla,  &o. 
The  appearance  of  Genoa  from  the  sea  is  truly  magnificent. 
A  succession  of  fine  buildings  more  than  two  miles  in  length 
lines  the  shore ;  numerous  palaces  and  gardens,  churches 
and  convents,  rise  behind  like  an  ampnitheatre,  on  the 
steep  sides  of  the  hills  that  rear  their  dark  and  barren  sum- 
mits above,  crowned  with  formidable  ramparts,  batteries, 
and  forts ;  the  buildings  are  suuare  and  lofty,  and  the  rooft 
are  covered  with  light-colourea  slate,  which  has  a  neat  and 
pleasing  effect.  The  interior  of  the  town  is  not  so  pleasant ; 
the  streets  are  very  narrow  and  crooked,  dark  and  steep, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few,  such  as  Strada  Balbi  and 
Strada  Nova,  which  are  entireljr  lined  with  marble  palaces 
belonging  to  the  Genoese  patricians.  Some  of  these  palaces 
have  galleries  of  paintings,  and  their  internal  decorations 
and  furniture  are  splendid.  The  palaces  Serra,  Duraxzo, 
Doria,  are  among  the  most  remarkable.  Genoa  has  many 
handsome  churches;  the  cathedral,  I'Annunaiata,  and  the 
r  church  of  Carignano,  an  among  the  finest.    The 


Loggia  de'  Baiichi,  where  is  the  Exchange,  the  BoiDti  or 
quays  of  the  harbour,  the  Porto  Franco  or  free-port  ware > 
houses,where  goods  can  be  deposited  and  re-exported  wu  Uou  t 
Dating  duty ;  the  lighthouse,  the  new  theatre  Ckrlo  Felu*«, 
Duilt  by  the  late  king  of  that  name ;  the  promenade  «>/ 
L'AcquasoU,  the  great  hospital,  and  the  former  palaco  of 
the  Doges,  are  all  worthy  of  notice. 
Genoa  is  a  garrison  town,  the  residence  of  a  governor- 

Seneral,  and  ofa  senate  or  high  court  of  justice  for  the  wbulf« 
uchy.  The  French  civil  and  commercial  codes  have  Un-n 
retained,  with  some  modificationa  For  public  instructiuu 
there  is  the  University  attended  by  about  500  students,  a 
Royal  college,  and  six  communal  schools,  one  te  each  dis- 
trict of  the  town,  with  very  good  masters. 

The  Genoese  are  shrewd,  active,  industrions,  fhigal,  and 
parsimonious.  They  are  well  calculated  for  commerre. 
which  is  their  real  element.  The  Rivieras  or  maritime  dis- 
tricts furnish  the  best  sailors  in  the  Mediterranean.  Genuev: 
vessels  trade  to  the  Levant,  the  Black  Sea,  the  Baltic,  tu 
America,  and  even  to  the  coasts  of  the  Pacifie.  In  ibM 
there  entered  the  port  of  Genoa  2857  vessels,  of  which  'iJ^j 
were  under  the  national  or  Sardinian  flag,  and  of  the»e  4 : 7 
from  the  Black  Sea,  and  648  from  beyond  the  Straitu  of 
Gibraltar,  including  47  from  America.  The  yearly  importa- 
tions amount  to  nearly  three  millions  sterling,  the  exports 
to  somewhat  above  two  millions.  The  princimd  articles  of 
export  are  silk,  rice,  hempkoil,  and  paper.  There  aie  st 
Genoa  manufactories  of  silk  stuffs  ana  of  wooUens,  and 
paper  and  cotton  mills. 

The  climate  of  Grenoa  is  healthy,  and  the  atmosphere  re- 
markably pure.  Provisions  are  abundant  and  at  moderate 
prices.  The  Genoese  speak  one  of  the  most  difficult  Italian 
dialects,  and  they  have  a  few  books  of  poetry  printed  in  it. 

Hitiory  qf  Genoa. — The  origin  of  Genoa,  or  Genua  nt% 
Roman  name),  is  lost  in  the  obscurity  of  old  traditions  which 
would  assign  to  it  an  antiquity  greater  than  that  of  Rome.  Wc 
find  it  mentioned  by  Livy  (xxi.  32),  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Second  Punic  War,  when  it  appears  to  have  been  a  town  m 
friendship  with  Rome.  Some  years  after,  Mago,  the  Cartha- 
ginian general,  coming  with  a  fleet  and  army  from  the  Bi- 
fearic  iauands  to  effect  a  diversion  in  favour  of  Hannibal,  took 
Genua  by  surprise  and  partly  destroyed  it  It  was  re«torvd 
two  or  three  years  after  by  Lucretius  Spurius,  after  Magu*4 
defeat,  agreeably  to  an  order  of  the  Roman  senate.  (Liv\, 
xxviii.  46 ;  xxx.  1.)  From  that  time  Genua  appears  to  have 
continued  in  alliance  with  Rome,  but  it  was  not  a  colony. 
Strabo  (p.  201,  Casaub.)  mentions  Genua  as  an  emp</nurn 
where  the  Ligures  from  the  interior  brought  for  sale  hide^. 
cattle,  honey,  and  timber  for  ship-building,  and  received  in 
exchange  oil  and  wine  from  other  parts  of  Italy.  After  the 
fall  of  the  Western  Empire,  Genoa  was  taken  possession  <»f 
by  the  Lang[obards,  a.d.  641.  Charlemagne  afterwards  loiA 
it,  and  put  it,  with  all  maritime  Liguria,  under  the  go«-em' 
ment  of  a  count  After  the  fall  of  the  Carlovingian  dyna.N;v. 
and  during  the  contests  about  the  crown  of  Italy  betwe«.*n 
the  German  emperors  and  the  Berengarii  and  other  claim- 
ants, the  citixens  of  Genoa  seized  the  opportunity  of  a^kert- 
ing  their  independence  under  the  government  of  etectn« 
magistrates,  styled  consula  The  names  of  the  oonsuU  U>' 
gan  to  be  recorded  from  the  latter  part  of  the  eleventh 
century.  At  that  time  the  Genoese  bad  already  renderv  x 
themselves  formidable  by  sea ;  after  having  suffered  from 
the  Saracens,  who  about  a.d.  935  surprised  and  plundervl 
their  town,  they  applied  themselves  to  strengthen  their  na^-y. 
and  having  allied  themselves  with  the  Pisans  they  drove 
the  Saracens  out  of  Corsica,  Capraia,  and  Sardinia,  betve^^n 
the  years  1016  and  1021.  From  that  time  dates  the  domi- 
nion of  Genoa  over  Corsica  and  Capraja,  and  that  of  Pi»a 
over  Sardinia.  About  aj).  1088  the  united  fleets  of  Pi^ 
and  Genoa  sailed  to  the  coast  of  Africa  and  took  Almadu 
or  Mahadia,  then  an  important  town  between  Tunis  an<i 
Tripoli  They  took  part  m  the  great  Crusade,  under  Gt..U 
frev  de  Bouillon,  and  obtained  settlements  on  the  coast  .f 
Palestine,  especially  at  Acre.  In  1146  Uie  Oenoeee  to«»k 
Minorca  from  the  Moors,  and  the  next  year  they  took  b> 
storm  Almeria  in  the  kingdom  of  Granada,  where  x\xv\ 
made  an  immense  bootv.  The  Genoese  fleet  on  this  occa- 
sion consisted  of  63  gallevs  and  163  transports  with  U,oui> 
land  forces.  In  the  year  after,  having  joinea  the  Catalon lans 
they  took  Tortosa,  which  was  defended  by  a  Moonsh  gar**- 
soiu  These  oonouests  excited  the  jealousy  of  Pisa  and 
Venice,  the  two  other  naval  powers  of  Italy ;  risa,  being  tlie 
nearest,  was  the  first  to  come  to  Uowt  with  Genoa.    Four 


G  6lt 


ii* 


OEH 


WETS  took  plaee  between  the  two  stfttes:  tbe  first  in  1070, 
which  was  short;  the  second  in  1118,  which  was  ended  in 
1 132  by  tbe  mediation  of  Pope  Innocent  II. ;  the  third  in 
1162,  which  lasted  nearly  a  century;  tbe  fourth  in  1282, 
in  which  the  Pisans  were  completely  defeated  by  sea  near 
tlie  rocks  of  Meloria,  in  sight  or  their  own  coast,  when  3000 
Pisans  were  killed  and  13,000  taken  prisoners  to  Genoa, 
where  most  of  them  died  in  chains.  Pisa  never  recorered 
from  that  blow.  In  1290  tbe  Genoese  under  Conrad  Doria 
destroyed  Porto  Pisano  and  filled  up  the  mouth  of  the  har- 
bour. 

The  rivalry  between  Genoa  and  Venice  began  to  &how 
itself  soon  after  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Pranks  in  1244.  The  Genoese  having  assisted  Michael 
PalsDologus  to  reconquer  bis  capital,  obtained  from  him 
the  suburbs  of  Pera  and  Cralata,  and  the  port  of  Smyrna, 
with  full  jurisdiction  over  those  places^  The  Vene- 
tians disputed  with  them  the  supremacy  of  the  Levant 
seas,  but  after  several  naval  fights  the  two  powers  con- 
cluded a  truce  in  1271.  After  the  Mi  of  Pisa  the  Genoese 
found  themselves  more  at  leisure  to  renew  the  conflict  with 
Venice.  They  put  to  sea  with  165  galleys,  each  carrying  from 
250  to  300  men,  and  sailing  up  the  Adriatic,  defeated  the 
Venetians  near  the  island  of  Curzola,  took  or  burnt  84 
galleys,  and  made  7000  prisoners,  including  tbe  Admiral 
Dandolo.  Peace  was  made  in  1299,  by  the  terms  of  which  the 
Genoese  excluded  the  Venetians  entirely  from  the  trade  of 
tlie  Black  Sea,  where  the  Genoese  had  formed  a  succession 
of  colonies,  forts,  and  Victories  all  alone  the  coast.  War 
broke  out  again  in  1346,  when  the  Genoese  defeated 
the  Venetians  in  sight  of  Constantinople,  but  were  Bfter- 
wards  totally  routed  on  the  coast  of  Sardinia.  Genoa,  dis- 
heartened by  this  defeat  and  a  prey  to  internal  fiictions, 
gave  itself  up  to  John  Visconti,  Duke  of  Milan.  In  1372 
war  broke  out  again  between  Genoa  and  Venice,  for  the 
]K>ssession  of  Tenedos.  Genoa  had  meantime  shaken  off 
the  yoke  of  the  Visconti.  In  tins,  the  fourth  war  between 
Genoa  and  Venice,  the  Grenoese  took  Chiog^a  and  besieged 
Venice.  The  Venetians  were  near  capitulating,  when 
Vettor  Pisani  and  Carlo  Zeno  revived  their  spirit,  formed 
a  new  fleet,  with  which  they  blockaded  the  Genoese  within 
Chioggia,  and  obliged  them  to  surrender.  This  war,  called 
the  war  of  Chioggia,  ended  in  1381. 

From  that  time  Venice  ^nd  Genoa  remained  at  peace, 
with  trifling  interruptions.     Genoa  was  exhausted  by  inter- 
nal factions.    To  the  rule  of  the  consuls  had  succeeded, 
about  AD.  1190,  that  of  the  PodestA,  renewed  annually,  and 
who  were  chosen  from  among  the  citizens  of  another  state, 
in  order  to  avoid  the  partialities  and  intrigues  resulting 
from  family  connexions.    This  lasted  with  some  interrup- 
Um  till  I'iJO,  when  two  citizens,  Oberto  Spinola  and  OberCo 
Dona,  distinguished  for  their  services,  usurped  the  supreme 
power,  under  the  name  of  'captains  of  liberty,*  which  they 
retained  till  1291.    Tbey  reconciled  the  lower  classes  to 
their  usurpation  by  appointing  a  magistrate  called  Abate 
del  Popolo,  a  kind  of  tribune  who  supported  the  rights 
of  the  people  against  the  nobles.    Foreign  captains  were 
next  appointed,  to  be  chosen  from  among  the  natives  of 
places  at  least  100  miles  distant  from  Genoa.     Afrowards 
a  council  was  instituted,  first  of  twelve  and  afterwards  of 
t^^enty-four  members,  half  nobles  and  half  plebeians.  Feuds 
and  fighting  oflen  took  place  within  the  town  between  no- 
l)les  and  plebeians,  and  between  Guelpbs  and  Guibelines. 
Both  the  Doria  and  the  Spinola  were  Guibelines,  but  having 
quarrelled  among  themselves  they  were  overcome  by  the 
<'Uclph8,  who  were  headed  by  the  fomilies  of  Fieschi  and 
Grimaldi,  and  who  exiled  their  rivals.  But  the  Guibelines  of 
Genoa,  unlike  those  of  Florence,  were  popular  among  the 
lower  classes,  and  they  re-entered  by  force.    Prom  1317  to 
1331,  and  again  in  1335,  these  fkctions  continued  to  desolate 
the  country,  so  as  to  render  it,  says  tbe  chronicler  Foglietta, 
*  frightful  desert.    In  1339  the  citizens,  weary  of  discord 
and  disorder,  instituted  a  supreme  magistrate,  called  Doge, 
^r  life,  excluding  by  law  all  the  nobles,  both  Guelphs  and 
Guibelines,  from  ever  flllin?  the  office.  [Boccankra  ;  Dogb.] 
This  lasted  two  centuries,  but  not  without  frequent  conten- 
tions between  tbe  principal  citizen  &milies,  especially  the 
Adomi  and  Fregosi,  who  proved  just  as  fiictious  and  trou- 
blesome as  the  patricians  bad  been.    Several  Doges  were 
elected  at  a  time,  some  w^  exiled,  and  others  were  forced 
npon  tbe  community  by  an  armed  fiiction*  The  neighbours 
of  Genoa,  the  Visconti  of  Milan  and  the  kin^  of  France, 

^^adnntago  of  lh«M  flrods^  M  nriow  tints  obtiuiMd 


poMession  of  G«iloA.  At  last,  Andrea  l)orla  htid  the  tnerit 
of  delivering  his  oountry  from  the  French  voke ;  and  in 
order  to  avoid  a  recurrence  of  the  former  feuos,  he  changed 
the  institutions  of  the  country,  by  establishing  biennial 
Doges,  and  councils  to  aanst  and  control  them.  [Doria.] 
A  roll  was  made  out  of  all  the  distinguished  families* 
both  noble  and  plebeian,  from  among  whom  tbe  doges, 
councillors,  add  other  officers  of  state  were  to  be 
chosen.  This  aristocracy  however  was  not  wholly  doseil 
and  exclusive,  like  that  of  Venice :  hew  fiimilies  might  be 
added  to  it  at  certain  times  and  with  certain  oualiflcations. 
This  form  of  government  lasted  from  1528  till  Bonaparte's 
invasion  of  Italy,  when  the  democratic  party,  assisted  by 
the  French,  rose  upon  the  aristocracy,  who  werQ  supported 
by  the  lower  classes,  and  a  scene  of  bloodshed  took  place 
which  lasted  several  days,  and  ended  in  the  discomfiture  of 
the  democrats.  But  the  French  Directory  now  took  up 
their  part  openly,  pretending  that  the  honour  of  the  French 
republic  was  concerned,  and  demanded  a  complete  change 
in  the  institutions  of  the  country.  A  democracy  was  formed* 
protected  by  a  strong  French  garrison  within  the  town.  In 
1799  the  French,  under  Massena,  were  besieged  within 
Genoa  bv  the  Austrians  and  the  English,  and  after  a  most 
gallant  defence  tbe  town  capitulated  to  the  Austrians,  but 
was  again  ffiven  up  to  the  French  after  the  battle  of 
Marengo.  Bonaparte,  then  consul,  gave  a  new  form  of 
government  to  Genoa,  leaving  to  it  a  sort  of  nominal  inde- 
pendence and  the  name  of  republic,  but,  in  fact,  he  made  it 
less  democratic  than  before.  Napoleon,  when  emperor,  in 
1805  required  the  formal  annexation  of  Crenoa  to  France. 
The  Doge  Durazzo  repaired  to  Milan,  where  Napoleon 
had  just  Deen  crowned  king  of  Italy,  and  stated  *  the  wishes 
of  tbe  Genoese  senate  and  people  to  be  united  to  tbe  Grreat 
Empire.'  These  wishes  were  immediately  granted.  The 
state  of  Genoa  was  formed  into  the  three  French  depart- 
ments of  Grenoa,  Montenotte,  and  the  Apennines.  In  1814 
Genoa  surrendered  to  the  English  forces  under  Lord 
William  fientinck,  and  in  the  following  year,  by  a  decision 
of  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  it  was  unitoa  to  the  Satdiniaa 
monarchy. 

Of  all  her  foreign  possessions  Crenoa  retained  Corsica  the 
longest ;  till  1768,  when  she  ceded  it  to  France.  Her  nume- 
rous and  wealthy  settlements  in  the  Levant  and  the  Black 
Sea  she  lost  aner  the  Ottoman  conquest  of  the  Easterh 
Empire.  In^  the  16th  century  her  navy  was  reduced  to  A 
fbw  galleys,  and  her  flag  was  insulted  with  impunity  by  the 
Bar&ry  privateers.  Since  the  last  peace  the  spirit  of  com- 
mercial enterprise  in  her  citizens  has  been  greatly  revived. 
The  Sardinian  navy  is  chiefly  manned  by  Genoese.  (Fo- 
glietta, Caffaro,  and  the  other  old  Genoese  chroniclers; 
Botta,  Storia  cT Italia;  Sena,  litoria  dei  Ligmi  e  dei 

GENOVE'SI,  ANIXXNIO,  bom  near  Salerno  in  171  i, 
was  ordained  priest  in  1736,  and  was  made  professor  of  elo- 
quence in  the  clerical  seminary  of  Salerno.  He  afterwards 
repaired  to  Naples,  where  he  was  allowed,  through  the 
influence  of  Monsignor  Galiani,  archbishop  of  Taranto,  to 
open  a  dass  of  metaphysics  in  that  university  in  1741.  He 
here  then  vrrote  his  *  Elements  of  Metaphysics '  in  Latin» 
which  he  afterwards  recast  into  two  Italian  works, '  Logica 
per  i  giovanetti,'  and  '  Delle  Scienze  Metaflsiehe,*  which 
had  great  success,  and  are  still  much  esteemed.  Hit 
*  Logica'  is  perhaps  the  best  elementary  book  of  that 
science  in  the  Italian  language.  His  'Meditazioni  file- 
sofiche  suUa  Religione  e  sulla  Morale,*  are  replete  wit'i 
pound  judgment,  though  written  in  a  defective  style.  In 
bis  '  Diceosina,  o  la  Filosofla  dell*  Onesto  e  del  Giustot 
he  proceeds  on  tbe  principle  that  'every  thesis  in  mo- 
rality is  susceptible  of  logifMil  demonstration.'  These  are 
the  principal  works  of  ^novesi  on  the  moral  sciences. 
We  must  now  consider  him  as  a  political  ec(  nomist.  In 
1754  Bartolommeo  Intieri,  a  wealthy  Florentine  merchant 
settled  at  Naplee,  founded  a  chair  *  of  commerce  and  me- 
chanics,* and  with  the  approbation  of  the  k^lg  appointed 
Genovesi  to  fill  it  This  was  the  first  chair  of  political  eco- 
nomy, taken  as  a  distinct  science^  establishc  a  in  Europe. 
In  the  course  of  bis  professorship  Oenoveii  urote  his  '  Le- 
zioni  di  Commercio^  o  di  Bconomia  civile,'  2  rols.  8vo.  His 
book  is  flill  of  sound  principles,  which  were  quite  new  at 
Naples  in  his  time,  although  in  some  instances  he  still  ad- 
hered to  the  Colbert  school.  His  lecttires  excited  a  pro'1  i<ri. 
ous  sensation  among  the  Neapolitans;  public  attention 
WW  $>%  onee  tvmed  to  questions  of  commerce,  arts,  and 


G  BN 


120 


GEN 


agricoltnie ;  «nd  politieal  eoonomy,  the  xtry  name  of  which 
was  hitherto  unknown,  became  quite  a  ftubionable  tiudy. 

When  in  1767  the  Jesuits  were  eiuled  from  the  kmg- 
dom,  the  minister  Tanucci  consulted  GenoTesi  as  to  a 
new  pUm  for  the  organisation  of  the  schoob  and  coUeees 
of  the  kingdom,  which  he  drew  up  accordingly.  He 
eontinued  to  lecture  and  to  write,  although  his  health  was 
ereatly  impaired  for  several  T^vs,  almost  to  the  day  of  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  September^  1769.  The  mind 
of  Genovesi  is  exhibited  in  the  following  lines,  which  he 
wrote  to  his  friend  Angelo  Pavesi  in  1765 :  'I  am  now  get- 
ting old,  and  have  nothing  more  to  hope  or  to  expect  from 
this  world ;  but  my  wish  would  be  to  leave  my  oountiymen 
a  little  more  enlightened  than  I  found  them,  and  also  a 
little  more  affectionate  towards  virtue,  which  is  the  only 
true  source  of  good.  It  is  of  little  use  to  think  about  go- 
vernment, arts,  or  commerce,  unless  the  morals  of  a  nation 
are  also  reformed.  As  long  as  men  will  And  their  interest 
in  being  rogues,  we  must  not  expect  much  from  our  me- 
thodic labours.'  A  selection  of  Genovesi*s  familiar  letters 
was  published  after  his  death,  in  two  small  volumes.  He 
edited  in  his  lifetime  the  '  Course  of  Agriculture*  of  Cosimo 
Trinci,  to  which  he  added  notes  and  a  preliminary  discourse 
on  the  state  of  Neapolitan  agriculture  in  his  time.  Ga- 
lanti,  one  of  Genovesi's  best  disciples,  wrote  an  '  Elogio 
Storico,'  or  biographical  notice  of  his  master,  and  Fabbroni 
wrote  another  in  Latin.  XJgoni,  in  his  Letteratura  Ita- 
Hanth  devotes  a  long  article  to  Genovesi. 

GBNSERIG,  king  of  the  Vandals,  was  the  bastard  bro- 
ther of  Gonderic,  whom  he  succeeded  a.d.  429.  In  the 
same  year  he  left  Spain,  which  had  been  partly  conquered 
by  the  Vandals,  and  crossed  over  into  Africa  at  the  solicita- 
tion of  Boniface,  governor  of  that  province,  who  had  been 
induced,  by  the  arts  of  his  rival  Aetius,  to  rebel  against 
Valentinian  III.,  emperor  of  the  West.  Boni&ce  soon  re- 
pented of  the  step  he  had  taken,  and  advanced  to  meet  the 
invader.  But  his  repentance  came  too  late.  The  Moors 
joined  the  standard  of  Genseric,  and  the  powerful  sect  of 
the  Donatists,  who  had  been  cnielly  persecuted  by  the  Ca- 
tholics, assisted  him  against  their  oppressors.  Boniface 
was  defeated,  and  obliged  to  retire  into  Hippo  Regius, 
where  he  remained  till  he  obtained  a  fresh  supply  of  troops. 
Having  ventured  upon  a  second  battle,  and  being  again 
defeated,  he  abandoned  the  province  to  the  barbarians,  and 
sailed  awav  to  Italy.  A  peace  was  concluded  between  Gen- 
aerie  and  tne  emperor  of  the  West,  by  which  all  Africa,  to 
the  west  of  Carthage,  was  ceded  to  the  Vandals.  This 
however  did  not  long  continue ;  and  the  city  of  Carthage 
was  taken  bythe  Vandals  by  surprise  a.d.  439.  The  em- 
perors of  the  West  and  East  made  great  preparations  for  the 
recovery  of  the  province ;  but  an  alliance  which  Genseric 
formed  with  Attila,  king  of  the  Huns,  effectually  secured 
)iim  against  their  attempts. 

Genseric's  next  object  was  directed  to  the  formation  of  a 
navnl  power;  an  immense  number  of  ships  was  built,  and 
bis  fleets  ravaged  the  shores  of  Sicily  and  Italy.  Invited  by 
the  empress  Eudoxia,  he  sailed  up  the  Tiber  (aj>.  455),  ana 
permitted  his  soldiers,  for  the  space  of  fourteen  days,  topQ- 
lage  Rome.  In  a.d.  460  he  destroyed  the  fleet  which  the 
Emperor  Majorian  had  collected  for  the  invasion  of  AfHca ; 
and  as  his  power  increased  his  ravages  became  more  exten- 
sive ;  the  island  of  Sardinia  was  conquered,  and  Spain, 
Italy,  Sicily,  Greece,  Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor,  were  plun- 
dered every  year  by  the  Vandal  pirates.  Leon,  the  empe- 
ror of  Constantinople,  at  last  resolved  to  make  a  vigorous 
effort  for  the  recovery  of  Africa.  A  great  army  was 
assembled,  and  the  command  was  given  to  Basilicus.  He 
landed  at  Bcma,  and  at  first  met  with  considerable  success, 
but  was  at  length  obliged  to  retire  from  the  province.  After 
this  victory  Grenserio  met  with  no  further  opnosition,  but 
remained  undisturbed  master  of  the  sea  till  his  aeath,  which 
happened  ai>.  477.  He  waa  succeeded  by  his  son  Hunne- 
rie.  Genseric  was  an  Arian,  and  is  said  to  have  persecuted 
the  Catholics  with  great  cruelty.  (Procopius,  De  Bell.  Fan- 
dal. ;  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall,  o.  xxxiii. — ^xxxvi.) 

GENTIA'NA,  a  genus  of  herbaceous  plants,  giving  their 
name  to  the  natural  order  Gentianacen,  remarkable,  as  or- 
namental objects,  for  the  brilliant  colours  and  brautifril 
forms  of  their  flowers,  and  most  useful  in  medicine,  on 
account  of  the  pure  intense  bitter  which  they  all  contain. 
The  species  are  extremely  numerous,  inhabiting  the  tem- 
perate parts  of  Eurone,  Asia,  and  America,  chiefly  in  moun- 
'aiuous  situations^  vnere  they  breatbl  t  purt  and  rari^ed 


air,  are  exposed  to  bright  light  during  the  abort  eumniers 
of  sueh  regions,  and  although  fixed  during  winter  in  places 
intensely  cold,  yet  are  so  well  prepared  to  resist  it  by  the 
warmth  of  their  summer,  and  so  much  protected  by  tl*« 
snow  that  covers  them,  as  to  suffer  no  injury.  These  al- 
pine plants  are  consequently  diiBcult  to  cultivate,  or  even 
uncultivable,  from  the  impossibility  of  imitating  their  i;a- 
tural  atmosphere;  and  hence  it  is  onlv  a  very  small  num- 
ber that  are  ever  seen  in  gardens.  The  prevailing  colours 
of  their  flowers  are  either  an  intense  pure  blue,  or  a  bright 
clear  yellow :  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  brillianr)  of 
the  former  from  that  of  Gentiana  aeaulis,  a  common  species 
in  gardens,  where  it  it  much  employed  for  making  efli^ini? 
to  borders ;  the  yellow  snecies  are  equally  represented  1> v 
Gentiana  lutea,  a  tall  kino,  which  thrives  well  in  a  oomcn'^n 
American  border.  As  the  various  plants  comprehended  .n 
the  genus  Gentiana,  as  defined  byLinnssua,  are  extremely 
different  in  apoearance,  and  offer  great  diversities  of  struc- 
ture in  their  flowers,  some  attempts  have  been  made  to 
break  the  Linncean  genus  up  into  several  others.  Botam^tA 
however  have  not  received  these  innovations  favourabl}. 
and  therefore,  although  Dr.  Grisebach's  new  arrangemtMit 
will  probably  be  adopted,  we  shall  still  consider  the  species 
as  all  belonging  to  one  and  the  same  genus. 

The  ornamental  species  that  are  fbund  easily  eapable  of 
cultivation  are  G.  lutea,  with  yellow,  and  G.  aselepiadta, 
saponaria,  cruciate,  septemfida,  acaulis,  and  Pneumonanthi*. 
with  blue  flowers.  Or  these  all  reouire  a  good  American  bor- 
der of  peat-earth  to  grow  in,  with  the  exception  of  G.  acaul  s 
which  prefers  the  hardest  and  stiffest  clay.  Many  <»tl>.r 
species  are  named  in  gardening  books,  but  they  genera]  Iv 
perish  as  soon  as  they  are  brought  under  the  hands  of  ti.'* 
cultivator.  For  medical  purposes,  the  root  of  Gentiana  lut<.  a, 
a  native  of  the  central  parts  of  Europe,  is  principally  col- 
lected, especially  for  the  French  and  English  markeu ;  Im.i 
Gentiana  purpurea  and  punctata  have  roots  that  are  *>iA\ 
more  bitter,  and  the  latter  is  said  to  furnish  the  chief  |ur: 
of  what  is  consumed  in  Germany  and  the  north  of  Eur  i^* 
In  the  Himalayas  the  roots  of  Gentiana  Kurroa  are  used  u« 
a  substitute,  and  the  stems  and  leaves  of  G.  cheretta. 

GENTIA'NA  LU'TE  A,  a  perennial  species,  common  sn 
the  mountainous  and  sub-alpine  districts  of  Switzerlanti. 
Germany,  &c.  Though  the  whole  plant  is  bitter,  yet  a>  tl.is 
property  is  most  concentrated  in  the  root,  that  part  onlv  t« 
officinal.  This  should  be  taken  up  in  autumn,  and  is  In.->: 
when  the  plant  is  only  one  year  old.  It  is  generally  c>  Imi- 
drical,  often  an  inch  thick  at  the  summit,  but  below  ratlnr 
branched,  of  a  dark  or  brown  colour  externally;  internal  > 
fleshy  and  yellow.  In  commerce  it  is  met  with  in  pieces 
cut  longitudinally,  from  a  half  to  one  foot  in  length.  A 
transverse  section  displays  three  distinct  circles.  The  great«;r 
portion  is  procured  from  Germany;  the  specimens  from 
Switzerland  are  generally  thicker  and  darker  coloured. 

When  fresh  it  has  some  smell,  which  is  almost  entirely 
lost  by  drying.  The  taste  is  at  first  somewhat  sweet,  then 
purely  and  strongly  bitter.  According  to  the  analvu^  (f 
Henry  and  Oaventou,  it  contains  a  principle  tenuM  Gcn- 
tianin,  which  is  cry  stall  izable ;  a  volatile  odorous  principle, 
a  greenish  fixed  oil,  a  free  organic  acid,  uncrystallizaoU 
sugar,  gum,  colouring  matter,  &c. 

Owing  to  its  saccharine  matter  it  soon  moulds  m  a  damp 
place,  and  should  therefore  be  kept  in  a  dry  airy  situation. 
From  the  abundance  of  the  sugar,  it  is  easily  susceptible  of 
fermentation,  and  from  it  is  distilled  a  spirit,  called  En- 
ziangeist,  or  '  bitter  snaps,*  much  employed  by  the  peasanu 
on  the  Swiss  Alps  to  fortify  the  system  against  the  fogs  and 
damps  of  these  lofty  re^ons. 

Yellow  gentian-root  is  often  oonfbunded  with  the  roots  i>f 
other  species  of  this  genus,  a  circumstance  attended  with  no 
bad  consequences,  but  unfortunately  roots  of  very  poisonous 
plants,  growing  in  the  same  locality,  are  of^en  Uken  up 
instead  of  the  proper  one-  these  are,  the  Veratrum  album 
(white  hellebore),  the  leaves  of  which  resemble  those  of  een- 
tian  in  their  peculiar  venation,  but  are  alternate.  vliJe 
those  of  gentian  are  opposite — the  root  is  very  d^reouond 
besides  this,  it  contains  Veretria;  and  the  A  trope  Br  I  la- 
donna  (deadlv  night-shade),  which,  besides  differences  ti 
the  physical  characters,  is  devoid  of  the  peculiar  bicter  of 
gentian,  and  acquires  a  bluish*black  colour  from  tincture 
of  iodine.  The  roots  of  Aconitum  Lycoctonum  and  Ranun- 
culus Thora  are  occasionally  confounded  with  gentian-n«.«c 

Gentian-root  is  a  pure  and  excellent  bitter  tonic;  useful 
ill  «ai  cases  of  debility,  whether  of  the  itomach  only»  or  of 


GEO 


122 


GEO 


The  Wrned  auOior  mutt  have  baoi  Mmewbat  irasxled 
with  his  deflnidon  of  a  gentleman,  at  understood  in  his 
time.  Having  defined  a  gentleman  to  be  one  who  studieth 
the  laws,  &c^  he  adds  (to  be  shortX  that  he  who  can  live  idly 
and  bear  the  port,  &c.  of  s  gentleman*  is  a  gentleman ;  that 
is,  if  he  can  live  idly,  and  if  he  can  also  do  as  a  gentleman 
does  (it  not  being  said  what  this  is),  he  is  a  gentleman. 
Perhaps  a  definition  of  the  term,  as  now  used,  would  not  be 
easily  made;  it  being  extended  by  the  courtesy  of  modem 
manners  to  many  who  do  not  come  within  the  ancient 
acceptation  of  the  term,  and  denied  by  public  opinion  to 
many  whose  rank  and  wealth  do  not  make  up  for  the  want 
of  ot her  qualifications. 

GRNTOOS.    [HiWDtJSTAN.] 

GENUS,  in  physics,  signifies  a  multitude  or  class  of 
objects  possessing  some  common  quality  or  qualities:  in 
logic  it  denotes  the  material  part  of  the  definition. 

when  we  direct  our  attention  to  a  particular  object,  we 
discover  under  its  apparent  unity  a  great  variety  of  cha- 
racters and  qualities ;  and,  upon  an  examination  of  several 
objects,  we  observe  many  points  of  agreement  and  difierence 
between  them.  By  the  power  which  we  possess  of  concen- 
trating our  faculties,  we  are  enabled  to  consider  these  mu- 
tual relations  and  resemblances  without  any  regard  to  their 
differences :  we  as  it  were  draw  the  one  away  fron^  the  other ; 
in  short,  we  abstract  them. 

Now  by  abstraction  we  may  either  confine  our  view  to  a 
quality  inherent  in  some  object  independently  of  that 
object;  or  else,  neglecting  the  many  points  of  disagreement 
which  exist  between  a  number  of  objects,  we  may  seize 
upon  the  qualities  that  belong  to  all  in  common,  in  order  to 
combine  them  into  a  single  idea.  In  the  former  case 
the  notion  is  simply  abstract ;  in  the  latter  it  is  abstract 
and  general ;  and  the  multitude  of  objects  to  which  we 
apply  the  general  notion  or  common  term  constitutes  a 

genui. 

In  this  operation  we  may  proceed  continually  by  neglect- 
ing in  succession  a  greater  number  of  differences,  and  com- 
prising under  the  common  denomination  fewer  points  of 
agreement  and  resemblance.  In  this  manner  we  form  a 
series  of  notions  or  genera  of , higher  and  lower  order,  until 
we  ultimatelv  arrive  at  the  highest  possible— that  of  bein^. 
In  this  co-ordination  of  genera,  every  intermediate  genus  is 
called  a  subaltern  genus  or  species,  being  such  in  respect  of 
different  other  terms ;  for  that  of  which  a  hieher  genus  is 
predicated  is  called  a  species,  while  relatively  to  all  lower 
species  it  is  itself  a  genus.  Lastly,  that  which  is  not  con- 
tained under  any  higher,  is  called  the  iummum  genui,  and 
that  under  which  inaividuals  only  are  comprised  is  usually 
called  the  injlma  species. 

These  general  notions  and  genera  are  the  principles  of 
classification  and  arrangement,  and  without  them  tho  know- 
ledge of  facts  and  nature  itself  would  be,  if  not  absolutely  im- 
possible, at  best  a  confused  mass  of  conceptions  and  objects 
without  beauty,  order,  or  coherence.  But  at  the  same  time 
that  we  thus  admit  the  utility  of  such  general  notions,  we 
must  remember  that  they  are  purely  relative  to  human 
science  and  its  objects ;  that  even  as  such  they  are  imper- 
fect, and  very  far  n-om  conveying  an  adequate  expression  of 
the  truth  of  nature,  wherein  there  is  nothing  really  cor- 
responding to  them,  but  only  a  something  in  the  individual 
objects  from  which  we  derive  them,  which  not  only  is  the 
cause  and  the  occasion  of  our  forming  them,  but  also  trans- 
ferring to  them,  as  it  were,  a  part  of  its  own  verity  and 
existence,  justifies  us  in  according  to  them  our  confidence 
in  science  and  action. 

GEOBDELLA.    (Zoology.)    [Lbbch.] 

GEOCENTRIC  (having  the  earth  as  centre),  a  term 
applied  to  the  place  of  a  planet,  as  seen  Arom  the  centre  of 
the  earth,  in  opposition  to  its  heliocentric  place,  as  seen 
from  the  centre  of  the  sun.  [Parallax.] 

GEOCICHLA,  a  genus  of  birds  established  by  Mr. 
Gould  for  a  pretty  species  resembling  the  Redbreast  {Eri- 
thacui  Bubecuia,  Swainson).  It  belongs,  he  observes,  to  an 
interesting  group  which  was  first  characterized  by  M.  Kuhl, 
and  of  which  tne  Society's  collection  possesses  four  well- 
marked  species.     (Zoo/.  Proc,  1836.) 

GBOCXX:iHLIDES,  Latreille's  name  for  the  shell-snails : 
TYachilipodee  colimach  of  Lamarck;  Limadnie  of  De 
niainville ;  Limacwi  of  De  F6russac. 

"rSCVDESY  IS  that  branch  of  applied  mathematics 
;h  determines  the  figures  and  areas  of  largo  portions  of 
earth's  surfeoe,  the  general  figure  of  the  eartn,  and  the 


^•nations  of  the  xntentitjr  of  granty  in  diftreiit  MgisM»  hf 
means  of  direct  observation  and  measurement 

Some  of  the  antient  philosophers,  who  lived  several  cen- 
turies before  the  Christian  SBra,  were  acquainted  with  the 
nearly  spherical  form  of  the  ^lobe,  and  even  devised  me- 
thods for  measuring  approximately  a  meridional  circum- 
ferenoe  [Ebatosthxnx^*  The  Arabs  long  afterwards  pur- 
sued the  same  object,  and  the  Caliph  Almamoun,  in  a.d. 
814,  ordered  the  measurement  of  a  degree  in  the  plains  ff 
Mesopotamia,  an  example  which,  after  another  long  intenaU 
was  imitated  by  Snellius  in  Holland,  Norwood  in  Eudlan'i, 
and  by  several  French  and  Spanish  mathematicians.  Richer 
observed  a  variation  in  the  length  of  the  seconds*  pendulum 
when  sent  to  Cayenne  by  the  French  academy  of  sciencvt, 
the  true  cause  of  which  phsenomenon  was  explained  by 
Newton;  for  the  centrifugal  force  arising  from  the  earth's 
rotation  round  its  axis  in  twenty«-four  hours  is  directly  (•!>- 
posed  to  the  force  of  gravity  at  the  equator,  and  m  other 
latitudes  the  part  of  this  force  which  acts  in  the  directum  uf 
the  plumb-line  is  nearly  proportional  to  the  square  of  tin* 
cosine  of  the  latitude.  He  has  also  proved  in  his  'Principle* 
that  a  uniform  lluid  spheroid,  in  which  the  ratio  of  the  cen- 
trifugal force  to  the  attraction  at  the  surface  was  the  same 
as  in  the  earth,  would  be  in  equilibrium  when  the  axis  of 
revolution  was  less  than  the  equatorial  diaqieter  by  l-23Uth 
of  the  latter.  From  that  time  measurements  have  been  un- 
dertaken under  the  directions  of  the  various  governments 
of  Europe,  to  determine  if  the  globe  were  really  flattened  st 
the  poles,  and  also  for  the  purpose  of  forming  exact  nia{/s 
with  respect  to  the  latitude,  longitude,  and  altitude  abu>  c 
the  level  of  the  sea,  of  places  in  their  respective  dominion* : 
and  lastly,  the  French  have  deduced  their  legal  metre  of 
length  from  the  measurement  of  a  particular  meridian 
arc.  Jacobi  has  lately  shown  that  a  revolving  fluid  eUii»- 
soid,  having  three  unequal  axes,  may  also  present  a  surfa^  e 
of  equilibrium. 

The  result  of  so  many  geodetic  enterprises  has  iK>t  Iw'on 
as  successful  as  could  be  wished.  Some  of  the  earliest  at- 
tempts by  the  French  were  faulty  in  computation,  and  (ra%e 
results  directly  contrary  to  Newton's  theory,  and  iome  aM« 
mathematicians  of  that  day  appear  to  have  been  misled  b « 
a  feeling  akin  to  envy,  to  the  extent  of  supporting  tlu-^^ 
false  conclusions  by  plausible  reasonings.  The  error  of  that 
survey  has  been  since  discovered,  and  ul  the  methods  w  Uk  L 
have  been  employed  in  the  numerous  trials  undertaken  m 
this  and  the  last  century  agree  in  provins  that  the  polar  ax  .^ 
of  the  earth  is  shorter  than  the  equatorifd  bv  about  l-30(Mh . 
but  they  have  served  at  the  same  time  to  nemonstrate  ihu: 
the  earth  is  not  a  spheroid,  that  it  la  not  a  solid  of  reviilu- 
tion,  and  that  the  fibres  of  the  northern  and  southen. 
hemispheres  are  dissimilar.  Hence  if  we  suppose  a  >«>lhi 
of  revolution  having,  its  axis  in  the  same  direction  as  that  U 
the  earth,  and  osculating  the  surface  of  the  latter,  the  e\* 
centrici^  of  this  spheroid  varies  both  with  the  latitude  and 
the  longitude  of  the  place. 

If  the  materials  which  compose  the  solid  mass  of  the 
earth  had  equal  capacities  for  heat  and  became  liquid  at  eq  u.  I 
temperatures,  the  spheroid  of  revolution  would  roo»t  yi^ 
bably  be  the  figure  assumed  at  the  epoch  when  the  cuuit;.^ 
of  the  whole  had  rendered  it  solid.    Such  however  i:»  i. 
the  case ;  a  great  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  globe  is  w  * 
liquid,  and  of  the  solid  parts  some  must  have  assumed  ti.  .i 
state  prior  to  others.    It  is  also  possible  that  the  tein|)cra- 
ture  of  space  is  variable  within  the  extent  of  the  solar  s\  •- 
tem,  and  therefore  the  conditions  for  the  cooling  of  ti  t 
northern  and  southern  hemispheres  may  be  different,  ui   . 
a  very  small  difference  would  siifiice  to  produce,  in  a  I>i»^- 
series  of  ages,  a  marked  difference  between  the  leui|x':  - 
tures  of  the  two  hemispheres,  and  thorefore  a  oorre5poti<';r  . 
difference  would  arise  relative  to  their  forms.    The  i;«i»4 . ... 
sphericity  of  the  earth  cannot  be  otherwi>e  conceive*!  u  .ut 
by  its  primitive  fluidity,  and  the  irregular  cooling  cf   it- 
parts  accounts  sufficiently  for  the  observed  departures  U    *ii 
the  spheroidical  shape* which  would  have  been  otheni.^^' 
produced  by  the  attraction  of  its  parts  and  the  ccnuifij  .1 
toTce  of  rotation.  The  other  bodies  of  the  solar  system  wh 
havo  short  periods  of  rotation  present  the  analogous  a{>pv.ir- 
ance  of  unequal  axes»  theequatori^  axis  being  al«a}»  tl  o 
longer. 

In  the  trigonometrioid  survey  of  portions  of  the  ear;}i*« 
surface,  the  extent  or  area  may  be  computed  more  ai«ti 
more  approximately  bv  the  suppositions  of  such  purt.  •.« 
being  plane*  spherical*  spheroidical,  and  lastly  of  b««it^ 


&£  o 


128 


GEO 


fioineident  with  tbe  ocenlating  spheroid.  We  i^hidl  now  ex- 
plain the  manner  in  which  geodetic  measurements  are 
conducted,  and  thetarious  corrections  and  reductions  which 
it  is  necessary  to  apply  to  the  principal  calculations. 

In  Older  to  measure  an  arc  of  the  meridian,  a  series  of 
stations  are  chosen  near  it  in  the  most  advantageous  posi- 
tions which  the  locality  will  permit ;  the  lines  which  suc- 
cessively connect  those  stations  form  a  series  of  triangles,  in 
each  of  which,  if  one  side  and  two  angles,  or  two  sides  and 
one  angle,  are  known,  the  remaining  sides  and  angles  are 
determinahle  by  trigonometry ;  and  if  one  extended  line  con- 
nected with  the  triangles,  and  called  a  base  of  verification, 
be  measured,  it  serves  at  the  different  stages  of  the  opera- 
tion to  detect  any  small  errors  which  may  have  crept  into 
the  calculations.  The  stations  should  be  so  chosen  that  the 
triangles  should  be  as  nearly  equilateral  as  possible,  for 
then  the  errors  of  observation  in  the  angles  have  the  least 
induence  in  producing  corresponding  errors  in  the  sides 
opposed  to  them.  The  measurement  of  the  angles  is  effected 
by  a  theodolite,  to  which  one  or  more  teleseopes  are  at- 
tached, with  circles  or  ares  accurately  graduated  and  ac- 
companied by  a  vernier.  The  French,  in  the  great  survey 
hctvreen  Dunkeraue  and  Barcelona,which  was  conducted  by 
Delambre  and  Mechain,  employed  Borda's  repeating  circle ; 
while,  in  the  English  and  Insh  survev,  a  zenith  sector,  con- 
structed by  Ramsden  expressly  for  tnis  purpose,  was  used. 
It  is  of  ^eat  importance  that  the  telescopes  should  have  a 
motion  m  azimuth  as  well  as  a  vertical  motion.  In  a 
Memoir  on  the  Doctrine  of  Chances  applied  to  geodetic 
operations  ('Ck)nnaissancedes  Terns,'  1820,  p.  422),  Laplace 
shows  that  it  is  in  general  an  advantage  to  have  the  series 
composed  of  as  few  triangles  as  possible,  and  yet  in  the  sur- 
veys we  have  mentioned  a  great  number  were  employed 
without  producing  on  an  extended  base  any  considerable 
error,  when  a  country  is  deficient  in  spires,  towers,  or 
other  lofty  edifices,  situated  conveniently  for  stations,  arti- 
ficial ones  are  easily  raised,  and  if  illuminated  at  the  top 
ind  provided  with  parabolic  reflectors  directed  towards  the 
cbserver,  these,  \/hen  employed  by  night,  are  found  emi- 
nently successful.  Care  must  however  be  taken  that  this 
station  be  estimated  at  the  foot  of  the  vertical  passing  through 
the  object  observed,  and  corrections  must  be  applied  for  any 
eccentricity  in  the  position  of  the  telescope,  or  error  in  its 
line  of  coliimation.  The  angles  observed  not  being  in  the 
horizon,  must  be  reduced  to  it  by  a  formula  given  in  most 
treatises  on  spherical  trigonometry.  (Woodhouse's  Trigon., 
Appendix.)  M.  Delambre  again  reduced  the  latter  angles 
to  the  angles  between  the  chords  of  the  spherical  area 
between  the  stations,  and  therefore  his  series  corresponded 
to  the  edges  and  fiices  of  an  inscribed  polyhedron.  {Bcue 
du  Sysieme  Mctrique,) 

The  three  angles  of  any  triangle  in  the  series  when  added 
together  are  always  greater  than  two  right  angles,  which  is 
a  known  property  of  every  spherical  triangle ;  but  M.  Le- 
gendre  has  uiown  that  they  may  be  treated  as  plane  trian- 
gles by  taking  from  each  angle  the  third  part  of  the  excess 
of  the'  sum  above  two  right  angles ~ a  theorem  of  great  use 
in  geodesy,  and  which,  as  the  same  mathematician  has 
proved,  mav  be  extended  to  spheroidical  or  other  triangular 
portions  of'^curved  surfaces. 

It  happens  not  unfiequently  that  the  mstrument  cannot 
be  place!  at  the  very  centre  of  the  station  which  forms  the 
true  angular  point  of  the  particular  triangle  in  the  series  ; 
by  placing  it  as  near  to  the  centre  as  the  observer  oonve- 
nieutly  can,  b  small  correction,  which  is  easily  calculated, 
will  reduce  the  observed  angles  to  those  which  would  have 
been  observed  had  the  centre  been  the  point  of  observation : 
this  correction  is  called  the  reduction  to  the  centre,  (De- 
lambre, Diterm.  dun  Arc  du  Mtrid,^  p.  24.)  A  similar  cor- 
rection must  be  applied  when  the  observed  object  is  a  tower 
with  a  polygonal  base.  Another  source  of  error  is  the  ob- 
lique illumination  of  the  observed  object,  which  it  is  most 
important  to  correct,  many  of  the  surveys  of  the  last  cen- 
tury being  fiiulty  bv  the  observer  either  disregarding  or 
bv^>ing  ignorant  of  tne  change  of  apparent  position  which 
is  thus  produced. 

Tbe  actual  measurement  of  the  bases  is  one  of  the  most 
delicate  operation  in  geodesy,  and  requires  the  greatest 
precaution  ;  it  is  best  that  they  should  be  as  long  as  pos- 
sible and  chosen  on  level  ground,  or  at  least  that  tney  may 
be  in  vertinl  planes,  so  as  to  correspond  to  arcs  of  a  great 
circle  when  the  earth  is  regarded  as  spherical.  But  the  great 
difficulty  is  to  detennine  their  lengths  in  referenee  to  a  fixed 


unit  of  length ;  for  whateter  material  may  be  employed  for 
the  chain  or  rod  of  measurement,  the  variations  of  tenQperft- 
ture  will  produce  sensible  alterations  in  their  length.  Thesa 
indications  must  be  reduced  to  a  fixed  state  of  the  thermo- 
meter, and  if  they  are  of  a  nature  to  be  affected  by  mois- 
turOr  it  wiL  oe  necessary  also  to  make  a  correction  for  the 
hygrometric  state  of  the  atmosphere.  The  French  employed 
for  rods  a  species  of  metallic  thermometer  consisting  of  a 
copper  rod  placed  on  one  of  platinum,  which  had  precisely  the 
same  length  at  a  known  temperature ;  as  these  metals  ex- 
panded unequally  by  heat,  the  difference  easily  indieated 
the  proper  correction :  the  English  in  the  late  survey  first 
employed  glass  at  Hounslow-heath,  and  afterwards  also 
steel  rods,  and  applied  the  correction,  for  temperature,  which 
was  small  in  the  former  case.  The  following  table  gives  the 
proper  corrections  for  the  materials  generally  used ;  it  must 
be  nowever  remembered  that  the  linear  dilatation  is  not 
always  the  same  in  the  three  dimensions  of  a  body :— « 

Linear 
DlUUtioQ. 

*00001, 72244 


•00001,86671  I  T?«,.^„«  j^,,«^ 


Names  of  Sulistanoei. 

Copper    •     •     •     . 

Brass.     .... 

Soft  iron,  wrought  . 

Glass  tube,  without  lead  '00000,87572 

Platina    •     .     .     •       -00000,85655 

Sometimes  it  is  impracticable  to  have  a  base  coincident 
with  a  single  geodetic  line,  as  was  the  case  in  the  instances 
of  the  bases  atMelun  and  Perpignan ;  when  accurately  mea- 
sured they  are  to  be  projectea  on  a  horizoutal  plane  by  mul- 
tiplying them  by  the  cosine  of  their  inclination  to  the  horixon, 
which  being  a  very  small  angle,  it  sufiices  to  subtract  a 
small  quantity  proportional  to  the  square  of  this  angle. 

0* 
(Cos.  9=1  —  -  when  0  is  small.) 

General  Roy  in  1784  measured  a  base  of  five  mfles  on 
Hounslow-heath,  reducing  his  observations  to  the  level  of 
the  sea  and  a  temperature  of  62"^  Fahrenheit,  and  formed 
a  series  of  triangles  between  Greenwich  and  Dover.  After 
his  death  (I790)t  Colonel  Mudge  extended  it  to  Dunnose  in 
the  Isle  of  Wight ;  a  verification-base  being  measured  on 
Salisbury  Plain ;  and  the  same  great  siirVey  has  been  ex- 
tended to  Ireland  and  Scotland  under  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Colbv,  bv  whom  a  base  of  seven  miles  was  measured  near 
Lonaonderry. 

The  irregular  figure  of  the  earth  \a  the  cause  that  the 
geodetic  meridian  is  not  a  plane  curve.  If  through  a  point 
on  the  earth's  surface  and  the  axis  of  the  earth  a  plane  be 
drawn,  this  plane  intersects  the  celestial  sphere  in  a  great 
circle,  which  is  the  celestial  meridian  of  the  place.  Con- 
ceive verticals  to  be  drawn  parallel  to  this  plane  ;  the  points 
where  these  verticals  meet  the  irregular  surface  of  the  earth 
have  evidently  a  common  celestial  meridian,  and  since  the 
radius  of  this  circle  is  indefinitely  great,  the  locus  of  all  these 
points  forms  a  geodetic  line.  If  another  section  of  the  sur- 
fiice  be  taken  perpendicular  to  this,  the  radii  of  curvatura 
of  these  two  curves  at  their  common  intersection  are  suffi. 
cient  to  give  that  of  any  other  section  made  through  the 
same  point  by  a  plane  of  known  inclination  to  either,  what- 
ever be  the  figure  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  the  sum  of  the 
curvatures  of  any  two  rectangular  sections  through  the 
same  point  is  constant.  The  geodetic  line  possesses  the 
singular  property  of  being  the  wortest  route  between  any 
two  points  taken  in  it ;  the  equations  to  this  curve  of  dou- 
ble curvature  may  therefore  be  found  either  by  the  differen- 
tial calculus,  if  we  consider  the  points  of  which  it  is  the 
locus,  or  by  the  calculus  of  variations,  if  we  regard  the 
above-mentioned  property.  When  the  surface  is  one  of 
revolution,  this  line  is  in  the  plane  of  the  celestial  meridian 
of  the  place,  and  is  the  same  as  the  curve  of  revolution ; 
but  as  it  is  not  a  plane  cmrve,  it  follows  that  the  earth  is 
not  a  solid  of  this  nature. 

The  refraction  of  light  by  the  atmosphere  is  very  great  when 
the  visual  ray  is  nearly  horizontal ;  and  hence  arise  great 
errors  in  the  measurement  of  angles,  whether  the  observed 
objects  are  in  the  same  level  or  not.  These  errors  are  geiierally 
remedied  by  an  empirical  law  for  terrestrial  refraction,  but 
all  such  laws  fail  to  apply  in  the  varied  states  of  rarefection 
or  of  moisture  in  which  the  lower  strata  of  the  atmosphere 
are  found ;  the  best  remedy  is  to  seize  the  most  propitious 
opportunities,  when  the  heat  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  has 
undergone  no  sudden  changes,  and  when  the  atmosphere 
is  fiur  and  free  ftom  fogs. 


GEO 


124 


GEO 


All  the  iveceding  conrectioiift  being  made  so  u  to  ensure 
the  accuracy  of  the  obtfervationa*  it  ia  necessary  to  reduce  all 
to  one  level :  for  this  level  the  mean  surface  of  the  sea»  be- 
tween iu  ebb  and  tide,  or  thai  which  would  be  its  level  if 
there  were  no  tide,  is  selected.  The  barometer  must  then 
be  used  to  determine  the  altitude  of  the  place  of  observation 
above  this  level,  and  a  formula  given  by  Laplace,  and  in- 
serted in  most  treatises  on  hydrostatics,  being  applied*  will 
give  the  altitude  of  the  place,  which  with  iU  latitude  and 
longitude  are  all  the  co-ordinates  necessary  to  determine  its 
position.  The  preceding  remarks  are  probably  sufficient  to 
give  an  idea  of  all  the  difficulties  and  delicate  processes 
necesiiary  for  an  exact  trigonometrical  survey. 

The  results  of  tlie  most  careful  geodetic  measurements 
show  that  the  earth  is  compressed  at  the  poles  and  extended 
at  the  equator.  The  lengths  of  a  degree  diminish  regularly 
in  the  following  different  countries,  to  which  we  have  annexed 
the  names  of  the  surveyors:  Sweden,  Melanderhielm ; 
England,  Mudge ;  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Lacaille ;  France, 
Delambre ;  Italy, Boscovich;  Pennsylvania,  Mason;  Peru, 
Bouguer;  India,  Lambton:  but  in  distances  which  are 
small  compared  with  the  surfiuse  of  the  earth,  the  alteration 
in  the  length  of  the  de^^rees  is  very  irregular,  as  is  strikingly 
manifested  by  the  English  base  of  General  Roy,  connected 
with  the  French  of  Delambre  prolonged  by  Biot  and  Arago. 

Anotlier  method  has  been  adopted  to  determine  the 
ellipticity  of  the  earth  by  means  of  a  seconds*  pendulum, 
which,  as  well  as  direct  measurement,  indicates  the  llatteu- 
ing  of  the  earth  towards  the  poles.  The  following  table  is 
taken  from  the  '  M^canique  Celeste,*  tom.  ii.  No.  42 ;  the 
latitudes  are  expressed  in  grades,  and  the  length  of  the 
pendulum  at  Paris  is  adopted  as  the  umt ;  the  seconds  are 
centesimal  and  of  mean  time: — 


VUcfot 

Length  of 

Nam*  of 

Obkcrvatioo. 

Ulltttde. 

PeDdolttn. 

Obscnrator. 

Equator 

.     000 

0-99669 

Bouguer. 

Porto  Bello 

.   10-61 

0-99689 

Id. 

Pondich6ry 

•   13-25 

0-99710 

Le  Gen  til. 

Jamaica 

.   20*00 

0-99745 

Campbell. 

Cage  of  Good|3,.„ 

0*99877 

LaCaille. 

Toulouse 

.  -:8-'14 

099950 

Darquier. 

Vienna 

.   53-57 

0-99987 

Liesganig. 

Paris 

.   54-26 

1-00000 

Bouguer. 

Grotha      • 

.   56-63 

1-00006 

Zach. 

London    . 

.   57-22 

1-00018 

•     •     • 

Arengsberg  .  64-72  1-00074  Grisschow. 

Petersburg    .  66*60  1 '00 101  Mallet 

Lapland         .  74*22  1-00137  Academicians. 

By  employing  the  method  of  least  squares,  and  assuming 
the  figure  of  the  earth  to  be  nearly  spheroidical,  Mathieu  has 
deduced  from  «these  observations  ^§  as  the  fraction  which 
expresses  the  eccentricity ;  the  theory  of  the  lunar  inequali- 
ties make  it  to  be  , ,  which  differs  but  little  from  the  former, 
and  still  less  from  that  w^hich  corresponds  to  the  southern 
hemisphere:  the  English  observations  would  give  ^. 

In  the  '  Philosophical  Transactions '  from  the  year  1819 
to  1830,  may  be  found  the  experiments  on  the  length  of  the 
ixsndulum  by  Captains  Kater,  Sabine,  Foster,  and  Mr.  Fal- 
lows ;  an  account  of  which,  together  with  those  of  Freycinet 
and  Duperrey,  is  inserted  in  the  7th  volume  of  the  'Me- 
moirs of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,*  by  Mr.  Baily. 
Besides  the  works  already  quoted,  the  reader  may  consult 
with  advantage  the  article  on  the  Figure  of  the  Earth,  by 
Mr.  Airy,  in  the  *  Encycbpndia  ^ietropolitaoa,*  and  the 
'  Trait6  de  Geod^ie,*  by  Puissant. 

GEOEMY'DA.    ITortoisbs.] 

GEOFFRifiA  INERMIS,  or  ANDPRA  INERMIS, 
IS  a  tree  inhabiting  the  tropical  parts  of  America,  and 
yielding  a  bark,  wiUi  emetic,  dmstic,  purgative,  and  nar- 
cotic properties  and  in  large  doses  poisonous.  It  acts  as  a 
powerful  anthelmintic.  The  leaves  are  pinnate,  and  covered 
with  a  rusty  down;  the  leaflets  are  oblong-lanceolate,  or 
ovate-lanceolate,  acuminate,  and  the  flowers  are  arranged  in 
tonninal  and  axillary  ferruginous  panicles,  very  showy,  with 
reddiah  hlac  petals.  Legume  the  size  of  a  large  plum.  An 
account  of  it  by  Dr.  Wright  will  be  found  in  the  PMloso- 
p/tirai  Transartwns  for  1777,  p.  512,  t,  70. 

(;K0KFREY    of    MONMOUTH,  otherwise  named 
ARTHUR,  the  well-known  British  hibtorian,  was  born  in 
lown  from  which  he  took  his  name,  and  is  supposed  to 
;  reri'i\ed  his  education  at  the  Benedictine  monastery 
I  vicinity.    Tradition  ttill  poiiiu  out  a  Muoll  apaitmen 


ft 


in  the  remains  of  that  monastery  which  ii  designated  as  his 
study.  He  was  made  archdeacon  of  Monmouth,  and  on 
the  24th  Februaiy,  1152,  consecrated  bishop  of  St.  Asaph. 
Robert,  earl  of  Gloucester,  natural  son  of  Henry  L,  and 
Alexander,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  were  his  chief  patrons. 

Walter  Mapes,  at  that  time  archdeacon  of  Oxford,  a 
diligent  inquirer  for  his  day  after  the  works  of  anticnt 
authors,  is  said,  whilst  journeying  in  Armorica,  to  have  met 
with  a  history  of  Britain  written  in  the  British  tongue,  the 
translation  of  which,  upon  his  return  to  England,  be  re- 
commended to  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  who  undertook  the 
task  and  rx>mpleted  it  with  great  fidelity.  At  first  hcdividetl 
it  into  four,  but  afterwards  into  eight  books,  to  which  he 
added  the  book  of  Merlin's  '  Prophecies,'  which  he  h^d 
also  translated  from  British  verse  into  Latin  prose.  Nu- 
merous fabulous  and  trifling  stories  are  inserted  iu  the 
history,  to  an  extent  which  has  induced  some  authors,  and 
among  them  Buchanan,  to  consider  ths  whole  as  ftctiijti : 
but  others,  among  whom  are  Archbishop  U»her,  Lelai.d, 
&C.,  consider  that  parts  of  his  history  are  true,  and  that 
the  work  is  not  to  be  rejected  in  the  gross.  The  best  Weibh 
critics  seem  to  consider  that  Geoffrey's  work  was  a  vitiated 
translation  of  the '  History  of  the  British  Kings,*  writton  by 
Tyssilio  or  St.  Talian,  bishop  of  St  Asaph,  who  lived  in 
the  seventh  century.  Geoffrey's  omissions,  additions  aud 
interpolations  are  verv  numerous ;  and  his  Latin  for  British 
appeUations  frequently  very  diflScult  to  understand. 

Several  editions  of  Geoffrey's  history  are  extant  in  Latin ; 
the  earliest  is  in  4to.,  printed  by  A&censius  at  Paris  in  1 519 , 
reprinted,  4to.,  1517.  It  was  also  printed  by  Commeliuc  at 
Heidelberg,  in  folio.  1587,  among  the  *  Rerum  Bntannics- 
rum  Scriptores  vetustiores  et  pnecipui.*  A  translation  of 
it  into  English,  by  Aaron  Thompson,  of  Queen's  ColU  ^e. 
Oxford,  was  publibhed  in  London,  1718.  in  8vo.  (Tani.*.  r, 
BtbL  Briian.  Hib^  pp.  305. 306 ;  Nicholson's  HUt,  Library  : 
Chalmers's  Biog.  Did,,  vol.  xviii.,  p.  488-492.) 

Copies  of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  s  history,  in  manuscript, 
are  not  unfre<}uent  m  our  great  libraries :  several,  of  an 
age  very  near  his  time,  are  preserved  amooff  the  manuM^npib 
of  the  Old  Royal  Library  in  the  British  Museum;  ot.e 
formerly  belonging  to  the  library  of  Margan  Abbcv  i* 
believed  to  be  the  best  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  died  about 
the  year  1154. 

GEOGRAPHY  (a  term  derived  from  the  Greek  >#.^- 
ypa^iei^  geoerdphia)  is  a  science  the  general  object  of  wL;4  h 
is  to  descrme  the  surface  of  our  globe.  Its  more  sp^c  ^I 
object  is  to  ascertain  and  describe  such  physical  peculari> 
ties  in  each  country  as  tend  to  promote  or  retard  the  lucrva^c 
of  population  and  the  arts  of  civilized  life. 

The  political  condition  of  a  nation  and  the  change^  i<< 
which  it  is  subject  are  in  a  great  decree  dependent  on  ',\  « 
character  of  the  country  which  it  inhabits,  or  of  those  cx'i.  • 
tries  which  surround  it.  The  difference  in  civilization  cU- 
ser\'ed  in  nations  living  near  one  another  may  al^o  in  -s 
great  degree  be  ascribed  to  the  same  cause.  According  « 
we  find  that  as  soon  as  men  began  to  apply  themseUcs  :i« 
the  explanation  of  such  changes  and  differences,  they  wr;c 
obligea  to  look  to  the  particular  character  of  the  cuunttic-a 
inhabited  by  those  nations  whoso  history  it  was  their  oliji  -t 
to  investigate.  Geography  is  coeval  with  histoiy.  It  la  u> 
impossible  to  form  a  just  idea  of  the  events  which  have  hit  li 
most  decisive  in  the  history  of  a  nation  without  a  knowlcxl^e 
of  their  country,  as  it  is  to  understand  the  mov<;n)ents  t 
two  armies  on  a  field  of  battle  without  knowing  the  uatuc 
of  the  ground  which  is  the  scene  of  their  operations. 

Herodotus,  the  father  of  history,  is  likewise  the  futhor  <•:' 
geography.  His  geographical  descriptions  are  short  ar.d  g.-- 
neral,  but  always  cloar  and  sufficient  to  show  how  far  i  i  .o 
physical  peculiarities  of  each  country  influence<l  the  chant:  i  s 
and  events  which  he  had  undertaken  to  commemoriti\ 
When  he  found  that  a  country  was  characterized  by  strik»;  ^ 
peculiarities  he  described  them  at  considerable  length.  .\ 
instance  of  this  is  his  description  of  Egypt  in  the  se<-i '  .. 
and  his  description  of  the  Scythians  and  their  coui4t.\  l:^ 
the  fourth  book. 

There  is  however  something  vague  in  the  descriptiuri%  i  f 
Herodotus,  for  want  of  a  means  of  referring  to  the  positt 
of  places  as  determined  by  astronomical  obser\*ations.  lit* 
rodotus  indeed  was  apparently  not  fully  acquainted  wiih  tl>. 
state  of  science,  and  particularly  astronomical  know  Icd^*  «.«. 
it  existed  in  his  age.  Tliales  had  some  time  beforcr  ralrvi- 
lated  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  and  from  his  epoch  astrom  tii  v 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  Greek  phifosopheisa  aud  U<{^ 


GEO 


125 


GEO 


ill  this  science  began  to  accumulate.    It  was  however  soon 
evident  that  most  of  these  facts  lost  a  ^reat  part  of  their 
value,  fh>m  the  circumstance  of  the  position  of  places  not 
being  ascertained.    Astronomers  therefore  were  led  to  de- 
>  ise  a  method  of  fixing  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  a  place ; 
and  though  this  method,  when  compared  with  our  practice, 
was  extremely  rude  and  imperfect,  yet  it  must  he  consi- 
dered as  having  materially  contributed  to  the  improvement 
of  geography.    With  the  help  of  such  astronomical  obser- 
vations as  were  made  by  his  predecessors  or  himself,  Era- 
tosthenes formed  the  first  system  of  geography  founded  on 
a  basis  which  in  some  degree  approached  to  truth.    He  de- 
lermincd  the  geographical  position  of  a  great  number  of 
places,  many  of  them  hardly  known  to  Europeans,  but  these 
determinations  were  often  founded  on  vague  information, 
and  consequently  were  in  a  great  degree  conjecturaL     Still 
his  map  gave  a  much  truer  image  of  the  figure  of  the 
-world  than  philosophers  had  formed  before  him,  as  he  took 
care  to  sub^'ect  his  information  to  a  strict  examination. 

While  his  successors  were  slowly  improving  his  work, 
the  historians,  following  up  the  plan  traced  by  Herodotus, 
enriched  geography  with  the  description  of  those  countries 
^hich  at  Uie  time  of  the  historian  of  Halicarnassus  were 
not  known,  or  at  least  only  imperfectly  known  in  Greece. 
Among  these  historians  Polybius  deserves  particular  men- 
tion. His  geographical  descriptions  of  the  countries  which 
enclose  the  western  portion  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  are 
as  good  as,  if  not  superior  to,  those  by  Herodotus  of  the 
countries  between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Gulfs  of  Persia 
and  Arabia.  About  his  time,  or  shortly  afterwards,  it  would 
seem  that  several  persons  undertook  travels  into  remote 
countries,  in  order  to  investigate  their  physical  character 
and  to  ascertain  the  accuracy  of  such  information  as  had 
reached  them  by  hearsay.  The  most  conspicuous  among 
these  adventurers  was  Posidonius.  Like  Alexander  von 
Humboldt  he  went  to  the  then  remotest  country  of  the 
earth,  to  Iberia,  which  was  as  noted  for  its  mines  of  the 
precious  metals  as  South  America  and  Mexico  are  in 
in  our  times  ;  and  though  only  a  small  portion  of  the  in- 
formation which  he  collected  is  come  down  to  us,  he  seems 
to  have  paid  great  attention  to  nearly  all  the  objects  of  in- 
quiry which  the  German  philosopher  has  investigated. 

The  geographical  information  collected  by  these  eminent 
travellers  and  many  others  of  less  note  was  scattered  over  a 
great  number  of  works,  access  to  which,  in  the  circum- 
stances of  those  times,  was  necessarily  difficult    Strabo,  a 
native  of  Asia  Minor,  who  wrote  in  the  time  of  Augustus 
and  Tiberius,  undertook  to  incorporate  in  one  work  those 
scattered  materials  and  to  add  the  information  which  he  had 
ai^quircd  in  his  own  travels.     His  object,  according  to  hi** 
own  declaration,  was  to  compose  a  work  which  should  be 
useful  to  those  employed  in  the  administration  of  countries. 
He  accordingly  discarded  everything  which  was  only  of 
temporary  importance,  and  described  each  country  accord- 
ing to  its  permanent  physical  character.    In  a  few  words 
he  informs  his  reader  of  the  extent  of  each  country  under 
description,  and  its  chief  political  and  historical  divisions. 
Passing  on  to  the  detailed  description  of  these  divisions,  he 
follows  much  more  nearly  the  course  of  our  modem  travel- 
lers than  that  of  our  geographers.    Mountains,  plains,  val< 
leys,  rivers,  and  towns  keep  their  true  position  with  respect 
to  one  another ;  productions  and  climate  are  mentioned  in 
t'neir  proper  place.    A  few  short  observations  on  commerce 
and  the  articles  of  export  conclude  his  description.    By  this 
judicious    arrangement  the  sagacious    Greek   geographer 
avoided  causing  to  his  readers  that  weariness  which  every 
one  experiences  in  perusing  common  geographical  books, 
m  which  every  object  is  as  it  were  rooted  out  from  its 
natural  place  and  transported  to  a  foreign  spot    We  can- 
not help  thinking  that  the  method  of  treating  geography 
adopted  by  Strabo  ought  still  to  bo  considered  as  a  model, 
and  ought  to  be  again  introduced  into  works  of  this  class ; 
and  we  find  that  Charles  Ritter,  in  his  justly  esteemed  geo- 
graphical works,  strictly  adheres  to  the  plan  of  Strabo. 

Whilst  the  geography  of  Strabo  was  extensively  used  all 
over  the  Roman  world,  the  astronomical  school  of  Alexan- 
dria continued  collecting  materials  for  the  purpose  of  com- 
pleting and  perfecting  the  system  of  geography  framed  by 
Erastosthenes.  These  collections  enabled  Ptolemy  to  form 
his  geography,  which  is  hardly  anything  else  but  a  cata- 
logue of  places  according  to  their  estimated  or  determined 
geographical  position.  In  its  time  it  was  certainly  a  very 
useful  worl^i  but  its  value  Xq  us  consists  chiefiy  in  showing 


how  far  the  Greeks  had  carried  their  knowledge  of  the  suf -• 
fiice  of  the  globe.  From  the  time  of  Ptolemy  up  to  the  four* 
teenth  century  scarcely  anything  was  added  to  what  he  left 
behind  him. 

The  downfal  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  the  occupation 
of  Western  Europe  by  barbarous  nations  who  were  hardly 
acquainted  with  the  elements  of  civilized  life,  suddenly  ex- 
tinguished all  scientific  research.  Many  centuries  elapsed 
before  these  nations  made  such  progress  in  civilization  as  to 
enable  them  to  turn  their  attention  to  science.  Geography, 
which  shared  the  ikte  of  the  other  sciences,  was  however 
revived  sooner  than  the  rest,  and  the  circumstance  which 
led  to  this  was  the  travels  of  the  Venetian,  Marco  Polo. 
Though  his  accounts  were  rejected  by  his  countrymen  as 
mere  fictions,  or  at  any  rate  were  treated  as  great  exaggera- 
tions, some  German  scholars  at  Niirnberg  took  a  different 
view  of  them.  As  Niirnberg  at  that  time  was  one  of  the 
greatest  trading  places  on  the  Continent,  and  for  that  reason 
closely  connectea  with  the  first  commercial  houses  of  Venice, 
these  learned  men  soon  procured  a  copy  of  Marco  Polo's 
travels.  For  the  other  countries  of  the  world  taking  Ptolemy 
as  their  basis,  they  introduced  the  principal  geographical  facta 
contained  in  Polo*s  travels  into  their  globes  and  maps,  as  an 
addition  to  the  knowledge  transmitted  by  the  astronomers 
of  Alexandria.  But  Marco  Polo  had  made  no  astronomical 
observations,  nor  had  he  even  mentioned  the  leneth  of  the 
longest  day  at  any  place.  The  German  geographers  were 
therefore  obliged  to  determine  the  extent  of  the  countries 
which  he  had  traversed  by  his  vague  estimates  of  days' jour- 
neys ;  but  the  length  of  these  journeys  was  greatly  exagge- 
rated by  them,  as  they  were  entirely  unaoquaintea  with  the 
peculiar  character  of  Eastern  Asia.  The  consequence  of 
this  was,  that  on  their  maps  and  globes  Asia  extended  over 
the  whole  of  the  Pacific,  and  its  eastern  shores  were  placed 
very  nearly  where  the  Antilles  are  situated.  This  error  of 
the  geographical  school  of  Niirnberg  was  attended  with 
very  important  conseouences.  Columbus,  relying  on  their 
estimates,  considered  that  tlie  shortest  way  to  arrive  at  the 
eastern  parts  of  Asia  would  be  by  sailing  to  the  west.  He 
found  America ;  but  the  same  school  of  geographers  whose 
errors  had  induced  him  to  venture  on  such  a  voyage 
deprived  him  also  partly  of  the  honour  due  to  his  great  dis- 
covery. Baron  von  Humboldt  has  proved  that  the  very 
slow  and  insecure  communications  wnich  then  existed  be- 
tween Spain  and  Germany  brought  the  news  of  the  dis- 
covery of  the  New  World  to  the  geographers  of  Grermany 
together  with  the  names  of  Columbus  and  Americo  Ves- 
pucci, and  that  the  Germans  thought  that  Americo  was  the 
true  discoverer  of  the  nei^  continent,  which  accordingly  ob- 
tained from  them  the  name  of  America,  a  name  that  has 
become  universal. 

The  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  was  entirely  em- 
ployed in  discovering  the  extensive  coasts  of  America,  and 
the  countries  and  islands  lying  along  it,  and  in  the  Indian 
Ocean ;  and  geographers  were  fully  employed  in  inserting 
these  new  discoveries  in  their  maps  according  to  such  de- 
terminations of  positions  as  they  oould  obtain.  In  all  the 
geographical  works  written  during  that  century  this  charac- 
teristic is  observable.  They  resemble  much  more  the  geo- 
graphy of  Ptolemy  than  that  of  Strabo.  But  what  could 
geographers  then  know  of  the  interior  of  countries  whow 
very  coasts  were  yet  hardly  laid  down  with  accuracy  even  in 
a  few  places  ? 

In  the  mean  time  the  other  sciences  had  been  revived  and 
with  them  also  the  study  of  antiquity,  which  gave  a  different 
turn  to  the  study  of  geography  during  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. Manv  persons  well  informed  in  antient  history  visited 
Greece  and  the  countries  of  Western  Asia,  with  the  view  of 
examining  those  parts  which  had  once  been  the  theatre  of 
great  events.  Such  At>foricci/  travellers  were  very  numerous 
dunng  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  and  the  first  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century ;  and  though  at  first  they  confined 
their  researches  chiefly  to  such  places  as  had  obtained  some 
historical  celebrity,  they  afterwards  extended  their  views  to 
the  physical  character  of  the  countries  in  which  such  places 
were  situated,  and  gave  us  some  excellent  descriptions  of 
them,  such  as  we  find  in  the  travds  of  Chardin,  Shaw,  Po- 
cocke.  Chandler,  and  Carsten  Niebuhr.  These  travels 
greatly  contributed  to  the  improvement  of  geography  as  a 
science.  They  brought  history  and  geography  again  into 
close  connection.  Before  this  time  geographical  works  con- 
tained hardly  any  thing  beyond  a  dry  catalogue  of  names  of 
places,  riversi  and  political  divisions.    But  in  de^ribing  th« 


OBO 


126 


OBO 


ttfll  existing  ruiiu  of  pl»oei  celtbratod  in  nnamt  biitoiy. 
geographen  were  oompelled  to  go  beck  to  thoM  antienft 
autkora  who  had  treated  of  theee  plaoea.  and  tbua  a  nart  at 
least  of  the  geographical  knowledge  of  HerodotUB»  Polybia«» 
and  Strabo,  was  transplanted  into  our  modern  geographical 
treatises.  Thus  a  gn»t  deal  of  very  interesting  and  useAil 
maiter  found  its  way  into  treatises  on  geography,  which  had 
hitherto  been  entirely  excluded,  partly  Moauae  it  had  not 
been  known,  and  partly  because  it  had  been  considered  as 
foreign  to  the  object  of  the  science.  If  any  person  will  take 
the  trouble  to  examine  any  of  the  geographical  works  of  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  oenturies,  he  will 
find  that  more  than  three  parts  out  of  four  of  their  contents 
have  changed  in  the  course  of  100  years. 

Still  the  science  of  geography  remained  in  a  very  imper- 
fect state.  Only  a  few  spots  in  each  country  had  been  de- 
scribed with  any  degree  of  precision.  The  peculiar  eharae* 
ter  of  an  entire  country'*  and  of  its  component  parts,  had 
never  been  made  a  subject  of  inquiry.  It  had  never  been  a 
subject  of  investigation,  how  far  the  physical  eharaoter  of  a 
country  was  favourable  or  adverse  to  the  civilixation  of  its 
inhabitants.  This  has  now  in  a  great  degree  been  effected 
by  the  naturalists  and  other  men  of  science,  who  during  the 
last  and  the  present  century  have  visited  nearly  every  part 
on  the  globe.  In  course  of  time  the  researches  of  travellers 
and  voyo^ers  have  thus  been  extended  to  a  greater  number 
of  new  objects.  At  first  they  limited  their  labours  to  the 
extension  of  Natural  History,  adding  a  few  observations  on 
the  countries  through  which  they  passed,  llius  Toume- 
fort,  who  travelled  through  Asia  Minor,  Armenia,  and 
Persia,  may  be  considered  as  the  first  travelling  naturalist. 
But  by  examining  the  natural  productions  of  a  country 
travellers  were  insensibly  led  to  an  investigation  of  their 
climate.  In  their  attempts  to  establish  the  mean  tempera- 
ture of  different  places,  and  its  effects  on  vegetation  and 
animal  life,  they  soon  perceived  the  great  influence  which  a 
variation  in  elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea  has  on  both. 
Tints  they  gradually  learned  that  nearly  ^rery  country  is 
divided  by  nature  into  a  smaller  or  greater  number  of  [larta 
materially  differing  in  climate  9M  natural  productions. 
The  knowledge  of  this  fiuct  mainly  contributed  to  ^ive 
geography  a  new  character,  and  to  introduce  new  and  mi- 
purtant  elements  into  the  geographical  descriptions  of  coun- 
tries, such  as  we  find  in  the  works  of  Pallas,  Sir  Francis 
Hamilton,  and  Alexander  von  Humboldt.  What  these 
great  men,  and  several  of  their  leas  distinguished  predeces- 
sors did  for  the  countries  out  of  Europe,  has  been  accom- 
plijihed  with  equal  success  for  the  European  continent  by 
the  labours  of  numerous  excellent  writers. 

Geoanraphy,  then,  in  its  present  state,  and  in  its  practical 
application,  has  for  its  object  the  determination  of  all  those 
facts,  as  to  any  given  country,  which  will  enable  us  to  judge 
of  Its  fitness  to  provide  man  with  food  and  to  promote  bis 
civilization.  As  a  science,  its  object  is  to  deduce,  from  all 
the  observed  phnnomena  within  its  sphere,  those  general 
principles  which  enable  us  from  certain  known  facts,  as  to 
any  given  country,  to  infer  others  not  ascertained,  and  which 
indicate  what  are,  as  to  each  portion  of  the  earth,  the  proper 
objects  of  inquiry.  It  is  not  every  part  of  a  country  that 
poiisesses  equal  advantages  for  the  habitation  of  man.  Some 
parts  are  more  favoured  by  soil  and  climate  than  others. 
There  are  also  tracts  which  are  inferior  in  both  respects, 
but  by  tho  aid  of  other  advantages,  especially  those  of 
ea:»y  communication,  have  risen  to  a  higher  degree  of  pros- 
perity and  cultivation  than  many  others  in  their  neigh- 
bourhood which  are  more  favoured  in  soil  and  climate. 
No  correct  knowledge  of  a  country  can  be  acquired  unleae 
the  parts  of  it  which  are  distinguished  by  their  natural 
advantages  or  disadvantages  are  separated  from  eadi 
other,  and  unless  a  partieular  deaeriptiott  is  given  of  each, 
with  iu  extent,  and  the  proportioa  which  it  bears  to 
the  whole  country.  The  first  businois  of  the  eeographer 
then  must  be  to  make  this  separation.  His  next  business  is 
to  give  a  particular  description  of  each  of  these  natural  di* 
visions,  beginning  with  the  moat  essential  fiMst,  its  elevation 
above  the  sea.  If  it  is  a  valley,  he  notiees  ito  elevation  at 
its  origin  and  its  termination,  observing  where  its  descent  is 
regular  and  gradual,  and  where  it  declines  with  greater  ra- 
pidity. If  it  is  a  plain,  he  notices  at  least  iU  mean  elevar 
tion,  and  observes  in  what  cases  it  extends  in  a  flat  level, 
'^-~'*  in  what  cases  it  has  an  undulating  surfhce;  also,  if  a 
'er  or  larger  portion  of  it  is  oowed  with  awampa. 
description  of  the  andboa  is  IbUowed  by  tlmt  of  we 


wat0r-eottnei  or  drainage.  Alter  determining  tlie  sourrea 
of  a  stream,  and  the  direction  and  length  of  ita  course,  he 
mentions  the  amount  of  depression  of  ita  bed  below  i\m 

Seneral  aurfkoe  of  the  valley  or  of  the  plain ;  and  when  it 
rains  a  plain,  if  there  are  bottoms  or  river-valleys  fonuv«i 
on  the  sui^e  of  the  plain,  Iho  mentions  also  the  gene- 
ral extent  of  these  bottoms.  The  distance  to  which  a 
river  is  navigable  ia  the  next  object  of  inquiry :  if  therr  ore 
any  natural  impediments  to  the  navigation,  and  if  any  ftuc- 
cesaAU  attempts  have  been  made  to  remove  them.  thoM» 
facta  also  require  mention.  The  extent  of  surface  drained 
by  each  river,  or  by  all  the  streams  which  ultimate;^ 
unite  in  one  channel ;  in  other  words,  the  extent  of  cacu 
river-basin  must  also  be  ascertained.  Next  follows  tl*e 
climate.  Here  two  pointa  especiallv  are  to  be  attend*^ 
to;  the  temperature  of  the  air,  ana  the  quantity  of  nuJi 
which  falls,  and  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  As  fur 
the  temperature  of  the  air,  not  only  the  mean  annual  xcni- 
perature  is  to  be  given  or  ascertained,  but  also  that  of  tJie 
different  seasons,  and  the  regularity  or  irregularity  of  lu 
changea,  as  such  changes  generally  affect  the  health  of  the 
inhabitanta  in  a  sensible  degree.  As  to  moisture  or  raio* 
not  only  the  annoiU  quantity  that  falls  should  be  notic»<i« 
but  also  its  distribution  at  the  different  seasons.  The  cha- 
racter and  the  duration  of  the  seasons  must  also  be  obserMnU 
and  the  prevalent  winds ;  and  especially  the  effect  of  the 
seasons  on  the  progress  of  vegetation.  It  is  necessar)'  ta 
know  all  these  facts  before  a  just  notion  can  be  formed  of 
the  fitness  of  any  given  tract  of  country  for  providing  a  p » 
pulation  with  food.  And  this  c^iability  of  a  country  lor 
the  production  of  food,  or  in  other  words  its  capabilities  fi>r 
agricultural  purposes,  is  one  of  the  most  useAil  branches  of 
geographical  inquiry.  The  nature  of  the  soil  and  its  fiine«% 
for  different  productions  adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  Xsucu 
are  therefore  matters  of  primary  importance  in  a  geogra- 
phical description.  It  is  here  proper  to  enumemte  thoM 
objects  of  agriculture  which  are  raised  for  food  and  a»  ma- 
terials for  clothing,  and  the  prooortion  between  the  labour 
which  they  require  and  the  value  of  the  nroduce :  and  in 
the  next  place  such  productions  as  could  be  raised  with 
ease  and  advantage,  but  which  are  not  cultivated  to  any 
extent  Those  objects  which  form  articles  of  export,  and 
enter  into  the  market  of  the  world,  also  claim  a  notice ;  and 
also  such  iudigenous  planta  as  are  either  of  some  um  in 
the  domestic  economy  of  the  inhabitants,  or  furnish  a  cum- 
modity  for  foreign  trade.  It  is  not  the  business  of  llie  geo- 
grapber  to  enumerate  all  the  particulars  which  constitute 
tne  botany  or  zoology  of  a  district,  for  that  would  enlarge  hi» 
science  boyond  all  oounds  and  encroach  upon  the  limits  of 
others,  lue  principle  that  must  guide  him  in  determining 
how  much  and  what  he  must  include  in  his  geographical  de- 
scription of  the  botany  and  zoology  of  a  country,  will  alwn>  s 
be  indicated  by  the  question — does  the  thing  or  object  in> 
quired  after  materially  influence  the  capabiUty  of  tho 
country  as  a  place  fitted  for  the  residence  or  man  r  Bc»)dca 
the  useful  domestic  animals,  it  im  only  necessary  to  men- 
tion such  wild  ones  as  are  useful  to  the  inhabitants,  either 
by  providing  them  with  food  and  dotiiing,  or  by  supplving 
an  article  of  commerce ;  and  these  animals  only  noed  be 
mentioned  when  they  are  found  in  great  numbers.  As  for 
the  mhieral  wealth  of  a  country,  the  notice  of  that  will  be 
limited  to  those  substances  which  are  worked  for  the  use  of 
the  inhabitanta  or  for  exportation. 

In  this  way  we  conceive  the  geographer  ought  to  de- 
scribe in  detail  each  natural  division  of  a  country,  aud 
when  he  has  described  two  auch  tracts  which  are  cou- 
tiguous  to  one  another,  he  must  point  out  the  boun- 
dary-lines by  which  nature  haa  separated  them,  and  the 
obi^cles  wluch  she  has  placed  to  their  mutual  intercourse. 
If  he  finds  that  such  boundary-lines  are  formed  by  moun- 
tain-ranges,  he  baa  to  notice  their  mean  elevation,  and  hke- 
wiae  that  of  the  mountain-passes  by  which  the  dividin^r 
range  ia  crossed.  He  must  also  add  what  natural  produc* 
tions  of  the  range  contribute  to  the  sustenance  or  comturt 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  %djacent  tracta.  When  the  ran^v 
has  numerous  offsets  and  extensive  valleys,  and  con««- 
quently  oecupies  a  considerable  oart  of  the  country,  be  mua 
treat  it  as  a  separate  natural  division,  and  desoribe  it  in 
detail  like  any  other  natural  division. 

When  the  geoerapher  has  described  evcnr  natuvsl  diiisioo 
of  a  country  in  this  wa^,  and  incorporated  m  hie  descriptiun 
the  best  attainable  mformation  on  all  the  above>»eu- 
tbnod  points^wothinkthathohasdonohiidtt^fOndma 


«EO 


GEO 


eonsider  liii  labour  u  tenniimtod.  Bat  our  geographical 
treatises  still  contain  other  matter,  which  is  not  compre- 
hended within  the  above  ennmeration  of  objects  belonging 
to  the  soienoe  of  geography.  This  extraneous  matter  is 
taken  cither  fiom  statistics,  or  from  what  is  populaily  called 
natural  philosophy  or  from  history;  and  it  ought  to  be  con- 
sidered now  far  it  is  expedienl  to  admit  ssch  matters  into 
geographical  treatisea. 

As  to  statistical  Ikets  the  greatest  caution  ought  to  be  used. 
Most  of  them  are  of  such  a  description  that  they  are  true 
only  for  a  very  short  time,  and  then  lose  that  character. 
Such  things,  according  to  th^  opinion  of  Strabo,  ought  not 
to  be  received  among  things  which  are  of  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent nature.    Yet  the  knowledge  of  a  country  woula  pro- 
perly be  considered  as  incomplete  without  a  general  notion 
of  the  most  commercial  and  manufacturing  towns  within  it 
Such  towns  must  therefore  be  mentioned,  and  at  the  same 
time  it  should  be  stated  how  far  they  facilitate  the  internal 
and  external  intercourse  of  a  country.  The  political  divisions 
of  the  country  may  be  added  or  omitted ;  when  added,  they 
should  be  mentioned  briefly,  and  in  a  very  general  way. 
Good  maps  supply  any  deficiency  in  geographical  works  in 
this  respect. 

We  do  not  venture  to  exclude  entirely  from  geographical 
isrorks  all  mention  of  natural  phaenomena  peculiar  to  a 
country.  Some  of  these,  as  volcanoes  and  esrthquakes, 
thout^h  they  do  not  exercise  a  permanent  influence  on  the 
welf^  of  the  inhabitants,  are  frequently  destructive  of 
property  or  life,  or  of  both.  For  that  resson  they  ought 
to  be, noticed.  Such  phenomena  as  warm  or  mineral  springs 
seem' also  to  claim  a  notice,  especially  if  distinguished  by 
peculiar  characters,  as  the  Oeysers  in  Iceland. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  determine  how  fkr  it  is  proper  to 
describe  the  remains  of  antic^uity  in  geographical  works. 
When  the  ruins  of  a  great  city  still  exhibit  remarkable 
traces  of  its  antient  grandeur,  they  certainly  cannot  be 
altogether  excluded.  But  the  true  solution  of  these  and 
other  difficulties  of  the  kind  that  may  be  suggested  as  to 
the  matter  admissible  Into  a  geographical  treatise,  seems  to 
be  this :  these  subjects  are  tpedodtiei^  and  if  they  belong  to 
geography  at  all,  do  not  belong  to  it  as  necessary  component 
parts  of  it,  but  stand  to  it  in  such  a  relation  as  to  achnit  of 
being  introduced  or  omitted  according  to  the  taste  and 
judgment  of  the  writer,  who  in  this,  as  in  all  branches  of 
knowledge  whose  boundaries  are  incapable  of  precise  deter- 
mination, will  show  his  good  sense  and  his  clear  compre- 
hension of  his  subject  as  much  by  what  he  omits  as  by  what 
he  takes  in. 

The  political  institutions  of  a  country  belong  to  its  his- 
tory, and  not  to  its  geography,  and  ought  certainly  to  be 
excluded  from  geographical  treatises,  though  they  form  a 
necessary  part  of  most  statistical  and  of  all  historical 
works. 

The  importance  which  geography,  as  a  science,  has  at- 
tained of  late  years,  has  suggested  the  fbrmation  of  Qeogra- 
phical  Societies.  The  main  object  of  such  societies  is,  or 
ought  to  be,  to  encourage  the  accumulation  of  facts  as  to 
countries  that  are  little  known.  The  first  Geographical 
Society  was  established  at  Paris  in  1 82 1 .  The '  Transactions* 
of  this  society,  in  five  volumes,  in  4to.,  contain  very  little 
original  information.  They  are  chiefly  valuable  for  the 
history  of  geographical  knowledge ;  they  contain  complete 
translations  of  the  travels  of  Marco  Polo,  and  of  the  geogra- 
phical works  of  Abulfeda  and  Edrisi.  The  third  volume 
contains  the '  Orographic  de  I'Europe,*  which  presents  a 
tabular  view  of  the  elevation  of  numerous  mountain  sum- 
mits and  other  positions:  it  is  executed  with  consider- 
able correctness,  and  is  a  very  useful  work.  The  second 
society  of  this  kind  was  established  at  London,  in  1 830,  and 
called  the  Royal  Geographical  Society.  This  society 
publishes  annually  a  volume  of  Transactions,  under  the 
title  of  the  *  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society.' 
We  think  it  may  be  safely  asserted  that  there  has  seldom 
appeared  a  work  which,  for  amount  of  original  information, 
can  be  compared  with  these  IVansactions.  This  country 
indeed  has  greater  facilities  fbr  procuring  geographical  in- 
furmation  than  any  other,  and  the  society  has  not  failed  to 
mske  the  most  of  these  resources.  The  naval  officers 
employed  by  Government  and  the  East  India  Company  in 
surveying  various  parts  of  the  coasts  of  Asia,  Africa,  Ame- 
rica, and  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  have  made  valuable  con- 
tributions to  the  volumes  of  the  society.  The  information 
cuniainod  in  thesd  communications  is  distinguished  by  a 


eorraetness  proportionate  to  the  attention  which  their  pio« 
fisBsional  duties  requuredof  them.  Of  this  character  par- 
ticularly are  the  accounts  of  the  coasts  of  South  America, 
by  Capt.  Phillip  Parker  King  and  Capt  Fitsroy.  Various 
persons  who  have  been  sent  out  by  Government  in  a  public 
capacity  have  added  to  the  stock  of  useful  information :  as 
Lieut  (now  Oapt)  Washington,  on  the  empire  of  Marocco; 
Mr.  Brant,  on  Armenia  and  Asia  Minor «  Major  Mitchel,  on 
the  interior  of  Australia;  andoihen.  Many  travellen,  who 
had  no  intention  ofpublishingtheirobservationsin  the  shape 
of  a  book,  have  communicated  them  to  the  world  through  the 
*  London  Geographical  Journal  ;*  and  it  i^  certain  that  most, 
if  not  all,  the  information  contained  in  many  of  those  valuable 
papers  would  have  been  lost  to  science  but  for  the  existence 
of  the  society.  Though  the  annual  contribution  of  each 
member  is  but  small  {2,1.),  by  a  judicious  management  of 
their  Aindsand  the  aid  of  Government  the  society  has  been 
enabled  to  send  out  travellen  to  such  of  our  foreign  posses- 
sions as  are  yet  imperfectly  known.  Thus  Capt.  Alexander 
was  sent  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Mr.  Schomburgk  to 
British  Guiana,  and  Capt  Back  to  the  Arctic  Regions,  and 
other  expeditions  are  in  contemplation.  The  success  of 
the  British  Society  has  led  to  the  formation  of  a  similar 
society  at  Berlin  (1833),  and  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main 
(1837),  which  however,  up  to  the  present  time,  have  not 
published  any  Transactions.  A  Geographical  Society  has 
also  been  formed  at  Bombay,  which  has  for  its  object  '  the 
elucidation  of  the  geography  of  Western  India  and  the  sur- 
rounding countries.'  {,Lnndm  Qeograph,  Journal,  vol.  iii. 
1633.) 

GEOLOGY,  f  1.  Historical  Notices  of  the  Pro- 
dRsss  OP  Gbolooical  Science. — ^The  science  of  the  earth 
(as  the  Greek  words  y^  tuid  \6yoi  may  be  translated)  in- 
cludes, in  a  large  sense,  all  acquired  or  possible  knowledge 
of  the  natural  pbtenomena  on  and  within  the  globe ;  whether 
these  be  now  of  frequent  occurrence,  the  result  of  the  exist- 
ing combinations  of  physical  agencies,  or  remain  as  monu- 
ments and  measures  of  those  agencies  in  earlier  periods  of 
the  history  of  the  planet 

Some  of  these  phsenomena  are  witnessed  in  connexion 
with  inorganic  homes,  and  depend  in  a  great  degree  on  the 
laws  of  force  which  appertain  to  and  distinguish  from  each 
other  the  particles  of  matter  ;  othen  are  exemplified  in 
organised  structures  endowed  with  vital  functions  related 
to  those  structures ;  and  there  may  yet  be  distinguished  a 
third  order  of  elTects,  influencing  and  combining  with  both 
of  the  former,  and  depending  on  laws  of  force  which  affect 
the  whole  mass  of  the  globe,  as  gravitation,  or  derived 
from  extraneous  agency,  as  h'ght 

If  at  any  certain  epoch  (as  the  present  time)  the  phseno- 
mena  thus  classed  were  known  in  detail,  and  reduced  to 
general  laws,  which  trulv  expressed  the  individual  cases, 
the  actual  condition  of  tne  earth  would  be  really  known ; 
if  further  it  were  possible  to  collect  sufficient  evidence  firom 
monuments  preserved  in  the  earth  of  its  exact  state  at  some 
former  epoch,  the  variations  to  which  terrestrial  phssnomena 
are  subject  would  be  disclosed;  and  by  the  comparison  of 
several  such  surveys,  taken  at  distant  times,  the  laws  of 
these  variations  would  be  revealed,  with  an  exactness  pro- 
portioned to  the  certainty  with  which  the  intervals  of  time 
were  determined.  These  laws  of  the  variation  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  globe  at  successive  epochs,  combined  with  the 
laws  of  chemical,  vital,  and  mechanical  action,  which  are 
assumed  to  be  essential  and  constant,  independent  of  time, 
and  exempt  from  change,  will  fumiBh  one,  and  only  one, 
satisfactory  general  contemplation  or  theory  of  the  origin, 
structure,  and  successive  changes  of  the  globe,  consi- 
dered as  a  part  of  the  planetary  system  revolving  round 
the  sun. 

To  reach  this  general  theory  is  the  highest  ambition  of 
modern  geology.  The  discovery  of  the  right  method  of  pro- 
ceeding m  this  attempt  is  of  modem  date;  and  all  the 
most  important  steps  of  the  advance  towards  this  '  high 
point  of  knowledge  *  have  been  taken  within  the  memory  of 
the  generation  now  passing  away.  If,  as  Sir  John  Her- 
schel  tells  us  ('Discourse  on  the  Study  of  Natural  Philoso- 
phy,*) *  geology,  in  the  magnitude  and  sublimity  of  the 
objects  of  which  it  treats^  undoubtedly  ranks,  in  the  scale 
of  the  sciences,  next  to  astronomy,*  it  owes  this  great  distinc- 
tion to  the  humility  with  which  its  modern  cultivators  havo 
sought  within  the  ranks  of  inductive  science  better  mo  (hods 
of  research  and  purer  models  of  reasoning  than  tho^u 
afbrdcd  by  the  treasures  of  ancient  philosophy  which  havo 


GEO 


128 


GEO 


been  inreaenred  to  oar  time.  Nor  is  this  the  peculiar  boait 
or  shame  of  geology.  Every  branch  of  the  study  of  iiature 
was  equally  transformed  by  the  introduction  of  the  Baco- 
nian methods  of  interpretation  of  nature ;  all  the  natural 
sciences  have  advanced  together;  the  knowledge  of  the 
constant  laws  in  the  visible  creation  has  been  continually 
perfected;  and  thus,  while  the  study  of  the  long-past  ope- 
rations of  nature  has  been  imbued  with  the  exactness  of 
chemical,  xoological,  botanical,  and  physical  research,  the 
dry  annals  of  one  Bra  in  the  history  of  the  world  have  been 
enriched  into  a  long,  instructive,  and  eventful  histoiy. 

Geology  qfthe  Greeks.—Amoikg  the  antients  the  notices 
of  geology  are  few,  and  the  interest  belonging  to  them  is 
of  a  peculiar  character.  When  chemistry,  whose  operations 
manifest  the  existence  of  peculiar  laws  of  force  among  the 
particles  of  matter,  was  wholly  unknown — ^when  the  living 
wonders  of  creation  were  but  slightly  considered  by  philo- 
sophers intent  on  abstract  principles — no  accurate  survey 
could  be  taken  of  the  condition  of  any  one  part  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth.  But  a  small  part  of  that  surface  was 
known  to  any  one  people,  and  only  in  a  few  situations  were 
tho  changes  in  the  aspect  of  nature  so  extensive  as  to  arrest 
the  attention  of  the  geographer,  or  so  violent  as  to  excite 
the  philosopher  to  search  for  the  cause. 

Among  the  anciently-peopled  and  commercial  states  of 
tho  eastern  sliores  and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  both 
these  circumstances  concurred,  and  there  first  awakened 
the  powerful  intellect  of  Greece  to  speculation  on  the  vary- 
ing condition  of  the  land  and  sea.  Lower  Egypt  is  the  gift 
of  the  Nile,  and  the  powerful  and  learned  people  which 
possessed  it  were  compelled  by  the  circumstances  of  their 
situation  to  study  the  nature  and  effects  of  the  annual 
floods  of  the  river.  Herodotus  (bom  484  b.c.)  estimates 
(ii.  11)  that  the  Nile,  if  diverted  into  the  Red  Sea,  would 
fill  that  long  gulf  in  less  than  20,000,  or  even  10,000  years. 
The  notion  of  chanfl^e  thus  distinctly  impressed  upon  the 
minds  of  the  Egyptian  priests  was  developed  in  a  general 
and  philosophical  form^  and  illustrated  by  special  reSrences 
to  an  extended  series  of  geological  phsenomena  by  their 
pupil  INthagoras  (bom  586  d.c.).  According  to  the  sum- 
mary or  their  doctrine,  and  the  tenor  of  the  illustrations  of 
it  which  are  given  by  Ovid,  we  cannot  avoid  seeing,  even 
through  the  injurious  ornament  of  verse,  that  Pythagoras 
had  acquired  a  clear  conception,  a  '  distinct  idea,'  of  nature 
as  existing  by  the  concurrent  action  of  many  complicated 
powers,  which  were  subject  to  continual  or  sudden  varia- 
tion in  their  relative  intensity.  Chanses  of  the  relative 
level  of  land  and  sea,  and  divulsion  or  islands  from  the 
mainland  by  the  action  of  earthquakes,  are  distinctly  an- 
nounced ;  the  displacement  and  limited  duration  of  volcanic 
vents,  such  as  iEtna;  the  degradation  of  laud  by  the  action 
of  atmospheric  agency  ('  et  eluvie  monr  est  deductus  in 
tequor*) ;  the  submersion  of  land  which  had  been  formerly 
peopled — 

8i  qiunma  H«Uc«n  et  Ruxin,  AehaiiU»'iirbeB. 
luTeniea  tab  aqaic— (^Ovid.  Metam,  xr^  1.  £93.) 

the  production  of  new  land,  and  the  occurrence  of  marine 
shells  far  from  the  present  seas  ^ — ^these  pha)nomena,  dis- 
tinctly observed  ana  analyzed,  and  clearly  produced  in 
proof  of  a  general  proposition,  justify  a  higher  degree  of 
admiration  for  the  Samian  philosopher  than  is  due  to  any  of 
the  merely  speculative  writers  of  antiquity. 

Similar  observations  appear  to  have  served  as  the  ground- 
work of  Aristotle's  exposition  (*  Meteorologica*)  of  the  per- 
petual fluctuation  of  natural  phcenomena ;  the  altemate  ex- 
citation and  rest  of  parts  of  the  earth's  surface.  (See 
particularly  the  end  of  the  first  book.)  But  it  is  in  Strabo 
(nearly  contemporary  with  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  a^ra)  that  we  find  the  most  sensible  views  of  the 
causes  of  tho  occurrence  of  marine  shells  far  from  the 
shore,  the  displacements  of  land  and  sea,  the  rising  of  islands, 
the  formation  of  straits,  and  other  great  geological  phse- 
nomena. 

Having  stated  the  views  of  Eratosthenes,  as  to  the  gene- 
ral fact  of  the  earth's  globular  form,  and  the  production  of 
tho  numerous  minor  inequalities  on  its  surface,  by  corre- 
apondingly  numerous  *  proximate  causes,*  such  as  the  opera- 
tions of  water,  heat,  concussions,  vapours,  and  the  like, 
be  examines  the  opinions  of  Xanthus  and  Straton,  which 
Eratosthenes  had  presor\'ed.   (Sirab^  Cataub.  49,  &c.) 

The  explanation  of  Xanthus  (derived  from  an  liistorical 

')  that  the  phsenomena  in  question  were  due  to  great 
ights  which  had  diminished  the  originally  greater  ex*  I 


Sanse  of  the  sea,  it  Kgarded  as  insolBcient ;  and  6traba*e 
ypothesis  of  adjacent  out  disconnected  seas,  one  of  which 
bemg  raised  to  a  higher  le^xA  by  sediment  on  ltd  bed, 
had  forcibly  opened  itself  a  passage  to  the  other,  the  Euxin« 
to  the  PropoDtis,  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Atlantic,  i« 
shown  to  contradict  received  physical  theorems.  8tmlH> 
proposes  to  account  for  these  and  other  pluenomena  hy  the 
general  speculation  that  the  land,  not  the  sea,  is  subject  \n 
changes  of  level,  and  that  sueh  changes  more  easily  hapi^*n 
to  the  land  below  the  sea, '  because  of  its  humidity.' 

The  action  of  ^tna  in  moving  the  shores  of  Sicily  an'l 
Italy  is  spoken  of  in  a  fiuniliar  manner,  and  a  long  de^  r  .p- 
tion  of  Dbsenomena  bearing  on  the  discuasions  succeeds,  m 
which  tne  opinions  of  many  authors  are  quoted. 

Fifteen  hundred  years  elapsed  after  the  vra  of  Strabo. 
without  adding  anything  material  to  the  stock  of  Keoltvp  •- 1 
facts,  or  the  limited  range  of  rational  theory ;  for.excvptir  z 
the  work  of  Omar  (10th  century),  in  which  the  pltirn<>- 
mena  of  '  new  lands,*  and  marine  shells  found  inland,  n*<« 
referred  to  a  '  retreat  of  the  sea,'  there  is  not,  on  the  swhy  i 
of  geology  among  the  Arabian  writers,  even  the  iMt  ?! 
amount  of  comment  on  the  writers  of  Greece  and  R"in<< 
which  characterixes  the  literarv  efforts  of  the  learned  M«-<- 
lems,    (Lyeirs  Prindpla  of  Oeology^  vol.  i.) 

Revival  of  Geology  in  Europe,  Nature  of  Organic  F»»  - 
sils, — Italy,  the  fruitful  mother  of  modem  physical  scien?  «*. 
offered  in  her  volcanic  cones,  ranges  of  mountains,  a  .1 
shelly  marls  at  their  bases,  the  most  attractive  points  to  tl.r 
intellectual  activity  of  the  precursors  and  contempoiaric»  ff 
Galileo. 

So  recent  are  sound  views  of  the  true  nature  and  n-lA- 
tions  of  the  organic  forms  buried  in  the  earth,  that  it  is  n*  : 
very  difficult  for  £ngli.<h  geologists  to  imagine  the  (Icr^  • 
ness  of  the  contest  in  which  Fracastoro  (151 7)  was  iD\*oh<  \, 
to  defend  his  opinions  that  the  *  formed  stones'  (as  xh*'s 
were  afterwards  termed  in  England)  were  not '  lusus  :.  •  - 
turoo'  produced  by  a  'plastic  force,'  but  really  the  remn*;  i 
of  fishes,  moUusca,  &c. ;  and  that  they  had  not  been  nifl<  > 
scattered  over  the  surface  by  theNoachian  flood,  but  bi.r«(d 
at  great  depths  by  a  more  regular  operation  of  water.  Th<^-'* 
important  assertions  were  the  subject  of  controverfiy  for 
nearly  two  centuries  in  Italy ;  and  in  establishing  the  true 
nature  of  the  organic  remains,  Cardano,  Colonna(1666),  &t.  1 
Scilla  (1670)  overlooked  or  disregarded  the  more  serious 
and  more  seducing  error  of  ascribing  their  inhumation  tn 
the  earth  to  a  general  deluge.  Georgius  Areola  0:.x*  > 
adopted  the  wrong  view  of  the  origin  of  organic  fossils :  !•  .t 
Steno  (1669)  of  Copenhagen,  opened  a  new  line  of  inqu:  \ . 
by  noticing  the  succession  of  rocks;  distin|n>ishing  sotm*  *.% 
having  been  formed  before  the  creation  of  antroals  and  plan*  ^ 
insisting  on  the  original  horizontal  position  of  the  strata :  t  :.• 
proof  of  violent  movement  of  the  crust  of  the  globe,  affirm!-  a 
by  the  now  inclined  position  of  such  strata  in  roountainoii^^ 
countries;  and  the  variations  of  condition  to  which  the  s'lr- 
face  of  Tuscany  had  been  expo«ed,  by  repeated  ovcrtl  •«•  s 
and  retirements  of  the  sea.     ( Lyell,  Principles  qf  G*^  h^c^   i 

Scilla's  masterly  work  on  the  organic  remains  of  Calabt  * .. 
published  both  in  Latin  and  Italian  ('  La  Vana  Specula/..t.  .• 
disingannatadal  Sense,'  1670),  may  be  considered  as  clo>:n^ 
the  long  dispute  in  Italy,  among  men  of  philosophical  miT;<  •  ^ 
on  the  subject  of  the  nature  of  organic  fossils.     Its  cour-- 
was  comparatively  very  short  in  England,  for  Plot  (in  ir,; '  i 
is  almost  the  only  writer  who  really  and  heartily  embnirc-*) 
the  doctrine  of  an  occult  cause,  to  escape  from  the  C'^n^r- 
quence  of  admitting  the  true  origin  of  the  'formed  stonr? 
and  Scilla*s  work  was  abridged  for  the  *  Philosophical  Tran^. 
actions'  in  1695-6,  by  Dr.Wotton.    Listers  early  viei»5  .-n 
the  matter  (1678)  express  a  doubt,  arising  from  Imowled^  ; 
he  saw  that  the  fossil  shells  were  different  (torn  the  Im.iL; 
types,  and  proposeil  the  alternative  of  a  terrigenous  ortinn. 
or  an  extinction  of  species.     Ray  (1692)  on  *  Chaos  ar.  i 
Creation.' Woodward's  'Natural  History' (1695).  Schcuch- 
ger's  'Herbarium  Diluvianum,' of  the  same  date,  aff«rd 
proof  of  the  victory  gained  by  the  observations  of  natural,  ^u 
over  the  closet  speculations  of  metaphysicians,  on  the  onzr- 
of  fossil  shells  in  most  parts  of  Europe ;  and  indocd.  .{t 
France,  Palissy's  lectures  and  writings  (tiis  last  publirntt 
bears  the  date  of  1580)  may  be  said  to  have  estabHsbc<l  ti. 
truth  contended  for. 

Submersion  and  Deticcat ion  of  LaniL^The  >*ictory  *ij% 
unproductive.  In  consequence  of  coupling  vtith  the  iil>< 
Wous  truth  a  fatal  and  fundamental  error,  the  shells  ani 
other  exuviss  of  the  sea  were  maintained  by  Woodwjinl 


'•I 


r 


GEO 


129 


GEO 


and  a  host  of  eontemporaries  and  fi^wecs  to  have  been 
brought  upon  the  land  by  the  '  universal  deluge,*  as  all 
\vriters  except  Quirini  (1676)  agreed  to  term  the  Noa* 
cliian  flood.    This  error  might  speedily  have  been  swept 
away  by  the  early  arguments  of  Falissy,  the  investiga- 
tions of  Steno,  and  the  striking  generalunition  of  Lister ; 
but  that,  unhappily,  from  a  philosophical  question,  it  be- 
came a  theological  argument.     The  fossil  shells  for  from 
the  sea  were  lield  to  be  physical  proof*  of  the  truth  of  the 
Musaic  narrative ;  and  the  occurrence  of  these  shells  at  va- 
rious depths  and  heights,  and  in  rocks  of  different  kinds, 
only  furnished  additional  arguments  in  favour  of  the  violence 
of  that  flood,  which  not  merely  was  supposed  to  have  covered 
the  mountains,  but  to  have  entirely  broken  up  and  dissolved 
the  whole  frame-work  of  the  earth,  and  to  nave  deposited 
the  materials  according  to  their  relative  gravity.    In  vain 
bad  Hooke,  Ramaaxini,  and  Ray,  previous  to  1700,  protested 
against  the  absurdity  of  this  hypothesis,  which  Leibnitz  ap- 
pears to  have  despised;  it  was  reserved  for  Moro(l740), 
Buffbn  (1749),  Linnaeus  (1770),^  and  Whitehurst  (1792),  to 
Imsten  its  banishment  from  philosophy;  and  even  at  this 
day  there  are  persons  who  from  time  to  time  revive  the  db- 
cussions  of  the  sixteenth  century,  as  a  point  of  iipportance 
in  Christian  theology. 

To  account  for  the  dryness  and  elevation  of  the  countries 
where  fossil  shells  occur,  there  are  but  two  hypotheses:  the 
shelly  bed  of  the  sea  has  been  raised,  or  the  ocean  has  aban- 
doned its  autient  place.  Many  of  the  Italian  geologists 
adopted  the  former  view,  and  in  consequence  repeated  the 
opinions  and  reasonings  of  Strabo,  with  the  advantage  of 
referring  to  the  elevation  of  Monte  Nuovo  near  Puzzuoli, 
iu  1538  and  Santorino,  1707  (Miyoli,  1597;  Vallisneri, 
1721;  Lazzaio  Moro,  1740).  The  better  order  of  English 
writers  (Hooke  in  1668,  Ray  in  1692 --earthquakes  were 
then  frequent  in  Europe)  adopted  the  same  views;  ahd 
Hookein  particular  presented  the  phenomena  of  earthquakes 
and  volcanoes  in  the  form  of  a  general  speculation,  which 
served  to  direct  the  opinions  of  subsequent  systematislslike 
Whitehurst. 

Diluvial  HYpoih&ns. — ^None  of  the  philosophers  who  were 
concerned  in  estabtishing  the  truths  connected  with  organic 
remains  were  seduced  by  their  success  into  the  vanity  of 
proposing  any  general  hypothesis  on  the  formation  of  the 
earth.  But  this  creditable  modesty,  so  characteristic  of  the 
spirit  of  induction  which  animated  Fracastoro.  was  not  at  all 
imitated  by  the  fanciful  diluvialists,  who  followed  in  the 
wake  of  Woodward,  Burnet,  Wliiaton,  Catcott,  and  others. 
To  determine  whence  came  the  water  which  held  at  once 
in  suspension  the  whole  of  the  ejiterior  parts  of  the  globe, 
and  whither  it  retreated,  was  necessary  to  help  out  their 
extravagant  proposition. 

No  ordinary  hypothesis  would  meet  these  formidable  pro- 
blems, and  if  we  recollect  that  in  answering  them  it  was 
further  required  to  adopt  views  which  should  not  trench  on 
the  arbitrary  notions  then  entertamed  as  to  the  meaning  of 
certain  passages  of  Scripture,  we  shall  he  disposed  to  regard 
even  the  monstrous  violations  of  physical  truth  which  ap- 
pear ip  the  hypotheses  of  Burnet,  Woodward,  and  Whiston, 
without  surprise.  Omitting  minor  circumstances  which  it 
would  be  useless  to  particularize,  Burnet,  Woodward,  and 
their  followers  agreed  in  adopting  the  notion  of  an  interior 
abyss  below  the  crust  of  the  earth,  as  the  general  reservoir 
from  whence  the  waters  rushed  to  cover  the  earth,  and  into 
which  they  again  withdrew  after  the  diluvial  devastation  was 
completed.  Wliiston,  who  was  far  better  versed  in  physical 
science  than  either  of  the  others,  introduced  in  addition  the 
notion  of  extraneous  force ;  he  brought  a  comet  to  envelop  the 
earth  in  its  misty  tail,  to  cause  violent  rains,  raise  vast 
tides  iu  the  internal  abyss,  and  thus  effectually  destroy  the 
external  crust  of  the  planet.  It  appears  probable  that  man- 
kind seldom  permit  their  imaginations  to  take  such  dan- 
gerous flights  without  necessity ;  the  hypothesis  is  made  to 
suit  the  conditions  of  the  moment,  and  the  chief  error  con- 
sisted in  including  among  these  conditions  a  narrow  and 
unreasonable  interpretation  of  the  Mosaic  narrative.  This 
error  lies  even  yet  at  the  root  of  some  well-meaning  specu- 
lations, which  from  time  to  time  arise,  a  century  after 
their  proper  date,  for  the  avowed  purpose  of  reconciling 
geological  and  scriptural  truth. 

*  'T71»i  tntaeeftetlithophyta  foMQU  obtanl  In  fliatnaeopiB,n»{  qnoadaai 
twft9  Htton  Mt  abyna*,  com  tint  mem  fnUfUmatis,  omni  hiatorw  anti- 
quiotm ;  dilBtiiim  Ttio  mm  <l— WMtnui*,  Md  taatam  loBgioilB  ati  ndtra.* 
iSjfit.  iy«t..FoM.  PMffl£) 

P.  C^  No.  674 


General  SpeculaHom.^The  diluvial  hypothesis  has  been 
sufficiently  traced  to  its  natural  consequence^a  monstrous 
violation  of  the  laws  of  nature ;  another  general  view,  first 
distinctly  stated  by  Vallisneri  (1721),  has  been  the  source  of 
long-continued  errors.  Struck  by  the  general  diffusion  of 
marine  fost:ils,  he  supposed  the  ocean  to  have  once  extended 
over  all  the  earth,  and  to  have  gradually  subsided,  leaving 
everywhere  the  traces,  not  of  a  violent  flood,  but  of  the  quiet 
super-fluctuation  of  water.  Perhaps  Vallisneri  found  this 
notion  in  his  travels ;  at  any  rate,  the  notion  of  a  universal 
subsidence  of  the  ocean  appears  to  be  the  Grerman  element 
of  geological  hypothesis,  for  Wenier  made  it  the  basis  of  his 
so-called  theory  of  the  earth,  and  thus  obscured  with  a  phy- 
sical improbability  the  important  truths  which  he  had  esta- 
blished ooncerning  the  succession  of  strata. 

Starting  from  an  entirely  different  point,  Leibnitz  (in 
1680)  propoifed  one  of  the  most  general  contemplations 
which  has  ever  appeared  in  geology.  He  commences  with 
the  concentration  of  the  mass  of  the  globe  in  a  state  of 
great  heat ;  accounts  for  the  fundamental  primary  rocks  by 
the  refrigeration  of  the  surface,  and  explains  the  violent 
action  of  water  upon  them  by  the  collapse  of  this  crust  on 
the  contracting  nucleus.  Sedimentary  strata  are  the  natural 
consequence  of  these  watery  movements  subsiding  to  rest, 
and  by  the  repetition  of  the  phsenomena  su6h  features  are 
imparted  to  the  earth  as  to  insulate  many  of  the  later  depu* 
sits,  and  render  it  necessary  to  be  prudent  in  determining 
whether  local  or  general  agency  has  been  concerned  in  pro* 
ducingthem.  It  would  be  diflicult  in  general  terms  more 
clearly  to  announce  views  now  prevalent  among  those  who 
contemplate  geology  in  connection  with  physical  science. 
0>rdier,  Von  Bnch,  and  De  Beaumont  have  endeavoured 
bv  this  speculation  of  Leibnitz  to  explain  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal pfasenomena  of  geology— the  elevation  of  mountains; 
but  the  theoretical  merit  of  Leibnitz  was  little  regarded  in 
England  till  Mr.  Conybeare  explained  his  views  to  the 
British  Association  at  Oxford.  {Reports  qf  the  British 
Association.) 

The  effect  of  Laplace's  and  Fourier*s  theorems  on  the  ope- 
ration of  interior  heat  is  likely  to  be  augmented  by  Mr. 
Hopkins's  labours  (Cam6.  Phil,  Trans.);  and  the  grand 
views  of  Sir  W.  Herschel  as  to  the  eonstitution  of  the  uni- 
verse have  alreadv  been  applied  to  the  history  of  the  earth 
by  Mr.  De  la  Beche  (Theoretical  Researches),  and  will  pro- 
bably became  an  important  addition  to  the  Leibnitzian 
theory. 

In  the  works  of  Ray  (1692),  and  Hooke  (1688),  we  may 
trace  the  revival  of  another  general  speculation  (that  of 
PythagorasX  which,  instead  of  deducing  the  leading  geolo- 
gical appearances  from  some  primal  condition,  with  Leib- 
nitz, supposes  the  essential  condition  of  the  world  to  be  one 
of  continual  change,  and  assigns  to  modern  causes  in  action  , 
a  measure  of  force  capable  of  producing,  in  a  sufficient  lapse 
of  time,  phflsnomena  as  important  as  those  of  antient  geolo 
gicol  date. 

'  Lazzaro  Moro's  vieiHUl740)  have  the  same  tendency  to 
recall  speculation  to  the  employment  of   real  causes  seen 
in  daily  operation ;  Buffon  (1749)  anpears  to  have  unsuccess- 
fully attempted  the  union  of  the  fmidamental  view  of  Leib- 
nitz and  the  regard  for  existing  agencies  shown  by  Ray ; 
Dr.  James  Hutton,  of  Edinburgh,  rejected  all  inquiry  as  to 
the  beginning  of  the  world,  and  gave  himself  up  entirely 
to  an  explanation  of  the  phronomena  visible  in  the  crust  of 
the  earth,  on  the  principle  of  a  continual  degradation  of 
land  by    atmospheric  agency,  the  consequent  formation 
of  sedimentary  strata  on  the  bed  of  the  sea,  and  the  peri- 
odical compensarion  of  these  effects  by  the  action  of  internal 
heat  raising  the  bed  of  the  sea,  with  the  stratified  deposits 
thereon.     A    continual  destruction  of  the  existing  lane* 
through  the  agency  of  water,  and  an  occasional  uplifting  ot 
new  continents  from  the  ocean  bed — these  are  the  most 
striking  points  of  the  Huttonian  theory  of  the  earth.     Mr. 
Lyell  differa  from  Dr.  Hutton  chiefly  by  recurring  to  the 
onginal  form  of  the  speculation  as  we  may  conceive  it  to 
have  existed  in  the  mind  of  Pythagoras  or  Aristotle,  could 
either  of  those  great  men  have  become  acquainted  with 
modem  science.    For  instead  of  the  oocasional  occurrence 
of  a  violent  upvrard  movement  of  the  bed  of  the  sea,  the 
author  of  tlie  '  Principles  of  Greology '  appeara  impressed 
with  a  distinct  idea  of  a  continual  compensation  among  the 
agencies  of  nature,  the.perfect  equality  of  modem  and  an- 
tient physical  forces,  and  the  possibility  of  explaining  all, 
even  the  grandest,  of  antient  geological  phienomena  by 

Vol.  XL—  S 


G  £  O 


190 


OBO 


causes  now  acting,  and  acting  with  their  pnient  intensity. 
No  more  definite  or  general  proposition  has  ever  been  ad* 
Tanced  in  geolof^,  and  its  effect  has  been  highly  important, 
oven  in  the  estimation  of  those  who  do  not  entirely  sdmit  it. 

Inductive  Ueoiogy, — Geological  appearances  are  usually 
of  a  complicated  character,  and  must  be  analysed  into  their 
elementary  parts  before  the  inductive  process,  which  requires 
the  comparison  of  facts  agreeing  or  differing  with  respect  to 
a  certain  quality,  can  be  usefully  applied.  Fossil  shells  must 
be  distinguished  into  fluviatile  or  marine,  identical  with  or 
different  from  recent  kinds ;  rocks  must  be  considered  as  to 
their  chemical  nature,  mechanical  structure,  geographical 
and  other  characters,  before  any  valuable  inferences  can  be 
gathered  from  them.  Though  this  kind  of  labour  is  not 
discoverable  among  the  works  of  the  Greeks  which  remain 
to  us,  we  must  not  hastily  deny  that  they  attempted  it  In 
modem  times  Fracastoro,  Palissv,  and  Steno,  by  distin* 
guishing  the  groups  of  strata ;  Lister,  by  discriminating 
ivcent  and  fossil  species  of  shells,  and  by  noticing  the  ^^bo- 
graphical  relations  of  rocks ;  Woodward,  by  his  industrious 
collection  of  specimens  and  methods  of  arrangement; 
Packe,  by  his  remarkable  chorographical  map  of  Kent; 
Lehman  (1756),  and  Arduino,  by  their  classification  of 
rocks,  according  to  the  relative  periods  of  their  production; 
and  Mitchell  ( 1 760),  by  his  masterly  determinations  con* 
cerning  the  relation  between  the  ranges  of  mountains  and 
the  inclinations  of  the  neighbouring  strata— have  stronger 
claims  to  grateful  remembrance  than  are  due  to  those  who 
with  much  labour  have  merely  produced  volumes  of  empty 
speculation. 

Distinction  nf  Primary,  Secondary,  and  subsequent  De- 
fiosits  in  Germany.— John  Gottlob  Lehman  (1756)  may  be 
considered  as  having  the  best  claim  to  a  clear  enunciation 
uud  proof  of  the  different  age  and  relative  position  of  classes 
of  stratified  rocks.  In  the  French  translation  of  his  work 
(*  Trai(6  du  Physique,  d'Histoire  Naturelle,  de  Mineralogie, 
ct  de  Metallurgie"),  he  say«,  *  Nothing  is  more  natural  than 
to  group  all  mountains  in  three  classes.  The  first  includes 
mountains  which  are  coeval  with  the  formation  of  the  globe ; 
the  second  class  was  produced  by  a  revolution  co-extensive 
with  its  surface ;  the  third  consists  of  mountains  which  owe 
their  origrin  to  particular  accidents  or  local  revolutions/  This 
was  not  a  mere  speculation  of  what  might  be  convenient, 
for,  he  adds, '  The  mountains  of  the  first  class  are  high, 
sometimes  insulated  in  the  plains,  but  generally  connected 
in  a  chain,  traversing  considerable  parts  of  the  earth.  They 
differ  from  those  of  the  second  class  by  their  elevation  and 
extent,  by  their  interior  structure,  by  the  mineral  sub- 
stances associated  with  them.' 

Pallas  (1779*X  in  addition  to  these  general  views,  main- 
tains that  the  granitic  rocks,  then  taken  as  primary,  were 
never  fbrmed  by  water,  because  they  do  not  occur  in  beds, 
nor  contain  organic  remains ;  that  t  jfie  secondary  mountains 
were  produced  from  the  disintegration  of  granite;  and  the 
strata  of  later  date,  by  the  wrecks  of  the  sea  elevated  and 
transported  by  volcanic  eruptions  and  subsequent  inunda- 
tions. 

Succession  qf  Strata.-^To  these  distinguished  authors, 
Werner,  professor  of  mfhcralogy  in  Frey berg  (1775),  was  a 
worthy  successor.  The  first  important  addition  to  pre\ious 
knowledge  on  the  subject  was  contained  in  his  *  Kiirze  Klas- 
sifikation  und  Beschreibung  der  verschiedenen  Gebirgsarten' 
(1787),  where  the  miiieraloeical  distinctions  of  rocks  may  be 
viewed  as  a  completion  of  the  labours  of  the  earlier  Swedish 
w  riters,  Cronstadt,  Wallerius,  Linnasus,  &c,  all  of  whom  had 
glimpses  of  the  geological  relations  of  the  rocks  they  clas- 
sifled.  It  does  not  appear  that  Werner  proposed  any  views 
as  to  the  geological  relations  of  rocks  in  advance  of  those  of 
I^hman  or  Pollas  till  1790  or  1791,  when  the  doctrine  of 
•  formations '  was  explained  in  his  lectures,  which  indeed 
was  a  |N>werful  mode  of  difiTusing  instruction ;  fbr  his  amiable 
manners,  disinterested  enthusiasm,  and  various  knowledge, 
gav«  him  a  strong  ascendency  over  the  numerous  pupils 
who,  from  various  countries,  flocked  to  Freyberg.  In  1795 
(or  1796  according  to  Dr.  Fitton)  Werner  had  maturad  his 
views  as  to  the  classification  of  all  the  stratified  rocks,  and 
from  this  it  is  easy  to  estimate  the  real  claim  of  Werner  to 
a  high  place  in  the  ranks  of  modem  geology.  Tho  great 
advance  made  by  Werner  consists,  not  in  propouiuling  the 
distinctions  of  great  classes  of  rocks  for  this  had  become  a 
common  idea  in  Europe,  but  in  practically  analyzing  these 
classes  into  their  constituent  groups,  tracing  tne  order  of 

••lomslde  Pfc7«ic|a«,'  1779^ 


sQceession  among  them,  assigning  thmr  niBMnkgieal  dm- 
ractera  to  each,  and  generalising  this  local  truth  into  the 
doctrine  of  fbrmations  universally  succeeding  one  anoih.  r 
in  a  settled  order  of  time.  Parting  fh>m  Frcybeig  with  a 
better  method  of  mineralogy,  and  a  more  developed  system 
of  the  succession  of  rocks  than  was  preiiousl^  known,  tiie 
pupils  of  Werner  carried  the  influence  of  his  name  and 
opmions  over  the  world,  and,  unfortunately,  the  cru<i«* 
hypothesis  which  was  connected  with  the  n^  truths  1j« 
tau^^t  was  embraced  with  an  ardour  very  disproportiouaic 

to  its  T|klu«. 

In  France,  Rouelle  (about  1 760  T)  had  acquired  ideas  ap{  ^a  • 
rently  as  general  and  fully  as  well  supported  by  local  kn«ivi  - 
ledge  as  Lehman.  His  views  on  organic  remains  we. «• 
quite  in  advance  of  the  time.  In  England  the  notici'^  t.f 
stratification,  by  Mr.  Strachey  (' Phil.  Trans.,'  1719),  tV'- 
Rev.  B.  Holloway  (1723),  and  the  Rev.  John  Mitch  ^  *i 
(1760X  sre  of  great  importance.  Strachey  presents  u-. 
accurate  section  of  the  coal  strata  of  Somersetshire,  wi'h 
reflections  on  the  strata  above  them,  and  their  geographi*  ai 
boundaries;  Holloway  describes  the  geographical  relatiuj 
of  Uie  sand-hills  of  W^bum  and  Shotoven  yieldini^  fuller^  • 
earth,  to  the  chalk  hills  on  the  east,  and  the  oolitic  tra'*i9 
on  the  west ;  but  Mitchell  entera  into  a  general  and  n)  ^y 
terly  discussion  on  the  relation  between  geological  structiKx> 
and  the  geographical  features  of  the  surnoe  not  to  be  par..i- 
leled  for  fully  fifty  years. 

Whitehunt  must  hera  be  mentioned  with  honour.  IL^ 
'  Inquiry  into  the  Original  State  and  Formation  of  tl.t. 
Earth,*  1*778,  is  of  small  value  for  the  purpose  he  pro|iom«l. 
but  it  contains  important  facts  towards  a  right  concept! on 
of  the  structure  of  the  earth.  His  16th  chapter,  entitle  t 
'  The  Strata  of  Derbyshire  and  other  parts  of  England.'  .<> 
full  of  information,  principally  derived  from  the  muK-rs 
but  evidently  well  methodized  in  his  own  mind.  Hi*v 
could  the  geologists  of  England  neglect  such  passages  .i« 
these  following,  which  are  merely  tne  scientific  expoairi  u. 
of  truths  known  for  hundreds  of  yean  previous  by  ski  If 
miners  in  all  regions  of  stratified  rocks?  'The  arrangeint  n: 
of  the  strata  in  general  is  such  that  they  invariably  f«^l).  m 
each  other,  as  it  were,  in  alphabetical  order,  or  as  a  scno«  '•? 
numbers,  whatever  may  be  their  diflferent  denominati^mv 
Not  that  the  strata  are  alike  in  all  the  diflbrent  regions  .«f 
the  earth,  either  with  respect  to  thickness  or  quality,  f  %- 
experience  shows  the  contrary ;  but  that  the  order  of  thr 
strata  in  each  particular  part,  how  much  soever  they  m^i 
differ  as  to  quality,  yet  follow  each  other  in  a  regui  •: 
succession,  both  as  to  thickness  and  quality — insumu' ' 
that  by  knowing  the  incumbent  stratum,  together  with  tbt 
arrangement  thereof  in  any  particular  part  of  the  earth,  v  p 
come  to  a  perfect  knowledge  of  all  the  inferior  beds,  so  f.  r 
aa  they  have  been  previously  discovered  in  the  adjarvi : 
country.'  (Edit,  of  1792,  pp.  178,  179.)  In  p.  186  is  i. 
following  remark  in  capitals:  ' N.B.  No  vegetable  form* 
have  yet  been  discovered  in  any  of  the  limestone  strata.* 

From  these  notices  it  is  very  clear  that  adistinct  percepth^n 
of  a  fixed  order  in  the  succession  of  strata  was  so  preval< 
in  the  mining  districts  of  England  as  to  attrsct  tne  att«'n- 
tion  of  the  well*informed  classes  of  society,  and  especial . 
of  the  clergy,  who  can  never  with  justice  be  charged  v! 
neglect  of  the  natural  sciences.    But  it  is  extraordinary  t >•  at 
Mitchell,  who  was  appointed  Woodwardian  professor  in  I  r  >  J 
(according  to  Farey),  and,  by  his  physical  andmathemaii'.. 
knowledge  seemed  especially  able  to  work  out  the  wh  i: 
system  of  English  stratification,  should,  on  his  retire m***  t 
f^m  Cambridge  to  his  rectory  of  Thomhill  in  Yorks\);t*. 
have  contented  himself  with  tracing  the  succession  of  «ir.ri 
in  the  north  of  England,  or  rather  between  Canbridgr  .r  i 
Thomhill,  and  communicating  the  document  to  Smt*a*>':., 
without  giving  it  even  to  the  Royal  Society,  which  bad  pt  ^ 
lished  his  early  papers.    Had  this  been  done,  or  had  Snit  * 
ton  known  the  value  of  the  paper  put  into  his  hand%,  it 
could  not  have  happened,  that  of  all  the  able  on^iix--    . 
who,  before  1790,  were  engaged  in  surveys  and  cxciu-. 
canals,  not  a  man  should  have  attended  to  informat)on 
such  singular  value  in  his  profession ;  nor  would  Mr.  W 
Smith  have  been  occupied  in  rediscovering  some  <^f  t{"> 
truths  which  constitute  the  fbundation  of  English  ^'^     » . 

The  progress  of  Mr.  Smith*s  discoveries  in  geolotp*  is  i-..  ^    . 
traced.    Commencing  his  career  as  a  surveyor  of  Un'l  ** 
afterwards  acquiring  great  employment  as  a  ci\il  tn^:.  i- 
his  attention  was  drawn,  in  1 767,  to  the  obvious  di»iii.  : 
in  the  soils  and  the  subjacent  strata  of  certain  part»  oi  iJ » 


GEO 


tai 


GEO 


fordaliire  and  Wanriekshira,  wbidi  oeeupied*  with  regard  ta 
one  another,  a  certain  geographical  rcktion.  In  1790  and 
1791  the  same  relative  position  of  the  same  strata  was 
forced  on  his  attention  in  Somersetshire^  with  the  addition 
of  a  series  of  coal  strata  helow  the  oolite,  lias,  and  red  marU 
with  which  he  was  previously  familiar.  Assured  hy  his 
own  obserration,  that  the  local  knowledge  of  the  mines  of 
Somenetshire  which  Strachey  had  published  in  1719  was 
only  a  part  o(  the  truth,  he  set  himself  not  to  frame  an 
hypothesis  but  to  determine  the  extent  of  the  regular  suc- 
cession of  strata  in  the  vicinity  of  BaUi,  drew  accurate  sec- 
tiuns  of  the  strata  in  the  order  of  superposition,  ascertained 
amongst  them  a  general  dip  to  the  east,  marked  their  ranges 
un  a  map  of  the  surface,  and  in  1794,  in  the  course  of  a 
professional  journey  from  Bath  into  the  north  of  England, 
examined  impartially  whether  the  general  features  of  stra- 
ti Hcation  in  other  parts  of  England  corresponded  with  the 
impression  fixed  in  his  mind  by  abundant  evidence  near 
Baih,  that  one  general  order  of  succession  of  the  strata 
c«>uld  be  traced  throughout  the  island,  with  a  general  dip  to 
the  east  or  south-east  The  result  confirmed  his  view,  and 
excited  him  to  devote  time,  professional  inoome,  and  une- 
qualled labour  to  produce  proof  satis&ctory  to  others.  The 
result  was  a  geological  map  of  England  and  Wales,  drawn 
previous  to  1801,  when  proposals  were  issued  for  the  publi- 
i>ation  of  it 

The  strong  conviction  in  his  mind  of  the  regular,  orderly, 
and  successive  deposition  of  the  strata,  led  him  to  a  more 
minute  analysis  of  the  chanusteristic  marks  of  the  several 
deposits  than  had  ever  been  conceived  before.  The  remark- 
able resemblance  and  occasional  proximity  of  many  rocks 
near  Bath,  belonging  to  difierent  places  in  the  section  of 
strata,  and  which  (to  use  a  fkvourite  expression  of  Mr. 
Smith),  *had  been  successively  the  bed  of  the  sea,'  prevented 
any  merely  mineral  distinction  from  being  effectual ;  and 
he  was  thus  forced  to  study  with  care  the  method  of  distri- 
bution of  the  fbssil  organic  remains  in  the  rooks,  for  the 
purpose  of  discriminating  these  similar  deposits.  This  was 
nut  long  pursued  before  the  local  peculianties  of  the  strata 
in  this  respect  were  connected  to  a  general  law,  and  it  was 
found  that,  throughout  the  district  in  question,  the  fossils 
were  definitely  located  in  the  rocks;  each  stratum  had  its 
own  peculiar  species,  wherever  it  oceured,  and  could  thus  be 
identified  when  in  detached  masses  and  in  distant  localities. 
This  great  discoverv  was  recorded  as  a  thing  fully  deter- 
mined in  a  table  of  the  Order  of  Strata  in  1799,  of  which 
copies  were  distributed  beyond  the  British  Isbnds.  The 
dear  idea  of  each  stratum  being  successively  the  bed  of  the 
sra,  is  apparently  the  germ  of  that  happy  expansion  of  geo- 
lo^cal  truths,  unmixed  with  hypothesis  and  unfettered  bv 
afurmulaof  merelv  local  stratification,  for  whkh  English 
eeology  is  indebted  to  Mr.  Smith.  Such  an  idea  imme- 
diately suggests,  not  a  speculation  in  cosmogony,  but  va- 
riuus  yet  harmonious  researches  in  the  full  spirit  of  induc- 
tive science.  The  history  of  successive  geological  periods, 
&n  characterizable  by  their  chemical  or  m^anieal  products 
and  contemporaneous  organic  existence,  was  thus  placed  in 
a  concentrated  tight  aa  a  geneml  problem  for  inquiry,  and 
tUe  effects  were  immediately  obvious,  in  the  employment  of 
organic  remains,  and  sections  and  maps  of  strata,  to  deter- 
mine the  true  condition  of  the  kind  and  sea  from  the  earUest 
I>eriods  to  the  present  hour. 

SuncetncH  if  Life  en  the  G/o^.— Against  the  hypothesis 
of  Woodward,  that  the  fossil  exuvisa  in  the  rocks  were 
t^Klged  in  them  by  the  '  universal  deluge,'  it  was  objected, 
t)iat  though  the  fossil  shells,  corals,  fish  teeth,  &c  re- 
sembled tlie  recent  kinds,  they  were  not  the  same.  The 
question  thus  raise4  could  not  rest  Lister  affirmed,  that 
in  general  the  fossil  species  of  shells  were  entirely  dis- 
tinct from  living  forms;  Camerarius  inquired  to  what 
marine  genus  of  aniouils  Woodward  referred  the  belem- 
I)  lies,  and  jreceived  for  reply  that  it  was  a  mere  mine- 
ral! The  ammonites  were  admitted  to  be  not  nautili, 
but  wen»  declared  to  be  'Pelagian  shells'  not  likely  to  be 
thrown  on  the  present  sea-eoasts  by  the  moderate  force  of 
tide«i  and  storms,  which  do  not  influence  the  deep  parts  of 
the  ocean.  Linnous  continually  points  out  the  species  of 
comls  and  shells  to  which  no  recent  analogue  ui  known ; 
and  Solander,  by  giving  suitable  names  to  the  extinct  shells 
or  Hordwell  Cliff,  Beured  by  Brander  (1766),  opened  the 

^ay  to  the  researches  of  Martin,  Parkinson,  Sowerby, 

Brocchi,  Oeshayes,  Goldfuss,  &c 
Uwyd  and  Scheochiei  oommeneed  the  study  of  fossil 


plants,  which  has  lately  been  so  much  advanced  by  Stem- 
berg,  Adolphe  Brongniart,  and  Lindley.  But  by  none  of  those 
writers  who  compared  the  fossil  and  recent  worlds  of  life 
under  the  aspects  of  zoology  and  botany  only  could  any  clear 
notion  be  formed  of  the  existence  and  destruction  of  a  succes- 
sion of  different  races  of  animals  and  plants.  Lister  had  no- 
ticed the  constant  occurrence  of  a  certain  helemnite  in  the 
red  layers  at  the  base  of  the  chalk ;  Morton  had  distinguished 
the  geological  position  of  some  fossils  in  Northamptonshire ; 
and  Llwyd  and  Woodward  had  some  knowledge  of  this 
kind.  Rouelle  and  Werner  have  claims  to  attention, 
but  certainly  it  is  to  Mr.  Wm.  Smith  that  we  owe  the  in- 
troduction of  the  important  doctrine,  that  during  the  forma- 
tion of  the  stratified  crust  of  the  earth,  the  races  of  animals 
and  plants  were  often  and  completely  changed,  so  that  each 
stratified  rock  became,  in  his  eyes,  the  museum  of  that  age 
of  the  world,  containing  a  peculiar  suite  of  organic  exuviae, 
the  remains  of  the  creatures  then  in  existence. 

In  France  the  same  truth  was  put  in  a  bright  light  hy 
the  successful  labours  of  Cu\ier  ana  Alex.  Brongniart  in  the 
vicinity  of  Paris ;  the  former  of  whom,  by  his  great  anato- 
mical skill,  succeeded  in  restoring  the  vanished  forms  of 
many  quadrupeds,  different  from  those  which  now  live; 
while  the  latter,  collecting  materials  with  great  judgment 
from  a  wide  field  of  research,  brought  the  most  convincing 
proof  of  the  almost  total  dissimilitude  between  the  forms  of 
life  of  the  secondary  and  tertiary  periods  of  geology,  while 
both  were  for  the  most  part  distinct  from  those  of  the  ac- 
tual land  and  sea. 

The  general  doctrine  of  many  successive  creations  of  life 
m  the  globe,  thus  firmly  establidied  in  England  and  France, 
was  speedily  aeknowleclged  in  every  country  where  accurate 
observations  could  be  made,  and  it  only  remained  to  trace 
out  its  consequences,  and  apply  them  to  particular  problems. 
One  very  successful  effort  of  this  kind  has  been  made  by 
M.  Deshayes  and  Mr.  LyeU,  who,  observing  among  a  vast 
number  of  the  tertiary  fossil  shells  which  are  different  from 
existing  types,  some  few  which  are  identical  with  them, 
proposed  to  determine  what  variation  there  might  be  in  the 
proportion  of  yet  existing  species  among  the  tertiary  fossils 
from  different  localities  and  deposits  of  a  different  geological 
age.  As  a  general  result  (subject  to  exceptions)  it  may  be 
stated,  that  the  more  recent  the  strata  the  greater  the 
amount  of  resemblance  between  their  fossil  contents  and 
the  existing  creation, — a  result  in  harmony  with  general 
views  of  the  whole  subject  of  the  analogy  of  recent  and 
fossil  forms.  Hence  arises  a  method  of  classification  for 
these  strata  of  peculiar  interest  and  power,  though  its  suc- 
cessful application  may  for  a  time  be  delayed,  till  the  phi- 
losophy of  organic  remains  be  more  perfectly  developed. 

Qefioeical  Surveys, — Without  maps  and  sections  of  par- 
ticular districts,  representinc;  the  extent,  thickness,  and 
order  of  superposition  of  the  several  component  rocks, 
the  abstract  truths  of  geology  could  never  become  of  gene- 
ral interest  or  public  value.  Until  the  whole  of  the  land 
be  thus  surveyed  and  described  geological  inferences  may 
be  insecure ;  it  is  therefore  grati^ing  to  reflect,  that  since 
Mr.  Smith  first  proposed  to  publish  a  geological  map  of 
England  (1801),  a  considerable  part  of  Europe  has  been 
thus  delineated.  The  first  idea  of  such  a  map  was  given 
by  Lister  in  a  communication  to  the  Royal  Society  in 
1683;  Mitdiell's  descriptions  in  1760  are  such  as  to  make 
it  surprising  that  no  map  came  from  his  hands.  The 
Wemerian  school  of  geognosy  produced  none,  we  believe, 
so  early  as  those  few  maps  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  in 
England  (1794X  which  contained  delineations  of  soils,  and 
occasionally  of  the  rocks  which  gave  them  their,  distinctive 
qualities.  In  this  respect  Mr.  Smith  had  no  precursor; 
and  when  his  map  of  the  strata  of  England  and  Wales  was 
produced  in  1815  it  had  no  rival,  and  has  called  up  only 
one  original  successor,  the  map  of  Mr.  Greenough.  Mr. 
Griffith  is  about  to  publish  a  map  of  Ireland  ;  Dr.  Mocul- 
loeh's  Scotland  is  produced;  Von  Buch*s  great  map  of 
Germany  is  published ;  the  Mining  Engineers  of  France 
are  just  completing  their  survey  of  that  country;  the 
United  States  of  America  have  made  progress  in  a  similar 
labour;  and  the  number  of  topographical  works  illustrated 
by  maps  and  sections  is  innumemble.  Before  many  years 
have  passed  the  whole  accessible  surface  of  the  laud  wil. 
have  been  mapped  by  geologists. 

i  2.    Mattxr  of  the  Globb. 
Geology  is  distinct  firom  cosmogony ;  the  history  of  the 


G  EC 


132 


G  BO 


successive  phflDnomena  happening  on  a  planet  revolving 
round  an  orb  of  light  ana  heat  may  be  treated  without 
reference  to  the  condition  of  the  same  material  particles 
while  they  were  subject  to  entirely  different  conditions. 
Yet  as  in  tracing  the  progress  of  a  colony  reference  may 
often  be  made  with  advantage  to  the  previous  history  of  the 
same  people  in  another  region  of  the  globe,  so^  in  prose- 
cuting geological  science  in  a  just  and  liberal  sense,  it  is 
advisable  to  take  into  account  tlie  discoveries  of  collateral 
science,  so  far  as  these  tend  to  give  sure  indications  of  or 
even  to  fix  certain  limits  to  speculations  concerning  the 
origin  of  the  planetary  masses. 

For  the  successful  prosecution  of  this  inquiry  geology  must 
appeal  to  two  entirely  distinct  branches  of  collateral  science, 
chemistry  and  astronomy;  which  indeed  agree  in  this, 
that  they  are  both  directed  to  the  elucidation  of  the  proper- 
ties of  material  substance ;  but  the  former  is  occupied  with 
a  study  of  its  elementary  constitution,  the  latter  contem- 
plates the  relations  of  its  congregated  masses. 

Chemistry,  by  analysis  of  the  different  sorts  of  matter 
visible  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  teaches  us  that  almost 
every  thing  is  of  a  compound  nature,  and  formed  by  the 
union  of  two  or  more  elementary  particles,  endowed  with 
distinguishable  properties,  and  capable  of  a  separate  ex- 
istence and  of  entering  into  new  combinations.     When 
thus  freed  from  their  combinations  by  processes  of  art  the 
elementary  particles  or  atoms,  of  the  same  kind,  form,  when 
reunited,  solids,  liquids,  or  gaseous  exjiansions,  according  as 
they  ate  affected  by  temperature,  pressure,  and  ])erliaps 
other  less  general  influences.    Oxygen,  the  most  abundant 
of  all  the  elementary  substances  yet  discovered,  expands 
immediately  on  being  freed  from  union  with  solid  bodies,  to 
a  gas  which  occupies  2000  tiroes  the  space  it  previously  did ; 
and  as  nearly  half  the  ponderable  matter  of  the  globe  consists 
of  oxygen,  we  must  admit,  as  a  plain  consequence  of  this  ana- 
lysis, that  upon  a  general  resolution  of  the  compound  rocks 
and  minerals  into  their  constituent  elements,  nearly  half  the 
weight  of  the  exterior  parts  of  the  globe  would  expand  into 
gas,  and  augment  the  atmosphere   till  the  accumulated 
pressure  should  liquify  the  gas,  or  prevent  further  decom- 
position.   What  happens  to  free  oxygen  with  the  tempera- 
tures and  atmospheric  pressures  which  now  prevail  at  the 
surface,  would  (we  know  by  trial)  happen  to  chlorine  and 
other  substances  similarly  released  from  combination,  un- 
der other  temperatures  and  pressures.    As  these  conditions 
are  now  variable,  and  may  be  supposed  to  have   passed 
through  all  possible  grades,  it  is  not  improbable  that  all  the 
substances  which  exist  in  the  crust  of  the  globe  might  be 
converted  into  gaseous  expansions  if  freed  from  combination. 
The  great  antagonist  force  to  the  concentration  of  matter  is 
heat;  by  augmenting  this  agent  some  substances  are  de- 
composed and  the  parts  rendered  volatile ;  in  other  cases 
combinations  take  place  which  are  also  volatile ;  and  there 
are  others  in  which    gaseous  substances   combine  with 
solids  at  particular  temperatures  only.     Now,  as  the  sub- 
stances known  in  the  outer  parts  of  the  globe  are  fifty- 
four  in  number,  as  they  all  separately  stand  indifferent 
relations  to  heat,  pressure,  electricity,  &Cn  it  is  conceivable 
that  under  particular  conditions  the  mutual  forces  of  the 
various  particles  might  be  so  arranged,  and  so  balanced  by 
the  influences  of  heat  and  other  general  conditions,  that  all 
sensible  solidity  and  liquidity  should  vanish,  and  the  whole 
globe  dissolve  into  an  expansion  where  the  particles  would 
be,  if  not  all  free,  yet  in  very  different  combinations  from 
those  we  now  see.  This  is  conceivable  as  an  hypothesis,  and 
chemistry  can  teach  us  no  more ;  for  as  we  have  not  ascer- 
tained for  each  substance,  Uken  singlv,  what  must  be  the 
conditions  for  its  appearance  as  a  solid,  liquid,  or  gaseous 
body,  nor  have  the  means  of  computing  what  variation  in 
this  respect  might  result  from  particular  admixtures  of  the 
substances,  it  is  impossible  to  deny  that  the  hypotbesu  may 
be  true,  and  it  would  be  equally  unphilosophical  to  assert  that 
It  is.    In  this  dilemma  wo  must  turn  to  the  contemplation 
of  phasnomena  which  may  serve  to  guide  us  to  a  just  deci- 
sion.   Omitting  for  the  present  all  considerations  of  geolo- 
gical phflDnomena,  we  must  accompany  the  astronomer  in 
his  survey  of  space,  in  order  to  discover  if  any  masses  of 
matter  exist  which  are  of  the  nature  of  the  gaseous  expan- 
sion assumed ;  if  this  be  the  case,  we  must  further  inquire 
if  there  be  gradations  in  the  appearances  they  present  such 
as  to  justify  the  belief  in  the  possibility  of  a  gradual  con- 
Tersion  of  a  planet  into  an  expansion,  or  the  contrary.    To 
'hese  inquiries  the  &i-seeing  eyes  of  Herschel  supply  a  posi- 


tive answer.  Through  various  parts  of  the  hesvesis  are 
scattered  large  expansions  of  attenuated  matter,  csallol 
nebulsB,  which  are  urregularly  reflective  of  light,  vanou*  in 
figure  and  degree  of  oondensation.  The  Tatter  curcuui- 
stances  being  carefully  studied,  it  appears  that  many  ol 
them  are  of  a  globular  or  elliptical  figure,  as  if  the  paiii 
were  collected  by  a  general  attraction  toward  a  centre ;  that 
otliers  in  addition,  appear  to  grow  continually  denser  tow  aril 
a  centre,  while  not  a  few  objects  show  in  the  centre  tb<> 
brightness  of  a  solid  star  surrounded  by  a  t&ick  and  exien  • 
sive  haxe.  Occasionally  two  or  more  points  of  oondensatAon 
appear  in  a  nebulous  mass,  thus  affording  a  great  ai>ak»g> 
with  what  may  be  supposed  to  be  the  origin  of  our  plaiictar> 
system. 

Comets,  which  are  to  be  regarded  as  nebulsD  attracied  to 
some  one  or  more  systems,  supply  another  and  strong  aiu- 
logy  with  orbitual  planets.  But  it  may  be  reasonalily  ex- 
pected that  in  adaition  to  tlie  graduated  appearaocea»  of 
expansion,  condensation,  and  nebulous  solidity,  there  should 
be  proof  of  corresponding  gradations  of  density.  This  pruuf. 
as  far  as  relates  to  the  nebul»  fiur  distant  from  our  s>»teiu. 
can  perhapfi  never  be  given,  though  appeanmces  are  ui 
fttvour  of  the  view ;  even  with  respect  to  the  comets  which 
enter  the  solar  system,  further  researches  must  be  made : 
but  the  planets  themselves  supply  such  a  proofs  for  tlM^«^ 
density  varies  exceedingly.  The  planets  nearer  lo  the  sun 
are  denser  than  those  fiu'ther  removed;  Mereuir,  being  tb« 
heaviest,  is  almost  thrice  as  dense  as  the  earth,  while  Jupilcr. 
one  of  the  distant  orbs,  is  about  one-third  as  dense  aa»  our 
earth ;  and  Saturn,  which,  excepting  Uranus,  is  the  most 
remote,  is  only  one-eighth  or  one-tenth  as  dense,  and  may 
be  considered  as  light  as  cork.  (HersdieL  Introdme,  ^ 
Attron^  p.  278.) 

Finally,  this  general  idea  of  the  origin  of  the  mass  of  tiie 
earth  from  a  nebular  expansion,  suggested  by  chemical  fisrtt. 
and  supported  by  the  appearances  in  the  visible  heavens,  ti 
confirmed  by  the  mathematical  researches  of  Laplace,  wlk> 
has  by  this  supposition  connected  together  the  most  stnkmg 
pha&noroena  of  the  solar  system ;  the  general  paralWism  ^f 
the  orbits  of  the  planets,  the  consentaneoua  direction  uf 
their  movement  round  the  sun,  of  the  satellites  round  thr 
planets,  the  anomaly  of  Saturn's  ring,  and  other  important 
circumstances.    We  have  therefore  only  one  lest  more  to 
which  the  hypothesis  can  be  subjected,  namely,  its  accordaiv^ 
with  what  is  known  of  the  actusl  constitution  of  the  earth. 
This  is  still  no  question  of  geology,  but  of  astronomy.     It 
appears  however  very  certain  that  neither  the  figure  of  the 
earth,  which  is  that  of  a  spheroid  of  revolution  on  its  axu^ 
nor  the  density  of  the  earth,  which  is  greater  toward  the 
centre  than  at  the  circumference,  and  so  arranged  that  tlK 
surfaces  of  equal  densitv  are  symmetrical  to  the  axis  of 
figure,  are  at  all  opposed  to  the  doctrine  in  question*  but 
rather  confirm  it.    From  astronomical  and  chemical  con- 
siderations, then,  it  is  probable  that  the  mass  of  the  earth 
once  existed  as  a  part  of  a  diffused  nebula,  like  some  now 
visible  in  the  heavens;  and  as  no  merely  seological  e%i- 
dence  as  to  the  changes  operated  on  the  condensd  planet 
can  be  of  the  smallest  value  in  a  question  relating  to  t^ 
condensation  of  a  nebula,  we  must  adopt  the  oonciuaam  as 
a  limiting  condition  of  geological  theory. 

Consult  for  further  information  the  article  NsurLji; 
Herschers  IntrodueHcn  to  Astrtmomy ;  Laplace,  ifccontyw 
Cileite;  'S'lchoWs  AreHieeture  qfihe  Heavefu,) 

Uftiformiif  o/Naiural  Ageneie*,^Bnt  however  finslt 
we  may  admit  the  truth  of  the  speculation  of  the  coodensa- 
tion  of  planets  finom  a  nebular  expansion,  it  can  now  have 
but  little  influence  on  the  progress  of  geology.  For  it  can* 
not  be  employed  as  the  origin  of  deductions  which  might 
disclose  circumstances  hiddeu  from  observation  in  deep 
ports  of  the  earth,  and  explain  complicated  ftiets  visiUle  at 
the  surface ;  and  this  for  want  of  adequate  knowledge  uf 
the  successive  effects  which  must  happen  amoQg  the  tit- 
mentary  particles  or  masses  of  a  nebula  during  its  coEMden- 
sation,  as  well  as  of  the  necessary  consequences  which  anck 
effects  must  entail  on  the  physical  conditions  of  a  plauiaL 

There  is  however  one  |)omt  of  importance  which  thM 
speculalk)n,  if  adopted,  may  assure  us  of.  The  coodensa- 
tion  of  nebulsD  is  gradual ;  the  density  of  planets  variotM, 
the  larger  ones  in  general  liaving  the  least  relative  weight; 
the  earth  must  therefore  be  supposed  to  have  pasied  tliroogh 
a  long  range  of  (condensation ;  and  this  imphes  a  eontmual 
change  of  intensity  among  some  at  least  of  the  pbysscal 
agencies  which  belong  to  it.    Whatever  was  the  anti^oDist 


GEO 


133 


G  ElO 


txta  to  the  central  attractioii  of  the  nebular  mass,  the 
gradual  decline  of  this  force  moat  have  been  felt,  more  or 
less,  by  all  the  natural  a<^encie9  related  to  it  by  opposition 
or  sympalhy.  Even  the  extraneous  influence  or  light  is  not 
independent  of  the  change  of  conditions  produced. 

The  continual  condensation  of  the  mass  of  a  planet  neces- 
sarily brings  with  it  a  change  in  the  relative  intensities  of 
the  agencies  at  work  among  its  parts,  because  they  operate 
under  continually  varying  conditions.  Some  would  lose 
and  others  gain  in  strength,  and  thus  the  aspect  of  the 
eartii  must  have  been  continually  changing,  or  subject  to 
periodical  renovation.  By  those  geologists  who  accept  the 
doctrine  of  the  earth's  continual  condensation,  from  what- 
ever cause,  the  uniform  intensity  of  natural  agencies 
taken  separately,  the  continual  compensation  of  their 
antagonistic  effects,  and  the  production  of  equal  eflEects 
in  equal  times,  must  inevitably  be  rejected. 

Yet  though,  in  strictness,  the  preceding  reasoning  forbids 
assent  to  Mr.  Lyell's  general  principle,  that  the  former 
changes  of  the  earth's  surlace  *  are  referrible  to  causes  now 
in  operation,'  it  by  no  means  follows  that  other  causes  (that 
is,  other  combinations  or  measures  of  natural  agencies) 
than  those  now  in  operation  must  be  appealed  to  for  ex- 
plaining the  monuments  of  past  revolutions  of  nature  which 
are  preserved  to  our  days.  For  if  these  monuments  go  but 
a  short  way  back  on  the  scale  of  time,  compared  with  the 
periods  whieh  elapsed  in  the  condensation  of  our  planet,  the 
causes  may  not  have  sensibly  varied  during  the  whole  course 
of  phienomena  traceable  in  the  crust  of  the  earth.  This 
must  be  decided  by  a  study  of  the  monuments  themselves, 
upon  the  general  and  acknowledged  principle,  that  effects 
are  proportional  to  the  causes.  Still  less  is  it  to  be  imagined 
that  the  study  of  the  effects  of  modern  causes  in  action  is 
unfruitful  in  illustrations  of  the  pho^nomena  due  to  antient 
causes ;  on  the  contrary,  there  is  no  other  way  of  learning 
either  the  kind  or  degree  of  physical  agencies  concerned  in 
geobgieal  opemtions  of  early  date  than  the  comparison  of 
these  with  the  results  of  the  daily  action  of  the  modem 
powers  of  nature. 

$  3.    Hbat  op  ths  Globs. 

The  knowledge  of  the  condition  of  the  earth  in  respect 
lo  temperature  is  one  of  the  most  important  steps  which 
can  be  taken  toward  a  right  general  contemplation  of  the 
history  of  the  revolutions  which  it  has  undergone.  This 
knowledge  cannot  be  ^thered  by  geologists  labouring  as 
such ;  it  cannot  be  obtained  by  meteorological  observations, 
however  accurate ;  nothing  short  of  a  mathematical  theory 
of  heat,  supported  by  a  variety  of  data  concerning  the 

asical  constitution  and  relations  of  the  earth  to  the  sun 
space,  will  be  at  all  available  in  grappling  with  the  in- 
herent diffieultiea  of  the  subject.  For  this  theory  we  are 
indebted  to  Fourier. 

The  heat  of  any  point  on  the  surfiu;e  of  the  earth  regu- 
larly varies  from  hour  to  hour,  with  the  rotation  of  the 
globular  mass  on  its  axis ;  from  day  to  day  and  from  season 
to  season,  with  its  revolution  round  the  sun ;  and  from  year 
to  year  to  year,  with  any  change  in  the  dimensions  or  form 
of  the  earth's  orbit.  There  are  however  several  causes  of 
irregularity  or  fluctuation  of  temperature  not  demanding 
notice  in  a  general  view. 

If  in  ita  long  course  round  the  sun,  the  earth  passed 
through  parte  of  the  planetary  spaces  of  uneaual  tempera- 
ture, this  would  cause  a  modification  of  the  perioaical, 
annual,  and  daily  variations. 

The  atmosphere  and  the  ocean,  by  their  various  move- 
ments, modify  all  these  circumstances,  but  not  so  as  to 
disguise  the  results  when  an  average  of  many  periods  is 
taken. 

In  consequence  there  is  for  each  point  of  the  earth's 
surfiice  a  certain  mean  temperature,  depending  on  the 
causes  above  stated ;  and  the  parts  under  the  surface  con- 
tinually tend  to  acquire  very  nearly  the  same  temperature 
ss  the  surface,  but  not  at  the  same  time.  The  extremes  of 
summer  heat  and  winter  cold  are  not  felt  till  after  they  have 
Mssed  away  from  the  surfkce,  and  in  proportion  as  we 
descend,  the  influence  of  the  daily,  monthly,  and  annual 
variations  grows  less  and  less,  because  of  the  slowness  of  the 
conduction  of  heat  through  earthy  substances. 

At  a  certain  depth  below  the  surfiice,  these  variations  be- 
come wholly  insensible,  and  the  temperature  is  constant, 
and  nearly  the  same  as  the  mean  temperature  of  the  surfiice. 

If  the  temperature  of  the  interior  parts  of  the  earth  be 


now  very  different  from  that  constant  heat  which  would 
result  by  communication  from  the  surface  (heated  as  before, 
and  subject  to  the  stated  variations),  this  difference  would 
exercise  a  corresponding  though  insensible  effect  on  the 
surfiice  beat,  and  be  more  or  less  sensible  at  small  depths 
below  the  inner  surfiice  of  constant  temperature. 
'  Whatever  may  have  been  the  proper  or  original  tempera- 
ture of  the  inner  parts  of  the  earth,,  it  is  easy  to  conceive 
that  in  very  long  time  the  equilibrium  of  heat  should  be 
reached,  and  the  earth  receive  from  the  sun  and  radiate 
into  the  ethereal  space  equal  quantities  of  heat  in  equal 
times ;  while  the  temperatures  at  points  situated  at  very 
great  depths  below  the  surface  (many  miles,  for  instance) 
would  not  sensibly  vary  from  that  of  the  mean  heat  of  the 
place  vertically  above  them. 

But  if  this  equilibrium  be  not  attained,  the  original 
state  of  the  earth  as  to  heat  maj  be  ascertained,  so  far  as 
to  determine  positively  whether  it  has  formerly  been  hotter 
or  colder  than  at  present,  by  merely  trying  at  many  points 
exempt  from  volcanic  action,  what  is  the  amount  of  heat  at 
various  depths,  on  the  same  or  different  vertical  lines,  as 
compared  with  the  corresponding  points  of  surface. 

These  trials  have  been  made  at  various  depths,  under 
different  circumstances,  in  salt-pits,  coal-works,  and  ;minea 
of  different  metals,  in  the  British  Isles,  France,  Germany^ 
Mexico ;  and  in  all  situations  where  the  external  influence 
of  the  air,  and  the  artificial  effects  of  light,  respiration,  &c., 
could  be  guarded  against  or  justly  appreciated,  they  agree 
in  proving  that  after  descending  below  the  limit  of  variable 
heat,  a  continual  augmentation  of  temperature  constantly 
occurs.  (1°  Fahr.  fi>r  15  yards  is  a  common  ratio.) 
The  mine  of  Falun,  supposed  to  be  an  exception  to  this 
general  truth,  is  extremelV  ill-suited  for  experiments.  (See 
Thomson's  and  Qarke's  iVavels  in  Sweden,) 
^  The  consequence  is  obvious.  The  interior  masses  of  the 
globe  are  incomparably  hotter  than  the  parts  at  the  surface ; 
must  formerly  have  been  still  hotter ;  and  though  now  the 
interior  heat  is  almost  wholly  masked  and  stifled  by  the  non- 
conducting stratified  masses  which  form  the  crust  of  the 
earth,  it  must  formerly  have  influenced  in  a  decided  man- 
ner the  temperature,  and  with  it  all  other  phenomena  at  the 
surface  of  the  earth. 

The  same  conclusion  as  to  the  existence  of  great  heat  in 
the  central  parts  of  the  earth  has  been  drawn  from  consi- 
derations of  the  density  of  the  interior  masses,  as  compared 
to  the  superficial  parts.  While  the  surface  rocks  are  twice 
and  a  half  as  heavy  as  water,  the  mean  density  of  the  whole 
globe  is  five  times  as  great  as  that  of  water ;  moreover  the 
density  augments  toward  the  centre  with  so  much  of  regu- 
larity, that  the  imaginary  interior  surfaces  of  equal 
density  are  symmetrical  to  the  same  centre  and  axis  as 
those  of  the  exterior  spheroid.  (See  Conybeare's  Report  on 
Geology  to  British  Astociaiionf  1832.)  Now  if  the  interior 
masses  of  the  earth  are  compressible  even  to  a  far  less  extent 
than  the  rocks  near  the  earth's  surface,  the  pressure  to  the 
centre  would  have  made  the  inner  parts  much  more  dense 
than  they  are :  the  whole  mass  of  the  earth  would  have 
been  included  in  a  much  smaller  volume,  were  it  not  for 
some  antagonist  force,  such  as  heat  is  known  to  be.  Unless 
thcrefi>re  we  venture  to  suppose  the  central  and  surface 
matter  not  subject  to  similar  laws  of  force,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  the  interior  parts  of  the  earth  are  still  very 
hot 

Condition  of  the  Interior  Moieet.^Thia  great  truth 
established,  we  may  inouire  further  into  the  state  of  the  in- 
terior masses.  If  the  heat  of  the  globe  were  increased,  its 
diameter  would  be  augmented  ;  there  is  a  degree  of  heat 
which  would  liquefy  nearlv  all  the  substances  of  which  it 
consists,  taken  singly,  anu  still  more  easily  when  in  their 
usual  combinations.  Beyond  this  degree  of  heat  gaseous 
compounds  would  mix  with,  or  alto^ther  replace,  the  lic^uid 
rocks,  and  the  globe  would  bo  lost  m  a  nebulous  expansion. 

Turning  to  observation  of  phenomena,  we  find  the  inte- 
rior roclu  to  be  such  as  were  cooled  from  igneous  fusion : 
they  are  extensively,  perhaps  universally,  spread  below  our 
feet ;  and  thus  we  gather  the  conviction  that  originally  the 
whole  or  great  part  of  the  exterior  masses  of  the  planet  were 
in  a  melted  state.  The  figure  of  the  earth  is  such  as  would 
result  from  revolution  on  its  axis,  provided  the  whole  or  a 
very  large  part  of  the  mass  were  in  a  state  of  fluidity  or 
viscidity ;  to  this  figure  the  surikcea  of  equal  density  corre- 
spond both  as  to  centre  and  axis ;  and  thus  strongly  corro- 
borate the  speoulations  of  Leibniti,  that  the  earth  u  to  b« 


G.BO 


134 


GEO 


looked  ODM  •  bMtodMidfluid  Rlobo, eoolodand  ttiO  «noUiic: 
«t  the  Mcftoe  by  radiation  of  iu  •uperabuuduit  beat  into 

space. 

H^ngeraiiom  of  a  Pianet.-To  determine  whether  it  i« 
now  aoltd  or  partially  fluid  within  it  a  problem  of  high  m- 
tere«t,  and  one  which  we  may  perhaps  despair  to  see  com- 
pletely solved,  unless  certain  astronomical  phsnomena (pre- 
cession, nutation)  should  be  found,  when  analysed  by  a 
rigorous  mathemaUcal  deduction,  to  furnish  interpretations 
which  geology  alone  can  never  attain  to.  As  however 
Mr.  Hopkins,  who  is  engaged  in  this  abstruse  renearch,  has 
presented  some  simple  views  of  the  possible  conditions  of 
a  cooling  globe  (as  the  earth  may  be  ooosideredX  ve  shall 
here  briefly  state  them. 

If  the  earth  were  originally  a  hot  fluid  mass  cooled  by 
radiation,  the  cooled  parts  would  descend    towards    the 
centre,  and  be  replaced  by  others  in  a  perpetual  circulation. 
The  tendency  to  solidification  in  such  a  mass  would  be 
directly  as  the  pressure,  inversely  as  the  temperature,  both 
which  are  at  a  maximum  at  the  centre:  soliaiftcation  would 
therefore  be  determined  near  the  centre  by  the  superiority  of 
pressure  over  temperature ;  and  at  the  surface  by  the  rapidity 
of  external  refVigeration  overbalancing  the  internal  conduc- 
tion of  heat    The  numerical  relations  of  these  qualities  are 
unknown.    It  cannot  therefore  be  decided  by  mere  calcula- 
tion whether  the  solidification  of  the  surface  by  radiation 
would  precede  or  follow  that  of  the  centre  by  pressure.   Let 
us  suppose,  for  simplicity,  the  relations  of  pressure,  heat, 
circulation,  conduction,  and  radiation,  to  be  such  that  all 
the  mass  f^oes  on  cooling  till  in  everv  part  of  its  fluidity  is 
lust,  and  the  whole  is  reduced  to  such  a  degree  of  viscidity 
as  to  prevent  the  circulation  of  heated  matter,  the  further 
distribution  of  heat  must,  under  these  conditions,  be  deter- 
mined by  conduction  and  radiation  only ;  a  large  part  of  the 
interior  would  assume  equality  of  temperature :  the  solidi- 
flration  of  the  surface  by  cooling  would  he  the  first  new 
phieiionienon,  to  be  immediately  followed  bv  condensation 
through  pressure  about  the  centre  ;  and  tnus  two  solid 
masses  would  be  produced  and  continually  augmented— a 
spherical  nucleus,  and  a  spherical  shell — ^while  between 
them  would  remain  a  large  but  diminishing  lone  of  viscous 
matter,  subject  to  some  changes  of  temperature  through  the 
conversion  of  its  surfaces  from  a  liquid  to  a  solid  state. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  effect  of  pressure  to  the  centre 
became  superior  to  the  expanding  agencv  of  heat,  before  the 
eirculation  of  liquid  matter  had  ceased  in  the  superficial 
parU,  the  centre  would  solidify  first ;  and  tlie  induration 
might  proceed  through  a  large  part  of  the  globe,  so  as  even 
to  approach  the  surface  before  that  could  be  consolidated. 
If  these  conditions  were  reversed,  consolidation  might  pro- 
ceed from  the  surface  downwards,  and  would  ultimately 
reach  the  centre,  and  the  whole  mass  be  a  stony  globe. 

It  is  important  to  remark  that  upon  neither  of  these  sup- 
positions is  it  required  to  adroit  the  continual  au^entation 
of  heat  to  the  centre  ;  to  which  M.  Poisson  obiected,  and 
instead  of  which  he  proposed  to  account  for  the  phenomena 
of  the  earth's  interior  temperature  by  supposing  that  the 
solar  system  had  once  passed  through  other  ethereal  spaces 
than  tliose  which  it  now  occupies,  and  there  experienoed 
much  higher  temperature  at  the  surfkoes  of  the  planets. 
This  hypothesis  may  be  perhaps  not  very  different  in  its 
development  from  the  more  general  theory  of  tlie  nebulous 
origin  of  the  planets ;  but  it  appears  unnecessary  to  discuss 
the  speculation  after  what  has  been  said  of  the  cooling  of 
the  earth. 

i  4.  MOABBN  CAUSBl  OV  ChaNOIS  OM  THB  8uRFACX  OF 

mi  Eakth. 

The  never-ceasing  activity  of  the  powers  of  nature  may 
be  viea'ed  as  an  inextingui^blable  and  unavailing  effort  to  re- 
store an  equilibrium  which  is  incessantly  disturbed.  The  pro- 
tean changes  of  the  atmosphere;  the  varying  effects  which 
it«  chemical  and  mechanical  energies  occasion  among  the 
masses  of  dead  matter  and  the  forms  of  life ;  the  flowing  of 
the  ocean ;  the  subterranean  fire  and  wide  wasting  of  the 
earthquake,  are  all  eflTorts  to  obtain  rest  consequent  on  a  suc- 
cession of  perturbations.  In  this  sense,  not  tne  earth  only, 
but  all  the  solar  system,  and  perhaps  all  the  extent  of  the 
heavenly  spaces,  conceivable  rather  than  visible  by  ni^n,  is 
in  the  oondition  of  instability  described  in  the  Pylhkgorean 
Philosophv,  *  Nihil  est  toto  quod  peiatet  in  orbe.* 

These  ehangea  on  the  surfkoe  of  the  earth  affeel  the  ge 
grapUofil  bottndiffiM  oftaadaad  v»t«r,  the  nlativo  lev 


of  land  and  sea,  and  the  forms,  praportionii  and 
tion  of  animal  and  vegetable  life.  In  a  popular  tenie  they 
may  be  classed  by  their  proximate  agencies,  as  dependmu 
on  chemical  and  mechanical  powers  originating  from  aim  >• 
spheric  action,  rains,  springs,  nvers,  &c. ;  ai  oepending  on 
siDular  powers  residing  in  the  ocean  ;  and  as  affected  by  \  ol 
canie  forces.  We  may  also  venture  to  contrast  the  tjfTecti 
of  the  watery  agencies,  whether  of  atmospherie  or  oceanic 
origin,  with  the  products  of  volcanic  fires.  For  the  gencr-.J 
eflRtfOt  of  the  watery  agencies  is  to  abate  the  high  and  to 
raise  the  low,  to  equalise  the  level  of  land  and  sea  h\ 
abrading  the  farmer  and  filling  the  latter ;  but  volcan:- 
efliBcts  are  directly  the  reverse.  They  augment  the  origM..i] 
inequality  of  the  surfkoe ;  in  some  parts  they  raise  matu  r 
fiom  within  the  earth,  and  form  new  hills  to  bear  the  ra\a- 

Ses  of  the  atmosphere ;  and  elsewhere  cause  tremendmu 
epressions  of  land,  and  sink  in  deeper  hoUowt  the  original 
basins  of  the  ocean. 

The  external  influences,  thus  contrasted  with  the  interior 
powers  of  the  globe,  are  far  more  various  in  their  a9(H-r( 
and  more  general  in  their  visible  operation  ;  yet  they  uiay 
all  be  reduced  to  one  or  two  variable  fbroet,  indepenaent  uf 
the  terraqueous  system.  It  is  to  the  unequal  accession  <»( 
heat  from  the  sun,  upon  a  globe  whose  distance  ian«^, 
whose  parts  are  variously  presented  to  the  radiating  beam*, 
and  to  the  unequal  abstraction  of  heat  by  the  cold  ethereal 
spaces  in  which  the  earth  circulates,  that  we  may  refer  x\\ 
the  variations  of  corpuscular  and  mechanical  phKnomens  us 
the  ((lobe ;  while  in  the  varying  diffiision  of  light  we  rr- 
cognise  the  prime  element  of  change  in  the  animal  and 
vegetable  world. 

Minute  as  is  their  momentary  impression,  the  sura  <r 
their  effects  in  a  long  time  is  prodigiously  great ;  h«at  and 
moisture  by  alternate  influence  weaken ;  fh>st  bunsts  ;  car- 
bonic acid  eats  with  cankering  tooth ;  rains,  swallowed  i.f- 
by  the  fissured  rocks,  abstract  parts  of  their  substance :  lanii 
slips,  avalanches,  and  glaciers  heap  the  valleys  vrith  At 
tritus,  till  swollen  rivers  or  bursting  lakes  sweep  away  uv 
burden  towards  lower  ground,  or  convey  it  even  to  the  »ex 
Thus  chemically  dissolved,  mechanically  suspended,  ar 
roughly  rolled  along,  the  substance  of  all  the  rocks  tni 
mountains  yields  to  a  slow  but  sure  destnietioii,  mnd  thi'^c 
who,  adopting  the  notion  that  '  time  coats  nature  no- 
thing,*  take  as  much  of  this  as  pleases  theii,  may  easih  tee. 
in  the  effect  of  these  operations,  the  total  disintegration  f 
the  existing  continents  and  islands,  which  is  so  oonspiru- 
ous  a  feature  in  Dr.  Button's  hypothesis  of  the  deca}ii.: 
and  renewing  earth. 

Nor  is  the  sea  less  a  theatre  of  change  than  the  bnii. 
For,  independent  of  its  receiving  the  sp(^  of  the  land,  «i- . 
distributing  them  on  its  bed,  the  untiring  agitation  ui  '• 
waves  undermines  the  clifls  which  are  above  ita  level,  gni.  1« 
away  the  rocks  which  are  covered  and  uncovered  b>  tt 
tides,  and  distributes  the  materials  in  various  ways,  h% ' 
making  dangerous  sandbanks,  there  adding  to  the  low  &h<.4i  * 
a  valuable  heritage. 

Nor  even  below  the  deep  water  of  the  middle  ocean  t^  :" 
at  rest  There  multitudes  of  sea  animals,  the  xoopm.-. 
testacea,  &c.,  by  their  mere  exuvi»  tend  to  fill  up  the  dc}-:- 
and  certain  tribes  (the  lamelliferous  oonds  in  particular  >.  • 
their  peculiar  growth  and  mutual  adherence  form  <  - 
careous  islands  and  reefr,  similar  in  some  important  part  • 
culars  to  the  antient  limestone  rocks.  These  coralh^ei.  > 
rocks  are  however  not  reared  from  the  extreme  dc|»ih%  f 
the  sea,  but  based  on  the  summits  of  submarine  hills.  i»r  *.i  ^ 
crests  of  volcanie  oonet,  and  thus,  in  a  general  expnt^^.  . 
we  may  say  that  in  modem  nature  most  of  the  depusit^  ( 
solid  matter  in  the  sea  are  joined  to  the  shores  or  shai.  '« 
of  the  previously-formed  land.* 

The  sediments  transported  by  rivers,  and  gathered  h\^  * 
wasting  of  the  elevated  coasts,  being  for  the  most  part  iv\*' 
sited  along  the  sea-shores,  and  almost  wholly  below  the  U  *  i 
of  high  water,  it  isohvioua  that  from  this  cause  alone  *: . 
bed  of  the  sea  is  filling  up,  and  its  depth  diminishing  tu«  ^  : 
the  shores ;  but  as  the  quantity  of  water  on  the  rk^  a.-*'* 
be  supposed  sensibly  constant,  it  follows  that  toe  orf i  •* 
area  must  expand,  or  its  surface  rise  a  little.  But  since  ihr  bi>  s 
is  wasted  by  the  waves,  as  we  may  suppose  the  aogmcii'^* 
tion  of  area  which  results  ih)m  this  cause  snflcient  tu  bala;.  e 
the  elevating  tendency  of  the  littoral  deposits  of  seduucit, 
and  that  upon  the  whole  the  effect  of  the  watery  8gcncie»    i 

*  For  deUila  in  pfoofofwhal  is  hm*  advaoead.  ooasitl  LssS,  *  Priacti.  • 


GEO 


185 


GEO 


the  globe  it  insensible  in  altering  the  level  of  the  rarftuseof 
tbo  see,  as  compared  to  the  deeper  parts  of  its  bed  ;   it  fol- 
lows, as    a   strict    consequence,  tnat    the   area   of    the 
ocean  is  enlarging.    This  appears  also  probable  from  ob- 
servation ;  tor  the  small  addition  of  marsh  land  on  particu- 
lar shores,  by  the  inttuenoe  of  rirers,  winds,  and  storms,  in 
raising  littonl  sediments  above  the  reach  of  all  but  the  ex- 
tremdy  hi^  tide,  is  not  enough  to  balance  the  continual 
waste  of  land  along  many  thousand  miles  of  perishing  clilSs. 
By  the  mechanical  agency  of  water  considered  alone,  the 
land  is  certainly  losing  in  area  continually.  'The  accumu- 
lation of  marine  exuvisD  on  the  bed  of  the  sea  acts  in  the 
same  direction,  and  the  erowth  of  coral  principally  concurs 
in  the  same  result.    Left  to  watery  agency  alone  then  the 
land  may  be  imagined  to  be  continually  diminishing,  as  Dr. 
Hutton  and  Mr.  Liyell  suppose.    If  the  shores  of  the  sea 
did  not  waste  away,  the  annual  additions  of  sediment 
brought  from  the  uplands  would  everywhere  cause  the  water 
to  rise  in  level ;  if  the  land  were  supposed  to  overhang  its 
base  at  a  certain  angle  depending  on  the  diameter  of  the 
earth,  the  area  of  the  ocean  would  remain  invariable ;  but 
AS  neither  of  these  conditions  applies,  it  is  certain  that  the 
area  of  the  ocean  is  extending,  and  probable  that  its  level 
does  not  materially  change. 

Volcanic  phsenoroena,  the  earthquake  and  the  ignivo- 
mous  mountain,  are  to  be  viewed  as  cases  of  critical  action. 
Whether  the  heat  of  the  interior  of  the  globe  be  the  residual 
portion  of  its  original  temperature  {chaleur  (Tarigtne  of 
Arago),  or  generated  by  the  access  of  water,  or  other  bodies 
containing  oxygen,  to  certain  chemical  subitances,  it  is  to 
the  disturoance  of  its  e<|uilibrium  that  the  violence  and  the 
tumult  of  volcanic  excitement  are  owing.  But  there  are 
other  and  more  gradual  effects  of  the  distribution  of  heat 
in  and  upon  the  globe  which  reuuire  notice.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  ia  the  gradual  change  of  level  of  certain 
parts  of  the  land,  as  oompared  with  the  general  level  of  the 
ocean,  one  instance  of  which  is  supposed  to  occur  on  the 
snores  of  the  Baltic,  where  certain  tracts  appear  to  be  slowly 
fising  above  the  sea.    (Lyell,  in  PhiL  Tranwctiant,  1835.) 

Concerning  this  '  secular  inecjuality,*  (as  it  may  be 
termed)  of  level  of  land  and  sea,  it  is  unfortunate  that  no- 
thing at  all  important  is  known  toward  determining  the  im- 
portant question  whether  the  elevation  of  one  tractor  dry  land 
or  seabtMl  is  balanced  or  overbalanced  bv  the  depression  of 
another.  Mr.  Lyell  assumes  that  the  aepression  of  land 
from  this  cause  exceeds  the  elevation,  but  it  is  difficult  to 
find  sufficient  evidence  fbr  this  important  postulate ;  and  to 
adopt  it  merely  as  a  consequence  of  another  unproved  as- 
sumption of  a  continual  compensation  of  the  agencies  of 
nature,  is  altogether  inadmissiole. 

If  there  be  in  the  earth  a  pervading  high  temperature, 
which  diminishes  from  the  interior  toward  the  surface,  in 
consequence  of  the  radiation  from  the  sur&ce,  it  appears 
from  Sir  John  Herschel's  reasoning  (given  in  Mr.  Babbage's 
*  Ninth  Bridgwater  Treatise'),  that  along  the  shores  of  the  sea 
the  isothermal  lines  of  the  interior  of  the  globe  should  rise, 
because  of  the  continual  deposition  of  imperfectly  conduct- 
ing sediments  there.  For  thus  the  radiation  of  heat  along 
these  lines  would  be  diminished  until  the  interior  heat  had 
come  nearer  to  the  surface.  By  the  consequent  expansion 
of  the  subjacent  earthy  substances  the  sea-shore  should  rise, 
and  thus  the  addition  of  sediment  from  watery  action, 
and  the  effect  of  the  effort  to  restore  equilibrium  in  the  dis- 
position of  the  interior  temperature,  would,  upon  the  whole, 
cuiocide  in  minutely  raising  the  sur&ce  of  the  sea. 

It  is  chiefly  near  the  sea-coast,  on  the  land  or  in  the 
ocean,  that  volcanic  pha^nomena  are  at  this  day  seen  in  ac- 
tivity, and  this  apparently  because  the  admission  of  water 
to  some  depth  below  the  sur&ce  is  necessary  to  the  excite- 
ment of  the  imprisoned  forces  of  heat  The  elevated  cones 
and  large  areas  of  melted  rock,  or  accumulations  of  scorip 
and  ashes,  mark  one  of  the  prevalent  effects  of  the  volcanic 
forces  to  be  the  withdrawal  of  matter  ftom  the  interior,  to 
heap  it  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  But  the  cavities  left  by 
tbis  operation  below  the  crust  of  the  earth  must  often  cause 
depression  of  masses  of  land  during  the  concussion  and  dis- 
placements occasioned  by  earthouakcs.  In  this  manner  it 
may  easily  be  understood  that  tne  volcanic  islands  of  the 
South  Seas  have  been  raised  up  from  the  sea^bed  there,  and 
It  may  be  supposed  that  under  large  tracts  of  the  ocean 
volcaiiie  agency  is  employed  in  a  similar  way,  and  by  a 
superiority  of  elevation  over  depressiout  raising  irregu- 
lariy  the  bed  of  the  sea*  and  by  consequence  extending 


tb«  ana  of  its  larftiee.  If  all  the  cavities  left  below 
the  suriace  by  the  heaping  of  volcanic  matter  on  the 
land  were  completely  balanced  by  corresponding  depres- 
sions of  the  crust  of  the  earth,  it  would  depend  upon 
the  proportion  of  submarine  subsidence  corresponding 
to  terrestrial  elevation  whether  the  sea-level  should 
All,  and  its  area  contract.  Every  sinking  of  the  sea-bed 
corresponding  to  an  elevation  of  tne  dry  land  would  tend  to 
lower  the  level  of  water,  and  to  augment  the  area  of  land. 
Along  sea-coasts  such  correspondence  must  be  admitted  oc- 
casionally to  occur.  If  the  cavities  alluded  to  were  not 
compensated  by  the  sinking  of  the  superincumbent  crust, 
volcanic  phenomena  on  the  land  would  hardly  affect  the 
area  or  level  of  the  sea;  but  similar  eruptions  in  the  sea 
would  raise  its  level  and  cause  it  to  encroach  upon  the  land. 
If  it  be  admitted  as  the  most  probable  basis  of  reasoning,  whe- 
ther subterranean  cavities  exist  or  not,  that  the  continual 
elevation  is  upon  the  whole  balanced  by  continual  subsidence, 
submarine  and  continental  volcanic  vents  may  be  left  out  of 
consideration ;  but  the  littoral  and  insular  volcanoes  act  in 
one  certain  way.  and  give  as  the  general  result  of  all  volcanic 
action,  a  partial  aeepening  and  agenerdl  contraction  of  the  sea, 
which  counterbalances  in  kind  the  general  effect  of  the 
aqueous  agencies ;  but  whether  these  completely  antagonist 
principles  are  equal  in  degree  can  not  be  safely  inferred 
nom  any  data  now  accessible  to  geology.  Nor  does  it  ap- 
pear prudent  to  rest  so  important  a  conclusion  on  the  mere 
net  of  the  constancy  of  the  earth's  dimensions,  indicated  by 
the  invariable  length  of  the  solar  day ;  the  experience  of 
2000  years  is  as  nothing  in  a  question  of  such  infinitesimal 
differences  of  diameter  as  mipht  be  occasioned  by  changes 
in  the  relative  position  of  the  really  small  quantities  of 
matter  raised  or  sunk  by  volcanic  powers. 

Moreover  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  doubting  whether  even 
the  quantity  of  water  on  the  globe  is  constant ;  fbr  so  many 
combinations  of  earthy  substances  require  certain  propor- 
tions of  water  for  their  completion,  and  so  much  of  volcanic 
excitement  appears  due  to  tne  decomposition  of  water,  that  it 
would  perhaps  be  safer  to  suppose  the  water  continually  di- 
minishing in  quantity  :  nor  is  it  at  all  unlikely  that  such 
may  be  tne  case  with  the  atmosphere. 

i  5.    Comparison  of  Effects  of  Natural  Aokncirs 
IN  Modern  and  Antibnt  Times. 

The  statement  of  the  effects  of  modern  causes  must  no- 
cessarily  be  received  as  true  and  applicable  to  other  sras  of 
the  world,  at  least  in  its  general  features;  because  the 
chemical,  mechanical,  and  vital  fbrces  of  nature  are  ad- 
mitted as  individually  constant,  though  their  manifestations 
to  our  senses  be  ever  so  various  in  kind  or  degree,  in  con- 
sequence of  change  in  their  combinations,  the  quantities  of 
matter  operated  on,  external  influences,  &e.  Fixed  laws 
and  variable  conditions  are  certainly  recognised  in  existing 
nature,  and  they  give  rise  to  extreme  inequality  in  local 
results  and  combinations.  It  is  concei^'able,  by  extending 
this  idea,  that  the  existing  laws  of  nature  should  be  pro- 
ductive not  only  of  results  which,  taken  locallV  or  periodi- 
cally, appear  anequal  in  degree  or  diverse  in  kind,  but  that 
under  tne  influence  of  a  general  change  of  conditions  they 
should  manifest  a  gradual  decay  or  increase  of  strength,  or 
spring  into  extraordinary  activity  after  long  periods  of 
apparent  slumber.  Let,  for  instance,  the  sun  s  rays  be 
supposed  to  fhll  upon  the  earth  in  smaller  quantity  through 
the  augmentationof  the  minor  axis  of  the  earth^s  elliptic 
orbit;  let  the  temperature  of  the  ethereal  spaces  rise:  who 
does  not  see  that  all  the  effects  depending  on  the  external 
excitant  fbrces  would  immediately  changer  In  like  manner, 
let  the  earth's  internal  energy  of  heat  be  supposed  to  die 
away,  whether  fbr  lack  of  fuel,  incrustation  over  metalloids, 
or  a  loss  of  general  warmth  in  the  globe,  the  volcanic  phe- 
nomena would  be  weakened,  and  no  longer  balance  the 

effects  of  water. 

Now  as  these  great  conditions  cannot  be  affirmed  to  be 
constant,  but,  on  the  contrary,  as  one  at  least  of  them  is 
known  to  be  variable  (the  earth's  orbit),  how  *  baseless  as  . 
the  fabric  of  a  vision'  is  the  assumption  that  the  physical 
agencies  on  the  globe  have  always  produced  •  equal  effects 
in  equal  times,*  and  that  modern  causes  acting  with  their 
present  intensity  have  produced  all  the  older  phsenomena  of 
geology.  But  it  would  be  equally  unjust,  as  observed 
before,  to  assume  that  they  have  not;  the  question,  ^ff** 
pable  of  determination,  can  only  be  settled  by  ample  obser 
vation  and  losrical  induction. 


GEO 


136 


GEO 


Among  the  antient  plMetiomena  of  nature  we  equally 
recognise  the  contrasted  action  of  water  and  heat,  as  at 
this  day:  hy  the  former  the  solid  land  was  wasted,  and 
stratified  rocks  were  deposited  along  the  sea-shores  (as  sand- 
stones) and  in  the  depths  of  the  sea  (as  some  limestones), 
while  the  latter  manifested  itself  in  the  production  of  un- 
stratified  crystalline  rocks  and  the  elevation  and  disruption 
of  the  stratified  bed  of  the  sea.  [Rocks  ;  Strati ncATiON.] 
The  materials  arranged  by  the  action  of  water  in  the  strati- 
fied rocks  of  antient  date  are  the  same  as  those  now  carried 
by  rains,  suspended  by  the  tide,  or  separated  from  sea- water 
by  the  vital  ninctions  of  invertebrata ;  they  arc,  to  a  certain 
extent,  similarly  associated:  the  oreanic  esuvisD  buried  in 
them  are  not  very  differently  arranged  or  grouped  from  those 
which  now  lie  in  the  bed  of  the  sea  (Donati's  Researches  on 
th^  Bed  of  the  Adriatic  may  be  quoted  in  proof  of  this) ; 
the  physical  conditions  of  their  accumulation  were  therefore 
in  a  considerable  degree  similar. 

On  a  careful  consideration  of  the  facts,  it  appears  obvious 
that  the  long  series  of  stratified  deposits  was  not  accumu- 
lated without  great  and  even  sudden  changes  of  those  phy- 
sical conditions:  thick  deposits  of  sandstone  are  followed 
by  others  of  clay  or  of  limestone,  for  which  different  acencies 
and  conditions  were  required.  Over  the  same  spherical 
area  of  the  earth's  sur&ce  the  predominant  physical 
conditions  varied  ftom  time  to  time,  and  many  times,  so 
that  the  tetual  state  of  the  globe,  as  far  as  regards  watery 
agencies,  represents  not  all  its  previous  conditions,  but  is  to 
be  compared  with  each  of  them  successively.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  igneous  products  in  the  crust  of  the  globe, 
which  similarly  varied  from  time  to  time  in  the  same  sphe- 
rical area. 

Successive  phases  of  the  aqueous  and  igneous  agencies 
over  the  same  region  appear,  either  contemporaneously  or 
successively,  to  have  aflected  all  parts  of  the  earth's  surface 
accessible  to  man ;  so  that  everywhere  there  is  proof  of 
great  revolutions  in  the  condition  of  land  and  sea.  More* 
over  it  appears  [Organic  Remains]  that  to  each  general 
system  of  stratified  rocks,  indicative  of  a  corresuonding 
great  system  of  physical  agencies,  peculiar  races  of  plants 
and  animals  belong : — with  new  pnysical  conditions,  new 
forms  of  life  came  on  the  globe,  vanished  with  those 
conditions,  and  gave  place  to  others  equcdly  transitory.  If 
now  we  compare  the  modem  survey  of  nature  with  any 
similar  work,  executed  on  the  same  principle,  for  any  one 
of  the  earlier  epochs,  it  is  certain  that  the  earth  has  under* 
Kone  many  very  extensive  revolutions  in  all  that  respects 
its  aqueous,  igneous,  and  organic  phnnomena,  before 
arriving  at  its  present  state:  it  is  equally  certain  that 
between  the  epochs  of  these  revolutions,  the  state  of  the 
earth  was  not  extremely  dissimilar  to  that  which  we  now 
behold ;  yet,  because  the  organic  beings  preserved  in  the 
earth  in  each  of  these  systems  are  peculiar  to  it  and  differ 
from  the  others,  and  from  those  thai  now  live,  we  cannot 
possiblv  doubt  that  the  points  of  difference  were  numerous, 
general,  and  important 

To  determine  the  cause  of  the  change  of  physical  con- 
ditions between  one  system  of  stratified  rocks  and  another  is 
not  difficult.  In  existing  nature  suoh  a  change  might  be 
easily  produced  in  almost  every  region  by  a  disturbance  of 
the  level  of  some  particular  tracts  of  land,  by  one  great 
movement  or  many  successive  displacements.  For  example, 
let  the  isthmus  of  Suez  or  the  isthmus  of  Daricn  sink  one 
hundred  or  a  few  hundred  feet  (perhaps  scarcely  beyond 
the  range  of  the  power  of  an  earthquake),  what  mighty 
changes  would  be  occasioned  in  the  Indian,  Mediterranean, 
Atlantic,  and  Pacific  Oceans,  over  areas  which  would 
appear  considerable  even  when  compared  with  many  antient 
systems  of  strata — changes  of  stratified  deposits,  and  phy- 
sical conditions,  and  consequent  variations  in  the  relative 
abundance  and  geographical  distribution  of  organic  beings. 
Now,  though  at  this  day  no  such  mighty  changes  are 
witnessed,  we  have  only  to  enlarge  our  conception  of  the 
actual  effects  of  volcanic  agency  to  see  clearly  that  this  is 
the  power  which  was  employed  in  producing  them. 

(  6.— SURTIY  OF  SUC^BSIITB  PxRlOM  OF  THl  FORMATION 

OF  THs  Crust  of  thb  Earth. 

The  analpgy  of  the  effects  of  aqueous  and  igneous  agen- 
cies in  all  past  periods  of  the  earth's  history  being  assumed, 
we  may  prooeea  to  gather  inferences  as  to  the  measure  of  the 
intensity  with  which  they  have  operated*  and  the  time  which 


has  elapsed  daring  their  operation.  This  requires  at  least  a 
brief  liummary  of  the  characteristic  features  of  the  pheno- 
mena of  successive  steps  of  the  earth's  formation,  in  the 
order  of  their  occurrence.  Observation  can  only  guide  us 
to  a  knowledge  of  the  crust  of  the  earth  for  a  depth  of  a  few 
miles  at  most ;  and  fh>m  what  we  there  behola  it  is  pru- 
bable  that  a  much  greater  extension  of  the  power  of  oU- 
ser^'ing  would  really  help  us  but  little  in  tracing  the  history 
of  the  revolutions  of  our  globe  of  which  monuments  remain 
for  inspection.  For  at  some  moderate  depth  below  the 
surfece  all  marks  of  lamellar  increase,  indicative  of  pen 
odical  formation,  cease ;  all  monuments  of  life  and  watery 
action  terminate ;  and  we  behold  the  effects  of  heat  alone. 
The  general  basis  of  all  the  crust  of  the  earth,  in  whirb 
we  trace  the  combined  results  of  igneous,  aoueous,  and 
vital  energies,  is  a  mass  of  crystallized  rocks,  tne  fruit  of 
great  and  very  general  heat ;  which  limits  all  inquiry  in 
that  direction. 

From  the  surface  of  these  interior  crystalline  rock* 
mostly  of  the  nature  of  granite  [Rocks;  Stratifica- 
tion], the  monuments  of  physical  changes  left  in  the 
rocks  are  capable  of  interpretation  by  the  application  of  the 
knowledge  we  have  ^thercd  of  chemical,  mechanical,  and 
vital  forces,  but  below  it  all  appears  at  first  sight  dubiaua 
and  dark.  Were  these  rocks  of  igneous  origin  anterior  to 
the  whole  crust  of  the  earth  now  placed  upon  them  ?  Or 
does  the  interior  heat  slowly  reconvert  to  granite  the  masses 
of  sedimentan*  strata  laid  upon  it  by  external  watery  agen- 
cies ?  In  the  n>rmer  case  the  monuments  of  nature  are  oona* 
plete  so  far  as  any  thing  analogous  to  the  present  system  of 
surface  agencies  is  concerned ;  but  accoraing  to  tne  latter 
supposition,  the  earlier  strata,  with  whate^-er  of  organic 
exuvisD  lay  in  them,  have  been  reabsorbed  and  melteil  into 
the  hidden  secrets  of  the  earth,  and  a  similar  fate  awaits 
their  successors. 

\  To  assume  the  truth  of  either  of  these  views  is  altogether 
contrary  to  the  prudent  spirit  of  modern  philosophy :  no 
inspection  or  analysis  of  the  old  granitic  masses ;  no  merely 
analogical  comparisons  of  them  with  the  fluid  oompounds 
of  existing  volcanoes ;  no  d  priori  reasoning  will  solve  the 
question.  Yet  it  appears  capable  of  solution  by  a  full  and 
impartial  consideration  of  Uie  stratified  crust  of  the  earth 
itself,  which  ought  to  show,  in  the  nature  and  condition  of 
the  lower  strata  as  compared  with  the  upper,  and  in  the 
nature  and  abundance  and  mode  of  conservation  of  oceanic 
remains,  evidence  not  only  of  the  circumstanoes  under 
which  they  were  accumulated,  but  indications  of  the  aaturr 
and  extent  of  the  changes  which  have  since  occurred  to 
them.    This  mode  of  inquiry  we  shall  endeavour  to  felk>w. 

This  first  diagram  on  the  following  page  is  intended  to 
show  how  very  small  is  the  supposed  depth  of  the  crust  of 
the  earth,  and  of  the  most  profound  parts  of  the  ocean, 
compared  to  the  radius  of  the  globe.  The  thickness  of  the 
crust  of  the  earth,  here  taken  at  15  miles,  is  perhaps  on  a 
general  average,  not  so  much  as  five.  To  this  mere  film  on 
the  surface  of  the  globe  inductive  geology  is  confined; 
though  by  help  of  collateral  science  we  have  learned  many 
truths  as  to  the  constitution  of  the  hidden  interior  masses. 

The  difference  of  the  diameters  of  the  earth  is  nearly 
36  miles.  If  the  axis  of  the  globe  were  displaced  90*,  thr 
level  of  the  sea  would  rise  at  the  old  poles  and  sink  at  the 
new  poles  about  half  that  quantity,  or  1 3i  miles :  and  at 
other  points,  intermediate  quantities,  according  to  thc.r 
relations  to  the  great  circle  passing  through  the  new  and 
old  poles  of  rotation.  At  the  poles  of  this  great  circle 
tliere  would  be  no  alteration  of  level. 

By  imagining  the  depth  of  1000  miles,  in  the  first  diagram 
on  the  following  page,  to  be  repeated  three  times,  and 
the  three  radii  to  be  at  the  same  time  prolonged  till  the> 
meet  at  a  point,  which  would  represent  the  centre  M 
the  earth,  the  reader  will  easily  form  a  notion  of  what  u 
intended.    ^ 

The  are  includes  20  degrees  from  the  Adriatic  to  the 
Atlantic  passing  over  the  Apennines,  the  Alps,  the  English 
Channel,  the  Welsh  Mountains,  and  the  Irish  Sea,  the 
depth  of  the  narrow  seas  being  less  than  the  breadth  ot  the 
fine  lines. 

The  subjoined  general  section  {Jig.  Z\  combined  with 
the  complete  table  of  British  strata  which  follows  <e\> 
tracted  ftom  Phillips's '  Guide  to  Geology,*  3rd  edition,  p.  1 9 1 
will  serve  for  reference  to  the  reader  who  may  be  tinac> 
quainted  with  the  arrangement  of  the  stratified  rocks  in  tne 
crust  of  the  earth. 


GEO 


138 


G  EG 


SertH  qfBfitiih  Siraia,  beginning  at  the  Surface^  frwn  which  all  JVatefmoved  Oravel  and  River  SedimenU  are 

mppoeed  to  be  removed, 

[The  ICailM  SInU  am  Darkad  by  Figures ;  11m  Freth-woter  and  JBttttary  Beds  by  Letters;  the  aames  of  some  chanctciisUa  FbeeUa  are  fai  IlaJka.) 

TXRTIART  STRATA. 

A  imal)  number  of  the  Fossils  are  identical  with  erbting  species. 


iVaaiet  pfFormaHomt, 


OsNeml 

TIUelbeM. 

Y9r4$, 


1.  Clay 


«.  Fresh-water  marls 
t  London  clay 

''   (Plastic clay 


16 
33 


{ 


'  A  waterwdrifted  mass  of  marine  shells,  pebbtet.  Ike.,  leslin^  ov  more  regnlar  «heM« 

se.    Abo 

MCM 

luarjr  sbeUs.  s 
100  to  900       Mast  of  clay  rich  in  marine  shelli.or  which  34  per  cent,  are  identical  with  neent  V\tvU 
1AA  *    AMk    i  Varloasly  eolottred  sands  and  clays,  the  latter  oontalniof  orfanic  remains   idebtt  &J 
100  to  400    \       with  or  mneh  allied  to  those  of  the  London  day. 


beds  of  sand  or  sandy  Umestone.    Aboat  40  per  cent,  of  the  dMUe  ai«  sap]KM*-J 
to  be  identical  with  ekistinf  speeiee. 
They  include  a  bed  of  mstuarjr  shells,  and  ooeur  only  in  the  Isle  of  Wight 


SXCONDARY  STRATA. 


w 

In 


All  the  Fossils  belong  to  extinct  species.    They  are  different  ttom  those  in  the  Tertiary  Strata. 


Chalk     .        • 
Green  sand    • 


I 

.2 

I 


f  h.  Wealden  • 

5.  Portland  oolite 


6.  Oxford  oolite  . 


.  aoo  { 

.  ISO  I 

.  aoo  \ 

.  130  { 


7.  Baih  oolite  Cacav  Bath) 


8.  Lias 


•  a 


•8 


'I 

V 

I 


9.  New  red  sandstooe 


10.  HagnesiaB  limestone 


c.  Coal     • 


I 

00 

g  /  11.  Caibonifospiu  or  Moantain  limestone 

I 

I 

m 


18.  Okl  red  sandsloBe 


Of  oneqnal  hardness,  soft  above,  marly  below,  with  intentntiStd  Mmts;  extinct 

Zoophyta.  Amtmekytai,  and  other  Echinodermata. 
Upper  green  sand,  Tery  fossOireroas.  in  general  chalkr. 
Oault.  a  blue  marl,  or  elay.  often  very  fossiliferotta.    BeUwaltet  mimmm. 
Lower  gre^n  sand,  or  iron  sand,  very  fossilifenras  in  plaeee. 
Weald  cUy.  with  frRsh-wster  shells.    Cfpndet. 
Hastings  sauds.  with  land  plants,  and  bones  of /^wnodee. 
Purbeck  beds  of  clay  and  limestone,  with  fresh-water  shells. 
A  variable  locally  ooUtie  Umestone ;  some  beds  Aall  of  fossils. 
Kimmrridge  clny,  with  layers  of  Oilr§a  Atltoiiea, 
I 'pper  calcareous  grit. 

Coralliae  oolite,  with  beds  and  masses  of  coral;  Sckmida;  many  shells. 
160    \  Lower  calcireous  grit.    jiwtmonUe$  caU$M,  Ptaaa  lamceolata. 

Keilit^y  Jick.  }  ^"■«»^'»  CaWeeieiMir.  OrypM^  diiatata, 

Cornbrash,  thin,  impore,  shelly  .limeetone.    AviaJa  ecHbutta. 

Fore«i  mnrble.    Shelly  oolite,  with  ooocretionary  sandy  limestone. 

Bath  oolite.     In  several  divisions,  shelly,  oolitic,  compaet*  and  sandy  bods.    Mtj/a'^ 
130    \        $aurm$,  Aftoerimui. 

Fuller's  earth.    A  series  of  calcareoos  and  arffllaeeoos  shelly  beds. 

Inferior  oolite.    Fholadomya.    TW^oaia  sfrioto. 

Snud,  with  ouncretivnary  masses  hduding  shells. 

Upper  lias  shale.    Fall  of  charaeieristle  saorians,  of  AmaamUsi,  JMemai/es,  Mid  o'ikrr 
shells. 
,^    J  Maristone,  replete  with  TerOmimla,  Peettnlda,  Atkida  hmmtkakii. 
*^    ^Middle  lias  shale.    Contains  Ofyp*csa.jtfBHaon«ef. 

Lias  limesione,  with  Or«pAesa  Isciirea.  AmmiomUt*  CbnytMri. 

Lower  lias  shale,  and  ooEoured  marls. 

,  Colonred  marls,  gypsnm,  and  rock  talL  % 
800    J  Red  ond  white  sandstones,  and  marls.    VFow  or  no  otfaale  lemaias. 

(  Conglomerate  and  sandstone.  J 

/  Knottiogley  limestone.    A  few  bivalvni  la  tht  lowtf  faedf. 

I  Gypseous  red  marls.    No  fossils. 
100    <  Magneiian  limestone.    Shells,  oorals. 

I  Marl  slate.    Fiihet  of  remarkable  forms. 

I  Red  sandstone.    Plants  of  the  sobjaeenC  coal  Mries  oecor  in  It 

The  snbdivlslons  of  tlic  eoal  series  are  only  locally  ascertained.    Otitstone  and  sIuIm 

constitute  the  principal  mass.     Flagstone  and  ironstone  are  among  tW  m^Mt 

charactrristie  layers.    Freshwater  limeetone  and  marine  liowetone  srr  exr«e«iiiel9 

1000 1  rare  and  local.    The  shells  are  mostly  of  mstoary  origin.    The  plaata  ars  nwr-l] 

of  terrestrial  tribes  and  extinct  genera. 

MtUatone  grit,  series  of  sandstone,  shales,  eoal,  and  thin  limestones,  fonnlnya  tra»- 

sitiou  group  between  the  coal  and  the  carboniferous  Hmeetones. 
Yoredale  rocks,  eonsisting  of  five  or  more  bods  of  Umestone,  with  alteraatlag  flagstone*, 
and  other  gritstones,  shales,  thin  coal,  ironstone. 
800    ^  Lower  or  scar  limestone,  in  the  North  of  England  and  Seotland,  snhdf Tided  by  asod- 
stones,  shales,  .and  coal  seams.    They  yield  characteristic  Crm9»de»^  iSmdrntJ. 
Spiri^ertw,  OrthocemtOt  BtUvrophom,  OimuttiAt$. 
Alternating  limestones  sud  red  sandstones,  forming  a  transition  group  bet  war  u  tl.* 

carboniferous  Umestone  and  red  sandstone  formations. 
I  Conglomerates  and  sandstones.    No  fossils  yet  notic*d. 
100  to  3800    \  Coloured  marls  and  concretionary  limestones,  called  **  eornsiones."    A  few  fbsftila. 
^TUestonea,  or  flagttone  beds.    A  few  flshes. 


fee,  OB  the  tnMect  of  this  clastiilcation  of  the  Carboniferous  System,  the  second  volume  of  the  *  Geology  of  Yorkshire/  1836. 


PRIMARY  STRATA. 


AH  the  fossils  belong  to  extinct  species,  and  often  to  extinct  genera  and  families.  They  are  different  from  those  lo 
the  Secondary  and  TeKiaiy  strata.  It  has  been  usual  to  class  the  upper  systems  under  the  title  of  Transition  strata, 
and  to  confine  the  name  of  Primary  to  the  mica  schist  and  gneiss  systems.  The  following  view  of  the  subject  res  tilts 
from  Mr.  Murchison's  researches :— • 


IS 


IS.  LndtovMoks 

U.  Wtnkiek  limestone 

15.  Carmloe  sandstono 
IS.  Landeilo  rocks       • 


•60 


•    flOO    < 


•  S80 

•  400 


Sandstones.    Species  of  Orlinita,  LimguU,  Terebratnla,  Spirifera. 

Limestone.    Pea£a««r«f,  j^oswaei^etaf. 

Shale. 

LimMion-  C  Corals  and  Crinoldea  In  vast  abundsnee. 

Shal*  i  AMMipAa/i.  Prodmeta  Uprttm,  Orthocerata,  Cat^mema  Bhmanhaehii,  s^! 

•*••         (        other  Trilobites. 

v!lri"L^"ndttones.}'^^  Or«*w.  TrihAiUi. 

Calcareous  flaggy  bods,  Includiag  Aaapku  AuAn,  and  other  TrOobilef. 


Tlie  stratified  argillaceous  rocks  below»  from  the 
understood.  The  following  arrangement,  based  on 
reference  to  the  succession  of  deposits  in  the  Welsh 


17.  Plynlymmoo  rocks 

Bala  limestone 
Hoowdon  rocks 
Clay  slate     •        • 


rarity  of  organic  remains  and  other  causes,  are  not  yet  completelv 
the  labours  of  Sedgwick,  is  however  almost  certainly  correct  wit.-i 
and  Cumbrian  districts.    The  thicknesses  are  insufficiently  known. 

r  ArgUlaceous  lodnrated  sUte,  sandy  slales.    No  feoeils  yet  foand  la  it. 
I        and  urgillaceuus  rocks,  with  Orbieula,  Zoophyte,  and  othar 


orgai^ 

f  Calcareoos  and  argiUaceous  rocks,  with  OrbicWo,  Zec^pAyte.  and  other  orvanie  ret 

I        mains. 

f  Varioitiily  coknued  and  indented  aigUlaeeoot  elate.    A  few  Ibeiils  have  be«tt 

i        iu  Wales.  ^^ 

Soft  dark  slau.    No 


«EO 


189 


GEO 


^  gjCbUstantoiUte   .^      ••••,••        •       Soft daxk lUt*^ vHh ohkttotite.    Molbtiaflki 

3  %\  Hornblende «UU Soft  dariL lUte* with  hornblende.    No foeeilt  known. 

^'^    «.        V.-*     -*  (W«»»BW*8wn»to«.   TT»«bedsofniknichl«l.compoeedor«kanid« 

Mieeiehiflsyiteni {        wTUi  goeim,  chkirile  lehbt,  tak  •ehu^  bonib£ide  fchU^  dny  eftte.  qnertoraokl 

i        and  primary  llmMtone.  '  ^      ««»•, 

Gneuaiyitem 1 ''••2K!!"S**"iL '*'&?  f*^*!'^*'?*^!*^."'"''^*'^ 

'  t        locaUy  witk  mion  schist,  qnorti  lock  and  primary  Ua^tone. 


PaiUA&Y  PSRIOOS. 

Oldeit  8y9iem»  q/*  Strata, — Qneiti  and  Mica  SchiH. — 
Gneiss  and  mica  schist,  two  of  the  most  abundant  of  the 
oldest  stratified  rocks,  appear,  as  to  their  substance,  to  be 
composed  of  the  same  paxts  as  granitic  rooks,  viz.  felspar, 
quartz,  and  miea,  with  great  Tariations  of  proportions,  and 
some  admixtures  and  substitutions  of  other  minerals,  con- 
stituting alike  granite*  gneiss,  mica  schist,  &c.  But  the  in- 
ffredients  are  not  in  the  same  condition ;— in  the  granite  all 
is  crystallixed ;  each  mineral  is  independently  a  crystal,  or 
moulded  in  the  carities  left  between  crystals ;  in  gneiss  and 
intca  ftohist  the  felspar,  quartz,  and  mica  are  roUed  or  frag- 
mented masses.  The  character  of  worn  surface  of  the 
ingredients,  combined  with  the  lamination  or  stratification 
of  the  mass,  assures  us  that  aqueous  agencies  have  deter- 
mined the  aggregation  of  gneiss  and  mica  schist:  the  cha- 
racter of  the  lamination,  especially  the  minute  fiexntes 
which  abound  in  these  antient  rocks,  suggests  somewhat  of 
peculiarity  in  the  condition  of  the  water ;  and  the  internal 
crystallization  of  the  attrited  felspar  reveals  its  origin 
from  the  disintegration  of  granite. 

On  the  other  hand  it  has  been  contended  that  the  simi- 
litude of  the  mineral  composition  of  gneiss  or  mica  schist 
to  granitic  compounds  argues  a  similitude  of  origin;  and 
by  some  writen  gneiss,  mica  schist,  &c.,  are  regarded  even 
as  i^eotts  rooks ;  by  others  it  is  thought  t^at  gneiss  and  mica 
schist  are  intermediate  products  between  sandstone  and 
granite,  retaining  the  lamination  and  bedding  which  indi- 
cate their  original  aqueous  origin,  but  assuming  a  new 
mineral  composition  in  consequence  of  the  agency  of  heat. 
Neither  of  these  views  appears  satisfiietory;  to  give  a  merely 
ii^neouB  origin  to  gneiss  is  evidently  to  leave  out  half  the 
phsonomena ;  to  suppose  the  mineral  composition  of  gneiss 
the  effeet  of  heat  operating  on  a  common  sandstone  will 
never  be  allowed  bv  those  who  have  studied  the  rock  as  it 
appears  in  Zetland,  Scotland,  or  Norway ;  fbr  in  all  these 
places  it  is  clear  that  the  granular  minerals  have  not  de- 
rived their  external  figure  from  concretionary  but  really 
from  mechanical  action,  while  their  exterior  structure  is  truly 
crystalline.  There  is  however  one  mineral  frequently  found 
crystallized  in  gneiss  and  mica  schist,  viz.  garnet ;  and  the 
history  of  this  mineral  leaves  no  doubt  that  the  rocks  in 
which  it  lies  have  been  pervaded  by  a  general  high  tem- 
perature, enough  to  affect  such  a  fusible  substance  as 
garnet,  but  not  enough  to  melt  any  one  of  the  regular  con- 
stituents of  granite.  Here  then  appears  decisive  testimony 
ns  to  the  decree  of  heat  which  the  gneiss  and  mica  schist 
have  experienced.  By  the  operation  of  this  pervading  heat 
the  particles  of  calcareous  rocks  associated  with  gneiss  and 
mica  schist  have  undergone  a  great  change:  they  have 
been  converted  to  crystallized  marblli  of  various  colours  and 
qualities. 

The  arguments  above  ildvanced,  conclusive  as  we  deem 
them  on  the  subject  of  the  origin  of  gneiss  generally,  are 
not  intended  to  apply  to  cases  where,  by  reason  of  this  rock 
being  buried  at  gr^at  depths  below  the  surlhce,  extraordi- 
nary effects  of  heat  may  be  experienced.  There,  no  duubt, 
the  gneiss  such  as  we  see  it,  clearly  revealing  the  history  of 
its  formation,  may  be  wholly  melted  and  re-crystallized^  so 
as  to  lose  entirely  all  traces  of  its  origin.  Sotne  such  eases 
may  occur,  perhaps  even  we  may  admit  that  evidence  Ibr 
them  exists  in  uplifted  granitic  regions;  and  thus  some  of 
the  monuments  of  the  earth's  early  history  may  have  been 
lost :  but  that  this  cannot  be  the  general  rule  almost  every 
mcuntain-chain  beara  testimony. 

In  thesa,  the  most  antient  rocks  which  exhibit  to  us  the 
combined  effects  of  aqueous  and  igneous  agency,  no  traces 
of  animal  or  vegetable  life  occur,  and  the  conclusion  we 
adopt  on  the  subject  is,  that  few  or  none  of  the  organized 
wonden  of  nature  were  then  in  existence,  because  the  phy- 
sical conditions  of  the  globe  within  which  the  existence  of 
animals  and  plants  is  limited  were  not  then  established. 
Only  one  otlier  view  of  the  subject  is  worthy  of  notice.  Ae- 
eovftng  to  tba  hypatfaetiz  of  the  slow  reconvenion  of  strati* 


fied  rocks  to  jjn^anitic  compounds,  the  want  of  traces  of 
organic  forms  m  the  gneiss  and  mica  schist  is  ascribed  to 
the  destroying  agencv  of  heat  on  the  calcareous  matter  of 
shells,  corals,  &c.,  and  the  carbonaceous  substance  of  plants. 
That  heat  will  affect  such  calcareous  and  carbonaceous 
compounds  in  the  manner  assumed  is  certain.  Perhaps  it 
might  be  difficult  entirely  to  reject  the  hypothesis  in  the 
case  of  the  primary  Umestones,  whose  alteration  to  crystal- 
lized masses  may  be  thought  to  have  wholly  destroyed  the 
structure  of  the  shells.  Yet  as  in  the  limestone  of  Tees- 
dale,  similarly  altered  by  contact  with  trap  rocks,  crinoidal 
stems  retain  their  forms ;  and  as  near  granite,  trap,  &c., 
vegetable  remains  are  recognised,  if  not  in  substance,  yet 
at  least  by  their  impressions  in  the  shales  or  grits;  and  as, 
finally,  among  some  rocks  of  the  same  mineral  nature  as 
gneiss  and  mica  schist  shells  and  plants  of  many  sorts  ap- 
pear in  the  Col  du  Chardonnet  in  Dauphin6,  the  balance  of 
evidence  is  decidedly  against  this  extreme  application  of  the 
theory  of  metamorphism  of  rocks.* 

Upon  the  whole  then  the  evidence  afforded  by  a  carefhl 
examination  of  the  oldest  strata,  in  regard  to  their  mineral 
composition,  structure,  and  absence  of  organic  remains, 
supports,  we  will  not  say  establishes,  the  opinion  that  these 
are  not  onlv  the  most  antient  strata  which  man  can  trace, 
but  the  oldest  products  of  watery  action  on  the  globe,  and 
in  a  great  degree  anterior  to  the  origin  of  organic  life. 

The  general  reaulu  to  which  the  study  of  the  earliest  sys- 
tems of  strata  lead  are  these  :— 

1.  Thev  are  the  oldest  aqueous  deposits  visible  on  the 
crust  of  the  globe,  and  rest  on  masses  which  have  received 
their  present  aspect  from  the  action  of  heat. 

2.  They  furnish  no  proof  of  the  contemporaneous  or  pre- 
vious existence  of  dry  land. 

3.  They  are  equally  destitute  of  evidence  of  the  contem- 
poraneous or  previous  existence  of  plants  or  animals  in 
the  sea. 

4.  The  rocks  of  this  antient  system  are  peculiar  in  their 
aspect,  and  though  doubtless  derived  from  disintegrated 
granite,  8cc.,  the  constituent  {articles  appear  to  have  under- 
gone much  less  attrition  than  those  wmch  compose  rocks 
of  later  date. 

5.  These  rocks  are  of  such  great  extent  as  to  apprbaeh 
nearer  to  universal  formations  than  any  of  later  date. 

As  a  general  inference,  it  appeare  that  the  circumstances 
which  accompanied  the  accumulation  of  these  rocks  were 
greatly  different  from  what  we  now  behold,  since  nowhere 
on  the  sea-shores  are  any  such  products  found,  nor  can  we 
suppose  any  thing  analogous  producible  in  the  bod  of  the 
sea,  unless  where  some  peculiar  agitation  of  water  may 
hasten  the  disintegration  of  granite.  The  impression 
was  verv  strong  amouK  early  writers  of  th6  entire  want 
of  accordance  between  the  causes  of  those  early  strata  and 
those  now  in  action.  Do  Luc  {Lettr^  iii.)  more  reservedly 
says, '  We  have  no  reason  to  expect  that  the  operations 
of  those  times  can  be  explained  by  specific  analogies  with 
what  we  observe  in  the  present  state  of  the  earth.* 

And  as  one  general  hypothesis,  we  may  say  with  the  fol- 
lowers of  Leibnitz  and  Fouriei;  that  the  proper  internal 
heat  of  the  earth  was  then  only  just  so  much  reduced  as  to 
allow  of  a  peculiar  watery  action  upon  its  cooling  crystal- 
lized masses,  but  not  enough  diminished  to  sdlow  of  the 
conditions  within  whioh  the  existence  of  organic  beings  is 
restricted  on  the  earth. 

This  hypothesis  is  independent  of  the  consideration  al- 
ready presented  as  to  the  original  condensation  of  the  globe, 
and  cannot,  we  believe,  be  objected  to  on  the  ground  of  any- 
thing known  oonceming  the  present  state  of  the  interior 
of  the  globe  I  on  the  contrary,  the  temperature  of  the  earth 
augments  as  we  proceed'  downwards,  and  this  fact,  being 
general,  has  been  shown  by  Fourier  to  be  inexplicable  except 
as  a  consequence  of  a  general  high  temperature  now  exist- 
ing in  the  earth.    The  planetary  spaces  round  the  earth 


J 


*  W«  And  no  Ttsdf  e  of  orimiiiMd  bodies  in  Uiese  strmU;  sono  tiioraib 
iited  ia  ths  iMoid  M  tfi«  Ubm  it  Uaw  oorwod  Om  globe.— Do  Luc.  *  Uttf  Tni 
rirac,'  8«pC.  ITM. 

T8 


GEO 


140 


GEO 


are  eoldor  than  any  part  of  its  surface  (FourierX  and  con- 
tinually abstract  heat  from  it:  the  globe  is  continually 
growing  colder  though  bv  an  insensime  rate,  must  have 
formerly  been  hotter,  ana  then  must  have  lost  heat  more 
rapidly.  The  obvious  conclusion  from  the  mathematical 
theory  of  the  heat  of  the  globe,  coupled  with  observations  of 
the  temperature  bci|pw  the  sur&ce,  leads  to  the  adoption,  as 
an  inference  from  facts,  of  the  view  above  proposed  as  an 
hypothesis  to  explain  other  facts. 

SkiddaWt  Cambrian^  and  Silurian  Systems*  —  These 
argillaceous  rocks  of  the  primary  series  of  strata  bear 
the  same  relation  to  the  gneiss  and  mica  schist  as  com- 
mon clays  bear  to  common  sands  in  modem  nature. 
Some  clays  are  not  really  more  distinct  from  particular 
sands  in  their  mineral  nature  than  in  the  comparative  fine- 
ness of  their  constituent  particles.  In  consequence  of  dif- 
fcrenoes  of  magnitude  and  density,  particles  of  clays  and 
sands,  which  are  derived  by  watery  action  from  the  same 
sea  clifj^  avalanche,  or  glacier,  are  soon  separated,  earned  to 
unequal  distances,  and  deposited  in  distant  masses.  Such, 
in  many  cases,  is  the  true  origin  of  the  sandstones  and 
shales  of  the  secondary  strata,  and  processes  somewhat  ana- 
logous may  perhaps  be  supposed  to  have  occasioned  the  re- 
markable distinctness  and  even  reciprocity  of  occurrence  of 
the  gneiss  and  mica  schist  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
slaty  rocks  on  the  other.  It  is  seldom  that  both  of  these 
types  of  primary  strata  abound  in  the  'same  geographical 
region,  though  there  is  little  doubt  that  both  are  derived 
from  a  granitic  basis.  In  some  cases  we  may  best  conclude 
that  the  materials  of  the  slaty  rocks  were  obtained  from  the 
wasted  gneiss  and  mica  schist. 

Enormously  thick  as  these  argillaceous  masses  are,  and 
extensive  as  is  their  gooeraphical  distribution,  they  offer  in 
all  countries  a  general  character  of  aspect  which  easily  ar- 
rests the  attention  and  impresses  the  memory.  The  colour 
usually  approaches  to  blue,  gray,  green,  or  purple;  the 
texture  is  usually  fine  grained,  but  portions  are  mcluded 
not  rery  different  from  sandstone  or  conglomerate  (grau- 
wacke,  or  clasmoschist  of  Conybeare) ;  the  structure  is 
laminated  and  bedded  more  or  less  perfectly,  and  often  in 
addition  oomplicated  with  regular  symmetrical  joints ;  there 
is  another  entirely  distinct  set  of  such  divisional  planes 
called  '  cleavage/  traversing  the  planes  of  deposition ;  all 
these  circumstances  give  to  the  primary  argillaceous  rocks 
a  determinate  aspect.  The  limited  limestones  which  inter- 
laminate  the  mass  are  seldom  so  crystalline  as  those  in 
gneiss  and  mica  schist,  and  they,  as  well  as  the  upper  and 
some  other  parts  of  the  slaty  rocks,  generallyyield  organic 
remains,  occasionally  in  great  abundance.  These  are  al- 
most wholly  marine  (local  deposits  of  land-plants  occur), 
and  the  ammals  belong  to  invertebraltribes—zoophyta,con- 
chifera^  crustacea»  and  augment  in  number  and  variety  as 
We  pass  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  parts  of  this  series  of 
rocks.    (Organic  Rxm ains.) 

From  a  contemplation  of  the  slaty  rocks  it  results : — 

1.  They  not  unfrei^uently  rest  on  the  §^ranitic  rocks  with 
scarcely  any  interposition  of  gneiss  or  mica  schist.  (Oorn- 
wall,  Cumberland,  &c.) 

2.  The  proo&  which  they  offer  of  the  existence  of  dry  land 
are  ohieflv  (or  wholly)  derived  from  the  organic  remains  of 
plants,  which  are  not  certainly  known  among  the  lower 
groups,  but  become  tolerably  plentiful  in  the  upper  parts 
of  the  systems. 

3.  The  marine  organic  remains,  shells,  corals,  Crustacea, 
&C.,  are  very  scanty  in  the  older  systems,  and  grow  more 
and  more  numerous  and  varied  towards  the  upper  strata. 

4.  The  forms  and  structure  of  these  earliest  known  fossil 
races  of  animals  have  no  extraordinary  degree  of  simplicity, 
nor  are  they  confined  to  the  lowest  or  least  complicated 
tribes  of  invertebrata. 

5.  The  alterations  which  the  rocks  have  undergone  by 
the  action  of  heat  are  general,  suflicient  in  most  countries 
to  superinduce  new  structures  (slaty  cleavage),  but  not  to 
destroy  the  traces  of  organic  remains. 

A  greater  resemblance  appears  among  these  fine-grained 
strata  to  the  deposits  from  modern  waters  than  is  found  in 
the  earlier  rocks :  there  is  less  of  peculiarity  in  their  laminar 
and  stratified  structure ;  they  are  more  varied ;  and  the 
alternations  of  deposits  indicate  greater  variety  of  natural 
processes  and  new  conditions,  such  as  the  elevation  of  Ifluid, 
the  wasting  effects  of  the  atmosphere,  and  littoral  agitation, 
ht  occasion. 
To  may  suppose,  in  order  to  account  for  thi  origin  and 


gradual  augmentation  of  the  traces  of  organie  life,  fbai  fho 
flow  of  heat  ftt>m  within  the  globe  to  the  surfece  was  re- 
tarded by  the  effect  of  previous  coolhig,  and  by  the  addition 
of  the  older  sedimentary  rocks  above  the  granite ;  and  this 
is  in  harmony  with  the  feet  that  generally  the  limestones 
of  this  system  are  less  crystallized  than  thoee  which  are  of 
older  d&te.' 

Poisofte/ram  the  Primary  to  the  Secondary  Psriod  i^  Geo- 
logical 7Vm«.— Before  the  close  of  the  Primary  period  we 
find  that  some  limited  tracts  of  land  were  reared  above  the 
waters,  so  as  to  nourish  the  plants  which  occur  in  the  gran- 
wacke  slates  of  North  Devon  and  the  banks  of  the  Rhine 
(supposing,  with  the  general  opinion,  that  the  fossiliferous 
rocKS  of  Baden,  &c.,  are  of  this  age).  The  sea  had  berome 
entirely  fit  for  the  residence  of  marine  soophyta,  which 
abounded  so  as  to  constitute  reefs  and  islands ;  conehifera  and 
gasteropoda  forming  extensive  beds ;  trilobxtes  of  many  kmcU, 
and  a  few  traces  of  fishes.  These  however  are  chiefly  in  the 
uppermost  of  the  primary  series,  and  would  be  ranked  a» 
transition  deposits  oy  all  geologists  who  use  that  now  ne- 
glected and  somewhat  hypothetical  term.  Yet  it  is  im- 
possible not  to  be  struck  by  the  gradation  of  character 
which  connects  into  one  long  series  the  granitoid  gneiss 
and  the  arenaceous  Ludlow  rocks ;  the  finegrained  gnct>'^ 
and  mica  schist  with  the  fissile  Snowdon  slates  and  an:il- 
laceous  Wenlock  shale.  (See  the  table  of  strata,  page  t^**.  i 
In  proportion  as  the  deposits  on  a  great  scale  resemble  in 
character  of  accumulation  those  of  modem  times,  so  the 
organic  remains  appear  more  and  more  abundant.  Some  ge- 
neral  change  of  physical  condition,  such  as  perhaps  only 
a  change  of  heat  will  explain,  must  evidently  be  aamittcl 
as  an  hypothesis  to  connect  together  this  series  of  phn- 
nomena. 

After  the  deposition  of  the  primary  strata,  the  interior 
forces  of  heat,  no  longer  operating  by  a  gradual  metamor- 
phosis of  the  previously  deposited  strata,  and  by  a  regulated 
change  of  tlie  condition  of  the  sea,  appear  to  have  been 
thrown  into  a  state  of  critical  action,  and  to  have  operated 
on  the  aqueous  deposits  of  antient  date,  as  at  this  day  the 
volcanic  fires  below  affect  the  sedimentary  strata  aocumulatcd 
from  water  above.  There  is  hardly  a  mountain-raniFe  of 
much  importance  throughout  the  world  where  the  effects 
of  great  convulsive  movements  affecting  the  primarv  strata 
cannot  be  seen :  frequently  it  is  ascertained  to  be  the  ease 
that  these  movements  happened  before  the  production  of 
any  of  the  secondary  rocks ;  and  upon  the  whole  it  is  evident 
that  the  crust  of  the  globe  was  broken  up  and  disturbed,  and 
the  relative  geographical  distribution  of  sea  and  land  mate- 
rially changed  by  the  disturbance.  The  effects  immcdtatel; 
appear:  the  introduction  of  a  new  order  of  sedimentary 
deposits,  with  new  geographical  relations ;  the  extinction  of 
old  and  the  creation  of  new  groups  of  organic  beings;  th« 
commencement  of  a  new  act  (so  to  speak)  in  the  great  hi>- 
tonr  of  the  earth. 

What  relation  do  the  great  convulsions  here  alluded  to 
bear  to  the  movements  of  a  modem  earthquake  ?  They  are 
unquestionably  due  to  the  same  general  force,  via.  tnterosi 
heat :  a  disturbance  of  the  equilibrium  of  this  fotre  is  m 
each  case  to  be  admitted — ^the  causes  and  effects  are  analo- 
gous— but  is  the  modem  earthquake  due  to  a  phpiral 
agency  of  equal  intensity  with  that  which  occasiooed  the 
antient  convulsions  of  tne  earth's  crust  ?  The  uplifting 
of  a  mighty  range  of  mountains  is  a  common  event,  a 
characteristic  occurrence  of  early  geological  pericNis:  mi- 
nute  and  partial  chan^  of  level  accompany  some  modern 
earthquakes.  There  is  no  possibility  of  explaining  the 
former  by  the  latter,  except  by  taking  them  as  diffeirn- 
tial  quantities,  proportioned  to  the  time  elapsed;  as- 
suming that  they  always  (or  on  an  average)  operated  in  a 
certain  direction;  and  thus  summing  an  almost  inflntie 
series  of  minute  changea  to  make  one  decided  revolutioa. 
This  is,  and  must  necessarily  be,  the  view  of  the  advocates 
of  the  invariable  constancy  of  the  measure  of  natural  agen- 
cies. 

It  is  enough,  in  reply  to  this  speculation,  to  point  to  the 
phainomena  Whieh  require  explanation :  they  are  too  mighty 
m  extent,  and  have  too  much  simplicity  and  even  raru>  uf 
eharacter,  to  allow  of  the  fiuntesi  belief  that  thn  hypotheus 
can  be  true.  On  a  minuter  inspection  this  eonvietion  ts 
deepened  by  the  want  of  any  proof  of  the  oeeunrence  of 
these  thousands  of  small  movements,  whieh  must  havesuc* 
oeeded  one  another  for  the  production  of  the  given  effect. 
On  the  contrary,  the  enonnous  and  aimpltt  displaoeoenta, 


GEO 


143 


GEO 


nany  varielies  of  goopliyta,  molltuca,  cnutacea,  fishes, 
and  gigaatic  reptiles  of  the  land,  rivers,  and  the  aea,  mark 
the  oolitic  rocks,  and  render  them  justly  comparable,  as  a 
system,  to  the  great  carboniferous  assemblage  of  strata. 
Locally  indeed  the  ooUtie  rocks  yield  coal  among  the  inter- 
polated grits  and  shales,  just  as  happens  ankong  the  rocks 
interstratified  with  the  older  mountain  limestone. 

The  resemblance  of  the  oolitic  to  the  carbonifezous  lime- 
stone tracts  is  extremely  great  in  geneml  features ;  and  the 
reasoit  n  that  both  are  essentially  sea  deposits,  characterized 
by  ealeareous  rocks  formed  in  the  deep  sea,  and  liable  to 
admixtures  of  sandstone  and  shales  along  the  shores.  In 
such  situations  each  is  carboniferous.  Both  are  highly  rich 
in  ooeanio  life,  but  during  the  formation  of  the  oolitic  rocks 
there  is  no  proof  that  anywhere  such  excesaiTe  richness  of 
vegetation  was  renewed  on  the  land  as  that  which  yielded 
the  mass  of  eoal  plants  in  an  earlier  period.  The  state  of 
the  earth  during  the  carboniferous  period  was  compared  to 
that  of  the  tropical  parts  of  America;  during  the  oolitic 
periods  it  rather  resembles  the  south-eastern  shores  of  Aus- 
tralia, and  indeed  special  analogies  may  be  traced  in  both 
instances.  There  seems  almost  no  equivalent  of  this  oolitic 
period  cm  the  north  American  continent,  but  the  carboni- 
leFOus  rocks  occur  in  America,  India,  and  Australia. 

Creiaceaut  System. — ^The  last  portion  of  the  series  of  se- 
condary strata  was  deposited  in  the  same  oceanic  basins  as 
the  earliest,  as  far  as  Bnrope  is  ooneemed,  but  this  is  not 
the  case  in  America.  Generally,  in  Europe  the  cretaceous 
rocks  have  their  stratification  parallel  to  that  of  the  oolites, 
though  some  uncomformit^^  in  this  respect  occurs  in  York- 
shire and  Dorsetshire,  and  in  the  south-east  of  France  dis- 
locations affected  the  oolitic  strata  before  the  production  of 
the  cretaeeous  rocks.  But  these  comparatively  slight  move- 
ments of  the  bed  of  the  sea  appear  totally  insufficient  to 
account  for  the  complete  change  in  the  chemical  and 
mineralogieal  character  of  the  rocks,  and  the  new  orders  of 
zoophy ta  and  mollusca  which  date  from  the  commencement 
of  the  cretaceous  sera. 

Sands  coloured  green  by  silicate  of  iron,  white  soft  lime- 
stones with  beds  or  nodules  of  flint,  seem  to  bespeak  an  origin 
from  the  waste  of  other  lands  than  those  which  discharged 
otHor  sands  into  the  oolitiferous  sea,  and  other  modes  of 
chemical  or  vital  action  in  the  sea:  yet  a  scrupulous  ana- 
lysis of  the  oolitic  system  shows  in  its  upper  part  anabgies 
to  the  cretaceous  rocks  so  strong  and  so  various  as  to 
render  it  probable,  if  not  certain,  that  the  new  con- 
ditions characteristic  of  the  new  system  were  gradually 
or  partially  introduced  till  they  entirely  predominated ; — 
for  green  sands  alternate  with  the  uppermost  of  the 
oolitiic  limestones  in  the  Alps ;  flinty  nodules  licr  in  the  cal- 
careous grit  and  Portland  oolite,  and  chalky  limestones 
csonstitute  the  great  portion  of  the  latter  rocks  in  some 
situations  of  England.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  we  are  so 
little  able  to  determine  upon  good  evidence  what  the  new 
conditions  influential  on  tne  deposits  of  the  cretaceous  rocks 
Mnre  ;  for  their  effects  are  very  simiUir  along  a  great  range 
of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America  fkom  New  Jersey 
to  the  Misstsaippi,  and  throughout  the  interior  of  Europe. 

The  cretaceous  period  was  not  ended  in  England  by  dis- 
locations situated  in  or  even  near  that  part  of  the  surfece. 
In  Ireland  eruptions  of  basalt  of  enormous  extent  cover  the 
chalk,  and  indicate  a  crisis  of  volcanic  disturbance.  In 
France  Elie  de  Beaumont  refers  to  the  concluding  part  of 
the  cretaeeous  period  disloeations  which  range  north-north- 
ivost  in  the  Jura,  and  traverse  the  primary  mass  of  Mont 
Vise.  After  the  chalk  formation  was  oomnleted  in  the 
xouth  of  France  the  Pyruiees  were  uplifted  to  a  great 
beight,  so  as  to  Hmit  tlie  tertiary  basins  of  the  south  of 
France;  and  it  is  supposed  that  at  the  same  time  the 
Apennines  aud  Otirpatluans  experienced  an  upward  move- 
ment. Conjecture  lus  even  joined  to  these  the  Allegha- 
11  tea,  but  it  may  be  gathered  fit>m  Professor  Rogers's  reports 
on  the  geology  of  America  {BriL  Jmsoc.  Eeporis)  and  ac- 
curdant  notices  of  Featherslonh'At^gh  and  other  competent 
Ideologists,  that  an  eariier  date  should  he  allowed  to  that 
mountain- range. 

TSRTIARY  PvaiODS* 

In  general  no  contrast  can  be  more  oomplete  than 
that  between  the  seoondary  and  the  tertiary  stratified 
rocks:  the  former  retaining  so  much  uniformity  of  cha- 
racter, even  fbr  enormous  diatances,  as  to  appear  like  the 
oSect    of  one   determined  sequence  of  general  physical 


agencies ;  the  latter  exhibiting  an  almost  boundless  local 
variety,  and  relations  to  the  present  confi;4uration  of  land  and 
sea  not  to  be  misitaken.  Tlie  organic  bodies  of  the  secondary 
strata  are  obviously  and  completely  distinct  from  those  of  the 
modem  land  and  sea ;  but  in  the  tertiary  deposits  it  is  the 
resemblance  between  fossil  and  recent  kinds  of  shells^  corals, 
plants,  &c.,  which  first  arrests  the  judgment.  In  genend 
there  is  a  decided  break  between  the  two  groups  of  rocks— a 
discontinuity  which  is  nowhere  completely  filled.  Yet, 
besides  the  pseudo-tertiary  or  transition  cnalky  rocks  of 
Maestricht  and  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  conchiforous  marls 
of  Gosau,  we  have  in  England  and  France  above  the  chalk 
a  prevalence  of  green  and  ferruginous  sands  extremely  simi- 
lar to  those  below.  Perhaps  they  have  been  derived  from 
the  waste  of  these  older  rocks ;  Mr.  Lyell  supposes  the  ter- 
liaries  of  the  London  basin  to  have  been  formed  from  the 
waste  of  the  secondary  strata  of  Kent,  Surrey,  Sussex,  and 
Hampshire. 

With  the  tertiary  system  came  into  existence  (if  we  may 
trust  the  negative  evidence  which  the  earlier  strata  pre- 
sent) many  races  of  quadrupeds,  some  birds,  reptiles, 
and  fishes,  extremely  analogous,  though  for  the  most  part 
specifically  distinct  ftom  the  modern  denixens  of  land 
and  water;  thousands  of  corals,  shells,  Crustacea,  &c., 
which  present  with  living  races  quite  as  great  analogy 
as  obtains  between  the  tribes  of  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific  oceans  of  our  day :  the  general  features  of  land 
and  sea  as  they  now  exist  begin  to  appear,  and  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  in  a  philosophical  study  of  the  revolutions 
of  the  gtobe  the  tertiary  sera  of  geology  cannot  be  properly 
semtrated  from  the  existing  system  of  nature. 

Yet  during  the  deposition  of  these  rocks  the  relations  of 
land  and  sea  were  greatly  altered  in  Europe  by  the  rising  of 
the  Pyrenees  beyond  the  height  they  reached  after  the  cre- 
taceous sera,  and  by  the  uplifting  of  the  Alps  from  the 
Mediterranean  towards  Mont  Blane.  In  Ensland  we  may 
believe  the  upward  movement  of  tiie  southern  counties 
connected  with  the  Hampshire  axis  of  elevation  and  the 
Isle  of  Wight  convulsion,  was  ended  before  the  close  of 
the  tertiary  period.  The  eastern  range  of  the  Alps  fkom 
Mont  Blanc  to  Vienna  is  of  later  date,  and  may  be  viewed 
as  the  most  marked  phienomenon  of  elevation  which  accom- 
panied or  preceded  the  dispersion  of  erratic  rocks  in  Europe 

$  7.    Prbsbxt  Abpxct  of  thb  Globb. 

Pkifiical  Gm^t^A^.— According  to  every  view  of  geologi- 
cal causes  and  efi^ts,  the  present  aspect  of  our  planet  is 
the  result  of  all  its  previous  changes ;  these  changes  cannot 
be  completely  understood  if  we  leave  out  of  consideration 
the  daily  variations  which  occur  in  the  condition  of  the 
earth,  nor  can  the  operation  of  existing  agencies  be  com- 
pletely represented  to  our  minds  without  calling  in  aid 
the  inJEerences  derived  from  a  study  of  earlier  phssnomena. 

One  of  the  most  important  things  ascertained  by  geologi- 
cal investigation  is  the  certainty  that  the  operations  by 
which  stratified  rooks  were  formed  in  the  sea-bed,  and  the 
igneous  rocks  uplifted  fiK>m  below,  were  repeated  nearly  in 
me  same  suocesaion  over  most  ports  of  the  globe.  Some 
of  the  formations  are  very  extensive :  in  aU  countries  the 
lowest  strata  are  of  the  character  of  gneiss,  mica  schist,  slate- 
rocks^  &c.  These  primary  strata  may  almost  be  termed 
universal :  the  organic  forms  which  they  contain,  though 
few,  are  very  simiur,  or  exactly  identical,  over  enormous 
areas ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  during  the  deposition 
of  these  aatiant  rooka  the  earth  enjoyed  a  uniformity  of 
conditions  over  its  surfooe  never  since  repeated.  There  is 
no  proof  that  land  existed  anywhere  in  the  earlier  part  of 
this  period — no  probability  that  any  part  of  our  continents 
or  islands  then  stood  above  the  water.  At  the  close  of  the 
primary  period  the  effect  of  elevatory  forces  was  manifested 
by  the  existence  of  some  narrow  ridges  and  peaks  of  rocks, 
corresponding  to  some  of  our  present  mountain-tracts,  as 
the  Grampian  and  Cumbrian  mountains,  and  of  others  now 
vanished,  which  nourished  the  forests  and  herbs  whose  de- 
struction has  yielded  coal. 

Through  the  secondary  period  thb  elevation  of  land 
proceeded  gradually,  or  by  intermitting  action,  till  at  the 
close  of  that  period  some  of  the  principal  features  of 
European  geography  were  visible ;  the  ocean  was  contracted 
and  divided  into  many  basins  and  gulfs,  some  of  whioh 
remain,  as  the  Adriatic,  Engliah  Channel,  German  Sea,  Bco^ 
while  othera,  as  the  Vale  of  the  Danube,  Sea  of  the  Rhine* 
4ce,  have  been  dried  by  fiiithn  tlofation. 


G  EO 


142 


G  £  O 


pM  of  tli0  tioHliBm  xonefl  of  the  globe.  The  einumttonces, 
whatever  they  were,  which  fkvoured  this  develo|>ment  of 
vegetable  power,  were  never  repeated,  at  least  in  tliese 
tones,  though  deposits  of  a  similar  nature  to  the  series  of 
coal  strata,  and  likewise  containing  fossil  plants  and  thin 
beds  of  coal,  diversify  the  sand  and  sandstones  of  the  oolitic, 
cretaceous,  and  tertiary  nraa. 

As  carbonic  acid  existing  in  the  atmosphere  is  the  source 
of  the  carbonaceous  substance  of  plants,  M.  Adolpbe 
Brongniart  proposes  the  speculation  that  it  was  a  mat  abun- 
dance of  this  ingredient  of  the  atmosphere  which  ftivoured 
vegetation  in  the  carboniferous  »ra ;  and  he  finds  support 
to  his  view  in  the  fact  that  during  this  same  period 
there  is  almost  no  trace  of  the  existence  of  any  land 
animal  whatsoever.  Now  land  animals  and  land  plants  ore, 
with  respect  to  carbonic  acid,  in  reciprocal  relations ;  the 
former  yielding  by  respiration  what  the  latter  receive  by 
absorption.  Carbonic  acid  is  one  of  the  supports  of  vegetable 
life ;  plants  of  particular  sorts  may  llourish  even  more 
abunaantly  by  an  addition  of  it  to  the  air ;  to  animals  its 
excess  is  poison.  To  this  speculation  the  constancy  of  the 
atmospheric  ingredients,  as  determined  by  analysis,  cannot 
be  objected;  for  this  art,  perfected  in  the  19th  century,  by 
no  means  confirms  but  rather  rejects  the  notion  of  such 
constancy.  In  how  many  ways  is  oxygen  fixed  and  liberated 

»  processes  now  going  on  in  and  upon  the  land  and  sea? 
ho  can  say  if  even  now  its  proportions  to  nitrogen  are  con- 
stant ?  Is  it  even  proved  that  any  really  chemical  combina- 
tion exists  between  them  ?  Much  more  should  we  hesitate 
to  award  such  constancy  to  carbonic  acid,  for  this  is  known 
to  vary  in  different  situations  and  circumstances.  Suppose 
only  5000  square  miles  of  coal-bod:i,  twenty  yards  thick, 
derived  flrom  vegetable  ruins  to  be  again  converted  to  car- 
bonic acid  and  distributed  over  the  globe,  what  would  bo 
the  result  on  the  proportions  of  carbonic  acid  and  oxygen 
in  the  atmosphere  ?--what  the  effect  on  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal life?*  More  than  this  quantity  of  coal  has  been  dis- 
covered in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  alone  in  the  carboni- 
ferous system,  and  it  must  have  been  derived  from  plants 
crowing  on  a  small  extent  of  the  earth*s  surfiice.  Tlie 
fossil  plants  of  the  coal  series  have  been  generally  consi- 
dered by  eminent  botanists,  since  the  days  of  Jussieu,  as 
decidedly  indicative  of  a  warm  climate ;  the  state  in  which 
thev  occur  in  the  earth  proves  that  they  have  not  been 
drifted  fkr:  wo  are  therefore  to  infer  that  in  latitudes  as  far 
north  as  Moscow,  Edinburgh,  and  Nova  Scotia,  the  land 
enjoved  near  the  sea  a  climate  analogous  to  that  now  found 
on  the  shores  of  Brazil  or  in  the  Isle  of  France.  The  same 
conclusion  as  to  the  sea,  with  rather  greater  distinctness  of 
evidence,  arises  from  the  corals  which  abound  in  the  car- 
boniferous limestone. 

As  a  general  inference  we  may  observe  that  all  the  great 
thickness  (2000  or  more  yards)  of  the  carboniferous  system 
fcxcepting  perhaps  part  of  the  old  red  sandstone  series)  is 
clearly  derived  from  wasted  knds  or  sea-coasts,  or  from  a 
decomposition  of  the  sea- water  by  vital  or  chemical  agency. 

Disruptiom  qf  the  Carbonijeroiu  SyWem.— Whatever 
was  the  length  of  time  which  elapsed  during  the  accu- 
mulation of  the  carboniferous  strata,  it  appears  to  have 
passed  with  little  disturbance  of  the  level  of  land  and 
sea ;  for  not  a  single  example  (we  believe)  is  mentioned  of 
any  real  unconformity  of  stratification,  in  the  whole  series 
from  the  base  of  the  eld  red  sandstone  to  the  uppermost 
line  of  the  coal  strata.  1  he  ordinary  agencies  of  the  atmo- 
sphere and  the  waves  were  in  full  employ,  and  some  traces 
of  volcanic  eruptions  appear  in  the  trap  of  Derbyshire  and 
the  north  of  En^^land ;  but  there  is  not  in  the  accumulation 
of  the  often  repeated  alternations  of  limestone,  sandstone, 
fchale,  &c.  of  the  carboniferous  system,  any  tiling  to  require 
the  supposition  of  greater  general  convulsions.  It  was  a 
pt-nod  not  of  repose,  but  of  regular  and  orderiy  action 
among  the  agencies  of  nature,  so  far  as  the  parU  where  now 
Europe  and  North  America  are  situated:  and  the  mineral 
deposits  and  organic  reraains  are  to  be  compared  with  ex- 
wting  operations  of  nature  in  order  to  learn  the  physical 
condition  of  the  anticnt  land  and  sea. 

AAer  the  formation  of  the  carboniferous  strata  was  ended 
in  Europe  and  America,  the  long  tranquillity  of  the  ocean 
m  these  parts  was  broken  by  extensive  and  violent  con- 
t  Ub>ion.  so  tliat  hardly  a  single  s<|uare  mile  of  country  can 

•  The  qiWDlilyof.cifboBUJuriagM  Dowrxittin«  to  tli«  MmMphtre  diiM 


anywhera  be  found  which  is  not  ftiU  of  fraettired  Aud  n>n- 

torted  strata,  in  consequence  of  subterranean  iiio\efDtL:« 
which  mostly  preceded  the  accumulation  of  the  next  %y  ^icui 
of  strata. 

The  relations  of  land  and  sea  were  so  greatly  clwngiMl  ''V 
these  transient  convulsions,  that  tlio  new  ridgea  of  bnd  .&:  •  i 
islands  appear  to  have  been  variously  scattered  in  iu^ 
ocean  which  Howed  round  the  already  upUlM  Orampiaii, 
Scandinavian,  and  Welsh  mountains.  An  oqual  or  great c  r 
extent  of  land  appears  to  have  been  elevated  ia  lrelar»«i. 
but  with  lesa  violence  and  concu&iion ;  and  it  is  remarka>*  «/ 
that  some  of  the  greatest  faults  produced  at  this  epoch  w«  i  ^ 
almost  wholly  unaccompanied  by  the  irruption  of  »fi.« 
igneous  rocks,  or  any  other  signs  of  merely  vulcanic  acunr! 
(Craven  iault,  great  dyke  of  Tynedale,  South  Wales  cuai 
field,  &c.) 

Some  more  general  and  moro  powerful  ageiiey  than  iL  it 
which  we  now  see  in  the  volcano  and  the  earthquake  lIlu^l 
be  invoked  to  explain  the  great  and  extensive  dispiaccrociit  or 
land  and  sea  which  broke,  with  transient  violence,  the  loi  ^ 
quiet  of  the  globe,  and  gave  rise  to  a  new  and  gciieiai 
change  of  depo^its. 

The  Red  Sandstone  Sytteih,  which  is  deposited  upon  an<l 
around  the  broken  tracts  of  the  carboniferous  8}sicm,  pre- 
sents us  in  some  respects  with  new  conclusions,  which  h'>\^  • 
ever  seem  almost  equally  to  apply  to  the  old  red  formation 
No  doubt  the  sands  and  clays  of  this  system  were  colU'<*t'  \ 
from  wasted  land  and  sea- coasts,  and' deposited  in  shal! v. >. 
waters.  But  whence  came  the  red  and  greenish  colours  «  > 
characteristic  of  these  strata  and  the  analogous  old  it^i 
formation  i*  The  grains  of  sand  wh ich  compose  much  of  1 1 1** 
rocks  are  not  red,  but  white  rolled  quarts  sand,  surroun*!'  1 
bv  red  peroxide  of  iron  like  a  varnish.  From  none  of  t:.*- 
older  rocks  could  thiic  abundant  rod  pigment  be  deri\«  i 
so  as  to  stain  the  whole  sea-bed  for  1000  feet  or  vartU  m 
depth;  but  we  may  perhaps  appeal  to  volcanic  lurrr*  i.i 
solve  this  curious  problem.  Oxide  of  iron  is  one  ut  t '  . 
moAt  abundant  of  the  substanci*s  among  volcanic  oject.!!*. 
before  the  deposition  of  the  red  sandstones,  enormon*  ati  \ 
general  disruptions  of  the  coal  and  limestone  atrala  hxy- 
pened,  which  implies  an  unusual  exertion  of  \syw**\ 
agency:  the  lower  parts  of  the  scries  are  Adl  of  ronu;.. 
merates,  the  natural  consequence  of  the  violent  di^phvi- 
ments  of  preconsolidated  rocks. 

Instead  of  the  great  quantity  of  vegetable  matter  bur     i 
in  the  coal  tracts,  we  have  in  the  principal  ))art  of  the  f  i 
sandstones  hardly  a  few  initignificant  tracei>;  so  few 
England  that  scattered  fragments  are  valued  in  geolotn*  ^i 
reasoning:    neither  arc  the  marine  reliquis  of  the  ii..i7- 
nesian  limestones  in  the  raid»t  of  the  red  rocks  at  all  pl.    • 
tiful,  except  in  a  few  spots.      Even  taking   the   rui.tr 
German  series  as  a  type,  the  red  sandstone  rocks  rou^t  s 
prononnced  singularly  deficient  in  organic  fossils ;  ami    t. 
generally  speaking,  the  some  deficiency  of  organic  l«ff  I  •• 
longs  to  the  older  red  sandstone  below  tho  mountain  \\v\*" 
stone,  it  is  at  least  a  plausible  supposition  that  the  mn-  . 
of  the  red  colour  and  paucity  of  animal  life  are  someh  .  i 
closely  connected.     If  we  imagine  that  by  reason  of  \ 
great  convulsions  which  folloVved  the  carb<mifero\M  ir 
new  currents  were  brought  into  tho  same  areas  of  the  ixn    i. 
fl-om  tracts  yielding  abundance  of  new  sedimenU.   ilie  i»- 
tinction  of  organic  life  Would  be  the  natural  ronScH|i.en 
to  be  followed  afterwards  by  a  gradual  revival  — whir h   i^ 
nearly  the  truth.      In  the  mngnesian   limestones  «if  i^    ■ 
system  expire  many  of  the  forma  of  the  older  carbonift*i  n  • 
period,  and  at  higher  levels  (as  in  the  musohelkalki  wr  i'... 
a  strong  resemblance  of  the  marine  zoophyta  riielU   v  A 
Crustacea  to  those  of  tho  younger  oolitic  system.     Upon  J 
whole  there  seems  reason  to  think  the  new  red  i»anfUtc..^ 
system  could  not  have  occupied  a  long  time  in  ita  fui i.i.i 
tion,  cotnpared  to  other  deposits  of  equal  thickness. 

Oolitic  System,— Into  the  snrae  £urti])can  and  A-i  r  - 
basins  which  received  the  rod  clays,  re<l  sands,  and  magiic*  i 
limestones  of  the  last  system,  subsequent  agencies  brouv*  s 
blue  clays,  sands  more  or  less  ochraoeous.  and  hmciato:.*  • 
characterized  by  an  oolitic  texture.  These  deposits  art*  paw  .id 
to  the  old  rocks  below,  and  no  trace  of  any  change  at  \eiv 
the  region  where  they  occur  has  been  noticed  m  Englitr .  — 
perhans  not  in  Germany.  Must  we  refer  to  some  d:%ti  r. 
convulsion  for  an  explanation  of  the  change  of  sediroc^, 
and  for  the  equally  great  change,  or  rather,  sudden  dewl.  »- 
ment,  of  organic  life,  which  comes  in  with  the  oolitic  »ra  ' 
New  and  more  abundant  forms  of  phmU  (cyotdov),  wiii* 


GEO 


143 


GEO 


iiMmy  varieliM  of  soophyta,  molIuBca,  enutacea,  fishes, 
and  gigantic  reptilise  of  the  land,  rivers,  and  the  sea,  mark 
the  oolitic  rocks,  and  render  them  justly  comparable,  as  a 
system,  to  the  great  carboniferous  assemblage  of  strata. 
Locally  indeed  the  ooUtie  rocks  yield  coal  among  the  inter- 
polated grits  and  shales,  just  as  happens  among  the  rocks 
intentratified  vith  the  older  mountain  limestone. 

The  resemblance  of  the  oolitic  to  the  carboniferous  lime- 
stone tracts  is  extremely  great  in  general  features ;  and  the 
reason  is  that  both  are  essentially  sea  deposits,  characterized 
by  ealeareous  rocks  formed  in  the  deep  sea,  and  liable  to 
act  mixtures  of  sandstone  and  shales  along  the  shores.  In 
such  siiuatioiis  each  is  carboniferous.  Both  are  highly  rich 
in  ooeanio  life,  but  during  the  formation  of  the  oolitic  rocks 
there  is  no  proof  that  anywhere  such  exceaaiye  richness  of 
vegetation  was  renewed  on  the  land  as  that  which  yielded 
tho  mass  of  eoal  plants  in  an  earlier  period.  The  state  of 
the  earth  during  the  carboniferous  period  was  compared  to 
that  of  the  tropical  parts  of  America;  during  the  oolitic 
periods  it  rather  resembles  the  south-eastern  shores  of  Aus- 
tralia, and  indeed  special  analogies  may  be  traced  in  both 
instances.  There  soems  almost  no  equivalent  of  this  oolitic 
period  on  the  north  American  continent,  but  the  carboni- 
ferous rocks  occur  in  America,  India,  and  Australia. 

Cretaceoug  System, — ^The  last  portion  of  the  series  of  se- 
condary strata  was  deposited  in  the  same  oceanic  basins  as 
the  earliest,  as  far  as  Europe  is  concerned,  but  this  is  not 
the  case  in  America.  Generally,  in  Europe  the  cretaceous 
rocks  have  their  stratification  parallel  to  that  of  the  oolites, 
though  some  uncomformity  in  this  respect  occurs  in  York- 
shire and  Dorsetshire,  and  in  the  soiith-east  of  France  dis- 
locations affected  the  oolitic  strata  before  the  production  of 
the  cretaceous  rocks.  But  these  comparatively  slight  move- 
ments of  the  bed  of  the  sea  appear  totally  msufficient  to 
account  fer  the  complete  change  in  the  chemical  and 
mineralogical  character  of  the  rocks,  and  the  new  orders  of 
zoonhyta  and  moUusca  which  date  from  the  commencement 
of  tne  cretaceous  sra. 

Sands  coloured  green  by  silicate  of  iron,  white  soft  lime- 
stones with  beds  or  nodules  of  flint,  seem  to  bespeak  an  origin 
fiom  the  waste  of  oUier  lands  than  those  which  discharged 
other  sands  into  the  oolitiferous  sea,  and  other  modes  of 
chemical  or  vital  action  in  the  sea ;  yet  a  scrupulous  ana- 
lyi»i»  of  the  oolitic  system  shows  in  its  upper  part  analogies 
to  the  cretaceous  rocks  so  strong  and  so  various  as  to 
render  it  probable,  if  not  certain,  that  the  new  con- 
ditions characteristic  of  the  new  system  were  gradually 
or  partially  Introduced  till  they  entirely  predominated ; — 
for  green  sands  alternate  with  the  uppermost  of  the 
oolitie  limestones  in  the  Alps ;  flinty  nodules  lie  in  the  cal- 
careous grit  and  Portland  oolite,  and  chalky  limestones 
constitute  the  great  portion  of  the  latter  rocks  in  some 
situations  of  England.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  we  are  so 
little  able  to  determine  upon  good  evidence  what  the  new 
conditions  influential  on  the  deposits  of  the  cretaceous  rocks 
were ;  for  their  eifects  are  very  similar  along  a  great  range 
of  tha  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America  from  New  Jersey 
to  the  Mississippi,  and  throughout  the  interior  of  Europe. 

The  cretaceous  period  was  not  ended  in  England  by  dis- 
locations situated  in  or  even  near  that  part  of  the  surfece. 
In  Ireland  eruptions  of  basalt  of  enormous  extent  cover  the 
chalk,  and  indicate  a  crisis  of  volcanic  disturbance.  In 
France  Elie  de  Beaumont  refers  to  the  concluding  part  of 
the  cretaceous  period  disloeations  which  range  north-north- 
wo&t  in  the  Jura,  and  traverse  the  primary  mass  of  Mont 
\'ifio.  After  the  <^lk  formatbn  was  oomnleted  in  the 
Houth  of  FVanoe  the  Pyrenees  were  uplilkea  to  a  great 
height,  so  as  to  Hmit  the  tertiary  basins  of  the  south  of 
France;  and  it  is  supposed  that  at  the  same  time  the 
Apennines  aud  Oirpathians  experienced  an  upward  move- 
ment. Conjecture  has  even  joined  to  these  the  ABegha- 
II  tea,  hut  it  may  be  cathered  from  Professor  Rogers's  reports 
on  the  geology  of  America  {BHt  Am9oc»  Bef)orU)  and  ac- 
cordant notices  of  Featherstonhai^gh  and  other  competent 
geologists,  that  an  earlier  dale  should  be  allowed  to  that 
mountain-range. 

Tertiary  Pbri<h>8. 
Tn  general  no  contrast  can  be  more  eomplete  than 
that  between  the  secondary  and  the  tertiary  stratifled 
rocka:  the  fermer  retaining  so  much  uniformity  of  cha- 
racten  even  fer  enormous  distaaoes,  as  to  appear  like  the 
effect    of  one   determined  sequence  of  general  physical 


agencies ;  the  latter  exhibiting  an  almost  boundless  local 
variety,  and  relations  to  the  present  oonfi^^uration  of  land  and 
sea  not  to  be  mistaken.  The  organic  bodies  of  the  secondary 
strata  are  obviously  and  completely  distinct  from  those  of  the 
modem  land  and  sea ;  but  in  the  tertiary  deposits  it  is  the 
resemblance  between  fossil  and  recent  kinds  of  shells,  corals, 
plants,  &c.,  which  first  arrests  the  judgment.  In  general 
there  is  a  decided  break  between  the  two  groups  of  rocks— a 
discontinuity  which  is  nowhere  completely  filled.  Yet, 
besides  the  pseudo-tertiary  or  transition  chalky  rocks  of 
Maestrioht  and  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  conchiferous  marls 
of  Gosau,  we  have  in  England  and  France  above  the  chalk 
a  prevalence  of  green  and  ferruginous  sands  extremely  simi- 
lar to  those  below.  Perhaps  th^  have  been  derived  from 
the  waste  of  these  older  rocks ;  Mr.  Lyell  supposes  the  ter- 
liaries  of  the  London  basin  to  have  been  formed  from  the 
waste  of  the  secondary  strata  of  Kent,  Surrey,  Sussex,  and 
Hampshire. 

With  the  tertiary  system  came  into  existence  (if  we  may 
trust  the  negative  evidence  which  the  earlier  strata  pro- 
sent)  many  races  of  quadrupeds,  some  birds,  reptiles, 
and  fishes,  extremely  analogous,  though  for  the  most  part 
specifically  distinct  from  the  modern  denisens  of  land 
and  water;  thousands  of  corals,  shells,  crustacea,  &c., 
which  present  with  living  races  quite  as  great  analogy 
as  obtains  between  the  tribes  of  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific  ooeans  of  our  day :  the  general  features  of  land 
and  sea  as  they  now  exist  beein  to  appear,  and  there  can 
he  no  doubt  that  in  a  philosophical  study  of  the  revolutions 
of  the  globe  the  tertiary  »ra  of  geology  cannot  be  properly 
separated  from  the  existing  system  of  nature. 

Yet  during  the  depositioa  of  these  rocks  the  relations  of 
land  and  sea  were  greatly  altered  in  Europe  by  the  rising  of 
the  Pyrenees  beyond  the  height  they  readied  after  the  cre- 
taceous era,  and  by  the  uplifting  of  the  Alps  from  the 
Mediterranean  towards  Mont  Blane.  In  England  we  may 
believe  the  upward  movement  of  the  southern  counties 
connected  witb  the  Hampshire  axis  of  elevation  and  the 
Isle  of  Wight  convulsion,  was  ended  before  the  close  of 
the  tertiary  period.  The  eastern  range  of  the  Alps  from 
Mont  Blanc  to  Vienna  is  of  later  date,  and  may  be  viewed 
as  the  most  marked  pheenomenon  of  elevation  which  accom- 
panied or  preceded  the  dispersion  of  emtio  rocks  in  Europe 

§  7.    PassBNT  Aspect  of  the  Globb. 

I^kymeal  Geogr<g}kif.^^AiDcofding  to  every  view  of  geologi- 
cal causes  and  effects,  the  present  aspect  of  our  planet  is 
the  result  of  all  its  previous  changes ;  these  changeiB  cannot 
be  completely  understood  if  we  leave  out  of  consideration 
the  daily  variations  which  occur  in  the  condition  of  the 
earth,  nor  can  the  operation  of  existing  agencies  be  com- 
pletely represented  to  our  minds  without  caUing  in  aid 
the  iiiSEerenoes  derived  from  a  study  of  earlier  phaanomena. 

One  of  the  most  important  things  ascertained  by  geologi- 
cal investigation  is  tj&e  certainty  that  the  operations  by 
which  stratified  rooks  were  formed  in  the  searbed,  and  the 
igneoua  rocks  uplifted  firom  below,  were  repeated  nearly  in 
tibe  same  succession  over  most  parts  of  the  globe.  Some 
of  the  formations  are  very  extensive :  in  aU  countries  the 
lowest  strata  are  of  the  character  of  gneiss,  mica  schist,  slate- 
rockSk  &e.  These  primary  strata  may  almost  be  termed 
imiversal :  the  organic  forms  which  uiey  contain,  though 
few,  are  very  simiuur,  or  exactly  identical,  over  enormous 
areas ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  during  the  deposition 
of  these  antient  roeka  the  earth  enjoyed  a  uniformity  of 
conditions  over  its  surface  never  since  repeated.  There  is 
no  proof  that  land  existed  anywhere  in  the  earlier  part  of 
this  period — no  probability  that  any  part  of  our  continents 
or  islands  then  stood  above  the  water.  At  the  close  of  the 
primary  period  the  effiact  of  elevatory  forces  was  manifested 
by  the  existence  of  some  narrow  ridges  and  peaks  of  rocks, 
corresponding  to  some  of  our  present  mountain-tracta,  as 
the  Grampian  and  Cumbrian  mountains,  and  of  others  now 
vanished,  which  nourished  the  forests  and  herbs  whose  de- 
struction has  yielded  coal. 

Through  the  secondary  period  this  elevation  of  land 
proceeds  gradually^  or  by  intermitting  action,  till  at  the 
close  of  that  period  some  of  the  principal  features  of 
European  geography  were  visible ;  the  oce^n  was  oontracted 
and  divided  into  many  basins  and  gul^  some  of  whioh 
remain,  as  the  Adriatic,  English  Channel,  German  Sea,  ^o^ 
while  others,  as  the  Vale  of  the  Danube,  Sea  of  the  Rhine* 
&0.  have  been  dried  by  fimthar  elofatiop. 


GEO 


144 


GEO 


The  same  elevfttory  action,  ootitinaed  through  the  tertiary 
ttras,  completed  the  geographical  features  of  Europe,  and 
though  we  cannot  trace  ao  minutely  in  other  parts  of  the 
world  the  contemporaneous  changes,  enough  is  known  to 
assure  us  that  the  same  caui^es  have,  within  the  same 
general  limits  of  time,  produced*  in  all  quarters  where  dry 
land  appears,  the  same  phenomena. 

Elevation  of  Land.-^n  the  preceding  pages  we  havo 
spoken  of  the  elevation  of  land  from  the  sea  as  a  thing  per- 
fectly well  understood,  and  admitted  as  a  basis  of  reasoning. 
It  is  so  admitted  by  geologists  of  every  shade  of  opinion 
who  wish  to  explain  effects  by  real  cavses.  Yet,  as  some 
persons  who  read  this  may  desire  to  see  the  process  of  argu- 
ment by  which,  if  doubted,  it  might  be  proved,  we  shall 
present  a  short  sketch  of  the  reasons  whicn  have  produced 
on  this  important  point  a  general  agreement  among  geo- 
logists. 

1.  In  existing  nature  the  combined  influence  of  the  ex- 
terior and  interior  causes  of  change  cannot  materially  affect 
the  level  of  the  sea  (as  estimated  by  the  mean  radius  of  its 
surfkce).  Within  sensible  limits  the  sea-level  is  now  per- 
manent. This  is  sufficiently  apparent  by  the  reasoning  in 
$  4  of  this  treatise.  2.  The  lana  now  above  the  waters  was 
ibrmerly  below  them,  and  could  only  have  been  laid  bare  by 
the  elevation  of  parts  of  the  sea-bed,  or  by  the  abstraction 
of  the  ocean  to  other  regions,  either  through  depression 
of  its  bed  or  through  a  displacement  of  the  axis  of 
rotation,  or  by  a  universal  diminution  of  the  quantity 
of  water  on  the  globe,  or  by  a  change  of  the  oceanic 
level  through  grreat  alterations  of  temperature  at  the 
surface  or  tbrougn  the  mass  of  the  globe. 

In  examining  these  possible  modes  of  desiccation  of  land, 
geology  must  have  recourse  to  collateral  science.  The 
two  last  hypotheses,  viz.  of  a  change  of  oceanic  level,  without 
change  of  external  form  or  axis  of  rotation,  are  insufficient 
for  the  purpose.  Sound  reasoning  rejects  the  supposition 
of  an  indefinite  waste  of  oceanic  waters  for  miles  in 
depth,  because  the  position  of  our  planet  in  space  yields  no 
escape  for  the  water ;  nor  is  there  any  grouna  for  believing 
that  the  quantity  fixed  in  mineral  compounds  since  the 
date  of  the  earliest  strata  is  of  much  importauce.  A  general 
change  of  temperature  of  the  globe  would  certainly  alter  the 
relative  level  of  land  and  water,  because  their  rates  of  expan- 
sion and  contraction  are  uneauaL  Between  the  boiling  beat, 
212^,  and  what  is  probably  below  the  mean  temperature  of 
the  actual  seas,  40**,  the  contraction  of  the  water  would  be 
about  '042  of  the  whole  quantity.  The  land  certainly 
would  contract  less^  and  thus  by  a  general  cooling  of  the 
globe  the  ocean-level  would  relatively  sink.  To  put  the 
case  to  extreme,  we  shall  suppose  the  contraction  of  the 
land=  0,  the  areaof  the  water  to  remain  unchanged,  and  the 
mean  depth  of  the  sea  ten  miles ;  the  reduction  of  level  of 
the  oeean  would  be  ^g  of  a  mile  =:  739  yards.  Now  as  all 
the  conditions  of  the  problem  have  been  taken  in  extreme, 
as  the  deepest  part  of  the  sea  probably  does  not  exceed  ten 
miles,  as  one  quarter  of  the  spherical  surface  is  land,  and 
the  area  of  the  sea  must  diminish  as  its  level  sinks,  it  is 
very  obvious  that  the  greatest  possible  change  of  oceanic 
level  from  this  cause  could  only  go  to  one,  two,  or  three 
hundred  yards  at  most ;  and  therefore  it  is  impossible  by 
such  means  to  explain  the  desiccation  of  land  from  1000  to 
10.000  or  20,000  feet  high. 

Moreover,  during  this  cooling  of  the  land  and  sea  the 
whole  globe  would  contract ;  and  fVom  this  cause  the  mean 
radius  qf  the  oeean  diminish  and  its  mean  depth  augment, 
so  as  to  reduce  still  more  the  possible,  extent  of  land  that 
could  be  drained  by  its  change  of  dimensions. 

The  attraction  of  the  ocean  to  other  regions  would  lay 
dry  parts  of  its  bed ;  and  if  astronomical  science  permitted 
to  geologists  to  change  at  their  pleasure  the  position  of  the 
axis  of  rotation  of  the  earth,  few  difficulties  need  stop  the 
car«er  of  speculation ;  but  the  earth  is  a  spheroid  of  revo- 
lution, and  if  the  attraction  of  the  heavenly  bodies  in  the 
Tarious  positions  which  it  takes  with  regard  to  them  does 
not  disturb  its  axis  of  flgtire,  neither  can  it  be  thought 
that  the  volcanic  fever  of  its  sur&ce  can  so  alter  the  in- 
terior densities  as  to  cause  any  sensible  change  in  this 
respecla 

But  that  the  bed  of  the  sea  may  have  sunk,  that  other 
eontinents  than  ours  may  have  fallen  below  their  antient 
level,  may  be  assumed  ss  readily  as  the  rising  of  the  exist- 
ing land;  but  with  this  restriction,  that  the  sinking;  of  the 
MQ  of  the  sea  requires  to  be  £ur  greater  than  the  rising  of 


the  land,  because  three-quarters  of  the  gldie  are  covert  '1 
by  water,  and  thus  a  small  difficulty  is  overcome  by  iutrvr- 
ducing  a  greater. 

Finally, on  turning  to  the  phenomena  connected  with 
mountain  chains,  it  is  perfectly  certain  from  the  position  ^f 
the  strata— of  ten  vertical  or  contorted  in  the  sides  of  chaax.s 
highly  inclined  near  them,  and  gently  sloping  at  gre*  trr 
distances — that  these  rocks  have  been  displaced  by  an  ele- 
vating force  acting  from  below.  The  direction  of  the  for^'*\ 
the  geological  time  of  its  occurrence,  its  sudden  or  gradual  > 
accumulated  intensity,  and  many  other  characteristic  c-ir- 
cumstances,  can  be  determined ;  and  upon  the  whole  i.  • 
doubt  remains  that  elevating  movements  have  raised  i  Uv 
land,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  denv  that  depressing  move- 
ments may  have  sunk  the  bed  of  the  sea.  Our  limits  pf  c 
vent  the  farther  development  of  this  subject. 

Outline  of  Land  ana  Sea.— Througnoui  all  the  globe  t}>c 
outlines  of  land  and  sea  depend  principally  on  the  di»|H  ^ 
tion  of  mountain-chains  and  groups,  which  in  every  inittjuv ' 
yet  known  are  pertainly  shown  to  have  been  raised    Is 
mechanical  agency,  generally  with  a  degree  of  violenot*  ** 
great  as  to  require  the  supposition,  of  ereat  and  general  <  v 
citement  of  the  subterranean  forces  of  heat    America.  ( ^r 
instance,  derives  its  form  Ax>m  the  chains  of  the  Andc*»  ai.o 
Rocky  mountains^  the  littoral  range  of  Brazil,  the  AIi<- 
ghanies,  &c. ;  mountains  probably  of  very  uneaual  aii>  - 
quity.    The  Ghauts  define  the  western  side  of  India,  a^  i>  • 
Atlas  marks  the  north-western  border  of  Africa;  the  F<  rt- 
nees  and  Sierras  give  the  form  of  Spain ;  the  Coniisb.  Wet  • ' 
Cumbrian,  Lammermuir  and  Grampian  ranges  explain  tci 
figure  of  England  and  Scotland. 

Frequently  however  this  dependence  of  the  form  of  t]  *> 
existing  land  upon  the  ranges  of  mountains  is  disguised  I  \ 
the  extent  of  comparatively  plain  country  which  sepamt  > 
the  mountains  from  the  sea.    Thus  all  the  eastern  halt  »f 
England  might  seem  to  have  its  form  independent  of  tli 
narrow  ridges  of  the  western  mountains;  and  it  is  but  i 
vague  relation  which  links  the  Baltic,  the  Black  Sea,  aii'i 
the  Caspian  to  the  Hars,  Saxon,  Carpathian,  Cauca«ii^ . 
and  Uralian  chains.    In  these  and  many  other  cas<r»  ii 
is  necessary  to  admit  that  the  general  level  of  the  »  ^ 
has    subsided,  or  that  large  tracts  of   land    have    Ik*  . 
raised  graduoUy,  or  by  successive  movements  around  ih< 
mountains,  which  in  earlier  times  were  uplifted  by  rn.  >rr 
violent  effects.  The  diagrams,^«.  2,  and  3.  p.  137,  illu<s^tr  * 
the  fact  of  the  general  slope  of  the  English  strata  from  ii.« 
western  mountains;  but  this  cannot  be  explained  by  ! 
violent  elevation  of  these  mountains,  for  this  bapp&*r:* 
principally  before  the  deposition  of  the  coal  strata.    A  U  . 
area  round  these  mountains  has  since  been  gained  Crom  ti  < 
sea  by  more  gradual  changes  of  level 

Similar  phsenomena  present  themselves  in  detached  an .  ^ 
all  over  the  world ;  but  in  very  unequal  degrees,  and  w .: 
unequal  differences  of  level  above  the  ocean,  even  in  ne.. 
bouring  tracts.  It  appears  therefore  mora  probable  that  y 
ticular  regions  have  risen  round  the  same  points  and  ):: 
which  once  experienced  a  violent  upward  movement.  Then-  :> 
no  reason  to  deny  that  the  ocean-level  may  have  been  v  i^.*  - 
what  lowered  by  the  subsidence  of  a  part  of  its  bed  :  b  : 
it  has  been  already  shown  that  no  reasonable  (perhA|»«  - 
possible)  sinking  of  the  ocean-bed  could  explain  the  { \  . 
nomena  of  the  desiccation  of  even  the  flatter  parts  of  f  - 
land. 

Interior  aspect  qf  a  Country. — ^The  interior  featiin  «  •  ^ 
every  country  in  like  maimer  depend  upon  recocrti:^.*' 
geological  ageucies.    The  unequal  elevation  of  nounu    . 
ranges  above  the  sea  is  a  plunnomenon  which  will  be  f^t..  •! 
of  great   importance  in  geological  theory.      It   apfx-j'v 
to  be  true,  at  least  in  Europe^  that  the  moat  ele\ui.-' 
chains. of  mountains  are  those  whose  elevation  was   ii 
ended  (if,  indeed,  it  be  vet  ended)  until  the  tertiar>*    f 
later  epochs.    Thus  the  Alps,  which  bear  on  some  of  i'l 
heights  (Diablerets),  caps  of  tertiary  strata,  ascend  to  J  *». ' 
feet  above  the  sea :  the  Pyrenees,  whose  principal  ele^ati*-. 
appeara  to  have  followed  soon  after  the  chalk,  to  Il.tj:' 
the  Carpathians,  nearly  of  the  same  date,  to  8675  feet ;  w  h   • 
in  the  Han  the  older  mountains  (Brocken)  rise  to  3739 : 
Wales  (Snowdon)  to  3675 ;  in  the  Grampians  (Ben  Ne\  .*  ■ 
to  4350.    The  highest  point  of  Norway  Schnee-Hateit  i« 
more  than  8000  foet  above  the  sea.  but  there  can   U- 
no  doubt  that  violent  as  well  as  sndual  upward  nio%  «r- 
ments  affected  the  Scandinavian  ridges  to  a  late  geolo|sir..j 


GEO 


146 


GEO 


ihB  general  chanoter  of  the  drainage  channels  of  the  aeoon* 
dary  strata  of  England  above  the  red  sandstone  requires 
only  to  he  mentioi^ ;  and  it  has  heen  already  shown  that 
in  all  the  south-eastern  parts  of  England  where  these  strata 
occur  there  is  sufficient  evidence  that  the  elevation  of  these 
rocks  was  due  to  gradual  and  lon^-continued,  not  violent 
and  transitory  movements.  While  such  gradual  move- 
ments occurred,  and  strata  of  unequal  hardness  and  differ- 
ent structure  (as  limestone  and  clay,  or  sandstone,  in  dia- 
gram No.  4J,  were  hrought  within  the  range  of  littoral 
action,  these  would  be  unequally  affected  by  the  tidal  and 
other  currents ;  the  softer  parts  would  be  worn  away,  the 
harder  remain ;  and  thus  tne  red  marl  would  be  wasted 
parallel  to  the  coast-line,  or  to  a  certain  depth  in  the  water, 
oelow  the  eap  of  lias  limestone;  the  lias  clays  would 
yield  heneath  the  crown  of  lower  oolite ;  the  Oxford  clay  be 
excavated  helow  the  middle  oolite ;  and  the  Kimmeridge 
day  form  a  vale  between  the  middle  and  upper  oolites. 

The  exact  conformihr  of  this  with  the  appearance  in 
nature  is  well  known.  The  general  character  Jf  the  actual 
drainage,  as  Or.  Smith  has  often  and  elesantly  explained, 
may  he  represented  in  diagram  No.  5,  where  /  /  /  ana  mmm 
aie  Tallays  descending  on  the  slopes  of  the  strata,  N  N  and 


P  Taneysibrmed  in*8ofter  strata  parallel  to  tlie  eoiil ;  T  % 

transverse  valley  uniting  the  others. 

In  the  next  diagram  (No.  6)  the  *same  country  is*  repre- 
sented as  rising  out  of  the  sea,  which  penetraftea  by  the 
transverse  valley  across  the  ridges  of  rocky  hills,  and  flows 
round  them  up  the  vales  of  day ;  its  waves  wasting  the 
clays  under  the  diffs,  and  eausins  the  top  to  foil,  exactly  on 
the  same  principle  that  waterfalls  at  this  da^,  by  wasting 
the  argillaceous  basis,  break  down  the  crowning  limestooe 
beds  throughout  all  the  north  of  Enffland. 

The  Giesbach,  on  the  lake  of  Briens,  ooropered  with 
the  Staubbach ;  Hardrow  Force  in  Yorkshire,  or  AshiciU 
Force  in  Cumberland,  contrasted  with  the  Fall  of  Lodt«n> 
near  Keswick,  are  in  this  respect  very  instructive;  rmt 
should  the  cases  be  neglected  where,  as  on  the  coast  near 
Scarborough,  Robinhood's  Ba^,  and  Whitby,  the  sea  now 
flows  among  the  lias  and  oolitic  rocks,  and  wastes  tlic'ir 
argillaceouB  parts  on  a  small  s<mle,  almost  exactly  as  in  the 
above  explanation  it  is  supposed  to  have  wasted  me  stnai^AT 
but  thicker  clays,  when  the  whole  system  was  rising  aiKj>-v 
the  waves.  Pleasing  illustrations  of  this  kind  of  action  occur 
in  the  Medlock  at  Manchester,  the  Greta  near  Inglelon,  th« 
sea-coast  nearHeysham,  Sunderiand,  Berwick,  kc    In  the 


Isle  of  Wiffht  the  fVesh-water  limestones  and  clays,  and  the 
various  beds  of  the  plastic  day  series  about  Culver,  offer 
abundance  of  curious  examples. 

FbrmM  qf  Hills.— The  same  mode  of  action  is  traced  in 
the  forms  of  mountains  and  hills  which  are  composed  of 
strata  of  unequal  resisting  power;  as  mountain  limestone 
and  shale  in  the  Yorkshire  dales,  oolite  and  clay  in  the 
Gloucestershire  Hills,  Normandy,  or  the  Jura  mountains. 

The  above  diagram  (No.  7)  represents  a  cross-section  of 
Wensley  Dde,  which  for  a  great  part  of  its  length  exhibits, 
wherever  a  considerable  rock  of  limestone  comes  to  the  sur- 
face, a  decided  projection  and  terrace  on  the  hill  side,  and 
below  every  such  rock  a  slope  formed  in  the  dternating 
shdes  and  thin  sandstones. 

How  much  of  this  appearance  is  due  to  atmospheric  action 
and  rain  since  the  river  Yore  has  been  running  in  its  pre- 
sent bed,  and  how  much  to  the  influence  of  water  bathing 
the  hill-breasts  at  higher  levels,  is  not  easy  to  determine  ; 
but  the  correspondence  of  the  strata  on  the  opposite  sides  is 
such  as  to  leave  no  doubt  that  all  the  vast  space  of  the  val- 
ley has  been  really  excavated  out  of  continuous  strata ;  and 
the  survey  of  the  whole  line  of  this  and  other  rivers  ap- 
pears to  refute  the  opinion  that  the  existing  drainage  waters 
have  carried  off  much  of  the  detritus. 

To  conclude  this  brief  notice  of  the  origin  of  the  principd 
inequalities  on  the  earth's  surface,  it  may  be  proper  to  re- 
mark that  the  view  here  given  of  the  excavation  of  valleys, 
at  the  time  of  the  rising  of  rocks  from  the  sea,  explains  the 
otherwise  unintelligible  phienomenon  of  dry  valleys  in  chalk, 
oolite,  and  other  Mlcareous  strata,  which  wind  and  unite^ 
like  the  branches  of  a  river,  and  have  slopes  and  features 
such  as  to  prove  their  origin  from  moving  water,  but  contain 
no  trace  of  a  stream,  no  mark  of  a  spring,  and  often  no 
alluvial  sediment. 

It  appears  also  necessary  to  remark  that,  independent  of 
the  facts  here  stated,  there  must  be  some  importance  at- 
tached to  the  effects  likely  to  be  produced  by  the  violent 
a^ncies,  whatever  they  were,  to  which  the  origin  of  dilu- 
vid  phssnomena  is  ascribed.  The  essential  thing  however 
in  this  case  being  a  relative  change  of  level  of  land  and  sea, 
the  result  of  the  watery  agitation  could  onlv  be  to  modify  in 
^  greater  or  less  degree  the  more  considerable  effects  of  pre- 

ous  agencies  of  longer  duration.    Gravel  heaped  in  par- 

ular  placet  conceals  some  of  the  earlier  dopes  of  land* 


and  covers  with  irregular  hillocks  an  original  sea-plain,  ti-..: 
the  great  features  of  the  country  remain  comparatively  ui.- 
affected  by  these  transient  disturbances. 

Life  on  the  Globe.—Geology  enables  us  to  behold,  in  tL.* 
pre:ient  varied  and  complicated  arrangement  of  land  &}.•! 
water,  the  result  of  many  and  repeated  actions  of  cau«  - 
which  are  not  yet  extinct,  but  continually  occupied  in  &i'... 
lar  operations,  in  different  situations,  and  under  differcr.: 
circumstances.  The  land  which  has  been  raised  from  0  i 
sea  by  internal  expansion  seems  to  be  slowly  wasted  av  i« 
by  the  action  of  water,  and  again  restored  to  the  deep.  Bu  i 
new  land  is  formed  by  these  ruins,  and  volcanic  fires  are  }rt 
competent  to  raise  or  depress  the  bed  of  the  sea. 

The  land  is  not  all  of  the  same  antiouity;  some  region  § 
must  have  been  covered  by  trees,  pernaps  or  rather  cxr 
tainly  traversed  by  quadrupeds,  before  the  substancv  •  ( 
others  was  laid  on  the  bed  of  the  sea.  Since  life  was  dt^ 
veloped  on  the  globe,  if  geology  has  rightly  interpreted  tie 
monuments  of  nature,  there  has  never  been  any  conw«i*  r- 
able  period  during  which  the  land  or  sea  was  whoU>  d^ 
prived  of  organic  beings ;  but  as  the  condition  of  the  glM^-.- 
changed,  the  forms  of  lii^  weie  altered,  old  races  peri»hiw 
new  creations  were  awakened,  the  sum  of  animal  and  \cv** 
table  existence  was  continudly  augmented,  and  the  vant-t} 
of  their  forms  and  habits  continually  multiplied,  as  the  n>'.  • 
ditions  of  land  and  sea  were  diversified,  until  man  was  addt. . 
to  the  wonders  of  creation,  and  historic  time  began. 

If  then,  through  all  past  geological  time,  organic  Ufe  lu* 
changed  its  aspect  as  physical  conditions  varied^if  the  ytK 
sent  physical  aspect  of  the  globe  is  derived  from  previo^* 
physical  revolutions,  must  we  look  on  the  present  system  ( 
organic  being,  adapted  to  the  present  physical  oonduu>iiK 
as  similarly  derived  by  corresponding  revelations  fri<^i 
earlier  svstems  of  life,  corresponoing  to  earlier  states  of  t.jo 
land  and  sea  ? 

If  the  physical  aspect  of  the  globe  is  now  changing.  d^«-« 
its  organic  enrichment  vary  likewise;  or  is  the  relatioc  .  i 
organic  life  and  physicd  condition  one  of  ooiocidoi.iv 
merelv^one  of  those  adjustments  independent  in  its  natun . 
though  associated  in  time  and  situation,  which  oiler  iku 
most  convincing  proof  of  continual  superintendence  of  thv 
divine  lawgiver  of  nature  ? 

Though  we  cannot  here  enter  at  larse  on  a  sulgect  wfai.-n 
requires  the  details  vhich  are  founa  under  another  boti 


aBO 


147 


GBO 


[Oaoanic  RsilAlNtl  th^e  are  points  of  too  general  im- 
portance, in  reasoning  on  the  present  condition  of  the  globe, 
to  be  wholly  omitted :  1.  The  relation  of  form  and  structure 
between  the  living  and  extinct  worlds  of  life;  2.  The  dis- 
tribution of  the  existing  forms  of  life,  in  reference  to  the 
geographical  features  and  geological  histoiy  of  different 
parts  of  the  globe. 

The  relation  of  living  to  extinct  races  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals is  various.  In  point  of  number,  the  recent  is  perhaps 
100  times  as  considerable  as  the  fossil  Flora,  and  though 
this  is  in  some  degree  owing  to  the  circumstance  that  land- 
plants,  insects,  &c,  must  necessarily  be  comparatively  rare 
in  marine  strata,  yet  the  vast  number  of  individual  plants 
accumulated  in  coal  tracts  does  not  appear  to  justify  a  very 
high  estimate  of  the  variety  of  specific  forms  of  plants  in 
early  periods.  The  same  is  true  f  the  marine  races  of 
shells,  Crustacea,  fishes,  &c. ;  for  both  the  total  number  of 
species,  and  the  relative  number  to  a  given  thickness  of 
strata,  augment  from  the  early  towards  the  later  forma- 
tions, and  are  greatest  of  all  in  the  tertiary  strata,  which  in 
character  of  organic  life  most  nearly  resemble  the  modern 
productions  of  nature. 

On  comparing  the  living  with  the  vanished  tribes  of  plants 
and  animals,  we  are  struck  with  the  fact  that  hardly  one 
species  of  the  fossil  kingdom  is  so  peculiar  in  its  structure 
that  nothing  at  all  like  it  is  now  in  existence.  Recent  ana- 
logies of  extinct  forms  are  continually  and  unexpect^y 
presented  to  us  by  the  attentive  voyagers  who  now  explore 
the  most  remote  and  unknown  regions  of  the  land  and  sea, 
and  continually  revealed  to  us  by  the  discoveries  of  compa- 
tive  anatomy,  which  detects  in  common  forms  traces  of  ana- 
lof^ies  to  extinct  creations  formerly  altogether  unsuspected. 
Thus  the  belemnite,  the  trilobite,  the  ichthjrosaurus*  are 
reduced  to  their  proper  station  among  mollusca,  Crustacea, 
and  reptilia,  and  the  whole  extinct  and  living  world  of 
nature  becomes  united  into  one  general  system. 

But  this  indubitable  affinity  between  tne  plants  and  ani- 
mals now  living  and  those  which  adorned  the  world  in 
earlier  ages  does  not  require  us  to  adopt  the  speculations  of 
Liinnsus,  Lamarck,  and  St.  Hilaire,  that  specific  forms  of 
plants  and  animals  are  no  further  permanent  than  the  cir- 
cumstances which  surround  them;  that  as  these  change 
those  vary ;  that  the  immense  variety  of  organic  structure 
may  have  been  derived  from  a  few  primitive  types — the  living 
gavial  from  the  fossil  teleosaurus,  the  living  cuttle  from 
the  fossil  belemnosepia,  the  living  from  the  fossil  equiseta. 
This  doctrine,  plausible  as  it  seems,  and  llattering  as  it  is  to 
that  propensity  in  man  to  derive  everythiug  from  a  begin- 
ning of  which  his  own  senses  may  give  some  notion,  must 
be  rejected  for  tliree  reasons : — 

1.  In  existing  plants  and  animals  the  experience  of  man- 
kind, for  two  or  three  thousand  years,  has  shown  no  essen- 
tial change. 

2.  There  is  no  proof,  drawn  from  examination  of  fossil 
reliquisB,  of  this  assumed  change  from  one  species  to  an- 
other, much  less  from  one  genus  to  another.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  is  a  very  striking  truth,  illustrated  in  almost  every 
group  of  fossils,  that  while  the  same  species  retains  through 
many  deposits  of  different  age  its  essential  characteristics, 
new  ones  come  into  view  in  many  of  these  strata,  not  by  a 
gradual  change,  but  by  a  sudden  development 

3.  The  destruction  of  old  races  and  the  introduction  of 
new  appear  in  many  cases  to  have  been  sudden  and  com- 
plete, at  least  locally. 

In  considering  the  distribution  of  existing  forms  of  life, 
with  reference  to  the  geographical  features  and  geological 
history  of  different  parts  of  the  globe,  we  cannot  avoid  being 
struck  with  the  &ct  that  each  species,  each  genus,  and  often 
each  family,  of  plants  and  animals,  is  especially  abundant 
in  and  often  exdusively  confined  to  particular  parts  of  the 
land  or  sea,  even  among  those  animals  whose  nowers  of  lo- 
comotion are  the  greatest  Among  fishes,  biros,  and  swift 
quadrupeds,  this  attachment  to  locality  is  scarcely  less  re- 
markable than  among  plants,  soophytes»  and  mollusca, 
which  have  no  means  of  diffusing  their  races^  except  what 
winds  and  currents  give.  It  has  therefore  become  an  ad- 
mitted truth  in  the  philoeophy  of  natural  history,  that  there 
are  certain  regions  of  the  land  and  tracts  of  the  sea  for 
which  particular  groups  of  plants  and  animals  were  specially 
created,  and  to  which  for  the  most  part  their  existence  is 
still  confined. 

The  living  species  of  plants  and  animals  which  most 
Bearly  resemble  fimii  xaoeB  are  variously  distribated  oyer 


the  globe.    Tree  ferns,  gigantic  eqnisetaees»,  and  other 

Slants  illustrative  of  the  flora  of  the  earboniferona  period,  may 
e  found  in  Brazil,  the  Indian  Islands,  and  Australia ;  co- 
niferous plants  occur  in  colder  latitudes,  or  at  greater  heights 
in  the  tropics,  as  well  as  in  the  lias ;  cycadaceiB  occur  in  South 
Africa  and  Australia,  and  tropical  America,  as  well  as  in 
the  oolites.  The  recent  trigonia  and  cerithium  giganteum 
are  found  on  the  Australian  shore ;  pholadomya  yftas  washed 
on  the  island  of  Tortuga ;  and  cucullsea  belongs  to  the 
Indian  Ocean.  Lingula  is  found  in  the  Moluccas ;  hut  te« 
rebratula  in  all  seas :  the  nearest  living  form  to  the  old  fossil 
crocodiles  inhabits  the  Ganges ;  while  the  bony  pike,  whose 
scales  resemble  those  of  megaUchthys,  hves  in  Lake  Ontario. 
Perhaps  we  ought  to  conclude  from  these  &ots  that  some 
particular  regions  of  the  globe  still  retain,  in  their  elimates 
and  other  circumstances,  decided  analogies  to  those  earlier 
conditions  which  were  once  more  general  on  the  globe.  In 
this  point  of  view  the  comparison  of  recent  and  fossil  ani- 
mals and  plants  deserves  to  be  much  more  prosecuted  than 
it  has  been. 

i  8.    Gbolooical  Timb. 

There  is  perhaps  no  more  difiKcult  problem  is  geology 
than  the  determination  of  the  length  of  time  which  has 
elapsed  during  the  formation  of  the  whole  or  any  definite 
part  of  the  crust  of  the  earth.  Time,  as  measured  by  gene- 
rations of  men,  fails  to  carry  us  back  to  remote  geological 
epochs  ;  man  is  but  a  recent  visitor  of  the  globe ;  compared 
even  to  the  secondary  strata  his  date  is  of  yesterday,  for  all 
the  existing  forms  of  life  cease  with  the  lower  tertiary 
rocks,  only  small  proportions  of  them  occur  in  the  middle 
of  that  series^  and  traces  of  men  have  nowhere  been  seen 
in  any  but  the  most  modem  parts  of  the  stratified  masses 
of  the  globe.  If  then  the  history  of  the  human  race  does 
not  commence  till  after  the  deposition  of  at  least  the  greater 
part  of  the  tertiary  strata,  by  what  rules  shall  we  attempt 
to  compare  the  few  thousand  years  of  his  existence  with 
the  earlier  penods  of  the  history  of  the  globe? 

In  a  vague  sense,  nothing  appears  more  obvious  than  the 
conclusion  universally  admitted  among  geologists,  that  the 
earth  is  of  vast  antiouity,  yet  nothmg  more  eludes  the  grasp 
of  reasoning  than  tne  seeminely  easy  task  of  computing 
its  age.  The  rocks  are  indeed  fUll  of  monuments  of  time, 
'rudera  lon^nqui  sensim  prsBterlapsi  sevi,'  but  we  have  not 
yet  learned  fully  to  decipher  them. 

When  we  behold  thousands  of  strata  piled  on  one  another 
in  a  regular  series,  each  distinct  by  some  peculiarity  from 
the  others ;  when  we  find  among  these  the  original  products 
of  chemical  action  (as  limcstoue),  the  slow  sSiments  from 
gentle  motion  (clays),  rough  sand  and  pebbles  implying 
greater  agitation;  how  can  we  refuse  to  admit  that  lone 
time  elapsed  during  the  oflen  repeated  change  of  chemical 
and  mechanical  agencies  of  water  over  the  same  portions 
of  the  bed  of  the  sea  ? 

When  among  these  strata  we  observe  the  remains  of 
plants  and  animals,  various  in  their  kinds,  regular  in 
their  distribution,  so  as  to  prove  that  at  successive  times  the 
same  part  of  the  sea  nourished  successive  races  of  animals, 
and  buried  in  its  sediment  distinct  races  of  plants,  where  in 
modern  nature  is  it  conceivable  that  sucn  repetitions  of 
change,  in  all  the  ranks  of  erection,  could  take  place  except 
by  the  aid  of  almost  immeasurable  time  ? 

Descending  to  minuter  inquiries,  we  find  some  particular 
strata  composed  of  fragments  derived  fVom  a  more  antient 
rock,  which  after  being  deposited  in  water,  was  indurated, 
raised  to  tlie  surface,  wasted  by  drainage,  and  again  collected 
in  rolled  fragments  on  the  bed  of  another  sea.  The  trees 
which  are  imbedded  in  certain  rocks  (coal-measures,  lias, 
Portland  oolite,  &c.),  are  often  known  by  their  rings  of 
growth  to  be  some  decads  of  years  old,  and  in  particular 
cases  (Dirt-bed  of  the  Isle  of  Portland)  it  is  supnosed  that 
their  whole  life  passed  between  the  formation  of  two  beds 
of  stone. 

Every  country  affords  examples  of  certain  fossil  shells 
confined  to  even  a  thin  layer  of  shale,  sandstone,  lime- 
stone, or  ironstone,  and  in  some  instances  (near  Leeds  and 
Bradford)  the  youngest  embryo  goniatite  and  the  oldest 
full-grown  shell  (how  much  must  we  regret  the  want  of 
means  to  state  the  full  age  of  our  recent  mollusca !)  are 
found  in  one  bed  of  six  or  twelve  inches*  thickness,  in  that 
alone,  and  apparently  in  the  place  of  their  quiet  existence, 
so  as  to  indicate  that  the  lifetime  of  that  goniatite  (6 
Listen)  was  oonsumed  during  the  accretion  of  one  calcare- 

V  2 


GEO 


148 


GEO 


ouB  bedt  which  is  ahout  pfath  part  of  the  thickness  of  the 
coal-measures  whose  history  it  enriches. 

If  again,  among  those  strata  produced  by  watery  action 
we  fina  alternations  of  volcunic  rocks,  ana  learn  that  at 
particular  epochs  in  the  series  of  deposits  mountains  were 
raised  from  the  sea,  land  clothed  with  forests  was  submerged, 
and  the  physical  geography  of  particular  regions  entirely 
changed,  we  sec  clearly  that  such  rejieatcid  revolutions 
of  nature  agree  with  the  history  of  the  organic  creations  in 
refuting  the  narrow  views  of  those  who  would  limit  the  age 
of  the  world  to  the  short  annals  of  mankind. 

But  how  are  we  to  nrooeed  further,  so  as  to  clothe  with 
a  more  philosophical  cnaracter  these  almost  poetic  notions 
of  the  immensity  of  past  geological  periods  ?  Three  orders 
of  effects  are  in  this  respect  important: — 

1.  The  deposition  of  stratified  rocks.  2.  The  changes  of 
organic  life  on  the  land  and  in  the  sea.  3.  The  displace- 
ments of  land  and  changes  of  physical  geography. 

The  phsenomena  of  stratification  are  at  this  day  repeated, 
and  on  a  very  considerable  scale,  in  most  parts  of  the 
world.  Where  great  rivers  sweep  earthy  materials  and  vege- 
table reliquiiB  to  the  sea,  (Mississippi,  Amazon,  Rhine,  Po, 
&a,)  littoral  aggregations  take  place  and  new  land  is  formed; 
tides  and  currents  throw  up  sand-banks,  or  disperse  the 
finer  sediment  far  from  shore  over  the  quiet  bed  of  the 
ocean.  From  the  growth  of  new  land  on  the  Adriatic  and 
Egyptian  coasts,  by  the  action  of  the  Po  and  the  Nile,  some 
notion  may  be  formed  of  the  great  quantity  of  sediment 
annually  transported  bv  rivers  to  the  sea,  and  both  reason 
and  experience  show  that  the  materials  are  there  accumu- 
lated in  the  same  manner  as  the  antient  strata  were. 

But  are  they  now  accumulated  with  the  same,  with 
^ater,  or  less  rapidity?  If  equal  deposits  are  now  formed 
in  equal  times,  the  calculation  of  the  age  of  the  visible 
crust  of  the  earth  is  as  easy  as  it  would  be  philosophically 
useless;  but  to  assume  this  principle  is  to  nullify  the  con- 
clusion from  it.  Uulcss  it  can  be  shown,  d  priori^  that  at- 
mospheric inlluence  must  have  been  constant  through  all 
past  geological  time,  the  assumption  will  not  be  accepted. 
This  cannot  be  satis&ctorily  shown,  for  the  external  excit- 
ants on  which  the  atmospheric  actions  depend  have  been 
proved  to  contain  variable  elements  ($}  3,  4).  No  certain 
conclusion  then  can  be  rested  on  the  comparison  of  the  mere 
thickness  of  the  stratified  rocks,  as  to  the  lapse  of  time, 
unless  there  can  be  found  an  independent  scale  of  time 
which  may  help  to  interpret  the  other. 

2.  Such  a  scale  of  time  is  perhaps  contained  in  the  series 
of  organic  beings  imbedded  m  the  earth.  These  belong  to 
many  successive  systems  of  life,  which  may  be  compared 
with  the  existing  forms  of  nature,  and  could  we  establish 
from  history  any  rate  of  change  in  organic  life,  any  per- 
centage of  species  destroyed,  or  created  in  a  given  series  of 
years,  some  considerable  steps  might  be  laid  for  further 
advance.  But  two  or  three  thousand  years  appear  to  have 
made  no  change  on  quadrupeds,  birds,  reptiles,  fishes,  shells, 
or  conspicuous  plants.  As  far  as  can  be  known  by  study 
of  old  writers  on  natural  history,  sculptured  monuments, 
coins,  and  mummies^  no  change  of  external  form  or  internal 
structure  has  been  experienced  since  the  earliest  higtorical 
»ra ;  the  loss  of  a  very  few  species  is  all  that  can  be  safely 
admitted ;  and  no  proof  is  oflored  of  a  single  newly-created 
form,  though  the  distribution  of  the  different  groups  of 
plants  and  animals  has  been  varied  by  sea-currents  carrying 
seeds  and  ova,  and  altered  by  man,  who  has  learned  to  con- 
quer by  obeying  nature. 

As  far  therefore  as  the  more  obvious  and  characteristio 
forms  of  animals  and  plants  can  be  admitted  to  yield  satis- 
factory evidence,  the  period  of  two  thousand  years  since 
the  days  of  Aristotle  would  be  insufficient  even  as  a  unit  of 
measure  by  which  to  estimate  the  inter^^als  of  geolosrical 
time  which  elapsed  during  the  deposition  of  strata.  This 
conclusion  is  strengthened  by  some  and  weakened  by  other 
considerations.  It  is  weakened  by  the  circumstance  that 
the  changes  of  organic  life  appear  to  have  been  sudden ; 
it  is  fortified  and  illustrated  in  a  powerful  degree  by 
comparing  existing  nature  with  the  tertiary  »ra,  for 
thus  the  five  or  more  thousand  shells  of  this  day  appear 
to  be  joined  to  an  equal  number  of  others,  into  one  long 
aeries  of  definite  organic  forms,  which,  since  the  date  of  the 
chalk,  have  admitted  new  and  lost  old  si>ecies  conti- 
nuallv.  Whether  these  new  species,  in  any  particular  ba- 
sin of  strata,  were  parts  of  one  or  more  new  creations  there, 
«»M  nayperhapabe  thought  probable,  transferred  from 


other  centres  of  oceanic  life,  is  quite  unimportant  for  tlie 
argument  as  to  time.    The  effects  resemble  those  noUcvd 
among  the  older  strata,  the  causes  must  be  assumed  to  be 
correspondingly  similar,  and  the  times  must  be  in  some  de- 
greee  proportionate.    Uniting  therefore  the  tertiary   and 
modern  aMras  into  one  great  geological  period,  we  may  cotu- 
pare  the  unknown  quantity  of  time  which  it  includes  with 
other  eoually  unknown  and  older  intervals  in  the  history  i*f 
the  glooe,  corresponding  to  similarly  complete  series  of 
organic  forms.     This  comparison  is  facilitated  by  tlie  re- 
markable fact  of  the  almost  total  distinctness  of  the  organ.c 
beings  of  successive  geological  periods.    Had  the  shells  of 
successive  systems  of  strata  been  gradually  changed  by  sub- 
stitution, we  should  have  been  compelled  to  compare  nut 
systems  but  formations,  or  even  individual  strata ;  and  iho 
conclusions  might  have  become  irremediably  obscure. 

Tlie  systems  to  be  compared  are : — ^Tertiary,  CretaoeouA, 
Oolitic,  Saliferous,  Carboniferous,  Fossiliferous,  Primary. 

The  following  table,  extracted  from  Professor  Philli|««»'» 
'  Guide  to  Geology,'  3rd  edition,  gives  the  proportionate 
thickness  and  number  of  organic  forms  of  these  systems  :— 

Number  of  spcelet  of  ortemmie 
StraU.  Oenaral  tlMckneai.         mnaias  to  100  A,  ihlrfriwi 

Tertiary        •     2000  ft.  •  .  141 

Cretaceous    .1100  •  •  70*7 

Oolitic      .     .     2500  •  .  45*6 

Saliferous      .     2000  •  •  8*2 

Carboniferous  10,000  •  •  4*7 

Primary  .     .  20,000  •  .  2*0 

Hence  it  is  very  obvious  that  any  conclusions  as  to  time, 
drawn  from  the  mere  number  of  species  which  were  deve- 
loped and  destroyed  with  any  svstem  of  strata,  will  be  to- 
tally opposed  to  others  based  on  tne  observed  thickness  of  iIa: 
strata.  The  inferences  are  obvious  and  important ;  the  liu* 
merical  i-elations  of  organic  Ufe  to  the  amount  of  stratifii*<l 
deposits  are  variable ;  one  cannot  be  used  as  a  measure  of 
the  other;  the  variety  and  abundance  of  organic  life  h..« 
been  augmenting  from  the  primary  to  the  tertiary  SDcas,  »r 
the  deposition  of  strata  was  in  the  early  ages  of  the  world  Hii  • 
times  as  rapid  as  in  the  tertiary  period.  This  latter  oon<^i  i- 
sion  can  never  be  allowed,  since  the  fossiliferous  prixnarK^ 
show  clearly  their  origin  from  land-floods  and  littoral  cur- 
rents, and  these  depend  on  influences  which  cannot  be  su|^ 
posed  to  have  varied  in  any  such  proportion. 

It  thus  appears  that  neither  the  numbers  of  organic  fos- 
sils nor  the  thicknesses  of  strata  afford  a  perfectly  sati^f act*  r? 
scale  by  which  to  measure  past  geological  time  ;  but  which- 
ever of  them  be  preferred,  the  age  of  the  world  cannot  ik 
estimated  at  less  than  several  times  the  whole  tertiary  pc 
riod,  and  compared  with  this  the  historical  portion  of  Uui^* 
which  dates  from  the  birth  of  man,  contracts  to  a  point. 

By  uniting  the  two  considerations  above  stated,  it  will  uj*- 
pear  certain  that  the  rate  of  organic  development  has  hwn 
augmented,  and  probable  that  the  rapidity  of  sedimcrntari 
deposition  diminished  since  the  primary  sera;  and  il  is  .  . 
slight  argument  in  favour  of  the  hypothesis  of  a  gradii^.^j 
cooling  globe,  that  both  these  phenomena  are  natural  c  .  • 
sequences  of  it, — ^for  that  the  greater  influence  of  i.ic 
earth's  proper  heat  in  the  earlier  epochs  would  favour  i  .. 
mechanical  but  limit  the  vital  activity  of  nature  seem^  ;.' 
require  no  proof. 

If  however  independent  proof  were  required  of  this  thztxi . 
of  ratio  among  the  agencies  of  nature,  we  must  appcuPi.'  • 
third  order  of  phoenomena  most  certainly  charactcri^tr  . : 
disturbances  of  the  equilibrium  of  the  earth's  proper  t 
perature :   the  fractures,  contortions,  and  other  marks  t>:  . 
violent  elevation  and  depression  of  the  crust  of  the  glol  ^'. 

From  what  has  been  alreadv  stated  it  is  ver>'  clear  t 
the  principal  phenomena  of  this  description  oocurTv<}  %(•  - 
cially  at  particular  intervals  during  the  long  pcrio«l» 
geology ;  for  example,  after  tlie  primary  period,  oiVcr  i : 
carboniferous  mra,  before  and  after  the  accumulation  «>f  t . 
cretaceous  strata,  after  many  of  the  tertiaries  were  \  -•• 
duced.     Now  on  comparing  the  amount  of  disturiu:. 
effected  at  these  epochs  respectively  we  are  unable  to  *  • 
ceive  that  the  efficient  causes  ha»s  diminished  in  force  ;    t  * 
the  elevation  of  the  Alps  in  the  tertiary  period  is  apptrf  n  -  . 
quite  as  conspicuous  a  phenomenon  as  can  be  founa  aiu  i.. 
older  geological  monuments.     M.  Elie  dc  Beaumont,   t 
whose  speculation  as  to  the  geographical  characters  uf  » 
terranean  movements  allusion  has  already  been  ma'lL«   s^.  . 
poses  that  as  many  as  twelve  distinct  epochs  of  moutit.xt. 
elevation  may  be  recognised.  The  following  is  a  brief  >^u:.  < 


«BO 


150 


GEO 


tnxioitt  qiieltions  wliieli  tuch  intrnsite  buids  luggMt  to 
eoal  proprietors. 

The  Tariations  of  quality  in  eoal,  whether  of  different 
heds  in  the  same  distrioC  (a  common  case),  or  of  the  same 
heda  in  different  districts  (as  in  South  Wales,  where  good 
fiimace  coal  is  found  in  the  east,  and  anthracttie  coal 
ahounds  in  the  west),  are  not  now  known  in  a  scientiAc  form ; 
and  therefore  science  can  give  no  help  to  practice.  Nothing 
hut  the  anion  of  the  parties  interested  in  coal- working  can 
ftimish  the  data  necessary  for  the  establishment  of  general 
rules ;  and  it  is  gratifying  to  find  that  one  mat  district  has 
set  an  example  of  such  union,  in  the  Geological  Society  of 
the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire. 

Situation  of  Mines,  ^. — The  beneficial  results  whidi 
mining  operations  have  deriTed  fh)m  geology  are  in  propor- 
tion to  the  degree  in  which  the  experience  of  miners  has 
been  reduced  to  the  form  of  science.  On  the  subject  of  the 
situation  of  metallic  treasures,  already  enough  is  known  to 
show  that  the  occurrence  of  mineral  veins  is  a  circumstance 
depending  on  conditions  which  are  more  or  less  ascertain- 
able. For  example,  there  is  not,  and  perhaps  has  never 
been,  in  the  British  Isles,  a  single  mine  of  any  metal 
worked  in  any  stratum  more  recent  than  the  magnesian 
limestone ;  it  is  a  general  truth  that  rich  veins  of  lead, 
copper,  tin,  &c.,  abound  only  in  and  near  to  districts  which 
have  been  greatly  shaken  by  subterranean  movement ;  in 
DerbjTshire,  Alston  Moor,  Flintshire,  and,  in  particular 
tracts,  especially  Cornwall  and  Devon,  it  is  very  apparent 
that  near  the  neat  masses  of  granitic  rocks  the  veins  are 
most  richly  filled.  The  same  facts  are  almost  equally  true 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  world, 
though,  occasionally,  as  in  the  Pyrenees,  Auvergnc,  &c., 
the  presence  of  igneous  rocks  may  cause  the  exhibition  of 
mineral  veins  in  strata  more  recent  than  any  of  those  which 
in  Eneland  yield  metallic  ores. 

In  all  cases  where  new  mining  ground  is  to  be  attempted, 
rules  such  as  those  above  noticed  are  valuable ;  but  even  in 
districts  partially  known,  or  long  worked,  many  problems 
occur  which  time  and  combined  registration  of  pha^nomena 
observed  might  easily  solve.  These  geological  problems,  as 
to  the  relation  between  the  contents  of  a  vein  and  the 
nature  of  the  neighbouring  rock,  the  occurrence  of  certain 
rross'Veins,  the  depth  of  the  workinc^  &c.,  usually  present 
themselves  to  the  practical  miner  under  the  general  ques- 
tion of  the  probability  of  the  vein  being  productive,  and 
though  the  mining  experience  of  2000  years  has  been  found 
insufficient  to  answer  it,  there  appears  no  reason  to  doubt 
that  it  is  capable  of  solution  by  the  progress  of  geology.  It 
is  known  that  in  a  country  of  limestone,  gritstone,  and  ^hale, 
equally  broken  by  the  same  fissures,  the  former  is  gene- 
rally most  productive  of  lead  (Alston  Moor) ;  that  certain 
porphyritic  rocks  in  Cornwall  and  Saxony  appear  directly 
influential  on  the  deposits  of  particular  metals ;  that  argen- 
tiferous lead  ore  is  more  frequent  in  primary  than  in  secon- 
dary strata;  salts  of  lead  more  plentiful  in  the  upper  parts 
of  veins  (Lead  Hills,  Caldbeck  Fells) ;  but  the  precise  nature 
of  the  connexion  of  the  phoinomena  is  yet  a  desideratum, 
and  it  will  be  lone  ere  the  dim  and  wavering  light  of  expe- 
rience can  be  replaced  by  the  steady  beams  of  the  torch  of 
science.  (Von  Duchen's  Handbuch ;  Taylor's  Report  to  the 
British  Association.)    [Mineral  Vbins.] 

Engineering. — In  planning  the  lines  of  railways,  canals, 
or  common  roads,  the  engineer  will  often  be  benefited  by  the 
records  of  geological  surveys.  In  looking  at  the  geological 
mapof  Kimand,  for  example,  it  must  be  evident  to  any  one 
acquainteu  with  the  geographical  clmracters  of  the  different 
formations,  that  no  canal  can  be  made  from  London  to  the 
western  or  north-western  counties  without  a  tunnel  or  sum- 
mit level  on  the  chalk  hills  (as  at  the  Kennet  and  Avon, 
between  Wilton  and  Devizes,  and  on  the  Grand  Junction, 
at  Tring).  The  oolitic  range  of  hills,  with  its  basis  of  lias, 
presents  a  similar  and  parallel  obstacle,  conquered  by  tun- 
nels on  the  Thames  ana  Severn  at  Shepperton,  the  (Oxford 
canal  at  Claydon,  the  Grand  Junction  at  Braunston  and 
Bl  is  worth. 

Since  then  these  and  other  ranges  of  hills  compel  the  for- 
mation of  summit  levels  and  tunnels,  it  it  of  importance 
that  the  whole  of  a  country  should  be  known  to  the  engineer, 
as  to  its  mineral  structure  as  well  as  its  elevation,  in  order 
that  tlic  situation  of  these  may  be  properly  fixed.  It  was 
inconvenient  to  make  the  Thames  and  Severn  tunnel  at  its 
•^-'-^ent  level,  often  much  above  the  level  of  the  spring 
h  is  called  the  souroeof  tho  Thametiaad  in  th«  thitity 


•  '\ 


1 1 


oolitie  nda;  forthoi  tiie  cost  of  maiiitafaiiiig  thenipply  o. 
water  by  puddling  the  canal,  and  engines  for  pumping,  has 
been  found  very  oppressive.  TunneU  and  summit  levels 
for  canals  should  certainly  be  made  ia  argillaceous  rock% 
and  geological  investigations  will  often  point  out  situations 
where,  from  particular  displacements  of  the  rocki,  this  is 
practicable,  even  in  a  range  of  hills  so  continuous  and  »o 
calcareous  as  the  chalk  or  the  oolites. 

The  same  rules  do  not  apply  to  railroads,  which  on  the 
contrary  may  often  be  beneficially  carried  through  dry  rocky 
hills  which  would  absorb  all  the  water  of  a  canu. 

In  the  execution  of  the  works  of  canals  and  railroads,  a 
good  geological  map  would  often  be  found  more  sen'iceablv 
as  a  guide  to  the  engineer  than  a  great  number  of  borin;>. 
unless  these  were  placed  in  situations  corresponding  to  the 
variations  of  the  strata,  which  such  a  map  would  indicate. 

Architecture. — ^In  some  favoured  countries  the  labours  f 
the  sculptor  and  the  architect  are  scarcely  injured  by  «'\* 
posure  to  the  atmosphere  for  2000  years;  while  in  our  clnp.;> 
and  cliangeable  climate,  even  the  interiors  of  catbe<l:aLi 
show,  by  the  decay  of  the  marbles  and  the  destrurtfu 
of  the  stone  walls  the  necessity  for  an  architect  to  stiiti> 
the  durability  of  his  materials.  It  is  remarkable  that  t)»e 
Romans  were  more  prudent  or  more  fortunate  in  thiir 
choice  of  stone  for  buudings  in  Bath  and  Y(vk  than  their 
successors  have  been.  Tlie  reliques  in  the  Institution  at 
Bath  abundantly  prove  that  the  rag  beds  of  tho  ocii.c 
are  more  dumble  than  the  finer  and  handsomer  frees to:.t>, 
which  the  enterprise  of  Allen  first  introduced  to  comtnott 
use.  The  magnesian  limestone  in  the  Roman  wulls  of 
York  is  in  far  better  condition  of  preservation  than  m'^< 
of  that  whicii  is  of  only  half  the  age  in  the  fiice  uf  tU- 
cathedral. 

The  Saxons,  in  the  north  of  England,  used  the  coarse  an  i 
durable  millstone  grit,  which  on  the  brows  of  the  high  idoum* 
tains  of  Derbyshire  and  Yorkshire  stands  conspicuoua  fur  1(4 
bold  defiance  to  the  elements.    In  choosing  ftom  any  gi> 
rock  the  parts  which  arc  most  fitted  for  permanent  edifircNi  i 
examination  of  nature  is  perhaps  more  instructive  than  <*'  i 
a  studv  of  buildings.    Not  every  sort  of  granite  re*»ist»  tl.. 
carboiii?  acid  and  moisture  of  the  air;  but  while  the  n»ll- . 
blocks  from  Shap-fcll  retain,  after  thousands  of  years'  exi  * 
sure  on  the  surface,  their  surfaces  of  attrition,  lb©  gnn 
top  of  Castle  Abhol,  in  Arran,  is  so  rotten  that  it  may  W 
easily  beaten  to  fragments  by  a  hammer.    The  milKiMr..* 
grit  of  Brimham  is  almost  wasted  away  over  a  bund: 
acres,  while  that  of  Agra  Crags  appears  to  be  more  cai-if 
of  withstanding  the  same  agencies;  and  tbedruidical  >>\ou*  - 
of  Boroughbridgc  have  stood  the  storms  of  2000  years,  >»i ;. 
little  more  injury  than  a  few  rain-channels  which  scanti> 
reach  the  ground. 

Supply  of  Water,  Draining^  ^. — ^To  the  agriculturi-t 
geology  has  rendered  some  services,  and  probably  may  .n 
future  be  appealed  to  for  further  aid.  Lister's  projM>^»l 
for  the  construction  of  a  map  of  soils  was  only  parh.'  \ 
executed,  after  a  century,  in  some  of  the  county  iep<»*  - 
made  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture.  The  principal  u^e.  * 
it  appears  to  us,  of  such  a  map  (and  this  is  in  fiirt  siipphi-^i 
by  the  maps  of  strata),  is  to  aid  the  statistics  of  agricultun* 
by  furnishing  a  basis  for  comparing  the  agricultural  pnc 
tices  on  similar  and  dissimilar  soils. 

But  geological  science  will  appear  more  intimately  ^ on 
nected  with  agricultural  improvements  if  we  consider  i:  ^^ 
the  basis  of  all  sound  knowledge  of  springs  and  the  suhtrr 
ranean  distribution  of  water.    The  rain  which  ftills  fn    1 
the  heavens  upon  all  soils  and  rocks  indifferently  run«  <^ 
the  clays,  but  sinks  into  the  limestones,  sandstones^  &'  \ 
other  rocks,  whose  open  joints  act  like  so  many  hidden  r  - 
servoirs  ;  owing  to  the  complicated  intcrcommunican  ■> 
of   the  fissures,  these  reservoirs  are  slowly    filled    a*. ; 
sbwly  emptied;  both  the  supply  from  rain  and  the  m^- 
charge  from  springs  may  and  generally  do  go  on  togrth. .. 
and  the  jointed  rocks  may  be  viewed  as  equalixing  tin?  >iip 
ply  and  expenditure. 

But  below  the  level  of  the  springs  thus  formed  a  grc^; 
body  of  water  exists  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  earth,  ami  <.) 
fkct  fills  the  whole  space  left  by  fissures  in  the  rocks,  uuK*?> 
where,  as  in  diag.  No.  10,  there  be  a  fault  which  b^^ak^  \i  1 
continuity  of  the  communications  along  the  rocks.  At  th< 
surface  there  will  be  generally  one  or  more  springs  (r)  a!«>n4 
the  line  of  such  a  fault,  F. 

In  sinking  deep  pita  it  is  generally  found  that  argillacec>uA 
8tr«ta  tre  quite  dry  within;  for  examp^  ia  the  diagnia 


GEO 


162 


GEO 


drawn  on  the  margin  of  some  manuscripts,  it  apnears  that 
a  demonstration  of  the  property  in  Question  had  heen 
ohtained.  [Hypothbnitsb.J  The  circumference  of  the  circle 
is  given  as  hearing  to  the  diameter  the  proportion  of  3927 
to  1250  hy  the  later  writer;  heing  exactly  that  of  3' 1416  to 
1 .    Brahmegupta  takes  the  proportion  of  the  square  root  of 
10  to  1,  or  3' 16  to  1.    The  superior  correctness  of  the  later 
writer  could  not  have  arisen  from  any  intermediate  com- 
munication with  Europe,  since  the  true  ratio  was  not  known 
BO  near  as  3*1416  till  after  the  twelfth  century:  and  the 
Persians  (as  appears  hy  the  work  of  Mohammed  hen  Musa) 
had  adopted  this  ratio  from  the  Hindus,  hefore  the  dis- 
covery of  an  equally  exact  ratio  in  Europe.     We  shall 
enter'  into  more  detail  on  this  subject  in  the  article  Vioa 
Ganita,  merely  observing  that  though  no  date  can  be  fixed 
to  the  commencement  of  geometry  in  India,  yet  the  cer- 
tainty which  we  now  have  that  algebra  and  the  decimal 
arithmetic  have  come  from  that  quarter,  the  recorded  visits 
of  the  earlier  Greek  philosophers  to  Hindustan  (though 
we  allow  weight  rather  to  the  tendency  to  suppose  that 
philosophers  visited  India,  than  to  the  strength  of  the  evi- 
dence that  they  actually  did  so),  together  with  the  very 
striking  proofs  of  originality  which  abound  in  the  writings 
of  that  country,  make  it  essential  to  consider  the  claim  of 
the  Hindus,  or  of  their  predecessors,  to  the  invention  of 
geometry.      That  is,  waiving  the  question  whether  they 
were  Hmdus  who  invented  decimal  arithmetic  and  algebra, 
we  advance  that  the  people  which  first  taught  those  branches 
of  science  is  very  likely  to  have  been  the  first  which  taught 
geometry ;  and  again,  seeing  that  we  certainly  obtained  the 
former  two  either  from  or  at  least  through  India,  we  think 
it  highly  probable  that  the  earliest  European  geometry  also 
came  either  from  or  through  the  same  country. 

Of  the  Babylonian  and  of  the  Egvptian  geometry  we  have 
no  remains  whatever,  though  each  nation  has  been  often 
said  to  have  invented  the  science.  In  reference  to  the 
authorities  mentioned  above  in  favour  of  the  Egyptians,  to 
whom  we  may  add  Diogenes  Laertius,  &c.,  we  may  say  that 
no  one  of  the  writers  who  tells  the  story  in  question  is  known 
as  a  geometer  except  Proclus,  the  latest  of  them  all ;  and  as 
if  to  give  the  assertion  the  character  of  an  hypothesis,  this 
last  writer  also  adds  that  the  Phenicians,  on  account  of  the 
"Wants  of  their  commerce,  became  the  inventors  of  arith- 
metic. In  the  Jewish  writings  there  is  no  trace  of  any 
knowledge  of  geometry.  So  that  allowing  the  Greeks  to 
liave  received  the  merest  rudiments  either  from  Egypt  or 
India,  or  any  other  country,  it  is  impossible  to  name  any 
tjuarter  from  which  we  can  with  a  shadow  of  probability 
imagine  them  to  have  received  a  deductive  system,  to  ever 
«o  small  an  extent  That  their  geometry,  or  any  of  it,  came 
direct  from  India,  is  a  supposition  of  some  difficult :  those 
^ho  brought  it  could  hardly  have  failed  to  bring  with  it  the 
deeimal  notation  of  arithmetic.  That  Pythagoras  travelled 
into  India,  is  (according  to  Stanley)  only  the  assertion  of 
Apuleius  and  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  though  rendered  pro- 
l>able  by  several  of  his  tenets. 

Thales  (600  b.c.)  and  Pythagoras  (540  B.c.f  founded  the 
earliest  schools  of  geometry.  The  latter  is  saia  to  nave 
sacrificed  a  hecatomb  when  he  discovered  the  property  of 
the  hypothenuse  before  alluded  to  ;  and  this  silly  stoi^  is 
repeated  whenever  the  early  history  of  geometry  is  given. 
A  large  collection  of  miscellanies  might  easily  be  made 
from  the  works  of  writers  who  were  not  themselves  ac- 
<iuainted  with  geometry ;  but,  rejecting  such  authorities, 
we  shall  content  ourselves  with  citing  Pappus  and  Proclus, 
both  geometers,  who,  living  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries 
after  Christ,  had  abundant  opportunities  of  hearing  the 
atories  to  which  we  allude,  and  of  receiving  or  rejecting  them. 

According  to  Proclus  (book  ii.  ch.  4,  Coinm.  in  EucL) 
Pythagoras  was  the  first  who  gave  geometry  the  form  of  a 
science,  after  whom  came  Anaxagoras,  (Enopides,  Hippo- 
erates  of  Chios  (who  invented  the  well  known  quadrature  of 
thelunules),  and  Theodorus  of  Cyrene.  Plato  was  the 
next  great  advancer  of  the  science,  with  whom  were  con- 
temporary Leodamas,  Archytas,  and  ThesBtetus,  of  Thasus, 
Tarcntum,  and  Athens.  After  leodamas  came  Neoclides, 
whose  disciple  Leo  made  many  discoveries,  added  to  the  ac- 
curacy of  the  elements,  and  gave  a  method  of  deciding  upon 
the  possibility  or  impossibility  of  a  problem.  After  Leo 
came  Eudoxus,  the  friend  of  Plato,  who  gcncraliied  various 
results  which  came  from  the  school  of  the  latter.  Amyclas, 
another  friend  of  Plato,  and  the  brothers  McniBchmus  and 
Dinostratus  made  geometry  more  perfect,   Theudius  wrote 


excellent  elements,  and  generaliied  varioiis  theoremi. 
Cyzicinus  of  Athens  cultivated  other  parts  of  mathem&ti/^ 
but  particularly  geometry.  Hermotimus  enlarged  the  n>. 
suits  of  Eudoxus  and  Thecetetus,  and  wrote  on  Foci,  Ne\i  \^ 
mentioned  Philippus,  and  after  him  Euclid,  *  who  vtas  not 
much  younger  than  those  mentioned,  and  who  put  togetin  r 
elements,  and  arranged  many  things  of  Eudoxus.  and  ^mm* 
unanswerable  demonstrations  of  manv  things  which  h-A 
been  loosely  demonstrated  before  him.  He  lived  under  tlu* 
first  Ptolemy,  by  whom  he  was  asked  for  an  easy  method  of 
learning  geometry,  to  which  he  made  the  celebrated  aasni  r, 
that  there  was  no  royal  road.  He  was  younger  than  tl>.< 
time  of  Plato,  and  older  than  Eratosthenes  and  Archini<M!ix 
He  was  of  the  Platonic  sect. 

Such  is,  very  neai'ly  entire,  the  account  which  Prorlu« 
gives  of  the  rise  of  geometr>'  in  Greece. 

Before  the  time  or  Euclid  demonstration  had  been  \xs\r^ 
duced,  about  the  time,  perhaps  by  the  instrumentality,  ni 
Pythagoras ;  pure  geometry  had  been  restricted  to  the  ncfit 
line  and  circle,  but  by  whom  is  not  at  all  known;  tlt^ 
geometrical  analysis,  and  the  study  of  the  conic  sectiohs 
as  also  the  consideration  of  the  problems  of  the  duplicatj.jri 
of  the  cube,  the  finding  of  two  mean  proportionals,  and  the 
trisection  of  the  angle,  had  been  cultivated  by  the  schuol  <f 
Plato ;  the  Quadrature  of  a  certain  circular  space  had  ben  n 
attained,  ana  the  general  problem  suggested  and  attcmptiM 
by  Hippocrates  and  others ;  a  curve  of  double  curvature  lu  i 
been  imagined  and  used  by  Archytas ;  writings  existed  h  >::, 
on  the  elements,  and  on  conic  sections,  loci,  and  det&rijc  i 
subjects.  It  is  in  this  part  of  the  present  article  that  we  ha*.- 
judged  it  best  to  introduce  what  would  otherwise  b&'.: 
formed  the  article  Euclid  of  Alexandria.  A  writer  w  i.  * 
has  given  his  own  name  to  a  science  cannot  be  treated 'I 
in  any  other  place  than  its  history. 

It  is  not  known  where  Euclid  was  born.  He  opcnol  *. 
school  of  mathematics  at  Alexandria,  in  the  reign  of  Ptou-rny 
the  son  of  Lagus  (323 — 284  B.C.),  from  which  school  vm- 
Eratosthenes,  Archimedes,  Anollonius,  Ptolemv,theTbc<>tis 
&c.  &c.,  so  that  from  and  after  Euclid  the  history  of  tu 
school  of  Alexandria  is  that  of  Greek  geometry.  He  wj% 
according  to  Pappus,  of  a  mild  and  gentle  temper,  parii*  -^ 
larly  towards  those  who  studied  the  mathematical  scieii'v^ 
but  Pappus  is  too  late  an  authority  for  the  personal  di- 
meaner  of  Euclid,  and  moreover  may  have  been  incitul  u 
praise  him  for  the  purpose  of  depreciating  Apollonm^. if 
whom  he  is  then  speaking,  and  against  whom  he  scM-riLt 
times  expresses  himself.  Besides  the  Elements,  EixU 
wrote,  or  is  supposed  to  have  written,  the  following  worki  - 

1.  ^vyy pafifia  "tTtviapi^tv,  a  treatise  on  Fallacies,  prf]>j'i 
tory  to  geometrical  reasoning.  This  book,  mentioned  !■• 
Proclus,  does  not  now  exist,  and  there  is  no  Greek  vork  >  i 
which  we  so  much  regret  the  loss.  Had  it  sunived.  tiu- 
thematical  students  would  not  haire  heen  thrown  dirc^  ; 
upon  the  Elements,  without  any  previous  exercise  in  nv- 
soning.  [Mathematics.] 

2.  Four  books  of  Conic  Sections,  afterwards  amplifit'l 
and  appropriated  by  ApoUonius,  who  added  four  othen.  So 
says  Pappus,  as  alreadv  mentioned  in  Afolloxius  Pr* 
GAus.    That  EucUd  did  not  write  these  books,  api«&r<t> 
us  more  than  probable  from  the  silence  of  Proclus  tuo  I'l^- 
tonist,  who,  eulogising  Euclid  the  Platonist,  and  stit:.: 
that  he  wrote  on  Uie  regular  solids  (a  part  of  geometr}  rut 
tivated  by  the  Platonists),  being  led  thereto  by  PlatoDL^^v 
never  mentions  his  writing  on  the  still  more  Platonic  -^ 
ject  of  the  conic  sections.    But  that  Arista>us  had  «r.!' 
on  the  subject  is  known,  and  that  Euclid  taught  it  ca!i.>  ^ 
be  doubted,  any  more  than  that  ApoUonius,  like  ii!  ' 
writers,  prefixed  to  his  own  discoveries  all  that  he  jud;:^': 
fit  out  or  what  was  previously  known  on  the  subject 

3.  llipi  Ataipkffiiitv,  on  Divisions.  This  work  is  memun*^  > 
by  Proclus  in  two  words.    John  Dee  imagined  the  bcxik 
Mohammed  of  Bagdad  (which  is  annex^  to  the  EnL'ii^i' 
edition  of  Euclid  hereinafter  cited)  on  the  division  of '  •• 
faces  to  be  that  of  Euclid  now  under  consideration;  l-- 
there  seems  to  be  no  ground  for  this  notion.    The  Litm 
this  work  (from  the  Arabic)  is  given  at  theendof  Gre(?^>r}  ^ 
Euclid,  together  with  a  fragment  '  De  Levi  et  Pundti«T>.' 
attributed,  without  any  foundation,  to  Euclid^ 

4.  Ilfpi  Tophftaruv,  on  Porisms,  in  three  books.    Thi^  • 
mentioned  both  by  Pappus  and  Proclus,  the  former  of  >»li' ' ' 
gives  the  enunciations  of  various  propositions  in  it,  but  'i- 
text  is  so  corrupt  that  they  can  liardly  be  undei^i^'^'* 
On  this  singular  question,  see  Uie  article  PowtM/ 


GBO 


1S4 


OBO 


Book  iv.  treats  of  iuoh  regular  figures  as  can  readily  be 
described  by  means  of  the  circle  only,  including  tbe  pen- 
tagon, hexagon,  and  quindecagon«  It  is  of  no  use  in  what 
immediately  follows. 

Book  V.  treats  of  proportion  generally,  that  is,  with  regard 
to  magnitude  in  generaL  Whether  this  most  admirable 
theory,  which  thoush  abstruse  is  indispensable,  was  the 
work  of  Euclid  himself^  or  a  predecessor,  cannot  now  be 
known.  The  introduction  of  any  numerical  definition  of 
proportion  is  rendered  inaccurate  by  the  necessity  of  reason- 
ing on  quantities  between  which  no  exact  numerical  ratio 
exists;  for  which  see  Incommknsuaablxs.  The  method 
of  Buolid  avoids  the  error  altogether,  by  laying  down  a  defi- 
nition which  applies  equally  to  commensurables  and  inoom* 
mensurables,  so  that  it  is  not  even  necessary  to  mention 
this  distinction.  In  the  article  Proportion  we  shall  en- 
deavour to  show  that  this  method  is  more  simple  Xhan  is 
ginerahy  supposed,  and  also  that  all  substitutes  for  it  have 
iled  in  rigorous  deduction. 

Book  vi  applies  the  theorv  of  proportion  to  geometry, 
and  treats  of  similar  figures,  that  is,  of  figures  which  differ 
only  in  sixe,  and  not  in  form. 

Book  vii.  lays  down  arithmetical  definitions ;  shqws  how 
to  find  the  greatest  common  measure  and  least  common 
multiple  of  any  two  numbers ;  proves  that  numbers  which 
are  the  least  in  any  ratio  are  prime  to  one  another,  &c. 

Book  viiL  treats  of  continued  and  mean  proportionals, 
showing  when  it  is  possible  to  insert  two  mteger  mean 
proportionals  between  two  integers. 

Book  ix.  treats  of  square  and  cube  numbers,  as  also  of 
plane  and  solid  numbers  (meaning  numbers  of  two  and 
three  factors).  It  also  continues  the  consideration  of  con- 
tinued proportionals,  and  of  prime  numbers,  shows  that 
there  is  an  infinite  number  of  prime  numbers,  and  demon- 
strates the  method  of  finding  what  are  called  perfect 
numbers. 

Book  X.  contains  1 1 7  oropositions,  and  is  entirely  filled 
with  the  investigation  and  classification  of  incommensumble 
quantities.  It  shows  how  far  geometry  can  proceed  in  this 
branch  of  the  subject  without  algebra;  and  though  of  all  the 
other  books  it  may  be  said  that  they  remain  at  this  time  as 
much  adapted  for  instruction  as  when  thev  were  written, 
yet  of  this  particular  book  it  must  be  asserted  that  it  should 
never  be  read  except  by  a  student  versed  in  algebra,  and  then 
not  as  a  part  of  mathematics,  but  of  the  history  of  mathe- 
matics. In  the  article  Irrational  Quantitibs  we  shall 
translate  the  phrases  of  Euclid  into  algebraical  language,  by 
means  of  which  we  have  no  doubt  that  many  students  will 
be  enabled  to  read  the  book  of  Euclid  with  profit.  The 
book  finishes  with  a  demonstration  that  the  side  and  dia- 
ffonal  of  a  square  are  incommensurable.  From  this  book 
It  is  most  evident  that  the  arithmetical  character  of  geome- 
trical magnitude  had  been  very  extensively  considered ;  and 
it  seems  to  us  sufficiently  clear  that  on  arithmetic  of  a  cha- 
racter approximating  closely  to  algebra  must  have  been  the 
guide,  as  well  as  that  some  definite  object  was  sought — 
perhaps  the  attainment  of  the  quadrature  of  the  circle. 

Book  XL  lays  down  the  definitions  of  solid  geometry,  or 
of  geometry  which  considers  lines  in  different  planes  and 
solid  figures.  It  tlien  proceeds  to  treat  of  the  intersections 
of  planes,  and  of  the  properties  of  parallelopipcds,  or  what 
might  be  called  solid  rectangles. 

Book  xiL  treats  of  prisms,  cylinders,  pyramids,  and 
cones,  establishing  the  properties  which  are  analogous  to 
those  of  triangles,  &c.,  in  the  first  and  sixth  books.  It  also 
shows  that  circles  are  to  one  another  as  the  squares  on  their 
diameters,  and  spheres  as  the  cubes  on  their  diameters^  in 
which,  for  the  first  time  in  Euclid,  the  celebrated  Method 
of  Exhaustions  is  employed,  which,  with  the  theory  of 
proportion,  forms  the  most  remarkable  part  of  this  most 
remarkable  work.  In  the  article  just  cited  we  have  referred 
to  the  present  one  for  some  account  of  this  method,  which 
wo  now  give. 

The  only  method  of  reasoning  upon  the  length,  area,  or 
solidity  of  curve  lines  or  surfaces,  is  by  observing  the  pro- 
perties of  inscribed  polygons,  which  may,  by  sufllciently 
increasing  the  number  of  their  sides  or  foces,  be  made  to 
approach  as  near  as  we  please  to  continued  curvilinearity. 
But  since  the  rigour  of  geometry  is  not  content  with  proving 
that  a  proposition  may  be  considered  as  nearly  true  as  we 
please,  and  will  not  infer  that  one  line  is  equal  to  another 
because  it  can  be  sliown  that  their  difference  is  (no  matter 
how)  small ;  SucUd  (or  some  of  bis  predece^soxs,  but  most 


probably  Euclid^  if  we  may  judge  by  the  ebara/oter  of  hia 
discoveries  given  by  Proclus)  invented  this  method  of  ex 
haustions,  which  may  be  considered  as  contained  in  twp 
propositions. 

I.  If  firom  A  more  than  its  half  be  taken,  and  from  the  re- 
mainder more  than  its  half,  and  ao  on,  the  remainder  will 
at  last  become  less  than  B,  where  B  is  any  magnituda 
named  at  the  outset  (and  of  the  same  kind  as  A),  however 
small.  This  proposition  may  be  easily  proved,  and  is  equally 
true  if  the  proportion  abstracted  each  time  be  half  or  ins 
than  halfl 

II.  Let  there  be  two  magnitudes,  P  and  Q,  both  of  the  same 
kind :  and  let  a  succession  of  other  magnitudes,  called 
X„  X  ,  Xj.  •  .be  each  nearer  and  nearer  to  P,  so  that  ai  y 
oncy  Xa,  shall  differ  from  P  less  than  half  as  much  a»  .tn 
predecessior  differed.  Let  Y,«  Y^f  Y9. . .  be  a  succession  of 
quantities  similarly  related  to  Q ;  and  let  the  ratios  of  X  to 
Y,,  of  X,  to  Yy  and  so  on,  be  all  the  same  with  each  otU<'r, 
and  the  same  with  that  of  A  to  B.  Then  it  must  be  tliji 
P  is  to  (2  as  A  to  B.  (It  is  obvious,  from  the  conditioti*. 
that  if  A,  be  greater  than  P,  Y,  is  greater  than  Q,  &c..  k.«  .> 
Suppose  Xi,  At,  &c.,  less  than  P,  and  tlierefore  Y|,  Y^  icr , 
less  than  Q.  Then  if  A  is  not  to  B  as  P  to  Q.  A  is  to  B  ah 
P  to  some  other  quantity  8  greater  or  less  than  Q :  say  lc-<t 
than  Q.  Then  (by  hyp.  and  I.)  we  can  find  some  on«  v(  ti>c 
series  Yi,  Y« . . .  (say  Ya)  which  is  nearer  to  Q  than  S  1% 
to  Q;  and  which  is  therefore  greater  than  S.  Then  »ti.rc 
Xn  IS  to  Ya  as  A  to  B,  or  as  P  to  S,  we  have  X«  is  to  Y»  a« 
P  to  S,  or  Xa  to  P  as  Y»  to  S :  from  which,  since  X*  is  K  - 
than  P,  Yfi  is  less  than  S.  But  Ya  is  also  gruater  thah  S, 
which  is  absurd ;  therefore  A  is  not  to  B  as  P  to  lesa  tlmr. 
Q.  Neither  is  A  to  B  as  P  to  more  than  Q  (which  call  S  < 
for  in  that  case  8  is  to  P  as  B  to  A :  let  S  be  to  P  as  Q  i'> 
T,  then  SistoQasPtoT;  from  which,  8  being  greata 
than  Q,  P  is  greater  than  T.  But  B  is  to  A  as  8  to  P»  that 
is,  as  Q  to  less  than  P,  which  is  proved  to  be  impossible  hj 
the  reasoning  of  the  last  case.  (^)nsequently,  A  is  not  u^  B 
as  P  to  more  than  Q,  or  to  less  than  Q ;  that  is,  A  is  to  H  as 
P  to  Q.  Which  was  to  be  shown.  Let  P  and  Q  be  tv » 
circles,  A  and  B  the  squares  on  their  diameters,  Xi  and  Y . 
inscribed  squares,  X,  and  Yt  inscribed  regular  octatr«  »n«, 
Xj  and  Ya  inscribed  re^lar  figures  of  sixteen  sidva,  ^<\ 
the  preceding  process  gives  the  proof  that  circles  aro  to  c  . 
another  as  the  squares  on  their  diameters. 

Book  xiii.,  the%uit  of  those  written  by  EucUd,  appi.<M 
some  results  of  the  tenth  book  to  the  sides  of  rei^lar  fi^urt «, 
and  shows  how  to  describe  the  five  regular  bodies.  [Solu  x 
Regular.] 

Books  xiv.  and  xv.,  attributed  to  Hypsicles  of  A  lex  at 
dria,  treat  entirely  of  the  relative  proportions  of  the  five  r^ 
gular  solids,  and  of  their  inscription  in  one  another. 

The  writings  of  Euclid  continued  to  be  the  geometr    1: 
standard  as  long  as  the  Greek  language  was  cuUi%au  L 
The  Romans  never  made  any  progress  in  mathewaTf  .. 
learning.    Boethius  [Bobthius]  translated,  it  is  saiti.  ii* 
first  book  of  Euclid  (ClSassiodorus,  cited  by  Hcilbroon<  r , 
but  all  which  has  come  down  to  us  on  the  subject  from  t 
writer  (who  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  centurt  1   > 
contained  in  two  books,  the  first  of  which  has  the  enui^.   . 
tions  and  figures  of  the  principal  propositions  of  the   ft.* 
four  bookA  of  the  Elements,  and  the  second  of  «  bi>  1.  .* 
arithmetical.    Some  of  the  manuscripts  of  this  writer  <    . 
tain  an  appendix  which  professes  to  give  an  account  * .  . 
letter  of  Julius  Cesar,  in  which  he  expresses  his  iuteii:  > 
of  cultivating  geometry  throujshout  the  Roman  domm:*  -  • 
But  no  such  result  ever  arrived  as  long  as  the  Western  lii  .• 
pire  lasted ;  and  this  short  account  of  Roman  geome;r«    . 
a  larger  proportion  of  the  present  article  than  tbe  iiup  fi- 
ance of  the  subject  warrants.    These  books  of  Bi«t-;i.. 
continued  to  be  the  standard  text  books  until  Euciii  •> .: 
brought  in  again  from  the  Arabs: 

Among  the  last-mentioned  race  geometry  made  no  . 
tual  progress,  though  many  of  the  works  of  the  Ciu*  . 
writers  were  translated,  and  Euclid  among  the  rest.    Ti.L  "^ 
are  several  Arabic  versions,  the  most  perfect  of  wluc* 
that  of  Othman  of  Damascus,  who  augmented  the  u%t... 
imperfect  translations  by  means  of  a  Groek  raanu>  1 
which  he  saw  at  Rome.    D*Heibelot  (at  the  wunk  Ak    '  -> 
and  Oclides)  states  that  the  Orientals  believe  Euil.u 
have  been  a  native  of  Tyro,  and  also  that  they  frtx^uoi     « 
gave  his  name  to  the  bcienee  which  he  taughU    The  >ai.iv 
author  gives  the  names  of  the  Arabic  versions,  one  of  >»  h^*::. 
that  of  Navir  eddin,  the  most  celebrated  of  aO.  was  yrtixVL  1 


/ 


GEO 


156 


GBO 


Apollonlus,  two  books  de  pronorHonii  aeettonet  two  de 
tpatii  sectione,  two  de  tactionums,  two  de  inclitiationibus, 
two  planartun  locorum,  and  eight  on  conic  sections;  of 
Aristttiu,  five  books  locorum  iolidorum  ;  of  Erastosthenes, 
two  books  on  finding  mean  proportionals.  But  besides 
these  he  describes  a  oook  (of  Apollonius)  which  treats  de 
determinatd  tectione,  ^ 

The  manifold  beauties  of  the  Elements 'of  Euclid  securea 
their  universal  reception,  and  it  was  not  long  before 
geometers  began  to  extend  their  results.    It  became  fire- 

3uent  to  attempt  the  restitution  of  a  lost  book  by  the 
cscription  given  of  it  by  Pappus  or  others ;  and  from 
Vieta  to  Robert  Simson,  a  long  list  of  names  might  be  col- 
lected of  those  who  have  endeavoured  to  repair  the  losses  of 
time.  On  the  advance  of  geometry  in  general  the  reader 
may  consult  the  lives  of  Vieta,  Melius,  Magini,  Pitiscus, 
Snell,  Napier,  Guldinus,  Cavalieri,  Robeval,  Format, 
Pascal,  Descartes,  Kepler,  &c.,  &c.,  and  also  the  article 
Quadrature  of  the  Circle. 

Tlie  application  of  algebra  to  geometry,  of  which  some 
instances  had  been  given  by  BomboUi,  and  many  more  by 
Vieta,  grew  into  a  science  in  the  hands  of  Descartes  (1590- 
t  G50).  It  drew  the  attention  of  mathematicians  completely 
away  from  the  methods  of  the  antient  geometry,  and  con- 
sidering the  latter  as  a  method  of  discover}',  the  change  was 
very  much  for  the  better.  But  the  close  and  grasping  cha- 
racter of  the  antient  reasoning  did  not  accompany  that  of 
the  new  method :  algebra  was  rather  a  half-understood  art 
than  a  science,  and  all  who  valued  strictness  of  demonstra- 
tion adhered  as  close  as  possible  to  the  antient  geometry. 
This  was  particularly  the  case  in  our  own  country,  and  un- 
fortunately the  usual  attendants  of  rigor  were  mistaken  for 
rigor  itself,  and  vice  versa.  The  algebraical  symbols  and 
methods  were  by  many  reputed  inaccurate,  while  the  same 
processes,  conducted  on  the  same  principles,  in  a  geometrical 
ibrm,  were  preferred  and  even  advanced  as  more  correct. 
Newton,  an  admirer  of  the  Greek  geometry,  ch)thed  his 
Principia  in  a  dress  which  was  meant  to  make  it  look  (so 
far  as  mathematical  methods  were  concerned)  like  the  child 
of  Archimedes,  and  not  of  Vieta  or  Descarti*s ;  but  the  end 
was  not  attained  in  reality,  for  though  the  reasoning  is  really 
unexceptionable,  yet  the  method  of  exhaustions  must  be  ap- 
plied to  most  of  the  lemmas  of  the  first  section,  before  the 
Greek  geometer  would  own  them. 

The  methods  of  algebra,  so  far  ais  expressions  of  the  first 
and  second  degrees  are  concerned,  apply  with  great  facility 
to  many  large  classes  of  questions  connected  with  straight 
lines,  circles,  and  other  sections  of  the  cone.  Practical 
facility  was  gained  by  them,  frequently  at  the  expense  of 
reasoning:  tho  time  came  when  a  new  Descartes  showed 
how  to  return  to  geometrical  construction  with  means  supe- 
rior to  those  of  algebra,  in  many  matters  connected  with 
practice.  This  was  Monge,  the  inventor  of  descriptive 
geometry.  The  science  of  perspective  and  many  other 
applications  of  geometry  to  the  arts  had  previously  required 
isolated  methods  of  obtaining  lines,  angles,  or  areas,  de- 
scribed under  laws  not  readily  admitting  of  the  application 
of  algebra,  and  its  consequence,  the  construction  of  tables. 
The  descriptive  geometry  is  a  systematized  form  of  the 
method  by  which  a  ground-plan  and  an  elevation  are  made 
to  give  the  form  and  dimensions  of  a  building.  The  pro- 
jections of  a  point  upon  two  planes  at  ri^ht  angles  to  one 
another  being  ^iven,  the  position  of  the  point  itself  is 
gi\en.  From  this  it  is  possible,  knowing  the  projections  of 
any  solid  fitrure  upon  two  such  planes,  to  lay  down  on 
either  of  tho»e  planes  a  figure  similar  and  equal  to  any 
plane  section  of  the  solitL  In  the  case  where  the  section  is 
a  curve  it  is  constructed  by  laying  down  a  large  number  of 
consecutive  contiguous  points.  The  methods  by  which  such 
an  object  is  to  be  attained  were  generalized  and  simplified 
by  ^ioxoe,  wh^>so  Ocometrie  Descriptive  (the  second  edi- 
tion of  which  was  published  in  1820)  is  one  of  the  most  ele- 
gant and  lurid  elementary  works  in  existence. 

Th«  m<*thrKU  of  dcsrriptive  geometry  recalled  the  atten- 
tion of  geometers  to  the  properties  of  projections  in  general, 
of  \»liirh  sur-h  only  harl  heen  particularly  noticed  as  could 
he  applied  in  tho  arts  of  dc'^ign  or  in  the  investigation  of 
primary  proj^rtie^  of  the  conic  «eetions.  From  the  time  of 
Mon;4e  Ut  the  priisent  this  subject  has  been  cultivated  with 
a  vig'Mir  which  has  prorluced  most  remarkable  results,  and 
promises  more.  Pure  geometry'  has  matlc  no  advance  since 
^e  of  the  Greeks  whirb  gives  greater  help  to  its 
»f  inreation  than  that  which  tho  labours  of  what 


we  must  call  the  school  of  Monge  have  effected.  On  this 
point  we  shall  refer  to  Projections,  Theory  of.  One  nf 
the  most  distinguished  pupils  of  this  great  master*  M. 
Chasles,  has  just  published  an  '  Apercu  historique  dc«  m<  - 
thodes  en  (^m^trie,*  forming  the  eleventh  volume  of  tho 
'  M^moires  Couronn^s  *  of  the  Academy  of  Brussels.  Tlio 
very  recent  date  of  this  work  iias  prevented  us  from  bcixt  ^ 
able  to  say  more  than  that  it  appears  to  be  sufiicichtly 
leamed  in  matters  of  antient  geometry,  and  that  it  offers  a 
most  satisfactory  view  of  the  progress  of  all  agos  in  con* 
nexion  with  those  generali2ed  metnods  of  which  its  objt  <"t 
is  to  treat. 

On  the  history  of  geometry,  as  distinguished  from  otlti-r 
parts  of  mathematics,  there  is  very  little  to  cite,  llie  re- 
ferences in  the  article  Mathematics  may  be  consultisL 

GEOMETRY  OF  THE  GREEKS.  [Gbombtry.] 

GE'OMYS.    [MuRiDiB.] 

GEOPHO'NTJS.    [FoRAMiKiFKRA.  vol.  X.,  p.  34R.] 

GEOPO'NIKA  (or,  a  *  Treatise  on  Agriculture,')  i*  the 
title  of  a  compilation,  in  Greek,  of  precepts  on  rural  e«.^>* 
noiny,  extracted  from  antient  writers.  The  compiler,  in 
his  proemium,  shows  that  he  was  living  at  Constant inopK% 
and  dedicated  his  work  to  the  emperor  Constantinv,  *  a 
successor  of  Constantine,  the  first  Christian  emper«»r/ 
stating  that  he  wrote  it  in  compliance  with  his  desire,  aii*i 

E raising  him  for  his  zeal  for  science  and  philosophy,  and  r'>r 
is  philanthropy.    This  emperor  is  supposed  bysonu^  Xa 
have  been  Constantine    Porphyrogenitus,   and  the  com- 
pilation is  generally  ascribed  to  Casslanus  Bassus,  a  nati\  o 
of  Bithynia,  who  however  is  stated  by  others  to  liavc  \i\*d 
some  centuries  before  the  time  of  l^orphyrogenitus.    fl.r 
question  of  the  authorship  of  the  *  Geoponika^  has  excit*  ( 
much    discussioa.    Needham,    in    his  Greek  and    Latin 
edition  of  the  '  Geoponika,*  Gambridge,  1704,  has  treats  I 
the  subject  at  great  length.    The  work  is  divided   iiv  * 
twenty  books,  w^ich  are  subdivided  into  short  chapt<.i^. 
explaining  the  various  processes  of  cultivation  adapted   !•• 
various  soils  and  crops,  and  the  rural  labours  suited  to  t:.t> 
different  seasons  of  the  year ;  with  directions  for  the  sou  r..  j 
of  the  various  kinds  of  corn  and  pulse;  for  the  training  <>{ 
the  vine,  and  the  art  of   wine-making,  upon  which   the 
author  is  very  difi'use.     He  also  treats  of  olive  plantatiotw 
and  oil-making,  of  orcliards  and  fruit-trees,  of  evergreen?*,  .•( 
kitchen- gardens,  of  the  insects  and  reptiles  that  are  injure  »i.4 
to  plants,  of  the  e^nomy  of  the  poultry -yard,  of  the  li«»r-4\ 
the  ass,  and  the  camel;  of  homed  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  yi.^^, 
&c.,  and  the  care  they  require;  of  the  method  of  saltn.^ 
meat;  and,  lastly,  of  the  various  kinds  of  fishes.     £\<  <  > 
chapter  is  inscribed  with  the  name  of  the   author  fn.:a 
whom  it  IS  taken,  and  the  compiler  gives  at  the  beginn.i^^' 
of  the  first  book  a  list  of  his  principal  authorities,  >»ho  art- 
African  us,    Anatolius,    Apuleius,    Berytius,    Damage ron. 
Democritus,  Didymus,  Dionysius  XJticensis  the  trans! :it<>r 
of  Mago  the  Carthaginian  writer  on  agriculture,  Diophai.*-N. 
Florentinus,   Leontius,    Pamphilus,  Paxamus.  the   (^mii- 
tilii,  Sotion.   Varro,   Vindanonius,  and  Zoroaster.     Otl.tr 
authors  besides  these  are  quoted  in  the  course  of  the  WtaL. 
Two  or  three  chapters  are  inscribed   with   the   name   of 
Cassianus,  who  speaks  of  himself  in  them  as  a  natne  «-. 
Maratonymus  m  Bithynia,  where  he  had  an  estate,  (^j^'7  '-- 
nika^  book  v.,  ch.  6  and  36.)  The  work  is  curious,  as  giMrir 
a  course  of  antient   agriculture  collected   from   the   Ik'^i 
authorities  then  existing.    The  best  edition  of  tlie  '  Get>,t»- 
nika*  is  that  of  N.  Niclas,  in  Greek  and  Latin,  with  uuic;t 
and  indexes,  4  vols.  8vo.,  Leipzig,  1 78 1 . 

GEORGE  (LOUIS)  L,  king  of  Great  Britain.  AOcr 
the  exclusion  of  James  IT.  and  his  son  in  1689,  tho  nearest 
heirs  to  the  throne  in  the  lineal  order  of  succession  were — 
1.  The  Princess  Mary  of  Orange,  eldest  daughter  i  f 
James  IL ;  2.  The  Princess  Anne  of  Denmark,  youni^er 
daughter  of  James  II. ;  3.  William  prince  of  Orange.  M^n 
of  Mary,  eldest  daughter  of  Charles  1.  By  the  declaration 
of  both  houses  of  the  convention  on  the  12th  of  Februarv. 
1689,  it  was  resolved  that  after  the  decease  of  the  prince 
and  princess  of  Orange,  the  erown  should  descend,  first,  *  Ut 
the  heirs  of  the  body  of  the  said  princess;  and  for  default 
of  such  issue,  to  the  Princess  Anne  of  Denmark,  and  the 
heirs  of  her  body;  and  fur  default  of  such  issue,  to  the 
heirs  of  tho  body  of  the  said  prince  of  Orange.*  Ttiu 
settlement  was  contlrmed  in  the  second  session  of  the 
first  narliamont  of  William  and  Mary,  by  the  statute,  I  W. 
and  M.,  s.  2,  c.  2,  commonly  called  the  Bill  of  Hi^bu. 
(Vol.  ir.  p.  404.)    In  the  preceding  session  howe\'er,  «bca 


6Bd 


isd 


bBO 


19t1i  MTaf  1 71 4),  have  been  published,  bnt  (hat  to  the  Elec 
toral  Pnncc  is  said  to  have  been  in  a  shrle  so  unbecoming 
both  the  writer  and  the  person  addressed,  that  it  could  not 
be  given  to  the  world.  These  letters  may  be  said  to  have 
killed  the  heiress  presumptive;  she  was  so  much  affected 
by  them,  that  on  the  day  after  their  leoeipt,  the  28th 
of  May,  she  was  struck  with  apoplexy  as  she  was  walking  in 
the  gaidens  of  Herenhausen,  and  expired  in  the  arms  of 
her  daui^hter.  Tlie  Princess  Sophia,  who  was  one  of  the 
most  accomplished  women  of  her  time,  was  in  her  eighty- 
fourth  year  when  her  life  was  thus  terminated.  Queen 
Anne  died  on  the  1st  of  August  foUowins,  on  which  George, 
Elector  of  Brunswick,  the  son  of  the  filectress  Sophia,  be* 
came  king  of  Great  Britain. 

George  I.  was  bom  28th  May,  1660  (the  day  before 
that  on  which  Charles  II.  made  his  entry  into  London  at 
the  Restoration).  In  1681  he  came  over  to  England  with 
the  intention  of  paying  his  addresses  to  the  Princess  (after- 
wards Queen)  Anne ;  but  immediately  after  landing  he  re- 
ceived liis  futber*s  orders  not  to  proceed  in  the  business,  on 
which  he  returned  home,  and  in  the  following  year  married 
his  cousin  Sophia  Dorothea,  the  daughter  or  the  Duke  of 
Zell.  He  afterwards  served  in  the  armies  of  the  Empire 
both  against  the  Turks  and  the  French.  He  succeeded 
to  the  electorate  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1698.  In 
1 700  he  led  a  force  to  the  assistance  of  the  Duke  of  Hoi- 
stein,  who  was  attacked  by  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark, 
and,  in  conjunction  with  the  Swedes  under  General  Banier. 
compelled  King  Frederick  to  raise  the  siege  of  Tonnineen. 
Hanover  had  been  created  a  ninth  electorate  by  the  Em- 
peror Leopold  in  1692,  but  in  consequence  of  the  opposition 
of  other  electoral  houses  it  was  not  till  1708  that  the  duke 
was  admitted  into  the  college  of  electors.  Duke  Ernest, 
the  father  of  George  I.,  had  originally  attached  himself 
to  the  French  interest,  but  his  adhesion  to  England  was 
of  course  secured  by  the  settlement  of  the  succession  to  the 
crown  on  his  family,  although  it  is  probable  that  neither 
he  nor  even  his  son  regarded  that  arrangement  as  very 
secure  until  the  latter  actually  found  himself  seated  on  the 
throne.  The  Elector  George  remained  steady  to  the  Eng- 
lish alliance  throughout  the  general  war  which  began  m 
1702,  and  both  in  1707  and  the  two  following  years  he 
commanded  the  Imperial  forces  against  the  French.  All 
the  endeavours  of  the  English  ministry  however  could  not 
prevail  upon  him  to  go  along  with  them  in  the  original 
propositions  for  the  peace  of  Utrecht.  To  all  the  arguments 
and  solicitations  addressed  to  him  on  that  occasion,  ho  an- 
swered that  he  desired  to  be  spoken  to  simply  as  a  German 
Prince,  and  that  no  consideration  of  any  future  connexion 
he  might  have  with  Great  Britain  should  for  the  present  in- 
duce him  to  depart  from  what  he  held  to  be  tne  true  in- 
terest of  the  Empire.  In  fact,  he  stood  out  till  the  conclusion 
of  the  treaty  of  peace  between  the  French  King  and  the 
Emperor,  at  Rastadt,  6th  March,  1714. 

The  accession  of  George  I.  took  place  as  quietly,  and  as 
much  like  a  thing  of  course,  as  anysuch  change  has  ever 
done  in  the  most  settled  times.  Tlie  new  king,  with  the 
prince  his  son,  arrived  at  Greenwich  on  the  28th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1714.  Before  this  the  Tories,  who  had  been  in  power 
at  the  death  of  Queen  Anne,  had  all  been  dismissed  by  the 
Lords  Justices ;  and  now  a  new  ministry  was  formed  in- 
sisting, with  the  single  exception  of  the  earl  of  Nottingham 
(who  was  removed  within  a  year),  wholly  of  "Whigs,  Vis- 
count Townshend  and  the  celebrated  Mr,  (afterwards  Sir 
Robert)  Walpolc  being  its  most  influential  members.  A 
new  parliament,  which  gave  ministers  a  great  majority  in 
the  (Commons,  haWng  a«<scmbled  in  January,  1715,  imme- 
diately proceeded  to  tjie  impeachment  or  Bolingbroke, 
Oxfuid,  and  their  associates,  all  of  whom  were  compelled  for 
the  present  to  bend  to  the  storm.  These  determined  (or,  as 
some  called  them,  vindictive)  measures  however  probably 
did  not  do  much  to*strengthen  the  position  of  tne  new 
dynasty.  The  rebellion  in  Scotland  broke  out  before  the  end 
of  the  year,  and  was  not  completely  put  down  till  February, 
1716.  [Scotland.]  One  of  the  consequences  by  which  it  was 
followed  was  the  repeal  of  the  Triennial  Act  by  the  1st  Geo.  I. 
Stat.  2,  c.  38,  entitled  '  An  Act  for  enlarging  the  time  of 
continuance  of  parliaments,*  by  which  it  was  declared  that 
not  only  all  future  parliaments,  but  even  the  parliament 
then  sitting,  might  be  continued  for  seven  years,— -certainly 
the  most  daring  assumption  of  power  upon  which  an  English 

lament  has  ever  ventured.    The  year  1717  was  ushered 
1th  the  rumour  of  an  intended  inyasioa  of  the  country 


by  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  who  had  been  irritated  br  Xhe 
recent  purchase  by  the  king  of  England,  trom  the  I>ant-*« 
of  the  two  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Verdeo,  which  the  latt«r 
had  taken  from  Sweden  in  1712.  To  counteract  thedej»i^nj» 
of  Sweden,  to  which  the'Csar  Peter  of  Russia  had  been  in- 
duced to  become  a  partv,  Geoige  I.  lost  no  time  in  ar- 
raneing  what  was  called  the  TVeaty  of  Triple  Alliance  (cun- 
eluded  at  the  Hague  4th  of  January,  1717)  with  France  an<l 
Holland.  This  war  however  was  not  marked  by  any  or><  - 
rations  of  importance,  and  it  was  put  an  end  to  by  tlie  do.,  h 
of  Charles  Xll.  before  the  end  of  the  following  year.  Mr  ui- 
while,  in  April,  1717,  the  ministry  of  Townshend  and  \V  il- 
pole  was  broken  up  by  the  dismissal  of  the  former  and  ( K  - 
impiediate  resignation  of  the  latter— the  result  of  interr.  I 
dissensions  which  had  been  for  some  time  growing,  and  uf  t  i . «» 
intrigues  of  a  section  of  the  Whig  party.  The  heads  of  1 1  .•* 
new  cabinet  were  Mr.  (afterwards  I^rd)  Stanhope,  h^  > 
became  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  tl.'* 
exchequer  in  the  room  of  Walpole,  and  the  earl  of  Siin<1i  r- 
land,  who  took  the  office  of  one  of  the  principal  secrelj(  i**- 
of  state,  Mr.  Addison  being  taken  in  as  the  other.  l'lt<- 
intrigues  of  (Cardinal  Alberoni,  which  had  also  been  at  xiif 
bottom  of  the  late  demonstrations  of  hostility  by  S\\t'd«-a, 
now  led  to  a  war  with  Spain.  Here  England  was  aga.u 
cordially  assisted  b^  France,  the  Spanish  minister's  aniUi:*- 
ous  designs  embracmg  at  once  the  expulsion  of  the  Hai:*!. 
verian  family  from  the  government  of  the  former,  and  ff 
the  Regent  Duke  of  Orleans  from  that  of  the  latter.    I'i.** 

Suadruple  Alliance  between  Great  Britain,  France,   ii.« 
mperor,  and  Holland  was  now  arranged,  and  varioub  m  l\  - 
tary  operations  took  place,  the  most  distinguished  of  wlii<h 
was  the  victory  obtained  by  Admiral  SirCxcorge  Bync  (aftc-r- 
wards  Lord  Torrington)  over  the  Spanish  fleet  off  the  C(i.i>«i 
of  Sicily  (31  July,  1718),  in  which  about  fifteen  of  the 
enemy's  ships  were  captured  or  destroyed.    In  June,  171 '.'. 
also,  a  Spanish  force  that  had  landed  m  Scotland,  and  hu  I 
been  joined  by  a  body  of  Highlanders  under  the  command 
of  the  Earl  Marischal  and  Lord  Seaforth,  was  defeated  l>> 
General  Wightman  in  an  action  fought  at  Glenshield.  tu 
Inverness-shire,  and  compelled  to  surrender  at  diacreiion — 
a  check  by  which  a  second  Jacobite  rebellion  was  at  uii<r 
put  down.    The  differences  with  Sweden  however  xkvtv 
finally  accommodated  by  the  treaty  of  Stockholm,  sigm^l 
the  20  November,   1719;    and    before  the    close   of    tic 
same  year  Cardinal  Alberoni  was  dismissed  bv  the  king  *>( 
Spain,  and  peace  was  soon  after  made  also  with  that  poutr 
A  concurrence  of  events  now  brought  about  a  chanj^e  nf 
ministry.    In  April,  1720,  a  reconcilement  was  cfiWeti-l 
between  the  king  and  the  prince  of  Wales,  with  whom  l.c 
had  been  for  some  years  at  variance;  this  re-introduci  1 
Walpole,  who  had  attached  himself  to  the  prince,  into  the 
ministry  in  the  subordinate  capacity  of  paymaster  of  i:\c 
forces;  and  soon  after  the  terrible  explosion  of  the  Sotitii 
Sea  scheme  at  once  overthrew  the  administration  of  Su\i\- 
hope  and  Sunderland  by  the  extent  to  which  several  mvui- 
hers  of  the  cabinet  were  personally  involved,  and  produ<  t  A 
a  crisis  in  which  Walpole,  with  bis  great  financial  skill  aitl 
reputation,  found  every  thing  thrown  into  his  own  ham!^. 
He  became  again  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chancellor  ••} 
the  exchecjuerin  April,  1721,  commencing  Arom  that  date  .. 
premiership  which  lasted  for  twenty-one  years,  bet nt;  tl.' 
longest  period  that  any  English  minister  has  continued  m 
power  since  the  time  of  Lord  Burleigh.  Of  the  transact jur:> 
in  domestic  politics  under  the  late  c^ministration,  the  m  i-t 
remarkable  were  the  repeal  in  1718  of  the  Schism  An. 
passed  in  the  last  year  of  Queen  Anne— a  repeal  which,  to 
his  discredit,  Walpole,  actuated  by  considerations  of  parti, 
opposed  to  the  utmost,  though  happily  without  success ;  u>A 
the  attempt  of  the  ministers  in  1718  and  1 719  to  carry  thti: 
celebrated  bill  for  the  limitation  of  the  peerage,  in  which  tU^  y 
were  defeated  by  the  junction  of  Walpole  with  Uie  Torw< 

The  pacific  dispositions  of  Walpole,  and  the  continui*' 
friendship  of  France,  both  under  the  government  of  th«* 
duke  of  Orleaiu  and  afterwards  under  that  of  Cardinal 
Fleury,  tended  to  preserve  the  repose  of  Burope  during  tUv 
latter  years  of  the  reign  of  George  I. ;  but  it  was,  on  the 
other  nand,  constantly  endangered  both  by  the  perscverid^ 
intrigues  of  the  adherents  of  the  fkmily  that  had  Ki-r^ 
ejected  from  the  British  throne,  and  still  more  by  the  n. - 
prehensions  of  the  king  for  the  safety  of  his  (^rman  dani.- 
nions,  and  the  entanglement  of  the  country  in  continent il 
politics  through  that  connexion.  The  most  memorable 
event  of  1722  was  the  detection  of  the  eonapirtey  for  brmg- 


GEO 


160 


GEO 


that  any  such  grant  was  ever  made  by  parliament ;  but  by 
the  1  George  I.  st  2,  c  22,  it  was  enacted  that  his  majesty's 
grant  of  100,000/.  per  annum  to  the  prince  of  Wales  should 
be  paid  without  fees  and  free  from  taxes ;  and  that  it  might 
be  specially  charged  on  such  branches  of  customs  find  excise 
as  were  applicable  to  the  civil-list,  which  may  have  been 
considered  as  a  parliamentary  sanction  of  the  grant.  The 
judges,  Tindal  adds,  were  divided  upon  this  point,  but 
seemed  rather  to  favour  the  prince ;  on  which  *  the  prince 
and  princess  stood  their  ground ;  and  though  they  left  to 
the  king  the  education  of  their  children,  they  refused  to 
contribute  towards  the  expense.'  The  king  formed  a  house- 
hold for  the  young  prmcesses,  and  on  the  10th  January, 
1718,  he  created  his  grandson.  Prince  Frederick  Iicwis, 
duke  of  Gloucester. 

The  king  paid  another  visit  to  Hanover  in  May,  1719. 
On  this  occasion  *  the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales,'  says 
Tindal,  '  not  being  appointed  regents,  retired  into  the 
country,  and  appeared  no  more  till  the  king's  departure, 
a  few  days  after  which  they  came  to  St.  James's  to  see  the 
young  princesses,  who  kept  a  levee  twice  a  week ;  and  to 
them  it  was  that  the  lords-justices  and  a  numerous  appear- 
ance of  foreign  ministers,  nobility,  and  gentry,  made  their 
compliments  on  the  king's  birthday.'  It  is  believed  that 
the  famous  Peerage  Bill  of  this  year  [Georgb  I.]  was 
brought  forward  chiefly  in  conseciuence  of  the  quarrel  be- 
tween the  king  and  his  son,  and  with  the  view  of  limiting 
the  powers  of  the  latter  when  he  should  come  to  the  throne. 
In  the  final  discussion  which  it  underwent*in  the  House  of 
Commons  in  November,  Sir  JohnPackington  observed  that 
some  persons  had  through  indiscretion  occasioned  an  un- 
happy difference  in  the  royal  family,  and  he  was  apprehen- 
sive if  that  bin,  so  prejudicial  to  the  rights  of  the  next  heir, 
should  pass  into  a  law,  it  might  render  that  difference  irre- 
concilable. The  allusion  here  was  understood  to  be  to  the 
earl  of  Sunderland,  then  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and 
prime  minister,  the  mover  and  most  zealous  promoter  of 
the  bUl. 

>  The  reconciliation  of  the  king  and  the  prince  was  at  last 
effected  in  April,  1720,  chiefly  by  the  endeavours  of  the 
duke  of  Devonshire  and  Mr.  Walpole,  who  had  for  some 
time  past  attached  themselves  to  the  court  of  his  royal 
highness.  On  the  23rd  of  that  month  an  interview  took 
place  between  the  father  and  son ;  and  the  termination  of 
their  difference  was  immediately  announced  to  the  public  by 
the  prince,  on  his  return  to  Leicester-house,  being  attended 
by  a  party  of  the  yeomen  of  the  guard  and  of  the  horse- 
guards,  and  by  the  foot-guards  beginning  to  mount  guard 
at  his  house.  The  reconciliation  however  was  probably 
flever  very  cordial.  It  may  be  observed  that  when  the  king 
immediately  after  this  set  out  to  pay  another  visit  to  his 
continental  dominions,  he  left  the  government  in  the  hands 
of  lords-justices,  as  on  the  last  occasion.  A  story  is  told  by 
Horace  Walpole  which  appears  to  show  that  the  king's  ani- 
mosity lasted  to  the  end  of  his  life.  After  having  destroyed 
two  wills  which  he  had  made  in  favour  of  his  son,  he  had 
entrusted  a  third,  supposed  to  have  been  of  an  opposite 
character,  to  the  keeping  of  Wake,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, who  on  the  accession  of  George  II.  presented  it  to  the 
new  king.  To  the  surprise  of  every  one  present,  his  ma- 
jesty, putting  it  into  his  pocket,  stalked  out  of  the  room, 
and  the  will  was  never  heard  of  more.  Lord  John  Rus- 
sell, in  relating  this  story  {Memoirs  qf  Affairs  of  Europe, 
ii.  396)  observes  that  *by  the  law  of  England  the  will 
would  not  have  been  valid ;  all  property,  real  as  well  as 
personal,  of  the  king,  descends  with  the  crown.*  It  does 
not  appear  to  be  now  understood  that  tliis  is  law. 

George  II.  succeeded  his  father,  10  June,  1727.  It  was 
at  first  his  intention  to  place  at  the  head  of  the  crovern- 
ment  Sir  Spencer  Compton  (afterwards  carl  of  Wilming- 
ton), who  was  then  the  speaker  of  the  Ilouiic  of  Com- 
but  when    that  person  received   the   royal  com- 


mons 


mands  to  draw  up  the  declaration  to  the  privy-council, 
he  was  obliged  to  call  in  Walpole  to  assist  uim.  Queen 
Caroline,  whose  influence  with  her  husband  was  very 
great,  now  interposed ;  and  the  result  was  that  Walpole 
was  continued  in  otiice.  The  war  with  Spain  was  finally 
terminated  by  the  treaty  of  Seville,  concluded  9th  No- 
vember, 1729;  and  for  ten  years  from  this  time  Walpole 
Contrived  to  preserve  peace.  New  causes  however  of  dis- 
satisfaction with  Spain  arose,  principally  out  of  alleged  in- 
torfAronces  of  that  power  with  the  freedom  of  English  com- 
and  the  minister  at  last  found  it  impossible  to  resist 


the  cry  of  the  country  for  a  new  war.  Hoatilitieft  wrrc 
commenced  in  the  close  of  the  year  1739 ;  and  the  redu'^- 
tion  of  Portobello,  on  the  isthmus  of  Darien,  by  Adro«r*  1 
Vernon,  in  the  beginning  of  the  following  year,  still  furtlier 
sharpened  the  eagerness  with  which  the  popular  feeliug  bb'l 
rushed  into  the  contest  The  operations  that  were  auli-^- 
quently  attempted  however  were  not  equally  successful  ;  re- 
peated attacks  upon  Carthagena,  in  particular,  all  signal ly 
failed.  ThedeathofthcemperorCharles  VI.  in  October,  IT  io, 
speedily  produced  a  general  European  war;  Great  Brit:iin 
supporting  the  settlement  called  the  Pragmatic  Sanct  lun, 
by  which  the  succession  to  the  Austrian  dominions  devul«<fl 
upon  tlie  late  emperor's  eldest  daughter,  Maria  Thcr<r^u 
aueen  of  Hungary ;  France  and  Spain  uniting  to  mainta.n 
tne  claims  of  Charles  Albert,  elector  of  Bavaria  (el«rt^*«l 
emperor  in  1742  under  the  title  of  Charles  VII.).  Mean- 
time various  causes  had  been  co-operating  to  shake  \\  al- 
pole's  power.  The  mere  length  of  his  tenure  of  office  ba<l 
tired  the  country  and  created  impatience  for  a  chati^-v. 
The  pacific  policy  in  which  he  had  so  obstinately  pcrsevcrt-1 
had  uisgusted  the  general  eagerness  for  a  war  excited  liy  a 
feeling  that  the  national  interest  and  honour  alike  dem am  ir-1 
reeourse  to  arms,  and  the  course  he  had  taken  in  thi!S^«x* 
spect  had  impaired  his  reputation  as  much  as  his  popula  r%\\. 
His  scheme  for  the  extension  of  the  excise,  introdun  d  :^ 
1733,  had,  although  abandoned,  produced  an  unfa\our.il  !o 
impression  that  sunk  deep  into  the  popular  mind«  and  j.i 
outcry  against  him  that  never  subsided.  The  loss  of  i..^ 
steady  and  influential  protectress,  Queen  Caroline,  >a1.^ 
died  20th  November,  1739,  deprived  him  of  one  of  K  <» 
strongest  supports  in  the  favour  both  of  the  king  and  1 1 
nation.  Just  before  that  event  also  a  violent  quarrel  1.  ^  I 
broken  out  between  the  king  and  the  prince  of  W^ales  « i 
now  headed  the  opposition,  and  collected  around  him  jt 
Leicester- house  a  court  and  party,  one  of  the  chief  of  u  hi  •■? 
avowed  objects  was  the  removal  of  the  premier.  In  tin  *•- 
circumstances  a  new  parliament  met  4th  December,  17.. 
in  which  Walpole  soon  found  himself  so  placed  as  to  tnaV.r 
it  necessary  to  retire.  He  resigned  all  his  places  in  the  er.  i 
of  January,  1742,  and  was  immediately  created  earl  of  Oi- 
ford.  So  long  as  he  lived  however,  which  was  not  ns  - 
than  three  years,  Walpole  continued  really  the  king's  vh  • . 
adviser.  The  ministry  that  immediately  succeeded  it.:* 
nominally  appointed  by  his  great  rival  Pulteney,  but  it  w  -. . 
in  reality  the  result  of  a  compromise,  and  Pulteney  biin><  .t 
was  by  walpole* s  contrivance  annihilated  in  the  vcr}  m  >- 
ment  of  his  apparent  triumph,  by  being  compelled  to  lru\c 
the  House  of  Commons  and  to  take  a  peerage :  ad  carl  •  f 
Bath  he  became  at  once  nobody.  A  reconciliation  at  t  hf 
same  time  took  place  between  the  king  and  the  prince* ; 
but  neither  this  nor  any  of  the  other  arrangements  la^t*  ) 
long.  In  a  few  months  the  prince  was  again  in  opposiUtn, 
and  the  new  ministry  was  assailed  by  an  adverse  f<.>n.<.» 
composed  in  part  of  their  antient  allies,  as  formidablu  «*> 
that  which  had  driven  Walpole  from  power. 

Meanwhile  the  war  against  the  Bavarians  and  their  aU  .•  > 
the  French  had  begun  to  be  prosecuted  with  great  vi^ui:r ; 
the  kings  of  IXnmai-k  and  Sweden  (the  latter  in  his  c^  .i- 
city  of  landgrave  of  Hesse  Cassel)  having  been  sul>i»i«lu\  .1, 
and  a  treaty  of  alliance  concluded  with  Frederick  III.  ^ 
Prussia,  George  II.  joined  his  army  on  the  Continent  in 
person  in  the  beginning  of  June,  1743,  and  on  the  *J6th  • :' 
that  month  shared  in  the  great  victory  gained  oxer  tht- 
French  at  Dettingen.  On  this  occasion  the  Engli&h  km^ 
behaved  with  distinguished  courage.  This  instance  of  suc- 
cess however  was  only  followed  by  inactivity  and  rvvcrx-^ : 
one  consequence  of  which  was  the  expulsion  from  the  m  - 
nistry,  in  November,  1 744,  of  Lord  Granville  (formerly  Lv  : 
Carteret),  the  great  promoter  of  the  war,  and  as  such  i».o 
member  of  the  cabinet  who  had  the  greatest  influence  w  »•  :j 
the  king.  The  ministry  that  was  now  formed  was  car.*  1 
the  Broad-Bottom  ministry  :  it  contained  a  few  tones,  I.  -; 
consisted  principally  of  the  Newcastle  and  Grenville  v  iii^'v^ 
the  only  parties  wholly  excluded  being  the  connexions  » : 
lords  Gramille  and  Bath.  Mr.  Pelham,  brother  of  li.v 
duke  of  Newcastle,  was  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  t  han- 
cellor  of  the  exchequer,  and  Mr.  Pitt  (afterwards  sodi«t:;. 
guished  both  under  that  name  and  as  earl  of  Chatham  \ 
being  proniised  a  place  as  soon  as  the  king  could  be  ludut^v  i 
to  admit  him,  gave  his  support  in  the  meantime  to  the  a  - 
ministration.  This  chanj^e  of  men  however  brought  nv 
change  of  measures.  The  king's  German  politics  conimu%.tl 
to  reeeive  the  same  support  from  tho  new  mioistxy  q«  i]ur> 


GEO 


162 


GEO 


should  be  in  the  English  language  (two  years  afterwards  ex- 
tended to  Wales) ;  tlie  8  Geoq<e  II.,  c.  6,  establishing  a  Re- 
t^.ry  of  Conveyances,  Wills,  &c.,  in  the  North  Riding  of 
Vnk  ;  the  8  Geo.  II.,  e.  13,  which  established  a  copyright 
II  en^i-avings;  the  9  George  IL,  c.  5,  repealing  the  old 
statutes  against  witchcraft;  the  10  George  II., c.  28,  pro- 
tub  iung  the  acting  of  any  new  stage  play  without  per- 
misNion  of  the  lora  chamberlain  (this  was  occasioned  by 
some  ilieatrical  ridicule  directed  against  Walpole) ;  the  18 
(rC).  II.,  c.  15,  ^eparating  the  surgeons  of  London  from  the 
barbers:  the  19  Gtsorge  lU  o.  39,  entitled  an  Act  for  the 
more  effectual  disarming  the  Highlands  in  Scotland,  and 
fbr  restraining  the  use  of  the  Highland  dress,  &c. ;  the  20 
George  11^  c  30,  allowing  persons  impeached  of  high  trea- 
son to  make  their  full  defence  by  counsel;  the  20  George 
II.,  c.  43,  abolishing  heritable  jurisdictions  in  Scotland ; 
the  20  George  IL,  c.  50,  taking  away  the  tenure  of  Ward- 
holding  in  Scotland,  and  converting  it  into  Blanch  and 
Feu  Holdings  [Fbudal  Ststsm]  ;  the  24  George  IL,  c.  23, 
establishing  the  use  of  the  New  Style ;  the  26  George  II., 
c.  2.  for  purchasing  the  Museum  of  Sir  Hans  Sloane  and 
the  Harleian  MSS.,  the  foundation  of  the  British  Museum ; 
the  26  Geo.  U.,  c  26,  being  an  act  permitting  Jews  to  be 
naturalized  by  parliament  without  taking  the  sacrament, 
which  however  was  re))ealed  the  following  year ;  and  the 
26  George  II.,  c.  33,  commonly  called  the  Marriage  Act. 

The  national  debt  was  considerably  more  than  doubled  in 
the  course  of  thin  reign  ;  its  amount  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  in  1763,  was  nearly  139,000,000/., 
paying  an  interest  of  above  4,850,000/.  The  annual  par- 
liamentary grants,  which  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign 
usually  amounted  to  about  three  millions,  or  three  millions 
and  a  half,  rose  at  its  close  to  twelve,  fifteen,  and  at  last  to 
nineteen  m  Uions. 

The  country  nevertheless  undoubtedly  made  great  pro- 
gress in  wealth  and  general  improvement  during  the 
reign  of  George  II.  (Commerce  and  manufactures  were 
greatly  extended ;  both  the  useful  arts  and  those  that  embel- 
lish life  fuund  a  demand  and  encouragement  that  was  con- 
stantly increasing;  and  various  branches  both  of  literature 
nnd  science  were  cultivated  with  considerable  ardour  and 
success.  We  may  refer  to  the  conclusion  of  Smollett's  His- 
tory for  an  elaborate  and  comprehensive  survey  of  what  was 
done  in  all  the^;  departments ;  some  of  the  names  which  he 
enumerates  as  likely  to  distinguish  the  age  are  now  little 
remembered,  but  many  more,  including  Sanderson,  Bradley, 
Maclaurin,  the  two  Simpsons,  and  Hales,  in  science,  and 
Sherlock,  Hoadley,  Seeker,  Warburton,  Leland,  Thomson, 
Aken^ide,  Armstrong.  Home,  Gray,  Johnson,  the  two  War- 
tons,  Robertson,  Hume,  Fielding,  and  Smollett  himself,  in 
literature  (not  to  mention  Swift,  Pope,  and  Young,  the  sur- 
vivors of  a  former  age),  are  not  hkcdy  to  be  forgotten.  To 
these  may  be  added  Mead,  Pringle,  Hunter,  Biunro^  Che- 
selden,  and  Sharp,  in  medicine  and  surgery ;  Ame,  Boyoa, 
and  Handel  (who  however  was  a  foreigner),  in  muaic ;  and 
Ramsav,  Reynolds  Aud  Hogarth,  in  painting. 

GEC^RGE  (WILLIAM  FREDERICK)  III.,  the  eldest 
•on  of  Fredecick  Lewis,  prince  of  Wales,  was  bom  4th 
June,  1738.  His  mother  was  Augusta,  daughter  ot  Fre- 
derick II.,  duke  of  Saxe  Gotha,  born  1719,  married  to  the 
prince  of  Wales  26th  April,  1736.  Their  other  chil- 
dren were^l,  Augusta,  born  1737, married  1764  to  Charles 
William  Ferdinand,  duke  of  Brunswick  Wolfenbiittel,  died 
iHl.l;  .'I,  Edward  Augustus,  born  1739,  created  duke  of 
York  irco,  diufl  1767;  4,  Elizabeth  Caroline,  bom  1741, 
i\u't\  17611;  5.  William  Henry,  born  1743,  created  duke  of 
(sh,nvimteT  1764,  died  1805;  6,  Henry  Frederick,  born 
1746,  created  duke  of  Cumberland  1766,  died  1790;  7, 
Lou i%a  Anne,  born  1749,  died  1768;  8,  Frederick  William, 
born  1  750,  diofl  1765  ;  9,  (jaroline  Matilda,  bom  1751  (four 
in-ii(hi  nftor  her  father's  death),  married  to  Christian  VIL, 
Liii  ^  III  I>«M(rntrk,  1766,  died  1774. 

<)n  ilii»  »liMih  of  hm  father,  20th  March,  1751,  prince 
(i«M,  (»,.  hiu(m«.(Um1  to  the  title  of  duke  of  Gloucester,  but  he 
u.»-  rifsit.-.l  pniKo  of  Wales  on  the  2uth  of  April.  His 
inutH-r.  undor  whoMs  care  he  remained,  soon  disengaged 
li'iH-lf  from,  or  wan  dosfrted  by,  the  leaders  of  the  parlia- 
rji.Mi  .ir>  (i;  p.»..ivi<>n  which  had  Jraiht-rod  around  and  made 
.1  '•<>!  .r  lirr  husband;  but  the  kin^'ii  habitual  disUke  to 
li«'i  a{.mar«  ncv^r  lo  have  been  overcome.  It  has  been 
a<.H4»rtod  that,  encouraged  by  the  manner  in  which  the  prin- 
ri»tH  was  treated  by  the  robt  of  the  royal  family,  the  prince's 

"^emor^  lord  Hareoort,  and  hit  pnceptor,  Dr.  Haytei, 


bishop  of  Norwich,  exerted  their  laAinfiee  to  prajtidioe  him 
both  against  the  M  Aienda  of  bis  fiuhtr  and  againat  Ui*^ 
mother  herself  Another  aoeount  ii  that  the  pnncoaa  w  as 
prejudiced  against  the  govanior  and  the  preceptor  \>\  lord 
Bate,  who  now  becajne  her  eoiifideiitial  adviser,  [biri', 
Eabl  of.]  From  whatever  canso.  lord  Haroourt  and  t lie- 
bishop  resigned  their  plaoea  io  December,  1 758  ;  the  ^ror  ud 
which  they  assigned  was  that  Mr.  SConep  the  prince  s  sub- 
governor  (dUom  in  that  sitvatioii  by  the  miaiatry),  Mr. 
Boott,  anoUier  tutor  (who  had  beeo  reoommended  to  tuv 
late  prinoe  by  lord  BolingbrokeX  and  Mr.  Cresset  (who  U^l 
been  appointed  treaaurer  of  the  phnee'a  household  on  t  i*i* 
recommendation  of  his  mother),  wera  all  concealed  JacM- 
bites.  Stone,  it  was  affirmed,  had  about  tmenty  >ca/« 
before  actually  drank  the  Pretendet^s  health  io  pubii4% 
This  charsB,  in  which  Dr.  Johnaon,  Ushop  of  Gloucester, 
and  Mr.  Murray,  afterwwda  the  ctiebnted  lord  ManaficriU. 
were  also  involved,  was  made  the  aubjeet  not  only  uf  *u 
inquisition  by  the  cabinet,  but  aftermma  of  a  debate  in  th« 
house  of  lords.  It  appeara  to  have  rested  on  Lttle  ur  t>*» 
good  evidence.  Ample  detaila  of  the  aikir,  which  oxnrol 
some  inflammation  m  the  pobbc  mind  at  the  time,  aic 
given  in  Dodington's '  Diary.  Lord  Waldegrave  waa  h4>*»u 
after  appointed  the  prinoe's  governor,  and  Dr.  John  Thorn  .as 
bishop  of  Peterborough  (aftennuda  of  Salisbury,  final! >  <  t 
Winenester),  his  preoeptor ;  and  under  their  manageuM.  nt 
and  the  more  influential  superintendence  of  lord  Bute,  luu:- 
ters  proceeded  without  further  dissension.  The  prince  i«  a« 
kept  by  his  mother  in  great  privacy,  and  permitted  to  ax%.»' 
ciate  only  with  a  very  small  and  select  circle.  Her  r«>\^l 
highness  seema  to  have  been  actuated  by  good  intent i«mi%  ; 
she  was  very  anxious  to  preser\'e  her  son  from  the  i'a»i>- 
tamination  of  the  frahionable  profligacy  of  the  day ;  and  i.j 
this  respect  her  method  may  be  allowed  to  have  Us  u 
successful  But  in  regard  to  any  thing  beyond  thia,  Lot!. 
her  own  notiona  and  those  of  the  persons  in  whose  ba..I« 
she  placed  herMlf  were  narrow  in  the  extreme.  Oiiv  «>: 
her  oom plaints  to  DodingUm  against  the  bishop  of  N<  r- 
wich  was  that  he  instated  upon  teaching  the  prinoe  auU  h.s 
brothers  logic,  *  which,  as  she  was  told,  was  a  very  t^. . 
study  for  cluldren  of  their  age,  not  to  say  of  their  condition.' 
Bute  indeed  appears  to  have  felt  the  propriety  of  some  |»<  o- 
tical  instruction  being  given  to  the  heir -apparent ;  but  h..-* 
lordship,  although  he  soon  after  adventured  upon  the  oILoc 
of  prime-minister,  had  himself  scarcely  any  praelical  xc- 

auatntance  with  political  matters,  and  had  never  even  madi* 
tiat  department  of  knowledge  his  study.  Independently 
therefore  of  his  party  prejudices,  which  gave  him  a  genera* 
bias  towards  what  would  now  be  called  by  most  people  sji* 
tiquated  and  illiberal  opinions,  he  was  from  mare  ignoraxnv 
of  the  subject  a  very  unfit  director  of  the  political  sludic«  <.tf 
the  prince ;  nor  were  any  of  his  coadjutors  or  subordinates 
much  more  competent  Their  pupil  aeeonlingly  cannot  be 
said  to  have  ever  to  the  end  of  ois  life  mastered  more  thai. 
the  details  and  conventional  forma  of  pohcical  acienoe.  J  u 
1759,  when  ho  had  attained  his  mi^rity,  tbo  yrinee  t(K.k 
his  seat  in  the  house  of  peers;  but  there  is  no  reeord  of  hu 
having  taken  any  part  in  the  businesa  of  the  houao. 

George  HI.  succeeded  to  the  throno  on  the  death  of  bts 
grandfather,  25th  October,  1760,    Of  hia  eventual  res^n 
of  nearly  sixty  years  wo  can  here  attempt  only  a  very  rap..i 
sketch.    On  tlie  8th  of  July,  1761,  the  young  king  sur- 
prised his  couneil  by  the  unospoctod  announeoment  of  hn 
intention  to  marry  the  princess  Charlotte  Sophia,  se<VMi<i 
daughter  of  Charles  Lewis  FVodenok,  duko  of  M eeklentur^ 
Strelits.    The  marriage  took  place  on  the  8th  of  SoptemlH  r 
following.    It  is  understood  that  in  delemining  upon  tli:» 
union  the  king  had  the  merit  of  sacrificing  a  private  altar ii- 
ment  to  what  were  deemed  conaiderations  of  political  expe- 
diency.   Throughout  hia  reign  indeed  ho  never  slto«c«; 
himself  deficient  in  the  strength  of  chaiaotor  neoesftar>  rc 
make  every  thing  else  bond  to  what  ho  held  to  be'thr 
demands  of  his  public  position.    The  youth  and  unbh*- 
mished  moral  character  of  George  HI.,  and  the  rirrua>> 
stance  of  his  having  been  born  in  the  country, excited  much 
popular  regard  and  expectation  on  hia  accoasion  to  the 
throne.    From  the  first  however  he  did  not  conoeal   h  ^ 
anxiety  for  an  end  of  the  war  which  waa  then  umd  w  :f  h  - 
much  national  enthusiaam.    Lord  Bute,  who  had  nume 
diately  on  the  commencement  of  the  reign  been  admii  ^-'i     i 
into  the  privy  council,  and  made  groom  of  tlie  stole,  u..*.. 
in  a  fow  months  brought  into  the  miniatry,  with  the  dctn^ .  i 
probtbly  of  effecting  thHobjact    Ho  waa  mado  aoeretaxy 


GEO 


169 


GEO 


ortl»tomll«Mh»17i2.  In  tbe  bcgummg  of  Um  IbUoiniig 
Oetobv  Mr.  Pht  nMH([;ned,  on  finding  himself  0|^0Md  by  a 
majority  of  the  eabtnet  when  he  proposed  to  anticipate  the 
designs  of  S|)ain  hy  declarinff  war  against  that  power.  Tlie 
war  with  Spain,  whieh  he  had  piedicSed  as  inevitable^  broke 
out  in  January.  1762:  but  in  the  beginning  of  June  Bute 
became  premier  on  the  reiiniation  of  the  duke  of  New- 
castle ;  and  on  the  ard  of  November  the  preliminaries  of 
Mace  between  Fiance  and  Eng^nd  were  sisned  at 
Fontaioebleaa.  By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  conclu£d  10th 
February,  1763»  between  Great  Britain,  France,  Spain,  and 
Portngal,  this  eonniry  letained  possession  of  Ganada,  ac- 
quired Florida  by  cession  tram  Spain,  and  reooveced  Minorea, 
but  gave  up  Belleisle,  the  Havannah,  and  all  the  settle* 
ments  taken  from  France  in  the  East  Indies.  An  attempt 
was  made  by  the  opposition  to  eiccite  dissatisfaction  with 
this  treaty,  but  it  was  not  very  suoeessful.  Bute  however 
resigned  on  the  8th  of  April,  not  so  much,  it  would  appear, 
ill  consequence  either  of  any  opposition  in  parliament  or 
any  unpopuiari^  out  of  doors,  as  from  want  of  support  in 
the  cabinet.  He  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  Geom  Grenville, 
who  was  for  some  time  however  geneially  looked  upon  as 
merely  ihe  lieutenant  of  the  retired  minister.  Mr.  Gren* 
viUe*s  administmtion  eommenoed  ominously  with  the  flunous 
contest  with  Wilkes,  artstng  out  of  the  publication  of  the 
43th  number  of  his  '  North  Briton,*  on  the  19th  of  Apnl. 
This  business,  and  the  question  of  general  warrants  which 
wa.s  involved  in  it,  occupied  much  of  the  early  part  of  the 
following  session  of  parliament  The  dose  of  the  same 
session  in  April,  1764,  was  made  memorable  by  the  passing 
of  the  first  resolutions  asserting  the  expediency  of  imposing 
certain  stamp-duties  upon  the  eoionies  in  America.  A  bill 
actually  imposing  swm  duties  was  brought  forward  the 
next  session,  and  received  the  royal  assent  22nd  March, 
1765. 

In  the  meantime  however  varions  circumstances   had 
concurred  to  shake  the  ministry.    In  the  preceding  April 
the  king  had  been  attacked  by  an  illness  generally  supposed 
ID  have  been  the  same  mental  malady  with  which  he  was 
afterwards  visited  oftener  than  once  in  a  more  serious 
form.    On  his  recovery,  which^ook  place  in  a  few  weeks, 
he  proposed  that  a  btU  should  be  brought  into  parlia- 
ment empowering  him  to  appoint  the  queen  or  any  other 
member  of  the  royal  ikmily  to  act,  in  case  of  his  de- 
m  ise,  as  regent  during  the  minority  of  his  successor.    The 
real  author  of  this  iMOpoaition  was,  no  doubt,  Lord  Bute. 
The  ministers  had  of  lale  attempted  to  throw  off  his  lord- 
ship, but  on  this  oecasion  they  did  not  venture  openly  to 
oppose  the  king's  wish;  they  only  attempted,  when  the  bill 
was  on  its  way  through  partiament,  to  exclude  from  it  the 
name  of  the  prinoessdowager  of  Wales.    In  tilis  however 
they  were  signally  defeated ;  a  motion  having  been  made 
in  the  Commons  that  the  name  of  the  princess  should  be 
iniierted,  the  influence  of  the  court  and  of  Lord  Bute  were 
sufficient  to  carry  it  aapiinst  ministers  by  the  large  m^ority 
of  167  to  37.    The  rismg  discontents  in  America  came  soon 
after,  still  tother  to  embarrass  Mr.  Grenville  and  bis  col- 
leagues.   It  was  not  however  till  after  a  great  deal  of  ne^ 
tiation  that  the  king  found  himself  strong  enough  to  give 
ihem  their  dismissal. 

At  last,  on  the  16th  July,  1765,  a  new  ministry  was 
formed,  with  the  marquis  of  Rockingham  at  its  head.  This 
ministry,  though  not  without  considerable  hesitation,  re- 
plied the  American  Stamp  Act ;  the  bill  to  that  effect  re- 
ceived the  foyal  assent  26th  March,  1 766,  and  for  the  pre- 
sent this  measure  eflbotnally  allayed  the  disturbances  in 
the  colonies,  the  Rockingham  ministry  however  soon 
carae  to  an  end,  partly  lirom  inadequate  support  in  pu'lia- 
ment«  partly  from  the  lukewarmness  of  the  eotirt,  chiefly 
from  internal  dissensions,  if  not  treachery  in  some  of  its 
members.  Soon  after  the  prorogation  of  parliament  in  the 
beginning  of  June,  Mr.  Pitt  was  sent  for  by  the  king ;  and 
bv  the  beginning  of  August  that  gentleman,  transferred  to 
the  House  of  Lords  with  the  title  of  eari  of  Chatham,  was 
at  the  head  of  a  new  cabinet.  It  was  during  this  adminis- 
riation  that  on  2nd  Jime,  1767,  Mr.  C  Townshend,  the 

hancellor  of  the  exchequer,  brought  forward  that  renewed 
measure  of  American  taxation  which  eventually  led  to  the 
independence  of  the  colonies.  This  is  believed  to  have  been 
Mr.  Townshend's  own-  scheme.  Lord  Chatham,  though  still 
the  nominal  head  of  the  cabinet,  being  now  in  such  a  state 
of  health,  and  so  much  at  variance  with  the  majority  of  his 
cellesgues,  diat  it  is  said  ha  wan  never  even  consnlted  in 


the  matter.    Mr.  Townshend  died  suddenly,  4th  Septem 
ber.  on  which  Lord  North  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  and  the  ministry  from  this  time  came  to  be  ge* 
nerally  known  as  that  of  the  duke  of  Grafton,  who  held  the 
office  of  first  lord  of  the  treasury.    Lord  Chatham  at  last 
resigned,  1 5th  October,  1 768.    With  the  meeting  of  parlia- 
ment in  the  preceding  June  commenced  the  second  and 
much  more  protracted  struggle  of  the  government  with 
Wilkes,  occasioned  by  his  return  for  Middlesex,  his  expul- 
sion by  the  House,  and  his  repeated  re-election.    Mean- 
while, the  new  plan  of  colonial  taxation  had  thrown  all 
English  America  into  commotion  as  soon  as  it  was  an- 
nounced.   The  beginning  of  the  next  year,  1769,  was  dis- 
tinguished by  ihe  appearance  of  the  first  of  Uie  celebrated 
'Letters  of  Junius,*  the  most  effective  series  of  political 
attacks  ever  directed  against  a  ministry.    The  duke  of 
Grafton,  the  object  of  the  most  envenomed  shafts  of  this 
invisible  assailant,  suddenly  resigned,  28th  January,  1770. 
On  this  Lord  North  became  premier,  and  began  his  admi- 
nistration with  a  bill,  brought  in  5th  March,  for  the  repeal 
of  all  the  lately  imposed  American  duties,  except  the  duty 
on  tea,  which  was  retained  avowediv  merely  to  assert  the 
right  of  taxation.    This  exception  however  produced  the 
war  with  the  ooloniea,  and  their  eventual  separation.    A 
dispute  with  Spain  about  the  possession  of  the  Falkland 
Islands  occupied  attention  for  a  short  time  in  the  latter 
part  of  this  year,  but  was  eventually  adjusted  without  lead- 
mg  to  hostilities.    The  session  of  parliament  which  termi- 
nated 8th  May,  1771,  is  memorable  for  the  successful  asser- 
tion by  the  newspaper  press  of  the  right  of  reporting  the 
debates,  after  a  contest  with  the  House  of  Cbmmons,  which 
lasted  from  the  beginning  of  February  to  the  end  of  April, 
and  for  two  months  of  that  time  almost  wholly  occupied 
the  House.    This  and  the  following  year  were  also  marked 
by  some  important  events  in  the  royal  fomily.     In  tho 
summer  of  1771,  the  king's  third  brother,  the  duke  of 
Cumberland,  mairied  Mrs.  Horton,  daughter  of  Lord  Irn- 
ham  (afterwards  earl  of  Carhampton),  and  widow  of  Chris- 
topher Horton,  esq.    His  Majesty,  as  soon  as  the  afihir  was 
publicly  announced,  forbade  the  duke  and  duchess  to  ap- 
pear at  court;  but  this  did  not  deter  his  second  brother, 
the  duke  of  Gloucester,  from  avowing,  a  month  or  two  after- 
wards, his  marriage  with  the  countess  dowager  of  Walde- 
grave  (daughter  of  Sir  Bdward  Walpole),  which  had  taken 
place  six  years  before.    The  Royal  Marriage  Bill  was  in 
consequence  brought  into  the  House  of  Lords,  and,  not- 
withstanding a  strenuous  opposition,  passed  into  a  law.   By 
this  statute  (12  Geo,  III.  c.  11)  all  descendants  of  Geonre 
II.  (except  the  issue  of  princesses  married  into  foreign  fa- 
milies) are  prohibited,  while  under  the  age  of  twenty-five, 
from  contracting  marriage  without  the  consent  of  the  king, 
and  without  the  consent  of  parliament  if  above  that  ajire. 
The  king's  mother,  the  princess  dowager  of  Wales,  died  on 
the  8th  February,  1 772.    Only  a  few  days  before  had  oc- 
curred at  Copenhagen  the  catastrophe  of  the  king's  youngest 
sister,  the  queen  of  Denmark,  who  was  suddenly  thrown 
into  confinement  by  order  of  her  imbecile  and  dissolute  hus- 
band, on  a  charge  of  adultery  with  his  physician  Struensee. 
No  proof  of  the  criminality  of  the  parties  ever  was  produced, 
though  both  Struensee  and  his  ft'iend  Brandt  were  put  to 
death  without  trial.    The  queen  was  sent  in  the  first  in- 
stance to  the  castle  of  Cronsburg ;  but  after  being  confined 
there  for  about  four  months,  the  interposition  of  her  brother 
procured  her  release,  and  she  was  conveyed  first  to  Stade, 
and  afterwards  to  Zell,  in  Hanover,  where  she  lived  in  re- 
tirement till  her  death,  10th  May,  1774. 

The  disturbances  in  America,  excited  by  the  tea  duty, 
broke  out  in  the  summer  of  1 773.  The  Gaspee  schooner 
was  attacked  and  burned  at  Providence  in  Rhode  Island,  in 
June:  the  destruction  of  the  tea  by  the  mob  at  Boston  took 
place  in  December.  Another  year  however  was  spent  before 
the  quarrel  assumed  the  character  of  a  regular  contest  of 
arms.  Hostilities  commenced  with  the  battle  of  Lexingt on, 
19th  April,  1775 ;  that  of  Bunkw*sHill  followed,  16th  June. 
Still  theresistanceof  the  colonists  had  not  taken  the  form 
of  an  avowed  determination  to  throw  off  the  dominion  of 
the  mother-country.  It  was  not  till  the  ever  memorable  4tli 
of  July,  1776,  that  the  contest  was  brought  to  this  point  by 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  In  the  course  of  the  next 
year  many  French  officers  joined  the  Americans,  and  it  be- 
came evident  that  the  governments  both  of  France  and-oj 
Spain  were  about  to  take  part  publicly  with  the  revoltei» 
colonieB.    Meanwhde,  on  the  16th  of  October;  the  center 

Y2 


GEO 


164 


GEO 


ivm  of  Saratoga,  and  Iho  sitrrenderof  iJurgoyne,  inflioted 
ilie  ftrst  greot  blow  upon  the  British  cause.    On  Ihe  6th 
February,  1 778,  a  treaty  was  signed  between  the  Americans 
and  France,  in  which  the  independence  of  the  former  was 
acknowledged.  War  between  England  and  France  of  course 
immediately  followed  thi«  act.    In  June,  1779,  Soain  too 
at  last  openly  joined  the  hostile  confederacy ;  ana  before 
the  end  of  another  year  England  had  found  still  another 
enemy  in  Holland.  The  convention  of  the  northern  powers 
of  Russia,  Denmark,  and  Sweden,  (soon  after  joined  by 
Holland,  Prussia*  and  the  Emperor,)  for  the  maintenance 
of  what  was  called  the  armed  neutrality— being  in  fact  a 
defiance  of  the  power  of  Great  Britain  to  enforce  the  com- 
monly recognised  rights  of   belligerents— was  also  esta- 
blished in  the  course  of  the  year  1 780.    At  home  this  was 
the  year  of  the  Protestant  riots,  when  London  was  for 
nearly  a  week  in  the  hands  of  a  devastatmg  mob,  which 
was  not  put  do>\Ti  till  after  a  great  eflusion  of  blood,  as  well 
as  dostmction  of  property.     The  popular  mind  in  Ireland 
moreover  was  iii  a  state  which  occasioned  the  greatest 
alarm ;  the  inhabitants  were  embodied  as  volunteers  to  the 
number  of  fifty  or  sixty  thousand,  and  the  British  parlia- 
ment had  already  in  the  beginning  of  this  year  been  com- 
pelled to  yield  to  some,  and  was  soon  to  be  forced  to  con- 
cede mure,  of  the  demands  of  these  petitioners  with  arms 
in  their  hands. 

Meanwhile  the  nation  was  becomiqg  heartily  tired  of  the 
war;  and  the  ministry,  surrounded  by  so  many  embarrass- 
ments, stood  at  the  lowest  point  of  unpopularity.  These 
feelings  continued  to  increase  in  the  public  mind,  as  new 
failures  and  calamities  further  demonstrated  the  incapacity 
or  the  ill  luck  with  which  the  aitairs  of  the  country  were 
conducted.  Even  in  the  East,  where  the  French  had  at 
the  commencement  of  the  war  been  again  driven  from  all 
their  settlements,  the  successes  of  Hyder  AU  now  seemed 
to  be  fast  changing  the  face  of  affairs.  In  America  the 
surrender  of  Lord  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown,  on  the  19th 
October,  1781,  in  effect  terminated  the  struggle.  Lord 
North  and  his  colleagues  re>i8^ned  on  the  20 th  March, 
1782,  on  which  the  maiquis  of  Rockingham  was  once  more 
placed  at  the  head  of  a  new  ministry :  but  his  death  about 
three  months  after  his  acceptance  of  office  again  overthrew 
all  the  arrangements  that  had  been  made  Lord  Shelburne 
having  succeeded  to  the  place  of  flist  lord  of  the  treasury 
and  premier,  Mr.  Fox  and  all  his  friends  immediately  re- 
sii^ned.  Among  the  new  appointments  was  that  of  Mr. 
Pitt  to  the  oflice  of  chancellor  of  the  exfhequer,  in  the 
room  of  Lord  Geoi*ge  Cavendish.  It  is  said  to  have  been  by 
the  persuasions  of  Loid  Shelburne  that  the  king  was  at  last, 
af\er  extreme  reluctance,  prevailed  upon  to  consent  to  ac- 
knowledge the  independence  of  the  colonies.  The  prelimi- 
naries of  a  peace  were  signed  at  Paris  on  the  basis  of  that 
acknowledgement  on  the  3tith  November ;  and  on  the  3rd 
September,  1783,  the  war,  which  had  resulted  in  so  large  a 
curtailment  of  the  dominions  of  the  British  crown,  was  for- 
mally brought  to  a  close  by  the  signature  of  definitive  trea- 
ties with  America,  France,  and  Spain.  Peace  with  Holland 
was  also  concluded  at  Paris,  20th  June,  1784. 

'  In  the  mean  time  however  the  famous  coalition  between 
the  followers  of  Mr.  Fox  and  of  Lord  North,  parties  which 
had  been  so  long  and  so  bitterly  opposed,  had  succeeded  in 
the  be&^inning  of  April,  1783,  in  driving  Lord  Shelburne 
and  his  friends  from  power.  Lord  North  and  Mr.  Fox  now 
became  secretaries  of  state  together,  with  the  duke  of  Port- 
land as  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  nominal  premier. 
This  arran'^ement  however  was  soon  overthrown.  The  new 
cabinet  was  exposed  from  the  first  to  a  storm  of  public  out- 
cr>',  and  this  greatly  aided  the  determined  efforts  of  the 
crown  to  shake  itself  free  from  a  ministry  that  had  been 
forced  upon  it.  The  only  strength  of  the  coalition  indeed 
lay  in  the  existing  House  of  Commons  The  defeat  of  Mr. 
Fox*s  India  Bill  in  the  House  of  Lords  by  the  private  ex- 
ertion of  the  influence  of  the  crown,  1 7Ui  December,  on 
the  question  of  going  mto  committee,  was  followed  the 
next  day  by  the  dismissal  of  both  Fox  and  North,  and  the 
immediate  appointment  of  a  new  ministry  with  Mr.  Pitt  at 
its  head.  The  contest  of  parties  which  ensued  is  the  most 
memorable  in  the  annals  of  parliament.  It  was  only 
terminated  by  the  dissolution  of  the  parliament  24th 
March,  1 784,  and  the  overwhelmmg  majority  of  supporters 
which  the  result  of  the  elections  gave  to  the  court  and  the 
miniatrv  in  t lie  new  Houae  of  Commons.  Throughout  this 
long  and  violent  struggle,  Mr.  Pitt's  own  firmnen  and  reso- 


lution were  seconded  by  the  steadv  rappArt  of  the  king,  who 
is  said  to  have  openly^ declared  his  determination,  ratber 
than  receive  back  Mr.  Fox  as  minister,  to  resign  his  ero«  n 
and  retire  to  Hanover. 

The  formidable  front  presented  by  the  Irish  volunicen 
in  the  season  of  the  national  difficulties  and  diaorders  ki^'l 
extorted  from  the  British  parliament,  in  1762  and  I7b3,  the 
repeal  of  the  restrictive  statute  of  1720  [Oborob  I.],  and 
the  acknowledgment  (by  tlie  23  Geo.lIU  c.  28)  of  the  rom- 

flete  independence  of  the  parliament  of  Ii^land.  Both  in 
reland  and  in  England  the  agitation  of  the  quest um  of 
parliamentary  reform  occupied  public  attention  for  aontc 
time  after  the  conclusion  of  the  war ;  but  it  was  productive 
of  no  results.  On  the  2nd  of  August,  1 786,  an  attempt  «  a> 
made  upon  the  king's  life  by  a  mad  woman  named  Mar* 
garet  NicoUon,  who  struck  at  him  with  a  knife  as  he  wcl« 
alighting  from  his  carriage  at  St.  Jameses,  but  mis)>ed  ht  t 
aim.  Ill  November,  1788,  his  majesty  was  visited  ^illi  » 
second  and  more  serious  attack  of  illness,  which  va*  u  ,- 
mitted  to  be  deliiium,  and  from  which  he  did  not  reco\  t  r 
till  the  following  March.  On  this  occasion  Mr.  Fox  atui 
his  friends  contended  that  the  powers  of  the  govern- 
ment devolved  as  of  right  upon  the  Prince  of  WhU-*  ; 
but  parliament  stood  by  Mr.  Pitt  in  his  opposition  to  tli..t 
doctrine,  and  a  bill  conferring  the  regency  upon  the  prince  w :  i  n 
certain  restrictions  had  nearly  passed  both  houses  wlicn  ti.i 
king  recovered.  The  parliament  of  Ireland  in  themeon  tir  .i- 
had  made  use  of  their  lately  acquired  independence  to  «>C('r 
the  prince  the  government  of  that  kingdom,  without  any  re- 
strictions. As  the  prince  had  attached  himself  to  the  par  i  % 
of  which  Mr.  Fox  was  the  head,  expectations  of  imporu.t 
political  changes  were  excited  by  the  prospect  of  hia  iu\^ 
highness  becoming  the  head  of  the  state. 

The  quiet  which  had  for  some  years  reigned  in  Eur;"* 
was  broken  m   1 789,  by  what  soon  became    the  all  .« • 
sorbin^   subject  of  interest,   the  Revolution  in   Frar^v. 
The  history  of  the  remainder'  of  the  reign  is  chietly  t    \ 
of  the  share  borne  by  England  in  the  wars  which  ^**  -« 
out  of  that  great  convulsion.     Whatever  may  have  be<*n  r  i  • 
inclination  of  the  court,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Mr.  i'.i; 
was  reluctantly  drawn  into  the  war  with  France.    The  *.■:- 
mand  however  that  the  country  should  take  up  arms  1 1« 
loudly  made  by  the  large  section  of  the  whig  body,  w  b.«  li. 
with  Mr.  Burke  for  its  soul,  went  over  to  the  ministry 
1792  and  1793;  and  this  was  also  decidedly  the  genrrt 
voice  of  the  country.    In  point  of  fact,  war  was  at  la^^t  dt  - 
clared,  not  by  England  but  by  France,  1st  February,  \:\ 
a  few  days  after  the  execution  of  the  French  king. 

The  general  course  of  the  war,  almost  from  its  coDunent-x- 
ment  to  its  close,  has  already  been  sketched  in  the  artu.>> 
BoNAPARTB.    We  shall  here  merely  enumerate  in  tlvrir 
chronological  order  the  principal  events  more  immediate  * 
belonging  to  English  history.    Conventions  were  imuu*  i.- 
ately  made  for  carrying  on  operations  against  France  u  '^ 
Naples.  Saidinia,  Prussia,  the  Emperor,  Hesse-Cossel,  Bait:    . 
H  esse- Darmstadt,  Brunswick,  and  by  George  III.  with  h)  m^t  .f 
in  his  capacity  of  Elector  of  Hanover.    A  treaty  of  mu:    .. 
alliance  with  Holland  already  subsisted.    Spain  and  P*  > 
tugal  also  immediatelv  became  parties  to  the  war.     Fin.i.  • 
Russia  still  professed  to  adhere  to  the  combination  ac*tt'.«'. 
France,  though  the  real  object  of  tlie  Empress  Cuthcr...- 
was  merely  the  partition  of  Poland,  which  she  soon  at..r 
eflected  in  association  with  Austria  and  Prussia.    The  tl.^t 
military  measure  of  the  British  government  was  lo  Mtn<  i 
force  to  Holland  under  the  command  of  the  duke  of  Vc.i^. 
In  the  campaign  of  1793  the  French  were  ex|  elled  fu^si 
Flanders  by  the  Austrians;  and  the  allied  army  undot  t.  • 
prince  of  Saxe-Coburg  and  the  duke  of  York  took  \  aU«- 
ciennes  and  Conde.    The  duke  however  was  afterwards  re- 
pulsed with  great  loss  in  an  attempt  upon  Dunkirk.  TouI^m 
was  taken  possession  of  by  I^rd  Hood,  but  speedily  recovcrf  : 
by  the  French.    In  1794  the  French  fleet  was  sienally  tltw 
feated  by  Lord  Howe  in  the  Channel  on  the  1st  of  J  um* .  ( ;  •• 
English  also  became  masters  of  Corsica.  In  1795  the  t^Uu-i^ 
of  Martinique,  St.  Lucia,  and  Guadaloupe  in  the  \>'^i 
Indies,  were  taken  from  the  French:  Guadaloupe  howc^^r 
was  soon  after  retaken.  The  people  of  Holland  now  drtiw  k\.', 
the  stadtholder,  and  with  the  assistance  of  the  Fr«Drh  c^:. 
blished  what  was  called  the  Batavian  Republic ;  on  th.>  ii<* 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Ceylon,  and  other  Dutch  posae^Aior.^  ... 
tlie  East  Indies  were  seised  by  Bnghind.     Peace  was  uu  w 
with  Franco  by  Prussia,  5th  ApnL  and  by  Spain,  2'Jnd  J 
July.    In  1796  the  English  wero  compelied  to  wiihdimw 


GEO 


165 


GEO 


from  Corsica ;  on  the  5th  of  Oetobor  Spain  declared  'war 
against  England;  in  the  latter  part  of  the  same  month 
an  ineffective  attempt  was  made  to  open  negotiations  for 
peace  by  the  mission  of  Lord  Malmesbury  to  Fsris;  in 
I>ecember  an  attempt  of  the  French  to  make  a  descent 
upon  Ireland  was  dereated  by  a  storm  which  dispersed  the 
invading  fleet,  having  a  force  of  15,000  men  on  board,  only 
two  ships  readiing  the  neighhonrhood  of  Bantrj^  Bav,  which 
they  left  in  a  few  days.  The  military  events  in  which  the 
British  arms  were  concerned  in  1 797  were,  the  defeat  of  the 
Spanish  tieet  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  by  Sir  John  Jervts,  14th 
F«>bruary;  the  capture  tnym  the  Spaniards  of  Trinidaid, 
Porto  Rico,  and  Teneriffe ;  and  the  great  victory  obtained  by 
lx>rd  Duncan  over  the  Datch  fleet  off  Camperdown,  11th 
October.  Peace  with  France  having  been  made  by  Austria  in 
April,  another  attempt  at  negotiation  was  made  by  the 
Kimlish  government  in  the  course  of  the  following  summer, 
JL«>rd  Malmesbury  having  been  sent  to  meet  the  French 
plenipotentiaries  at  Lisle ;  but  it  ended  in  nothing.  This 
was  also  the  year  of  tlie  suspension  of  cash-payments  by 
the  Bank  of  England,  27th  of  February^and  of  the  mutiny 
III  the  fleet  at  Spitbead  in  April,  and  at  the  Nore  in  June. 
The  great  domestic  event  of  1 798  was  the  rebellion  in  Ire* 
land,*  organized  by  the  society  of  United  Irishmen,  which 
broke  out  in  the  end  of  May,  and  was  not  finally  supprened 
till  the  end  of  September.  A  small  French  force  landed 
at  Killala  on  the  22nd  of  August,  and  penetrated  a  consider^ 
able  way  into  Connaught,  but  surrendered  after  a  sharp  con- 
test to  a  detachment  of  the  army  of  Lord  Comwallis,  on  the 
1 1  th  of  September.  On  the  Ist  of  August  this  year  Nelson 
gained  his  great  victory  of  the  Nile.  In  1799  a  new  con- 
federacy having  been  formed  against  France,  to  which  Aus- 
tria, Russia,  Naples,  and  Turkey  were  parties,  an  Bnglish 
army  was  sent  to  the  Netherlands  under  the  command  of 
the  Duke  of  York,  but  it  was  soon  compelled  to  evacuate 
the  country.  On  the  4th  of  May,  Tippoo  Saib,  the  Sultan 
of  Mysore,  who  had  entered  into  alliance  with  the  French, 
was  defeated  and  killed,  and  his  capital  of  Seringapatam 
taken  by  Sir  David  Baird,  on  which  the  greater  part  of  his 
dominions  was  added  to  the  English  territory.  In  August 
Surinam  was  taken  from  the  Dutch,  whose  ships  of  war 
also  in  the  course  of  this  year  almost  all  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  English.  Minorca  and  Malta  were  taken  by  the  Eng- 
lish in  the  course  of  the  year  1800. 

Notwithstanding  these  and  other  partial  successes  how- 
e\er,  the  heavy  pecuniary  exactions  of  the  war,  together 
with  its  evident  failure  in  so  fbr  as  respected  an  advance 
towards  the  attainment  of  any  intelligible  ultimate  object, 
and  the  steady  progress  of  the  French  arm»  in  the  suoju- 
gat  ion  of  the  Uontinent,  had  now  wearied  and  worn  out  the 
enthusiasm  even  of  the  greater  number  of  those  who  had 
been  originally  its  most  ardent  supporters.    By  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  nation  the  contest  had  come  to  be  regarded 
with  feelings  of  the  bitterest  aversion.  The  inflamed  temper 
of  the  populace,  excited  in  part  by  the  notion  which  very 
gpnoraliy  possessed  them,  that  the  real  object  of  the  war  in 
>»hich  the  country  was  engaged  was  the  repression  of  de- 
mocracy and  liberty  both  at  home  and  abroad,  had,  among 
oiber  excesses,  led  to  an  attack  upon  the  king  by  the  mob 
as  he  passed  through  the  park  in  going  to  and  returning 
from  the  House  of  Lords  at  the  opening  of  the  session  of 
parliament  on  the   29th  October,    1795.     The    feelings 
iiowever  which  vented  themselves  in  this  manner  were 
never  participated  in  by  any  considerable  portion  of  the 
community;    the  sentiment  of  the  ereat  majority  of  all 
chsscs  of  the  nation  was  certainly,  throughout  the  rei^n, 
one  of  kindness  and  respect  towards  his  majesty,  with 
which,  in  most  cases,  even  strong  political  dissent  from 
the   general  course  of  his  government    did   not  much 
interfere.    The  affection  that  was  entertained  for  the  king 
por^ually  was  remarkably  shown  by  the  numerous  ad> 
dresites  of  congratuhition  that  were  presented  from  all  parts 
of  the  kingdom  on  his  escape  from  the  attempt  of  a  maniac 
named  Hatfield,  by  whom  he  was  fired  at  with  a  pistol 
from  the  pit  of  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  on  the  i5th  May,  1800. 
In  ibe  spring  of  1801  his  majesty  had  another  slight  attack 
of  his  mental  malady. 

The  important  measure  of  the  union  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  was  after  many  difficulties  at  last  effected  in 
1 800.  This  event  led,  in  March,  1 80 1,  to  the  resignation  of 
Mr.  Pitt,  who  now  considerad  himself  nledged  to  the  removal 
of  the  Ooholic  disabilitiesv  to  whicn  however  the  king 
firmly  refined  hii  aisent    A  ntw  mimstiy  wm  in  conse- 


quence constructed,  with  the  Rt  Hon.  Henry  Addington 
(afterwards  Lord  Sidmouth)  at  its  head.  Immediately 
beibre  these  events  a  rupture  had  taken  place  with  Russia, 
and  that  power  had  united  with  Sweden  and  Denmark  in 
the  establishment  of  a  new  armed  neutrality.  The  death 
of  the  Emperor  Paul  however  soon  led  to  a  reconciliation 
between  England  and  the  three  northern  kingdoms.  Mean- 
while, on  the  2nd  April,  Copenhagen  was  bombarded,  and 
the  Danish  fleet  partly  taken,  partly  destroyed,  by  Nelson. 
In  the  East  also,  this  year,  the  victory  of  Alexandria  was 

g lined  ovor  the  French,  with  the  loss  of  the  gallant 
ir  Ralph  Abereromby,  on  the  21st  March;  and  on  the 
2nd  September,  Alexandria  surrendered  to  Lord  Hutchin- 
son, and  the  French  were  compelled  to  evacuate  Egypt. 
In  the  beginning  of  October  it  was  unexpectedly  announced 
that  negotiations  which  had  been  for  some  time  in  progress 
had  terminated  in  the  signature  of  the  preliminaries  of  a 
general  peace.  This  news  was  received  with  universal 
satisfaction  and  rejoicing.  The  definitive  treaty  of  peace 
was  signed  at  Amiens,  25th  March,  1 802. 

Within  a  year  however  hostilities  were  renewed.  The 
course  of  the  war  from  this  period  must  he  fresh  in  the  re- 
collection of  many  of  our  readers ;  we  need  only  notice  as 
its  most  remarkable  occurrences,  in  so  far  as  this  country 
was  concerned,  the  occupation  of  Hanover  by  the  French, 
in  1 803 ;  the  declaration  of  war  by  Spain,  in  December, 
1804;  the  threatened  invasion  by  France,  and  Nelson^s 
glorious  victory  of  Trafalgar,  in  1 805 ;  the  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  negotiate  a  peace,  the  capture  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  by  England,  and  Bonaparte's  Berlin  Decree 
[Blockade]  of  1 806 ;  the  seizure  of  the  Danish  fleet  and 
the  capture  and  subsequent  evacuation  of  Buenos  Ayres,  in 
1807;  the  insurrection  in  Spain,  the  alliance  entered  into 
with  that  country,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from 
Portugal,  m  1808 ;  the  long  contest  begun  in  that  year, 
which  eventually  achieved  the  liberation  of  the  peninsula ; 
the  war  with  America,  in  1812 ;  the  treaty  with  Russia,  in 
that  year ;  the  treaties  with  Sweden  and  Austria,  and  the 
expulsion  of  th«  French  from  Hanover,  in  1813 ;  the  peace 
with  Denmark,  in  January,  1814 ;  the  surrender  of  Paris  to 
the  allies,  in  March ;  the  abdication  of  Bonaparte  and  resto- 
ration of  the  Bourbons ;  the  peace  with  America,  signed  at 
Ghent,  in  December;  the  return  of  Bonaparte  from  Elba, 
in  March,  1815;  and  finally,  the  victc:7  of  Waterloo,  in 
June  following,  which  put  an  end  to  the  war. 

Of  the  public  events  which  occurred  within  the  kingdom 
during  this  period  the  most  remarkable  were : — the  return 
of  the  king's  illness  for  a  few  weeks  in  February,  1804 ;  the 
restoration  of  Mr.  Pitt  to  power,  in  May  of  that  year ;  the 
death  of  Mr.  Pitt,  23rd  January,  1806 ;  the  accession  of  the 
ministry  of  Mr.  Fox  and  Lord  Granville ;  the  death  of 
Mr.  Fox,  13th  September ;  the  dissolution  of  the  Grenville 
administration,  in  March,  1807,  in  consequence  of  the  king 
refusing  his  assent  to  their  proposed  measures  for  the  relief 
of  the  Roman  Catholics ;  the  formation  of  a  new  cabinet 
under  the  duke  of  Portland  and  Mr.  Percival ;  the  resigna- 
tion of  the  command  of  the  army  by  the  duke  of  .York,  in 
Marsh,  1809,  in  consequence  of  the  result  of  an  investigation 
on  charges  of  corrupt  practices  (of  which  however  it  appeared 
that  the  profits  were  reaped,  not  by  the  duke^  but  by  his 
mistress,  the  notorious  Mrs.  Clarke) ;  the  celebration,  on 
the  25th  October,  that  year,  of  the  Jubilee,  on  the  occur* 
renoe  of  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  his  majesty's  accession ; 
the  commencement  of  the  final  insanity  of  the  king,  in  the 
end  of  October,  1810;  the  consequent  appointment,  by  act 
of  parliament,  of  the  prince  of  Wales  as  regent,  in  February, 
1811 ;  the  assassination  of  Mr.  Percival,  Uth  May,  1812 ; 
and  the  appointment  of  the  earl  of  Liverpool  as  premier. 
The  ministry  of  Lord  Liverpool  lasted  during  the  remainder 
of  the  reign.  The  king  continued  in  the  same  state  of 
mental  incapacity  into  wmch  he  had  fallen,  till  his  death  at 
Windsor  Castle  on  the  night  of  Saturday,  the  29th  Januar}*, 
1820,  in  the  eighty-second  year  of  his  age  and  the  sixtieth 
of  his  reign.  He  had  been  entirely  blind  for  some  years 
before  his  death. 

For  an  enumeration  of  the  children  of  George  III.  and 
Queen  Charlotte  (who  died  at  Kew,  17th  November,  1818) 
we  r^r  to  any  of  the  Almanacs  or  Peerages.  They  were 
fifteen  in  all,  namely,  nine  sons  (of  whom  two,  George,  his 
successor,  and  WilUam,  have  already  reigned,  and  three 
are  still  living),  and  six  daughters,  four  of  whom  are 

living. 
On  the  fuljectof  the  characler*  moral  and  intellectual, of 


GEO 


166 


GEO 


George  III.  there  is  probably  now  not  modi  dlffsienee  of 
opinion.  He  had  no  pretensions  to  an?  superior  penetra- 
tion or  vigour  of  understanding,  but  he  possessea  rather 
more  than  the  ordinary  endowment  of  practical  tact  and 
skill  in  the  management  both  of  afiairs  and  of  men.  He 
was  perfectly  master  of  all  the  proprieties  of  his  station, 
which  never,  at  least  on  important  occasions,  lost  any  of  ita 
respectability  or  authority  during  his  oeeupatioB  of  it.  His 
firmness  or  tenacity  of  purpose  was  such  as  usually  to  defeat 
in  the  end  any  attempt  that  was  made  to  thwart  hit  wishes 
in  the  movements  of  domestic  politics,  and  indeed  it  was  ge- 
nerally believed  that  the  royal  spirit  of  deteiminatioa 
or  obstinacy  had  a  considerable  share  in  prolonging  more 
than  one  of  the  great  public  eoutesta  in  which  the  country 
was  involved  during  this  reign,  after  all  reasonable  hope  of 
success  had  vanished.  But  it  has  generally  been  admitted 
that  the  persistency  of  George  III.,  however  roisUken  or 
unfortunate,  was  for  the  most  {Mirt  conscientious— in  other 
words,  that  he  firmly  believed  himself  to  be  in  the  right  even 
in  those  cases  in  which  he  was  possibly  most  in  the  wrong. 
The  credit  that  was  given  to  him  upon  this  point  operated 
with  a  powerfully  favourable  effect  not  only  upon  the  esti- 
mation in  which  he  waii  personally  held,  but  in  obtaining 
support  to  the  measures  of  his  government  The  decorum 
of  his  private  conduct  also  was  of  much  service  to  him,  as 
well  as  probably  efficarious  in  no  slight  degree  in  giving  a 
higher  tone  to  the  public  manners  and  in  making  the  do- 
mestic virtues  fashionable  even  in  the  circles  where  they 
are  most  apt  to  be  treated  with  neglect.  It  ought  not  more- 
over to  be  omitted,  that,  with  whatever  narrowness  of  view 
consequent  upon  his  training  and  his  position  George  III. 
may  be  chargeable,  he  was — ^what  many  influential  persons 
of  his  time  were  not— an  avowed  friend  to  the  diffusion  of 
education,  and  certainly  was  not  afinaid  that  his  subjects 
would  be  made  either  more  difficult  to  govern  or  worse  in 
any  other  respect,  by  all  classes  and  every  individual  of 
them  being  taught  to  read  and  to  write. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe  that  over  all  our 
Western  world,  and  nowhere  more  than  in  Bngland,  the 
period  forming  the  reign  of  Greorge  III.  is  perhaps  to  be 
placed  above  every  other  of  the  same  length  in  modern 
nistory  for  the  multitude  and  vastness  both  of  the  social 
changes  and  of  the  accessions  to  almost  every  department  of 
human  knowledge  by  which  it  has  been  signalized.  It  is 
worth  remarking  however  that  even  the  political  confusion 
and  univeml  wars  of  the  latter  half  of  tne  period  did  not 
prevent  that  space  flrom  being  at  least  as  productive  of  va- 
luable inventions  and  discoveries,  and  as  oistinguished  fbr 
the  busy  and  successful  cultivation  of  every  branch  of 
science  and  literature,  as  the  quieter  time  that  preceded. 

Very  great  changes  took  place  in  the  extent  of  the  British 
dominions  during  the  reign  of  Greorge  III.  Ireland  ceased 
to  be  a  5eparate  kine;dom— Hanover  was  lost  and  recovered 
— Canada  was  added  to  our  colonies-— our  other  and  much 
more  important  possessions  on  the  North  American  conti- 
nent were  severed  from  us — ^a  new  empire,  immense  in  its 
extent  and  population,  was  acquired  in  India.  On  the 
whole,  notwithstanding  the  loss  of  the  American  colonies, 
the  power  and  influence  of  the  state  were  undoubtedly 
much  {greater  at  the  close  of  the  reign  than  they  were  at  ita 
commencement  Of  the  commerce  and  wealth  of  the 
country  it  would  be  more  correct  to  say  that  they  wera  mul- 
tiplied during  this  period  than  simply  that  they  were  in- 
creased. No  financial  operations  were  ever  effected  or  un- 
dertaken or  dreamt  of  in  any  other  time  or  country  ap- 
proaching to  the  gigantic  magnitude  of  those  accomplished 
by  the  Hritish  government  in  the  closing  years  of  the  late 
war.  The  revenue  raised  by  taxation  at  the  beginning  of 
t lie  reign  was  under  nine  millions ;  it  did  not  reach  ten 
millions  till  the  year  1773;  in  1780  it  had  increased  to 
somewhat  above  twelve  millions;  in  1786  it  was  fifteen 
millions  ;  in  1793,  at  the  commencement  of  the  war  with 
France,  it  wus  seventeen  millions.  After  this  new  taxes 
were  imposed  to  a  considerable  amount,  so  that  the  entire 
revenue  raided  in  1800  exceeded  thirty-four  millions.*  From 

•  Wi>  take  ihii  Intt  lum  and  tboM  that  follow  fhim  tlie'  Offlcfkl  Tables*  of 
the  Ko.trH  of  Tr-tde,  piirt  iii..  p.  I.  But  the  dtTeratty  of  Mulement  unong  the 
several  autborilica  on  three  subjeeu  ii  verv  nvat'  Aecordinir  |o  Str  loha 
Sinclair '  '  Iliattiry  of  ihe  Public  RcTcuiie,'  3rd  edit  il.  132.  13j)  the  produce 
of  the  old  nad  uev  taxes  for  ISOO  wa«  only  a  lltUf  ajbtrn  S6  mtllions.  Colqti- 
houu  ('  Wraith,  he.  of  the  Britieh  Knipira/  p.  iSS)  makea  tke  anouol  bslweea 
39  and  JO  milUuos.  llieee  two  atatomeDte  will  iMaily  agre*  with  each  other, 
aad  alfo  with  that  «irila«pherson(*  AnoaU  of  Commeree/  It.,  506, 909),if  w« 
■oppoMtho  rtftnni  of  Irtluut  to  bo  owladtd  from  tko  Snt  ud  iadodod  m 


datie  it  eominaed  to  riae  every  year,  till,  u  iai5,  it 
amounled  to  the  immense  sum  of  78,2 10,51 2i.  In  the  •«««.  a 
years  from  1810  to  1816  inclusive,  about  472,000.00  < /. 
were  raised  by  taxes  alone,  beinfl;  on  an  avera^ie  abovo 
67,000,000/.  per  annum.  In  1819,  the  last  year  of  the  reit^n, 
the  sum  thus  raised  was  still  nearly  53,000,000/.  The  »uuij 
raued  by  loans  were,  to  the  end  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  u. 
1763,  about  32  millions;  during  the  American  war  (i77^- 
1784)  above  121,000,000/.;  and  durinethe  last  war  w»th 
Franee  (1793-181 5)  above  609,000,000/.  In  the  year  lb  I  t. 
the  total  amount  borrowed  was  52  millions  fUnded,  ai»a 
abow  55i  unfunded,  maldne,  with  the  produce  of  the  t&xut, 
the  total  payments  into  the  Exchequer  for  that  jear 
107,597,660/.,  being  at  the  enormous  rate  of  above  two  nit4- 
lions  weekly.  The  national  debt,  which  at  the  oommeni^e- 
mentof  the  reign  was  about  108,000,000/.,  on  which  «ai 
paid  an  annual  interest  of  not  quite  4,000,000/.,  had  in- 
creased bv  the  end  of  the  reign  to  above  800,000,000/.  vf 
principal,  bearing  an  interest  of  more  than  30,000,000/. 

The  collection  of  the  Statutes  passed  in  the  reign  wi 
George  III.  is  nearly  four  times  as  large  as  that  of  lUe 
whole  mass  of  preceding  English  legislation  from  the  Coi.- 
quest.  We  can  only  here  mention,  as  having  moat  of  a  pt>- 
pular  or  historical  interest,  ~  the  Act  of  1 761,  continuing  tti- 
commissions  of  the  judges  notwithstanding  any  demtM'  « C 
the  crown— the  Royal  Marriage  Act  already  noticed — luc 
GrenviUe  act  of  1770  (amended  in  1788)  for  the  settlenic.i 
of  disputed  elections  of  members  of  tlie  House  of  0>miu>i .  ^ 
— the  act  of  1782,  disqualifying  revenue  officers  from  \ui.i  i 
at  elections,  and  government  contractors  from  MtttuL:  i.. 
the  house — ^the  act  of  1792  (commonly  called  Fox*s  Li  • 
Law),  declaring  the  right  of  juries  to  judge  of  the  law  a*>  a  •  i> 
as  of  the  fact  in  cases  of  libel — the  act  of  1801,  excluil  .,, 
clergymen  from  the  House  of  Commons — the  act  t»f  i^*-'. 
abolishing  the  Slave  Trade— Sir  Samuel  Romilly*s  act»  .  f 
1811  and  1818,  for  the  amelioration  of  the  criminal  Uvi  ~ 
the'actof  1813,  abolishing  the  penalties  and  incapacities  u* 
which  Unitarians  were  formerlv  subjected — the  act  of  le .  •. 
abolishing  the  appeal  of  battle  in  cases  of  murder— il<' 
foreign  enlistment  act,  of  the  same  year--and  the  acts  ..;' 
that  year,  for  the  suppression  of  blasphemy  and  seditiv.i. 
commonly  called  the  Six  Acts. 

GEORGE  (AUGUSTUS  FREDERICK)  IV.,  king  i 
Great  Britain,  the  eldest  son  of  George  III.,  was  bom  I  .lu 
August  1762,  exactly  48  years  (making  allowance  for  ti.*.- 
difference  of  style)  after  the  accession  of  the  House  ofHoji.i- 
ver.  On  the  17th  he  was  created  by  letters  patent  pnun' 
of  Wales  and  earl  of  Chester,  and  was  baptized  the  ni\i 
day.  He  was  made  a  knight  of  the  garter,  26th  Decern  tur. 
1765,  and  a  few  months  afterwards  was  appointed  b>  4. 
king's  letter,  addressed  to  the  lord  mayor,  captain -gene... I 
of  the  Honourable  Artillery  Companv  of  the  city  of  LontUi'i. 
The  prince  of  Wales  was  educated  along  with  his  next  bro- 
ther Prince  Frederick,  bishop  of  Osnaburg(afWrwanU  duke 
of  York)  in  great  privacy,  and  on  a  system  of  strict  dis.  i. 
pline. 

In  Annl,  1771,  Lord  Holdemesse  was  appointed  goNcr- 
nor;   Mr.  Smelt,  sub-governor;  Dr.  Markham,  bi»b^»i»  of 
Chester  (afterwards  archbi^thop  of  York),  preceptor,  and  Mr 
(afterwards  Dr.)  Cvril  Jackson,  sub-preceptor  to  the  tv^  * 
princes.    In  1776  however  all  these  persons  suddenU  r*  • 
signed  their  offices,  for  some  cause  which  has  never  U «  : 
satisfactorily  explained.    The  common  account  is,  ihut  \U*-i 
found  some  political  works  which  they  considered  u( . 
tionable  put  into  the  hands  of  the  boys' by  tlie  direct  kiii<s 
the  king.    Their  successors  were,   for  the  ^st  few  da 
Lord  Bruce  (immediately  afterwards  created  earl  of  A >  li « 
bury),  and  then  the  Duke  of  Moutague,  as  governor ;  I «  >. 
tenant-colonel  Hothamas  sub-eovemor ;  Dr.  Hurd«  l>t»l.  ;• 
of  Lichfield  and  Coventry  (afterwards  of  W*on:e!»tei>,  a- 
preceptor  ;  and  the  Rev.  William  Arnold,  as  sub-precep:  r 
The  prince,  notwithstanding  murmurs  and  remonstnii  i-« 
of  which  notice  bugan  to  be  taken  in  the  public  pnntii.  w  :% 
kept  by  his  father  in  a  state  of  unmitigated  pupilage  t 
he  was  nearly  eighteen,  his  seclusion  being  dividiAl  bciuc 
Buckingliam  House,  Kew,  and  Windsor.    It  was  nut   . 
the  year  1760  that  the  princes  began  to  appear  muc  b 
public.     From  this  time  the  life  of  the  prince  of  Walon  t .. 
many  years  belungs  for  the  most  part  to  the  Chr*tt:*^L 
Scandaletue    but  among  the  various  persons  of  both  »cv  ^ 
with  whom  he  was  connected,  there  are  a  few  nauic»  ii  •! 
may  be  said  to  have  already  become  hutoric,  and  th^; 
not  altogether  be  rawed  over.    The  first  of  his  mau)  « <  u 


«  4 


,  i   •* 


ll.t 


.it 


II.- 


GBO 


147 


GEO 


nexioi»  of  a  similar  natare  that  beeama  notonous  was  witfa 
Mrs.  Mary  Robinson,  then  an  actress  and  the  wife  of  an 
attorney.  This  lady  (whose  maiden  name  was  Darby,  whose 
early  years  were  superintended  by  Mrs.  Hannah  More,  who 
in  the  latter  part  of  her  life  became  the  mistress  of  Golonel 
Tarleton,  and  died  at  Englefteld  Oreen,  at  the  ageof  forty-two, 
in  I8O0,  after  having  made  herself  well  known  byhernorels 
and  verses,  as  well  as  by  her  adventures)  has  told  her  own 
story  in  her  own  way  in  her  *  Memoirs,'  published  after  her 
death  by  her  daughter.  She  was  Ibur  years  older  than  the 
prince,  and  already  of  damaged  reputation,  when  she 
first  caught  his  attention,  in  1780,  while  acUng  Perdita 
m  the  «  Winter's  Tale ;'  her  influence  lasted  for  not  quite 
two  yearn. 

In  December,  1780,   on  the  departure  of  the  bishop 
of  Osnabnrg  for  Germany,  where  ne  remained  for  seven 
years,  a  separate  establishment  on  a  small  scale  was  formed 
for  the  prince;  and  having  now  become  legally  his  own 
master,  he  was  fipom  this  time  much  in  the  public  eye.    It 
was  now  that  he  entered  upon  his  intimacy  with  Charles 
Fox,  Sheridan,  and  other  leaders  of  the  whig  party,  who 
happened  aeoidentally  to  be  also  among  the  most  distin- 
guished patrons  of  the  fashionable  gaiety  and  licence  of  the 
day :  one  of  the  persons  also  with  whom  he  formed  the 
closest  ftiendship  about  this  time  was  the  afterwards  noto- 
rious duke  of  Orleans,  then  styled  the  Due  de  Chartres,  who 
paid  long  visits  to  London  in  1783,  and  several  following 
years.     With  these  associates  the  prince  indulged  without 
restraint  his  propensities  for  gamblings  horseracing,  and 
other  kinds  of  extravagance  and  dissipation.      He  also 
adopted  warmly  and  openly  the  politics  of  his  whig  compa- 
nions, and  this  at  once  placed  him  in  direct  opposition  to 
his  fother's    government     In  April,  1783,  however,  his 
friends,  under  the  name  of  the  Coalition  Ministry,  forced 
themselves  into  power,  and  on  the  opening  of  parliament, 
on  the   nth  of  November  following,  the  prince  of  Wales 
was  introduced  with  great  ceremony  into  the  House  of 
Lords  as  Duke  of  Cornwall,  and  took  his  place  among  the 
supporters  of  the  new  administration.    They  had,  imme- 
diately after  entering  upon  their  places,  laid  before  the  king 
the  claims  of  the  prince  for  an  augmented  establishment 
and  allowance.    The  ministers  demanded  100,000/.  a  year, 
but  the  king  would  not  consent  to  more  than  50,000/ ,  with 
an  allowance  of  60,000/.  as  an  outfit :  the  prince  had  be- 
sides about  14,000/.  a  year  as  Duke  of  Cornwall.    At  the 
^waae  time  Carlton  House  was  assigned  to  him  as  a  resi- 
dence.   Ho  stood  by  his  friends  on  their  expulsion  a  few 
months  afl«rwards,  notwithstanding  some  endeavours,  it  is 
^id,  on  the  part  of  his  fother  to  detach  him,  and  took  'an 
active  part  in  the  private  movements  that  were  entered  into 
without  success  for  their  reinstatement.    In  1786  the  sub- 
ject of  the  prince's  pecuniary  embarrassments,  which  had 
become  extremely  pressing,  was  first  mentioned  in  ihe 
House  of  Oimmons  by  his  friend  Sheridan,  and  this  led  to 
a  negotiation  with  the  king,  who  however,  after  keeping 
expectation  in  suspense  for  some  time,  finally  reflised  to 
sanction  aoiy  measures  of  relief    In  these  circumstances 
theprinoo  resolved  to  break  up  his  establishment,  and  to 
limit  his  expenditure  to  5000/.  a  year,  reserving  the  rest  of 
his  income  for  the  payment  of  his  debts.    It  was  a  short 
time  before  this  that  he  had  formed  the  most  celebrated 
and  lasting  of  hus  fomale  attachments.    Mrs.  Fitzherbert, 
whose  maiden  name  was  Smith,  was  the  daughter  of  a  Catho- 
lic {gentleman  of  Shropshire,  and  had  been  married  first  to 
Mr.  Weld  of  Lul worth  Castle,  and  secondly  to  Colonel  Fitzher- 
bert, who  also  died  within  a  vear  after  their  marriage.    She 
^  still  young  and  beautifm  when  the  prince  first  saw  her, 
tn  1781 ;  he  immediately  declared  hispassion,  on  which  she 
Went  to  the  Continent,  it  is  said,  to  avoid  his  importunities ; 
l>ut  she  returned  in  1784,  and  soon  after  their  connexion 
became  generally  known.    All  the  circumstances  of  this 
affair  have  never  been  distinctly  made  public ;  but  it  would 
3]>pcar  that  Mrs.  Fitzherbert  considered  herself  as  united  to 
the  Prince  by  marriage,  and  that  this  assumption  was  ge- 
nnally  recognised  by  society,  in  which  she  certainly  re- 
tained her  place  tiU  her  death,  only  a  few  years  ago  ;  even 
the  subseouent  marriage  of  the  prince  with  another  person 
not  being  neld,  it  seems,  to  afiect  her  pretensions,  any  more 
than  the  royal  marriage  act,  according  to  which  his  marriage 
^ith  her,  in  whatever  circumstances  it  took  place,  could 
not  have  been  legal.    But  the  point  which  occasioned  the 
gnMitest  public  outcry  was  the  foct  of  Mrs.  Fitzherbert  being 
a  Catholic,  and,  as  such»  a  person  by  marrying  whom  the 


prinee-bv  the  Aat  of  SettSement  would  have  beeorae  inea- 
pacitatea  to  inherit  the  crown.  The  state  of  the  prince's  pe 
cuniary  affairs  was  again  brought  before  parliament  in 
April,  1787»by  Alderman  Newnmim,  one  of  the  members 
for  London ;  and  on  this  occasion  Mr.  Fox  came  down  to  the 
house,  and»  on  the  express  authority  of  the  prince,  charac- 
terized the  supposed  marriage  with  Mrs.  Fitzherbert  as  a 
thing  which  not  only  had  not  happened,  but  which  was  even 
impoasible  to  have  happened*    To  a  farther  question  he 
answered, '  That  he  denied  the  calumny  as  false  in  toto,  in 
every  sense  of  fact  as  well  as  law :'  he  added  that  he  spoke 
from  direet  authority.  There  can  be  no  question  that  Mr.  Fox 
,  had  been  made  to  believe  that  not  even  any  ceremony  of  mar- 
rii^  had  ever  been  performed.   It  is  said  that  Mrs.  Fitzher- 
bert, upon  learning  what  had  taken  place,  insisted,  as  the  con- 
dition on  which  she  would  consent  again  to  see  the  prince^ 
that  Mr.  Fox's  declaration  should  be  as  publicly  andauthori 
tatively  retracted  as  it  had  been  made  :  but  it  was  found,  afrer 
some  attempts,  that  this  could  not  be  managed ;  and  the 
lady  soon  afterwards  yielded  the  point.    She  would  never 
however  speak  to  Mr.  Fox  again,  who  also  complained 
strongly  of  the  equivocating  manner  in  which  the  prince 
expressed  himself  on  the  subject    The  intimacy  between 
the  prince  and  Mrs.  Fitzherbert  continued  without  inter- 
ruption till  the  summer  of  1794;  it  was  then  suddenly 
broken  off,  but  was  a  few  years  afterwards  renewed. 

The  further  parliamentary  agitation  of  the  prince's  pecu- 
niary difficulties  in  1787  was  prevented  by  the  king  at  last 
giving  his  consent  to  a  grant  of  160,000/.  for  the  payment  of 
his  son's  debts,  and  of  20,000/.  for  completing  the  repairs  of 
Carlton  House.    Both  these  sums  were  greatly  inadequate,  * 
but  the  arrangement  afforded  some  relief  for  the  moment; 
and  enabled  the  prince  to  resume  his  former  state  and 
habits  of  life.    The  king's  illness,  in  the  close  of  the  year 
1 788,  and  the  proceedings  that  took  place  in  regard  to  the 
proposed  regency,   have  been  noticed  in  the   preceding 
article.     Upon  this  occasion  Mr.  Fox  asserted  that  the 
*  exercise  of  the  royal  power  was  the  clear  right  of  the  heir 
apparent,  bemg  of  frill  age  and  capacity,  during  the  king's 
incapacity ;'  but  he  afterwards  admitted  that  *  the  heir  ap- 
parent had  no  right  to  cugume  the  executive  power,'  and  that; 
although  the  ri^t  was  in  the  prince/  it  was  subject  to  the 
adjudication'  to  him  of  its  possession  and  exercise  by  the 
two  houses.'    It  may  be  doubted  how  far  his  position  was 
strengthened  or  made  more  intelligible  by  this  qualification. 
On  the  king's  recovery,  both  he  and  the  queen  chose  to 
show  themselves  deeply  offended  with  the  conduct  of  the 
prince  during  his  mther's  illness — although  no  distinct 
charge  of  undutifrilness  appears  ever  to  have  been  alleged. 
A  reconciliation  however  was  effected  about  the  beginning  of 
the  vear  1790,  through  the  interposition,  it  is  understooo,  of 
Lord  Thurlow,  who  bad  his  own  ends  to  serve.    The  king 
however  would  not  consent  to  relieve  the  prince  from 
his  ikst  increasing  embarrassments  by  another  application 
to  parliament,  except  upon  the  one  condition,  that  he  would 
marry. 

It  was  in  the  summer  of  1791  that  a  transaction  oe> 
curred  which  made  a  great  noise  at  the  time  and  long . 
afterwards, — the  retirement  of  the  prince  from  the  turf,  jn 
consequence  of  the  decision  of  the  Jockey  Club,  that  he 
must  either  take  that  step  or  dismiss  a  servant  whom  they 
held  to  be  guilty  of  unfair  management  in  relation  to  a  par- 
ticular race  with  one  of  his  master's  horses.  The  character 
of  the  tribunal  is  such  as  not  to  entitle  us  to  draw  from 
this  decision  any  conclusion  unfavourable  either  to  the 
prince  or  his  servant ;  the  former  had  only  a  few  hundred 
guineas  depending  on  the  race ;  and  the  circumstances 
seem  to  make  it  altogether  improbable  that  either  was 
guilty  of  the  foul  play  imputed.  The  prince  stood  by  his 
sei-vant  and  settled  on  him  an  annuity  of  200/.  a-year.  He 
soon  after  sold  off  all  his  horses,  to  the  number  of  500,  and 
again  retrenching  his  expenses  and  shutting  up  Carlton 
House,  devoted  the  greater  (»art  of  his  income  to  the  pay- 
ment of  his  creditors.  He  n  iw  also  publicly  separated  him- 
self from  Mr.  Fox  and  his  ]  arty  by  a  speech  in  the  House 
of  Lords,  the  first  he  had  evk:  delivered,  31st  May,  1 792,  in 
which  he  declared  his  adhtrence  to  that  section  of  his 
party  which  had  gone  over  t  >  the  minister,  in  the  division 
which  had  taken  place  on  tl  e  subject  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution. He  afterwards  took  .%  formal  leave  of  his  old  friends 
in  a  letter  addressed  to  the  J^ke  of  Portland. 

At  length  in  the  summer  >f  1794,  the  prince,  borne  down 
by  the  heavy  and  rapidly  a-  gmenting  load  of  his  incum- 


GEO 


168 


GEO 


brancea,  yielded  to  the  demand  so  long  urged  by  his  ibther, 
and  consented  to  marry.  HU  unfortunate  marriage  with 
his  cousin,  Caroline  Amelia  Elisabeth,  second  daughter  of 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick  and  the  princess  Augusta,  [Gborob 
111.],  took  place  on  the  8th  of  April,  1795.  On  this  his 
income  was  raised  to  115,000/.  a-year,  25,000/.  being  de- 
ducted from  ^at  sum  for  the  payment  of  his  debts,  which 
according  to  the  statement  made  to  parliament  amounted 
to  about  650,000/.  Disgust  and  alienation,  as  is  well 
known,  soon  followed  between  the  newly-married  parties. 
So  early  as  the  beginning  of  June,  the  princess  demanded 
the  removal  of  Lady  Jersey,  who  was  one  of  her  ladies  in 
waiting;  this  the  prince  positively  refused:  the  birth  of  a 
daughter,  the  late  Princess  Charlotte  Augusta,  on  the  7th 
of  January,  1 796»  produced  no  return  of  affection ;  they 
continued  to  live  for  some  months  longer  under  the  same 
roof,  but  without  speaking  to  each  other ;  a  complete  sepa- 
ration then  took  place,  the  princess  retiring  with  her  in- 
iknt,  first  to  the  village  of  Cnarlton,  near  Greenwich,  and 
afterwards  to  Blackheath. 

There  are  no  events  reauiring  much  notice  in  the  prince's 
history  for  some  years  arter  this.  He  frequently  solicited 
his  &ther  to  give  him  a  military  appointment,  and  a  short 
time  before  the  breaking  out  of  the  rebellion  of  1798  he 
requested,  it  is  said,  to  be  allowed  to  undertake  the  chief 

Sovernment  of  Ireland ;  but  all  these  petitions  met  with  a 
etermined  refusal.  About  this  time  also  he  partially 
renewed  his  connection  with  Mr.  Fox  and  his  old  friends — 
but  it  was  now  more  an  association  of  conviviality  than  of 
politics.  The  prince  came  nevertheless  to  be  popularly  con- 
sidered as  again  the  head  or  rallying-post  of  the  whig  party,; 
and  on  that  and  other  accounts  the  estrangement  between 
him  and  his  father  soon  became  as  complete  as  before.  His 
eonduct  to  the  Princess  of  Wales  was  viewed  by  the  king 
with  the  deepest  displeasure.  In  these  circumstances  it 
naturally  happened  that  the  tones  at  this  time  clung  to 
the  princess,  as  their  opponents  did  to  her  husband.  Such 
was  the  political  situation  of  the  parties  when  the  first  in- 
vestigation into  the  conduct  of  the  princess  took  place  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  year  1806,  by  a  commission  constituted 
bv  royal  warrant,  and  consisting  of  the  late  Lords  Erskine, 
Grenville,  Spencer,  and  Ellenboroueh,  all  then  members 
of  the  cabinet.  The  alle^tions  which  led  to  this  investiga- 
tion proceeded  from  Sir  John  and  Lady  Douglas,  who 
charged  her  royal  highness  not  only  with  great  impropriety 
and  indecency  of  behaviour,  but  with  having  been  delivered 
in  1602  of  a  male  child,  whom  she  had  ever  since  brought 
up  and  retained  near  her  under  the  name  of  William  Aus- 
tin. The  report  of  the  commissioners  decidedly  acquitted 
her  royal  hignness  on  the  latter  and  main  charge ;  but  added 
that  there  were  other  particulars  deposed  to  by  the  witnesses 
examined  respecting  her  conduct,  *  such  as  must,  especially 
considering  her  exalted  rank  and  station,  necessarily  give 
occasion  to  very  unfavourable  interpretations.*  The  report 
however,  and  the  answer  of  the  princess  (drawn  up  by  her 
confidential  advisers.  Lord  Eldon,  Mr.  Perceval,  and  Sir 
Thomas  Plumer),  together  with  other  papers,  having  been 
afterwards  submitted  to  the  cabinet  council  (the  whigs  were 
now  out  of  office),  it  was  declared  by  a  minute  dated  22nd 
April,  1 807,  to  be  the  unanimous  opinion  of  the  members 
not  only  that  the  two  main  charges  of  pregnancy  and  deli- 
very were  completely  disproved,  but  *  that  all  other  particu- 
lars of  conduct  brought  in  accusation  against  her  royal 
highness,  to  which  the  character  of  criminality  can  be  as- 
cribed, are  satisfiictorily  contradicted,  or  rest  upon  evidence 
undeserving  of  credit.'  With  the  exception  of  these  deci- 
sions, all  the  proceedings  in  this  affair  were  kept  secret  for 
some  years ;  but  the  depositions  of  the  witnesses  and  the 
other  papers  were  at  length  surreptitiously  published  in  1 8 1 3, 
in  the  well-known  volume  entitled  '  The  Book.'  The  history 
of  the  investigation  into  the  conduct  of  the  princess  is  in 
all  its  stages  curiously  illustrative  of  the  movements  and 
changes  of  position  of  the  two  great  political  parties ;  she 
was  condemned  or  acquitted  by  the  official  reporters  upon 
her  conduct,  according  as  the  party  to  vHiich  ner  husband 
attached  himself  or  their  opponents  happened  to  be  in 
power,  and  her  cause  was  taken  up  by  either  as  the  prince 
bestowed  his  favour  upon  the  other. 

On  the  king  being  taken  ill  m  the  end  of  1810  the  prince 
of  Wales  was  in  the  first  instance  appointed  regent,  with 
restricted  powers,  and  for  only  one  year.  He  entered  upon 
his  office  bv  being  sworn  in  before  the  privy  council,- 3rd 
February^  1811.    Tb«  mtrictiont  howtfot  wvrt  rcmored 


in  the  beginning  of  the  ibllowing  year.    On  thus  becom .  t-  ^ 
king  in  every  thing  but  in  name,  the  prince  disapp<'itnt«  i 
the  expectations  of  a  great  part  of  the  public  by  retail i  i  ^ 
Mr.  Perceval  and  the  other  ministers  whom  he  bad  fl>ui.  I 
in  office  on  assuming  the  direction  of  the  government.     I  .i 
fact  no  change  in  the  policy  of  the  government  « a»  |  ' 
duced  by  the  regency ;  the  prince  threw  off  at  once  b.  -  i 
his  former  associates  and  their  principles.  It  i^  unnecex^ .  v 
to  recount,  except  very  cursorily,  the  events  of  a  pcritxi  •. . 
recent  that  every  reader  must  be  supposed  to  pos&ess  a  di"*  • 
complete  knowledge  of  its  history  than  we  can  here  atie.i.  *•! 
to  supply.    The  course  of  public  occurrences  down  to  I  "^ .  • 
has  been  shortly  noticed  in  the  preceding  article.     In  tL- 
beginning  of  1813,  the  unhappy  differences  between   lit-* 
prince  aiia  ma  wife  again  became  the  subject  of  parliauic..- 
tary  and  public  discussion,  in  consequence  of  the  publ.ia- 
tion  by  the  latter  in  the  newspapers  of  a  letter  which  bi.f 
had  addressed  to  the  prince,  remonstrating  against  $«.«titc 
steps  that  had  been  taken  in  relation  to  the  princess  Ch  tr- 
lotte.    Upon  that  occasion  the  privy  council,  on  the  master 
being  submitted  to  them  by  the  prince,  reported  that  under 
all  the  circumstances  of  the  case  it  was  highly  fit  and  pru{  ir 
'  that  the  intercourse  between  her  royal  highness  the  priiu  * «« 
of  Wales  and  her  royal  highness  the  princess  Charl«>t  c 
should  continue  to  be  subject  to  regulation  and  restraint.' 
Her  former  friends,  the  tories,  had  now  completely  aba:;- 
doned  the  cause  of  the  princess  of  Wales;  the  second  naii." 
attached  to  this  report  was  that  of  her  recent  confide iiT:^ 
adviser  Lord  Eldon.    The  publication  of '  The  Book*  imti.i  - 
diately  followed.    In  1814  the  visit  of  the  emperor  of  Kui- 
sia  and  king  of  Prussia  to  London,  after  the  peace  of  Par.v 
led  to  renewed  exposure  and  agitation,  by  the  regent  ti  fu-r  ^ 
to  meet  the  princess  at  the  drawing-room  held  by  tlie  quri  n 
for  the  reception  of  the  foreign  sovereigns.    In  reseiitu.*  a 
for  her  exclusion  on  this  occasion,  her  royal  highncN»  1^:1 
the  country  in  the  beginning  of  August,  having  first  a^  :»•.•] 
and  obtained  permission  to  make  a  tour  on  the  Continti.t. 
It  was  understood  that  the  intention  now  was  to  marr>  :  -: 
Princess  Charlotte  to  the  prince  of  Orange,  eldest  5«iq  >  i 
the  king  of  the  Netberlanas;  but  on  the  2nd  May,  I'^.u, 
she  was  married  to  Prince  Leopold  George  FredenVW  .  f 
Saxe-Coburg,  the  present  king  of  Belgium.    Her  melan- 
choly death  in  childbed  followed  on  the  6th  of  Novemlf<  r. 
1817,  an  event  which  placed  the  duke  of  York  next  in  m  .  • 
cession  to  the  crown.    On  the  5th  of  January,  in  this  U^'- 
mentioned  year,  wnen  the  Prince  Regent  went  to  ujon 
parliament,  he  was  shot  at  on  his  return  through  tlie  Park, 
two  balls  perforated  the  glass  of  the  carriage.    This  occur- 
rence and  the  excited  state  of  the  country  led  to  the  sus- 
pension of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act.  and  to  various  other 
measures  curtailing  the  public  liberties.    At  this  time,  of 
seven  sons  of  the  king  no  one  had  any  issue;  in  those  cir- 
cumstances, in  order  to  provide  for  the  continuance  of  iu> 
line  of  succession,  the  dukes  of  Clarence,  of  Kent,  and  of 
Cambridge  were  all  married  in  the  course  of  the  year  1  .*•  1  *. 
The  duke  of  Cumberland  had  been  married  in  1815.  lut 
his  son,  the  present  crown-prince  of  Hanover,  and  nu  <. 
after  his  father,  the  nearest  heir  to  the  throne,  was  nut  Ikjmi 
till  1819. 

The  Prince  Recent  ascended  the  throne  as  Geort^  IV. 
on  the  death  of  his  father,  29lh  January,  1820.  The  trA 
great  public  event  of  the  new  reign  was  the  detection,  i ': 
me  23rd  February,  of  the  Cato  street  plot  to  aasa»xu\..tc 
the  ministers.  Queen  Caroline  arrived  in  London  on  t:.c 
6th  June,  and  on  the  evening  of  the  same  day  a  roe^«^i«r 
from  the  king  was  delivered  to  both  houses  of  parliament, 
communicating  papers  resj^ecting  her  alleged  mi^coiid^^  t 
while  abroad.  On  the  5th  July,  a  bill  for  divorcing  nnJ 
degrading  her  was  introduced  into  the  House  of  Lord»  bj 
the  premier.  Lord  Liverpool ;  the  examination  of  w  itnei.^'V 
in  support  and  refutation  of  the  charges  on  which  thi:«  niva- 
sure  professed  to  be  founded  occupied  some  succccii.i^' 
months.  On  the  Gth  November,  the  second  reading  of  :• « 
bill  was  carried  by  a  majority  of  123  to  95;  on  tlie  Ui!i 
the  third  reading  was  only  carried  by  108  to  99;  on  i^^* 
division,  which  destroyed  all  chance  of  the  measure  pas»ii.; 
the  Commons,  it  was  abandoned.  The  queen  howe>er  Ji'i 
not  long  survive  her  escape.  The  coronation  of  the  k;:.^ 
took  place  19th  July,  1821,  when  her  majesty,  baring  pr^.- 
viously  claimed  it  as  her  legal  right  to  be  crowned  ai  iU- 
same  time  as  queen  consort,  was  repulsed  in  an  attempt  t  • 
obtain  admission  at  the  doom  both  of  Westminster  lU.l 
I  and  the  Abbef.    A  few  days  after  she  vaa  taken  ill,  suJ 


6B0 


169 


died  at  Brandenbargh  House,  Hammerfmith,  ^th  Aogntt 
The  king  was  at  this  time  absent  on  a  visit  to  Ireland;  in 
the  end  of  September  he  set  out  for  Hanover,  from  which 
he  did  not  return  till  the  beginning  of  November ;  and  in 
August  following  he  went  to  Scotland^  The  suicide  of  the 
marquis  of  Londonderry,  secretaiy  for  foreign  affiurs,  oc- 
curreid  whUe  the  kin^  was  absent  on  this  last  visit,  and  pro- 
duced some  change  m  the  foreign  policy  of  the  administra- 
tion. [Caxning,  Grorgb.]  The  year  1822  was  marked 
by  severe  agricultural  distress  and  much  discontent  in  Eng- 
land, and  by  more  serious  disturbances  in  Ireland. 

Of  the  foreign  transactions  of  the  two  or  three  following 
yC'trs,  the  most  important  were  the  recognition  of  the  new 
states  of  South  America,  by  sending  consuls  to  them  in 
October,  1823;  the  contest  with  the  Ashantees,  in  1824 
[AsH.vNTEEs];  and  the  commencement  in  April  that  year 
of  the  Burmese  war,  which  terminated  in  February,  1826, 
ill  the  treaty  of  Yandaboo,  giving  the  British  a  considerable 
accession  of  territory  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Bay  of 
Bengal.  Of  domestic  events  during  the  same  period,  the 
most  memorable  is  the  great  commercial  crisis  of  Decem- 
ber, 1825.  In  December,  1826,  a  body  of  troops  was  sent 
to  Portugal  to  support  the  princess  regent  and  the  consti- 
tution establishea  by  Don  Pedro  against  the  hostile  at^ 
tempts  of  the  Spanish  government  and  of  the  absolutist 
faction  organized  by  that  power ;  the  British  force  speedily 
put  down  the  rebellion  and  restored  tranquillity.  The  death 
of  the  duke  of  York,  22nd  January,  1827,  transferred  the 
character  of  heir  presumptive  to  the  duke  of  Clarence ;  and 
the  office  of  commander-in-chief,  in  which  the  duke  of  York 
had  been  replaced  soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  re- 
gency, to  the  duke  of  Wellington.  The  termination  of  the 
political  life  of  Lord  Liverpool  by  a  stroke  of  apoplexy  fol- 
lowed on  the  1 7th  of  February  ;  the  consequence  of  which 
was  a  complete  change  of  ministry.  In  the  banning  of 
April  Mr.  Canning  was  appointed  first  lord  of  the  treasury, 
and  soon  after  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  on  which  the 
great  body  of  the  whi^  became  the  supporters  of  the  new 
administration,  while  it  was  opposed  by  the  duke  of  Wel- 
lington, Lord  Bldon,  Mr.  Peel,  and  others  of  the  premier's 
ibrmer  friends  and  colleagues.  [Canning,  Georok.]  The 
death  of  Mr.  Canning  however,  on  the  8th  of  August,  made  a 
new  arrangement  necessary.  Viscount  Goderich  (now  earl  of 
Ripon)  then  became  premier,  the  duke  of  Wellington  being 
reappointed  to  the  command  of  the  forces^  with  a  seat  in 
the  cabinet.  Some  time  after  this  arraugement  had  been 
completed,  the  news  arrived  of  the  destruction  of  the  Turkish 
fleet  in  the  Bay  of  Navarino  in  Greece,  by  the  attack  of  the 
combined  squadrons  of  England,  France,  and  Russia ;  an 
occurrence  which  in  his  Majesty's  speech,  delivered  at  the 
opening  of  parliament,  29th  January.  1828,  was  chancterized 
as  *  a  collision  wholly  unexpected/  and  an  'untoward  event' 
Meanwhile  differences,  of  which  various  explanations  were 
afterwards  given,  but  which  may  be  suspected  to  have  had 
some  relation  to  the  affairs  of  Greece  and  Turkey,  as  well 
as  to  other  matters  both  of  foreign  and  domestic  policy,  had 
led  to  the  resignation  of  Lord  Goderich,  and  the  appoint- 
ment, on  the  25  th  of  January,  of  the  duke  of  Wellington  as 
first  lord  of  the  treasury.  The  new  ministry  however  was 
still  composed  in  part  of  the  friends  of  the  late  Mr.  Can- 
ning, as  well  as  of  the  members  of  the  tory  party.  This 
state  of  things  lasted  till  the  end  of  May,  when  a  sudden 
misunderstanding  or  difference  of  opinion  produced  the  re- 
signation of  Mr.  Huskisson,  which  was  immediatelv  fol- 
lowed by  that  of  Lord  Dudley,  Lord  Palmerston,  and  Mr. 
Charles  Grant.  The  ministry  now  came  once  more  to  be 
composed  wholly  of  persons  generally  considered  as  be- 
longinff  to  the  extreme,  which  was  at  the  same  time  the 
main,  division  of  the  tory  party.  In  particular,  every  mem- 
ber of  the  cabinet  had  hitnerto  been  resolutely  and  steadily 
opposed  to  the  concession  of  what  was  called  the  emancipa- 
tion of  the  CathoUca,  and  indeed  to  every  other  proposed 
mitigation,  whether  in  substance  or  even  in  form,  of  the 
rigid  Protestantism  of  the  state  institutions.  The  most  im- 
portant among  the  other  events  of  this  year  were,  the  re- 
turn, 5th  July,  of  Mr.  O'Connell,  although  a  Catholic,  as 
representative  to  the  House  of  Commons  for  the  county  of 
Clare ;  the  convention  concluded  6th  August,  between  Ali 
Pacha,  viceroy  of  Egypt,  and  Sir  Edward  Codrington,  for 
the  evacuation  of  the  Morea  by  the  Turkish  troops,  in  con- 
formity with  which  the  whole  Egyptian  armament  sailed 
for  Alexandria  on  the  4th  of  October ;  the  resignation  by 
the  duke  of  Clarence,  12th  August,  of  the  office  of  lord* 
P.  C.«  No.  679. 


GEO 


i6  whieh  he  had  been  appointed  by  Mr.  Cait 
ning;  the  reoal,  in  December,  of  the  marauis  of  Anglesea 
from  the  government  of  Ireland;  and  the  visit  to  thin 
country,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  year,  of  Donna  Maria  da 
Gloria,  the  young  queen  of  Portugal.  On  the  26th  .of  Fe* 
bruary,  this  year.  Lord  John  Russell  had  carried  his  resolu- 
tion in  the  House  of  Commons  for  tlie  repeal  of  the  Test  and 
Corporation  Acts,  against  the  opposition  of  ministers,  by  a 
majority  of  237  to  1 93.  A  bill  to  effect  the  object  of  the  re- 
solution was  atterwards  introduced,  and  ministers  reftaining 
from  joining  the  opposition  to  it  in  the  House  of  Lords,  it 
was  passed  into  a  law.  This  measure  had  till  now  been 
uniformly  resisted  by  both  sections  of  the  administration 
under  which  it  was  thus  conceded. 

The  great  measure  of  domestic  policy  of  the  year  1829 
was  the  concession  at  last  of  Catholic  emancipation.  The 
consideration  of  the  laws  imposing  disabilities  on  Roman 
Catholics,  with  a  view  to  the  practicability  of  their  safe  re- 
moval, was  recommended  in  the  kmg's  speech,  delivered  at 
the  opening  of  parliament  on  the  5th  of  February.  The 
Relief  Bill,  and  another  abolishing  the  forty-shilling 
freeholders  in  Ireland,  were  brought  into  the  House  of 
Commons  together  by  Mr.  Secretary  Peel,  and  read  a  first 
time  on  the  10th  of  March.  The  second  reading  of  the  Re 
lief  Bill  was  carried  on  the  18th  by  a  majority  of  353  to 
1 73 ;  on  the  third  reading,  30th  March,  the  numbers  were, 
ayes  320,  noes  142;  the  second  reading  in  the  Lords  was 
carried  4th  April,  by  a  majority  of  217  to  112;  and  the 
third  reading  on  the  10th,  bv  a  majority  of  213  to  104. 
Both  bills  received  the  royal  assent  on  the  13th.  Mr 
0*Connell  presented  himself  to  take  his  seat  for  Clare  on 
the  15th  of  May  following;  but  after  he  had  been  heard  at 
the  bar,  it  was  resolved  by  a  nugority  of  1 90  to  11 6,  that  he 
should  not  be  entitled  to  sit  or  veto  without  first  taking  the 
oath  of  supremacy ;  and  on  his  refusal  to  take  the  said  oath, 
a  new  writ  was  ordered  to  be  issued  for  Clare. 

In  the  cmriy  part  of  the  year  1830  the  king,  who  had  for 
some  time  past  lived  in  great  seclusion,  was  attacked  bv  an 
illness  which  soon  assumed  a  serious  appearance.  After 
all  prospect  of  his  recovery  had  been  for  some  time  lost,  he 
died  at  Windsor  Castle  on  the  morning  of  the  26th  of 
June,  in  the  sixty-eighth  year  of  his  age,  and  the  eleventh  of 
his  reign.  The  same  day  proclamation  was  made  of  the 
accession  of  his  late  majesty  king  William  IV. 

Many  important  alterations  of  the  laws  were  made  in  the 
reign  of  Geoige  IV.,  besides  the  great  national  measures 
that  have  been  already  noticed.  Both  the  laws  relating  to 
the  punishment  and  those  relating  to  the  trial  of  offences 
were  consoUdated  and  amended  by  several  acts  introduced 
by  Mr.  Peel,  in  which,  and  also  in  the.  general  administra- 
tion of  the  law,  considerable  progress  was  made  in  the  ap- 
plication of  the  two  great  principles  of  diminishing  the 
sanguinary  character  and  increasing  the  certainty  of  punish- 
ments.  Among  the  other  legislative  innovations  of  the 
reign  may  be  enumerated,  the  act  of  1823,  abolishing  the 
antient  custom  of  buryinp;  persons  who  had  committed 
felo-de-se  in  cross-roads,  with  a  stake  driven  through  their 
bodies;  the  Marriage  Act  Amendment  Acteof  1822,  1823, 
and  1824;  the  act  of  1824,  for  the  restoration  in  blood  of 
the  representatives  of  the  Scottish  peers  attainted  in  1715 
and  1 745 ;  the  act  of  the  same  year  for  ascertaining  and  es- 
tablishing a  uniformity  of  weights  and  measures;  the 
act  of  the  same  year  for  the  repeal  of  the  combination  laws ; 
the  act  of  1 827  to  prevent  arrests  upon  mesne  process  where 
the  cause  of  action  is  under  20/. ;  the  act-  of  1828  for  ren- 
dering a  written  memorandum  necessary  to  the  validity  of 
certain  promises  and  engM;ements;  the  act  of  the  same 
year  for  regulating  the  importation  of  corn ;  the  Metropolis 
Police  Act  of  1829;  the  act  of  1830  repealing  the  beer 
duties ;  and  the  act  of  the  same  year  substituting  the  pu- 
nishment of  transportation,  instead  of  that  of  deaUi,  for  for- 
gery. The  mention  of  these  measures  is  sufficient  to  in- 
dicate the  progress  of  legislation  during  the  reign. 

GEORGE  I.,  surnamed  the  Long-handed,  grand- duke 
of  Russia,  was  the  son  of  Vladimir  Monomachos,  who  mar- 
ried Gyda,  daughter  of  Harold,  the  last  Saxon  king  of 
England.  After  the  death  of  her  father  at  the  battle  of 
Hastings,  in  1065,  Gyda  retired  to  Sweden,  from  which 
country  she  married  Vladimir,  about  1070.  It  is  however 
impossible  to  ascertain  whether  George  was  the  son  of  the 
English  princess,  as  his  father  was  married  three  times ; 
but  It  is  very  probable,  as  George  died  in  1 157,  at  an  ad- 
vanced age.    He  waa  Qf  a  very  ambitious  andpasping  cha- 

VoIm  XI. — Z 


GEO 


70 


6B0 


noter,  «  circansUmee  fh>m  which  he  derit^d  his  surnftine, 
the  Lonff'handed.  Having  received  for  bis  appanage  the 
principality  of  Soozdal,  situated  in  the  north  of  Russia,  he 
tried  to  establish  himself  on  the  grand-ducal  throne  of 
KiefT,  which  was  possessed  by  his  nephew  Isiaslaf,  and  he 
succeeded  in  driving  him  from  that  principality  (1 149),  but 
he  was  soon  afterwards  expelled  himself  by  the  Hun8;anan8, 
who  restored  Isiaslaf.  After  many  vicissitudes  he  attained 
his  object,  and  became  ii^rand-duke  of  Kieff  in  1 155.  He 
died  two  years  afterwards.  The  reign  of  Greorge  is  remark- 
able for  the  foundation  of  Moscow  in  a  s{)Ot  where,  as  the 
chroniclers  relate,  there  lived  a  rich  man  named  Koochko, 
of  whose  wife  George  became  enamoured,  and  where,  after 
causing  the  husband  to  be  murdered,  and  having  established 
for  some  time  his  residence  thei-e,  he  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  a  futui-e  city.  George  ¥ras  very  partial  to  the 
southern  principalities  of  Russia,  and  being  for  a  lon^  time 
unable  to  possess  any  of  them,  he  built  several  towns  in  his 
own  dominions,  to  which  he  gave  the  names  of  those  cities 
which  were  situated  in  the  south ;  as  for  instance,  Vladimir, 
Peryoslav,  &c.  His  own  dominions,  inhabited  originally  by 
several  Finnish  tribes,  living  in  an  almost  savage  state,  and 
being  mostly  idolaters,  became  civilized  under  this  reign  by 
the  foundation  of  cities,  churches,  and  monasteries. 

George  peopled  the  new  towns  with  settlers  of  Sclavonian 
and  Fmnish  stock,  whom  he  attracted  by  granting  them 
privileges  and  several  other  advantages.  This  is  the  origin 
of  the  population  of  Grand  Russia,  generally  known  under 
the  name  of  the  Muscovite  or  Sooxdalian,  which  being  a 
mixture  of  Sclavonians  and  Fins,  exhibits  a  striking  con- 
trast in  physical  appearance,  language,  manners,  and- cha- 
racter to  all  the  other  Sdavonian  populations.  This  people 
ought  never  to  be  confounded  witn  the  real  Russians,  who 
inhabit  the  south-western  provinces  of  the  present  Russian 
emph'e,  as  well  as  Galicia,  or  Austrian  Poland,  and  who, 
being  of  a  pure  Sclavonic  race,  much  more  resemble  in 
every  respect  the  Poles,  the  Slovacks  of  Hungary,  and  other 
people  of  Sclavonian  race,  than  the  population  of  Grand 
Russia.  After  the  reign  of  George  I.,  the  northern  princi- 
palities acGuired  great  importance,  and  his  son  Andrew 
increased  nis  power  and  established  his  residence  at  the 
town  of  Vladimir,  which  was  built  by  his  father  on  the 
banks  of  the  Klasma.  Instead  of  aiming  at  the  possession 
of  Kieff,  which  conferred  the  empty  title  of  the  Grand- 
Duke  of  Russia,  and  which  was  captured  and  sacked  by 
his  son  and  a  coalition  of  other  princes  (1159),  he  assumed 
that  title  in  his  own  dominions.  He  strengthened  his 
power  by  exiling  all  his  brothers,  who  found  refuge  at  the 
court  of  the  Emperor  Manuel  Comnenus.  Andrew  was  mur- 
dered by  some  conspirators  in  1 1 74.  After  two  years  of  civil 
war,  during  which  Michel,  prince  of  Rezan,  for  a  short  tikne 
occupied  the  throne  of  Vladimir,  Vsevolod,  brother  of 
Andrew  and  son  of  George  I.,  obtained  the  grand-ducal 
dignify,  which  he  preserved  till  his  death  in  1212.  His 
long  reign  was  tranquil,  and  the  chroniclers,  who  call  him 
the  Great,  extol  his  justice  also.  Brought  up  at  the  court 
of  the  Greek  emperor,  where  he  spent  his  boyish  years,  he 
must  have  had  an  education  superior  to  that  of  his  country- 
men. He  embellished  his  capital  with  splendid  edifices, 
and  fortified  it  as  well  as  several  other  towns. 

GEORGE  II.,  son  of  Vsevolod  and  grandson  of  George  I., 
became  grand-duke,  not  immediately  after  the  death  of  his 
father,  but  after  that  of  his  competitor,  the  Grand-Duke 
Constantino,  in  1219.  HLs  reign  is  marked  by  one  of  the 
most  important  events  of  the  middle  ages,  which  has  pro- 
duced the  most  decisive  influence  on  the  condition  of 
Russia ;  we  mean  the  invasion  of  the  Moguls,  the  circum- 
stances of  which  cannot  be  well  understood  without  pre- 
viously giving  a  short  sketch  of  the  state  of  Russia  at  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  dominions  of  Vladimir  the  Great  (who  died  in  1015) 
extended  almost  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Black  Sea,  and  from 
the  frontiers  of  Hungary  and  Poland  to  the  banks  of  the 
Volga,  containing  several  tribes  of  Sclavonians  in  the  south 
and  the  west,  and  of  Fins  in  the  north  and  the  east,  who 
were  forcibly  united  under  the  dominion  of  the  Varin- 
gian  or  Norman  dynasty  of  Ruric,  but  divided  by  that  mo- 
narch between  his  twelve  sons.  From  that  time  the  different 
principalities,  although  occasionally  united,  continued  to  be 
subdivided  by  several  successive  sovereigns,  so  that  at  the 
period  in  question  there  was  a  great  number  of  minor  princes 
besides  the  two  great  principalities  of  Vladimir  in  the  north 
tnd  of  Halich  in  the  south.    The  meet  important  neigh- 


bours of  Russia  at  that  time  were  the  nomadic  nation  of 
the  Polovtxae,  called  by  the  Byzantine  writer*  Gomans.  ^Ivj 
established  themselves,  about  the  middle  of  the  1  Ifb  century, 
in  the  countries  along  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  fh>ni  the 
banks  of  the  Don  to  those  of  the  Danube.  By  their  innni'ls 
they  became  formidable  to  all  their  neighbours,  bat  part  i<*u- 
larly  to  the  Russian  princes,  by  whom  they  were  also  often 
hired  as  auxiliary  troops.  In  1224  the  Mogul  expedition 
sent  by  (}engis  Khan  under  hb  son  Joodgee  Khan,  to  ex  - 
tend  his  conquests  in  the  west,  attacked  the  Polovtxee,  who^e 
chiefUiins,  being  defeated  by  the  Moguls,  fled  to  Russia,  and 
entreated  the  Russian  prinees  to  assist  them  against  dd 
enemy,  who,  as  they  expressed  it,  'has  taken  our  country 
to-day  and  will  take  yours  to-morrow.' 

The  Russian  princes  of  the  south,  influenced  bvMotislat 
duke  of  Halich,  listened  to  the  Polovtxee,  and  having  as- 
sembled an  army  of  about  100,000  men,  which  was  juirt  -i 
by  great  numbers  of  the  Polovtiee,  marched  against  ti.c 
Moguls. 

It  was  a  wise  measure  to  oppose  the  savage  hordes  b<f''nri« 
they  had  invaded  the  country,  and  the  Russian  and  PuIia  i- 
see  forces  were  sufficient  to  repel  them;  but  dis.sen.-«.  ti 
among  the  princes  and  the  cowardice  of  the  Polovtxi-.* 
weakened  the  army,  which  was  entirely  defeated  by  t  -  < 
Moguls  on  the  31st  of  May,  1224,  on  the  banks  of  the  n\*  r 
Kalka  (now  Kalmius)  in  the  present  government  of  Kk- 
terinoslaf,  near  the  town  of  Mariopol.  The  Moguls  attcr 
this  victory  extendetl  their  devastations  as  w  as  t ;  •. 
banks  of  the  Dnieper,  but  although  no  resistance  was  offer*  <:. 
they  suddenly  retired  f^om  the  Dnieper  into  the  deNert>  •  - 
central  Asia,  and  their  invasion  produced  on  the  mind>  • :' 
the  inhabitants  the  effects  of  a  supernatural  apparttion. 

George  II.  had  despatched  an  auxiliary  force  against  tr  •. 
Moguls,  but  on  their  way  they  heard  of  the  fate  of  the  Rus- 
sian expedition,  and  rettirned  without  meeting  the  u.- 
Vaders. 

The  Russian  princes  soon  forgot  the  invasion  of  the  M  ^ 
gnls,  and  instead  of  thinking  of  tne  possibility  of  their  ret  u:  t.. 
abandoned  themselves  to  their  usual  broils  and  interna!  -i* 
well  as  external  fbuds.     Nothing  was  heard  of  the  M'>- 
guls  till  1237,  when  a  report  was  spread  that  the\'  had  in- 
vaded the  country  of  the  Bulgarians,  situated  on  tne  bar.Ki 
of  the  Volga,  in  the  present  government  of  Kaaan.    It  « .• 
Batoo  Khan,  grandson  of  Gengis  Khan,  who  was  sent  >  - 
his  uncle  Oktay  with  300,000  men  in  order  to  extend  i.  ^ 
conquests  to  the  west,  and  with  instructions  to  give  pc   -f 
only  to  the  conquered  nations.    The  report  was  followtNi  ^ ;. 
the  appearance  of  the  invaders,  who  entered  the  prinnp  t  : 
ties  of  Reran,  and  summoned  its  sovereign  to  submit  a.  i 
to  give  up  the  tenth  part  of  all  his  and  his  subjects'  |'r  •• 
perty.    The  Duke  of  Rezan,  with  some  minor  princ«'s  .*  > 
solving  to  oppose  the  Moguls,  s^it  a  message  to  the  gtui  1 
duke  George  requesting  nis  assistance ;  but  George  nh : 
on  his  own  forces  refused  to  join  them,  and  decided  • .. 
awaiting  the  approach  of  the  enemy  in  his  own  dominiMi> 
The  Moguls  took  and  destroyed  Rezan  after  a  brave  deftr* 
and  massacred  the  inhabitants.    Moscow,  Kolomna,  a    i 
many  other  cities  shared  the  same  fate.    George  entnj««.< 
the  defence  of  his  capital  Vladimir  to  his  sons,  and  ret)r>  . 
to  a  fortified  camp  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Sit  Thecaj  >' 
was  taken  by  storm  in  February,  1238,  and  every  thm^  v  « 
destroyed  with  fire  and  sword. 

George  11^  whose  two  sons  perished  at  Vladimir,  a^^&rt-. 
the  enemies  in  his  position,  and  though  attacked  b>  .' 
overwhelming  force  fought  bravely  till  he  was  killed,  on  t  f 
4th  of  March,  1238.  The  Moguls  soon  retired  be)on«l  •  • 
Volga,  but  in  the  next  year  they  invaded  Southern  Ru«<>  i. 
and  having  devastated  a  part  of  Hungary  and  Pul;p.<: 
penetrated  as  far  as  Liegnitt  in  Silesia,  where  they  «*•  o 
repulsed  in  a  battle  with  the  Silesian  dukee  assisted  by  .a 
Grermans. 

Batoo  Khan  returned  to  the  banks  of  the  Volga.  « I  <•  • 
he  summoned  the  Russian  princes  to  pay  htm  bniia . 
Resistance  was  hopeless,  and  the  erand-duke  Yar''^;  :. 
brother  to  George  H.,  was  the  first  who  acknowledged  t.« 
sovereignty  of  the  Grrand  Khan.  This  is  the  begmnintr  : 
the  Mogul  or  Tartar  domination  in  Russia,  which  lasted  :: 
about  1470. 

GEORGE,  ST.,  sumamed  of  Cappadocta,  was  a  n^itt^* 
of  Epiphaneia  in  Cilicia,  and  is  said  to  have  been  b(.>r7i  i  - 
fuller*8  shop.  From  this  obscure  and  servile  on^tn  f  i- 
raised  himself  by  the  talents  of  a  parasite ,  and  the  patroi* 
whom  he  assiduously  flattered  procured  for  their  venhi<  -$ 


GEO 


m 


GEO 


dependant  a  luoative  oommisaton  or  eontrAct  to  supply  the 
army  with  bacon.    He  accumulated  wealth  in  thi&  employ^ 
tnent  by  the  basest  arts  of  fraud,  and  his  depredations  on 
the  public  purse  at  last  became  so  notorious,  that  he  fled 
from  the  puisuit  of  justice,  taking  his  ill-gotten  wealth  with 
hinu    The  place  of  his  retreat  was  Alexandria,  where  he 
embraced,  with  real  or  affected  seal,  the  profession  of  Ari- 
aDism.     Here  he  formed  a  valuable  library  of  history, 
rhetoric,  philosophy,  and  theology,  which  the   Emperor 
Julian,  alter  St  George's  death,  appropriated  to  himself. 
So  great  had  the  influence  of  George  of  Oappadocia  become 
amongst  the  disciples  and  followers  of  Anus,  that  when 
Athanasius  was  dnven  from  Alexandria  the  preraihng  Mic- 
tion elevated  him  to  the  vacant  episcopal  throne.    Gibbon 
has  enlarged  upon  the  avarice  ana  tyranny  of  his  character 
whilst  primate  of  Sgypt    The  Alexandrians,  says  Gib- 
bon, could  never  forget  nor  forgive  the  tax  which  he  sug- 
gested on  all  the  houses  of  the  city,  under  an  obsolete  claim 
t  hat  the  royal  founder  had  conveyed  to  his  successors,  the 
Ptolemies  and  the  Cssars,  the  perpetual  property  of  the 
soil.     The  Pagans,  who  had  been  flattered  with  the  hopes 
of  freedom  and  toleration,  excited  his  devout  avarice ;  and 
the  rich  temples  of  Alexandria  were  either  pillaged  or  in- 
auhcd  by  the  haughty  prelate,  who  exclaimed  in  a  loud 
and  threatening  tone, '  How  long  will  these  sepulchres  be 
permitted  to  stand  ?*    Under  the  leign  of  Conatantius  he 
was  expelled  by  the  fury,  or  rather  the  justice,  of  the 
people ;  and  it  was  not  without  a  violent  struggle  that  the 
civil  and  military  powers  of  the  state  could  restore  his  au- 
thority and  gratify  his  revenge.    The  messenger  who  pro- 
claimed at  Alexandria  the  accession  of  Julian,  ajx  361, 
announced  the  downial  of  the  archbishop.    George,  with 
two  of  his  obsequious  ministers.  Count  Diodorus.  and  Dra- 
contius,  master  of  the  mint,  were  ignominiously  dragged  in 
chains  to  the  puUio  prison.    At  the  end  of  twenty-four 
clays  the  prison  was  forced  open  by  the  rage  of  a  superstiti- 
ous multitude,  impatient  of  the  tedious  forms  of  judicial 
proceedinga.    The  enemies  of  gods  and  men,  observes  GKb- 
bon,  expired  under  their  cruel  insults ;  the  lifeless  bodies 
of  the  archbishop  and  his  associates  were  carried  in  triumph 
through  the  streets  on  the  back  of  a  camel.    The  remains 
of  these  guilty  wretches  were  thrown  into  the  aea;  and  the 
popular  leaders  of  the  tumult  declared  their  resolution  to 
disappoint  the  devotion  of  the  Christians,  and  to  intercept 
the  future  honours  of  the^  mariyrs^  who  had  been  punished, 
hke  their  predecessors,  by  the  enemies  of  their  religion. 
The  fears  of  the  Pagans  were  just,  and  their  precautions 
ineffectual.    The  meritorious  death  of  the  archbishop  obti- 
terated  the  memory  of  his  life.    The  rival  of  Athanasius 
wa:>  dear  and  sacred  to  the  Arians,  and  the  seeming  conver- 
sion of  those  sectaries  introduced  his  worship  into  the 
bosom  of  the  Catholic  church. 

The  reader  who  would  enter  into  the  history  of  St.  George 
of  Cappadocia  as  the  patron  saint  of  Knglana  may  consult 

*  The  Historic  of  that  most  fomous  Saint  and  Souldier  of 
Christ  Jesus,  St  George  of  Cappadocia,  asserted  from  the  fic- 
f  lon.s  of  the  middle  ages  of  the  Church  and  opposition  of  the 
present,'  by  Dr.  Peter  Heylyn,  4to.  Loud.  1631  and  1633; 

*  A  Dissertation  on  the  Original  of  the  Equestrian  Figure  of 
the  George  and  of  the  Garter,  ensigns  of  the  most  noble 
Order  of  that  name,' by  John  Pettingall,  4to.  Lond.  1763; 
and  Dr.  Pegge's  '  Observations  on  the  History  of  St. 
George,  the  Patron  Saint  of  England,'  in  the  'Archssologia,' 
Tul.  v.,  p.  1-32. 

When  the  English  Crusaders  went  to  the  East  in  1096, 
they  found  St.  George  received  among  the  Christians  as  a 
warrior-saint,  with  the  peculiar  appellation  of  TropcBcpho- 
rot  (TfMnratofSooc)  the  victorious.  They  had  some  know- 
ledge of  him  before  as  a  saint  and  martyr,  having  read  of 
him  in  that  capacity  in  their  Calendars  and  Martyiolog'es ; 
and,  after  the  succour  which  he  was  supposed  to  have 
afforded  them  at  the  siege  of  Antioch,  tbey  adopted  him 
as  the  patron  of  soldiers.  As  such,  Edward  III.  made  him 
patron  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter  ;  and  he  thus  g^ually 
became  considered  as  the  patron  of  chivalry,  and  the  tute- 
lar saint  of  England. 

(Moreri,  Dict.Bi9t.,  tom.v.,foL  Fir.  1759:  G.  np.  152, 
1  %'^ ;  Gibbon*s  Ded.  and  Fall,  chap,  xxiit. ;  and  the  Acta 
Sofictorum  of  the  BolkmdittM,  Month  of  April,  tom.  iii.,  p. 
100-163 :  DeS.  Georgia  Megalo-Martyre* 

GEORGETOWN.    [Columbia,  Disteict  of.] 

GEORGIA.  This  artirle  comprehends  not  only  a  de- 
scription of  Georgia  Proper^  but  of  all  the  oountries  between 


the  Black  and  the  Caspian  8eaa  of  which  Russia  either  holds 
or  claims  possession,  and  which  form  dependencies  of  the 
government  of  Greorgia,  or,  as  the  Russians  call  it,  Grusia. 
This  tract  extends  from  SS""  31'  to  43""  30'  N.  lat..  and  from 
about  41^  to  52"*  12'  E.  long.  It  is  enclosed  on  the  north  by 
the  range  of  the  Caucasus,  which  forms  a  part  of  the  country ; 
on  the  east  it  is  washed  by  the  Caspian,  and  on  the  west  by 
the  Black  Sea ;  on  the  south  it  is  bounded  by  Persia  and 
Asiatic  Turkey,  having  a  line  of  frontier  on  that  side  of 
about  600  English  miles.  Its  utmost  breadth,  from  the  Cape 
of  Abcheron  or  Apsheron  on  the  Caspian  Sea,  to  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Charokee*  which  falls  into  the  Black  Sea,  is 
about  480  English  miles ;  and  its  greatest  length,  fhxn  the 
banks  of  the  Araxes  to  those  of  the  Kooma,  is  about  500 
English  miles. 

Ine  countries  on  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Black  Sea 
were  known  to  the  early  Greeks,  as  we  infer  from  the  his- 
tory of  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts :  and  several  Greek 
colonies,  such  as  Dioscurias  and  others,  were  established  here 
at  an  eftrly  epoch.  The  Romans  became  acquainted  with 
the  Caucasian  regions  during  their  wan  with  Mithridates 
and  with  the  kings  of  Armenia.  In  the  fifth,  sixth,  and 
seventh  centuries  of  our  nra  those  regions  became  the 
theatre  of  frequent  wars  between  the  emperors  of  the  East 
and  the  Sassanide  kings  of  Persia.  In  the  eighth  and  ninth 
centuries  they  were  partly  conquered  by  the  generals  of 
the  khaliphs  of  Bagdad,  whose  dominion  however  was  not  of 
long  duration.  From  the  eleventh  to  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
oentiuy  the  kings  of  Greorgia  acquired  great  power,  and 
exercised  a  paramount  influence  over  all  the  Caucasian 
isthmus.  But  their  power  was  overthrown  by  the  invasion 
of  the  Moguls  of  Gengis  Khan,  who  overran  these  countries 
about  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  rendered 
them  tributary.  Towards  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century 
they  were  again  invaded  by  Tamerlane,  when  they  suffered 
even  mora  than  under  Gengis  Khan.  After  the  death  of 
Tamerlane  the  kings  of  Georgia  expelled  the  Mohamme- 
dans and  resumed  their  power ;  but  tne  unfortunate  division 
of  Uie  coimtry  which  Alexandier  1.,  king  of  Georgia,  made 
among  his  three  sons  in  1424,  plungM  it  again  into  a 
miserable  condition.  About  the  beginning  of  tJM  sixteenth 
century  the  sovereigns  of  Kakhet,  or  Eastern  Georgia,  be- 
came vassals  to  the  sophis  of  Persia,  and  flrom  that  time 
were  reckoned  among  the  valees,  or  lieutenants*  of  the  Shah. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  same  century  the  sovereigns  of 
Kartli  and  of  Imiretia,  as  well  as  all  the  western  part  of 
the  Caucasian  isthmus,  fell  under  the  domination,  or  at  least 
the  influence,  of  the  Ottoman  Porte ;  and  the  country  be- 
tween the  Black  and  the  Caspian  seas  became  from  that 
time  a  constant  field  of  battle  between  the  Turks  and  the 
Persians. 

From  the  sixteenth  century  the  czars  of  Moscow  endea- 
voured to  establish  their  influence  in  the  Caucasian  re- 
gions. Their  nrqjeets  were  favoured  by  their  community 
of  religion  witn  the  Georgians,  who  repeatedl  t  requested 
their  assistance  against  the  oppression  of  their  Itf  ohamme- 
dan  neighbours.  But  the  unsuooessful  expedition  which 
the  Moscovites  undertook  in  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  against  the  highlanders  of  the  Eastern  Cau- 
casus stopped  their  projects  of  conquest  in  that  quarter  till 
the  time  of  Peter  the  Great.  This  monarch  in  person  made 
an  expedition  in  1724  against  the  highlanders  of  Daghe- 
stan,  and  took  Derbend.  This  expedition  was  followed  by  a 
treaty  with  Tamas  Shah  of  Persia,  who,  being  driven 
fh>m  his  states  by  the  Afghauns,  ceded  to  Russia,  on  the 
promise  of  being  restored  to  his  throne,  the  provinces  of 
Daghestan,  Shirvan,  Ghilan,  Mazanderan,  and  Asterabad. 
Although  the  promised  assistance  was  never  given,  the  pro- 
vinces were  taken  possession  of  by  Russia,  and  held  till  the 
year  1 735,  when  they  were  restored  by  the  empress  Anne 
to  the  celebrated  Nadir  Shah. 

The  fortunes  of  Georgia  were  restored  for  a  moment  after 
the  death  of  Nadir  Shah,  by  Heraclius  II ,  a  Georgian  prince, 
educated  in  the  camps  of  that  conqu  jrar,  whom  he  had 
accompanied  on  his  expedition  to  India .  After  a  long  reign 
spent  in  constant  wars  with  his  nrighbours,  Heraclius 
adopted  a  measure  which  he  though  it  would  ensure  the 
safety  of  his  country,  but  which  prot  ed  destructive  to  his 
dynasty.  He  declared  hhnself  in  1783  a  vassal  of  Russia, 
which  guaranteed  to  him  and  his  sua  essors  not  only  the  pos- 
session of  his  actual  doininions,  but  even  of  those  which  he 
might  thereafter  conquer.  Persia  was  at  that  time  disturbed 
by  internal  wars  and  could  not  resent  the  desertion  of  her 

ju  2 


GEO 


172 


O  E  0 


va^  Ml,  but  ID  1795  Agha  Mohammed  Khan  led  an  army 
tiilo  Georgia  and  defeated  Heraclius,  who,  being  abandoned 
by  the  Russians,  tried  to  oppose  the  invaders  with  an  in- 
fei-ior  force.     Tiflis  was  taken  by  the  Persians,  who  de- 
stroyed the  town  and  led  a  preat  number  of  its  inhaliitants 
in  10  captivity.    Heraclius  died  in  1798,  and  was  sucoeeded 
hy  his  son  George  Xlll-.a  weak-minded  prince,  whose  reign 
wtts  constantly  disturbed  by  a  civil  war  with  his  brothers. 
G«*orge  died  in  1800.   After  his  death  Georgia  was  declared 
a  Russian  province,  and  the  members  of  the  reigning  family 
were  carried  to  Russia.    A  few  years  afterwards  several 
orovinces  situated  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea  were 
:aken  by  the  Russtians,  and  their  possession  of  them  was 
con  armed  by  the  trea^  of  Goolistan,  concluded  in  1813, 
between  Russia  and  Persia.     The  sovereign  of  Imiretia, 
j^ho  had  become  a  vassal  of  Russia  in  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century,  made  in  1810  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
shake  off  his  yoke ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  flee  to  Turkey, 
and  his  principality  was  converted  into  a  province  of  Russia. 
Several  other  petty  states  fell  suoeessively  under  the  same 
power,  whose  contiuests  were  extended  during  her  last  wars 
with  Persia  and  Turkey,  and  confirmed  by  the  treaty  of 
Turkmanchay  in  1828,  with  the  first,  and  that  of  Adrianople 
in  1 829,  with  the  second  of  the  above-mentioned  powers. 

The  mountain-ranges  of  the  Caucasus  and  of  Ararat  are 
described  under  those  respective  heads. 

The  principal  rivers  which  drain  the  Caucasian  isthmus 
are  the  Koor,  or  antient  Cyrus,  the  Araxes,  the  Rion  or 
Faz  (the  antient  Phasis),  the  Kooban,  and  the  Terek,  besides 
numerous  smaller  rivers  and  streams.  Owing  to  the  hilly 
nature  of  the  country  only  two  of  these  rivers  are  navigable, 
and  that  only  for  flat-bottomed  vessels — the  Koor,  from  its 
confluence  with  the  Araxes  to  its  outlet  into  the  Caspian 
Sea,  for  about  70  English  miles ,  and  the  Rion.  for  about 
the  same  distance. 

The  country,  though  generally  mountamous,  contains 
some  extensive  plains.  The  southern  latitude  of  these 
regions  and  the  high  mountains  by  which  they  are  sur- 
rounded  and  intersected  produce  that  variety  of  climate 
which  adapts  them  to  the  production  of  various  plants  and 
animals  proper  both  to  warm  and  cold  climates.  Of  wild 
animals  there  are  the  panther,  the  jackal,  the  tiger,  the 
bear,  the  wolf,  &c.  Besides  the  domestic  animals  common 
to  the  northern  countries,  there  is  a  great  number  of  camels 
and  asses.  A  great  variety  of  birds  is  found  in  these  regions, 
of  which  the  most  remarkable  is  the  pheasant,  which  is 
indigenous  on  the  banks  of  the  Rion,  or  Phasis,  firom  which 
river  it  has  derived  its  name.  The  slopes  of  the  mountains 
are  covered  with  large  forests,  which  produce  timber  of  the 
best  description. 

The  vine,  which  is  indigenous,  grows  abundantly  in  a  wild 
state.  The  vineyards  produce  a  great  variety  of  grapes,  and 
a  large  quantity  of  wine  and  brandy  is  made  in  the  country. 
Silk  is  cultivated  in  several  provinces,  but  this  branch  of 
industry  is  still  in  a  very  low  state,  owing  to  the  unskilful 
preparation  of  that  valuable  commodity.  The  present 
annual  exportation  amounts  to  15,500  poods.  (A  pood  is 
about  36  lbs.)  Cotton  is  grown  in  the  southern  provinces,  but 
it  is  of  very  inferior  quality,  and  the  whole  quantity  ex> 
ported  is  only  36,000  poods.  It  is  however  said  tliat  by  an 
improved  management  the  cotton  might  be  brought  to  the 

f;reatest  perfection,  and  its  quantity  increased  to  an  un- 
iroited  amount.  Madder  grows  spontaneously  in  several 
parts  of  the  country,  but  is  cultivated  chiefly  in  the  pro- 
vinces bordering  on  the  Caspian.  Tlie  inhabitants  of  the 
district  of  Derbend  are  almost  exclusively  occupied  with 
the  cultivation  of  it.  In  1 832  they  produced  35.000  poods 
of  madder  roots,  valued  at  47,000f.  Rice  grows  almost 
everywhere  except  in  the  highlands ;  and  sa8h>n  is  pro- 
duce<l  in  great  quantities  in  the  eastern  provinces. 

There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  graat  mineral  wealth 
IS  concealed  ia  the  mountains,  but  hitherto  nothing  of  any 
importance  has  been  discovered.  The  present  commerce  of 
these  countries  by  the  Caspian  Sea  is  carried  on  from  the 
ports  of  Derbend,  Baku,  Sbamakbi,  and  Lenkoran,  to  Per- 
sia and  to  Ash'akan.  The  overland  trade  is  with  Russia 
ond  Petfiia,  as  well  as  with  Asiatic  Turkey.  The  commerce 
by  the  Blark  Sea  is  carried  on  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rion 
with  Odessa  and  other  Russian  ports,  as  well  as  with  Con- 
stantinople ;  and  there  u  a  small  traffic  with  the  highlanden 
of  tlie  Caucasus. 
The  svstem  of  taxation  is  of  the  most  opprassive  and 
lid  cWacter;  nui  is  iwdeied  puticuUrly  vexatioua  by 


the  numerous  monopolies  which  exist  in  t««eral  pUcee.aad 
by  the  duties  which  are  levied  on  goods  passing  fVom  one 
province  to  another.  These  duties  were  established  by  t4ie 
petty  princes  who  formerly  possessed  the  dominion  of  this 
country ;  but  although  the  separate  states  are  now  united, 
the  former  customs  and  duties  still  remain. 

The  amount  of  the  population  is  exceedingly  doubt  fu 
Of  the  several  conflicting  estimates  the  only  one  on  which 
any  reliance  can  be  placed  is  the  official  returns  of  th^ 
population  of  some  of  the  provinces  entirely  subject  io 
Russia,  and  which  we  shall  give  under  the  special  desri  ip- 
tion  of  each. 

The  government  of  these  countries  is  concentrated  in  th« 
person  of  the  governor-general,  who  resides  at  TiHis,  at-i 
who  is  at  the  same  time  commander  of  a  considerable  n.h- 
tary  force  called  the  Caucasian  oorps.  The  governor- 
general  determines  all  the  civil  and  military  affaira  of  thc«« 
provinces,  and  directs  the  minor  diplomatic  relations  w«u 
the  neighbouring  countries. 

The  ecclesiastical  affaira  of  the  Armenian  church  are 
directed  by  their  patriarch,  who  resides  at  Echmiadzin; 
and  those  of  the  Georgian  churoh  by  the  Catholicoa,  or 
metropolitan  of  Georgia.  The  religious  concerns  of  th« 
Mohammedans  are  directed  by  a  mooshtend,  who  is  acknow- 
ledged by  the  Russian  government  as  ibe  religious  chief 
of  the  Mohammedan  inhabitants  of  the  country. 

The  country  is  politically  divided  into  the  following  pr:^ 
vinces: — Georgia  Proper,  the  Armenian  provinces,  the  pro- 
vinces  of  Daghestan,  Akhalxik,  Imiretia,  the  provinces  of 
Shirvan,  Sheki,  Talish,  and  Karebagh.  Besides  tbe^e 
provinces,  which  are  incorporated  in  the  Russian  empirr. 
the  fullowin^  states  acknowledge  her  sovereignty  or  cla.tii 
her  protection,  although  they  are  governed  by  naTi\« 
princes  *—MingTelia«  Gooria  or  Gouriel,  and  some  fK'^ttv 
states  in  the  Daghestan.  Many  highland  tribc«  areonti 
nominal  vassals  of  Russia,  and,  instead  of  submitting  to  h<.r 
commands,  are  constantly  at  war  with  her. 

Georgia  Proper  consists  of  the  former  kingdoms  of  Kak- 
bet  and  Kartli,  which  were  united  under  the  dommatidn 
of  Heraclius  II.,  in  the  eighteenth  century.  It  oontaiiiAv 
according  to  official  returns,  together  with  the  districts  of 
Borchalin,  Kasakh,  Shamshadil,  Bambaco-Shooraghel.  a:  •! 
Elixabethpol,  joined  to  it  by  the  Russian  government.  ari<i 
inhabited  by  Mohammedans  and  Armenians,  a  popula'.i  .r. 
of  225,395  males,  inhabiting  61,201  houses,  on  a  surfa'v 
of  46,400  square  verats.*  The  principal  town  is  Tiflis.  iht* 
antient  metropolis  of  Georgia,  and  at  present  the  seat  <./ 
government  for  all  the  Caucasian  provinces  of  Russia.  I » 
u  situated  in  41^  40^  N.  lat.,  and  45^  16'  E.  long.,  an : 
extends  along  both  banks  of  the  river  Koor  for  about  «. 
English  miles.  In  its  external  appearance  it  pre*»cn(s  s 
striking  diveraity,  produced  by  the  mixture  of  Oriental  arr^i 
European  civilization.  The  town  is  surrounded  on  the 
south  and  west  by  a  ridge  of  barren  rocks;  and  on  th«* 
north,  the  Caucasus,  with  its  snow-covered  tops»  is  with..i 
sight.  This  contrast  with  the  fertile  valley  in  which  Tifi.«> 
is  situated  amidst  orehaids  and  vineyards  gives  to  tl»» 
town  a  very  picturesque  and  pleasing  appearance.  Th< 
population  amounts  to  26,000  souls,  compoeed  chiefly  -f 
Armenians,  a  much  smaller  number  of  Cfeorgians,  a  fv« 
Mohammedans  and  German  colonists  settled  in  its  imnu^ 
diate  vicinity,  besides  the  Russian  troops,  ci\il  ofBeers  an<l 
merehants.  The  inhabitants  of  Tiflis,  Armenians  as  veK 
as  Georgians,  bear  a  very  bad  character,  and  are  said  tu 
have  all  the  vices  which  are  produced  bv  long  oppression, 
united  with  a  greediness  after  gain.  Such  however  is  n«  t 
the  character  of  the  Georgians  of  the  country ;  and  in<WcU 
a  nation  which  has  preserved  its  religion  notwithstaadinc 
ages  of  peniecution,  and  which  has  seised  every  opportunit% 
of  regaining  its  independence,  has  a  just  claim  to  ^>tuf 
respeK.  The  Georgians  who  inhabit  the  country  ha%'tf  tlkr 
reputation  of  being  exceedingly  attadied  to  their  rcli.'.>  n 
and  country,  honest,  simple-hearted,  laborious,  and  brav  «• 
These  honourable  qualities  are  tinged  with  an  admixiuro  « f 
vanity,  irascibility,  and  some  other  defects  eommun  to  lt*>< 
civilized  nations. 

The  language  of  Georgia  bean  a  great  rceembUnce  U 
the  Armenian.  The  Armenian  historians  say  that  n:e%iou« 
to  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Georgia  'formea  a  part 
of  Armenia,  but  was  separated  from  it  during  the  <x>ui(.>ii- 
tion  produced  in  Asia  by  the  wars  of  that  conqueror  a..  I 
his  Buocesson;  and  that  since  that  time  the  languaje  J 

•  U  BsiibB  fvrate  st*  •cmd  w  I  £«|UaD  wis. 


GEO 


174 


GEO 


and  <»tben  by  nfttlvM  called  laudjac-begi^  who^  uutMid  of  a 
salary,  receive  the  revenue  of  certain  estates*  as  was  the 
case  under  the  Turkish  dominon.  They  all  however  denend 
u|K)U  the  Russian  governor  residing  at  the  townof  Akhalxik. 
The  principal  towns  are :   Akhalzik,  the  capital  of  the 

Erovioce,  a  fortress  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  the  cele- 
rated  queen  Thamar.  It  contains  13,600  inhabitants. 
Akalkalaki,  also  a  fortress,  has  1000,  and  Khertvis  600  in- 
habitants. * 

The  Armeman  prcmnees  are  compoflad  of  the  khanats 
of  Erivan  and  Naahichevan,  ceded  to  Rusu  by  Persia  in 
1828.  [Erivajt.]  They  contain  a  surface  of  about  11,000 
square  vcrsts,  a  great  jpart  of  which  is  hilly,  besides  the 
mountain  of  Ararat  There  are  however  many  nlains  with 
a  very  fertile  soil.  The  products  of  Erivan  are  tne  same  as 
those  of  Georgia,  but  with  the  addition  of  a  kind  of  cochi- 
neal, called  by  the  natives  red  worms,  and  which,  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Hamel  (a  learned  naturalist),  are  a  kind  of 
insect  which  has  never  yet  been  described*  They  are 
murh  larger  than  the  American,  and  are  found  on  the  roots 
of  a  plant  called  by  Baron  Marshal  Biberstein  ('  Flora  Tauro- 
Caucasica')  I\m  pungetiM,  and  by  the  Acadeioician  Trinius 
jEluropua  Upvis.  Mr.  Hamel  maintains  that  this  is  as  fit 
for  dyeing  purposes  as  the  American  cochineaL  Though  its 
use  is  now  exceedingly  limited,  it  may  become  a  very  im- 
portant article  of  commerce.  The  population,  according  to 
the  official  returns  of  1834,  consistea  of  22,336  ikmilies,  con- 
taining 65,300  males,  of  whom  29,690  were  Mohammedans, 
and  the  rest  Armenians. 

Besides  the  tovm  of  Erivan,  the  most  remarkable  places 
of  the  province  are,  the  important  fortresa  of  Sardar  Abad, 
and  the  convent  of  Echmiadsin,  the  residence  of  the  Arme- 
nian patriarch. 

The  province  of  Nakhichevan,  which  forms  the  south- 
eastern part  of  Russian  Armenia,  is  divided  into  two  dis- 
tricts :  Nakhichevan,  and  Ordoobad.  The  former  contains 
about  3000  square  versts.  inhabited  by  6538  fiunilies,  of 
whom  26 78  are  Armenians,  and  the  rest  Mohammedans. 
According  to  the  official  returns  of  1832,  the  number  of 
males  was  16,095.  The  climate  of  the  hilly  part  of  this 
district  is  heilthy,  but  in  the  plains  it  is  exceedingly  hot 
and  unwholesome.  It  contains  some  valuable  salt>mines. 
The  town  of  Nakhichevan*  situated  in  38°  59'  N.  lat., 
was  in  antient  times  one  of  the  most  important  cities  of  the 
Armenian  empire,  and  the  Persian  historians  relate  that  it 
then  oontainea  40,000  houses.  It  has  been  many  times 
captured  and  sacked,  yet  when  it  was  visited  by  Sir  John 
Chardin,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  it  contained  2000 
houses,  besides  numerous  caravanserays,  baths,  and  other 

Sublic  building.  Extensive  ruins  attest  the  former  gran- 
our  of  that  city,  which  has  now  a  population  of  only  1330 
families,  comprehending  2870  male  individuals,  although 
the  circumference  of  the  town  is  about  four  English  miles. 
Not  far  from  Nakhichevan  is  the  fortress  of  Abbasabad, 
constructed  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Araxes  by  some  French 
engineers  in  the  Persian  service. 

The  district  of  Ordoobad  contains  about  1200  squaro 
versts,  inhabited  by  a  population  of  3160  males,  of  whom 
2157  are  Mohammedans,  and  the  rest  Armenians.  The 
district  of  Ordoobad  being  very  fertile  and  enjoving  a  par- 
ticularly healthy  climate,  has  been  named  *  the  earlhlv 
paradise.*  The  chief  place  of  the  district  is  Ordoobad, 
which  contains  about  600  houses. 

TAe  Mussulman  Provinees.^A  large  tract  of  land  extend- 
ing along  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  containing 
the  present  provinces  of  Baku,  Derbend,  Shirvan,  Kooba, 
Sheki,  with  the  peninsula  of  Apsheron  and  the  island  of 
8alyan»  once  formed  a  part  of  Albania,  which  belonged  to  the 
powerful  monarchy  of  Armenia  till  the  sixth  century,  when 
being  conquered  by  the  Sassanide  monaroh  of  Persia,  Khos- 
ix>o  Nooshirvan,  it  assumed  the  name  of  Shirvan.  For 
some  time  afterwaids  it  had  its  independent  lovereigns,  who 
took  the  title  of  Shah,  but  were  obliged,  towards  the  end  of 
the  ninth  century,  to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the 
khaliphs. 

The  rulers  of  Shirvan  long  continued  powerful,  and  had 
fVequent  wars  with  Persia.  In  the  beginning  of  the  fif- 
teenth century.  Emir  Ibrahim  of  Shirvan  conquered  Azer- 
bijan,  took  Tauris,  and  even  Ispahan,  the  capital  of  Persia. 
But  the  terrible  ro volutions  which  agitated  that  country, 
towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  brought  it  under 
the  dominion  of  Persia,  and  Shirvan  never  recovered  its 
independence.     Divided  among  several  rulers  nominated 


i«".' . I 


by  the  Shah*  it  remained  under  the  dominion  of  V 
until  it  was  gradually  invaded  and  finally  subiu<j^iL^] 
Russia. 

Shirvan  borders  on  the  province  of  Kooba  on  the  n> 
on  the  east,  on  that  of  Baku  and  the  Caspian  Sea ;  i-.* 
south,  on  a  bay  of  the  same  sea,  and  tne  pruMnc* 
Talish  and  Karabagh ;  and  on  the  west,  on  the  prov  < 
of  Sheki.    The  surface  of  the  whole  province,  includin^.- 
island  of  Salyan,  is  estimated  at  1 4,500  square  ver»L«. 
contains  many  plains,  and,  except  in  the  mountainouA  )»■ 
is  exceedingly  lertile.    The  climate  in  the  plains  ali-uu 
shores  of  the  Caspian  is  very  hot  and  unhealthy,  but  > 
high  temperature,  with  the  great  fertility  of  the  soil,  ici 
it  capable  of  producing  many  tropical  plants. 

The  bulk  of  the  population  of  Shirvan  consists  i.4  . 
Tahtar,  or,  to  speak  more  correctly,  Turkish  race,  with  %  •!!' 
admixture  of  Arabs  and  Persians.    It  may  be  divid«;d  :  . 
several  classes ;  as  the  hm  and  agas,  or  nobles,  the  r;*.* 
the  maafs,  the  maaf-nooaers,  and  the  peasanta.    All  u.    • 
distinctions  originated  under  the  former  native  pA« 
ments,  and  are  rather  connived  at  than  maiutain4«i  • 
Ruiaia.    The  begs  are  the  landowners,  to  whom  the  y  .- 
sants  living  on  their  lands  are  obliged  to  make  certain  \   * 
ments  in  monev,  and  others  also  in  kind  or  in  labour,      i 
dignity  of  the  beg  was  granted  by  the  sovereign,  and  < 
tinned  in  the  family  more  by  custom  than  by  law.     1 
title  of  aga  is  given  to  those  individuals  who  are  denct-i.   . 
from  the  fommes  of  the  khans.  The  clergy  enjoy  great  i 
sideration  among  the  natives,  being  the  expounders  of  . . 
Koran,  by  which  not  only  the  religious  but  the  civil  oun^t.  -  - 
of  the  Mohammedans  are  regulated.    The  maafs  axe  iii-  i\ 
duals  exempted  from  every  tax  and  duty,  generally  ouU  i>  : 
certain  period.  This  immunity  was  acquired  either  b>  ^*  . 
services  rendered  to  the  khans  or  by  purchase.   The  n;^-.: 
nookers  were  exempted  from  the  payment  of  every  kui. 
taxes,  but  were  under  an  obligation  to  serve  the  khan  in  :  • 
field,  and  to  perform  certain  services,  such  as  the  carry. ;..    - 
despatches,  collecting  imposts,  &c    The  peasants  an*  « 
free,  and  there  are  no  serfs  among  the  Mohammc«lan» 
the  Caucasian  provinces.     The  merchants,  artisans,    . 
other  inhabitants  of  towns  pay  no  direct  taxes  ti>  ;■ 
government,  but  are  obliged  to  provide  miUtaiy  quart  .  •. 
horses,  or  cattle  for  military  transport,  and  to  coninhutc  : 
the  maintenance  of  public  buildings,   &c    Be^ide?«   r 
Mohammedans,  who  form  the  mass  of  the  popnlation,  th'  *< 
are  many  Armenians,  some    Jews,  and   a  lew  Git>>  .  - 
According  to  the  ofiicial  returns  of  1631,  the  nuni)*-.r  . 
males   belonginjg   to   the  Mohammedan   populatuio   v .. 
62,934;  Armenians,  6,375;  Jews,  332:  total  males,  6.^  . 

The  prevalent  language  of  Shirvan  is  what  u  t  l*  « 
called  Toorkee  or  Turkish,  which  is  also  used  in  At<t 
bijan. 

The  principal  products  of  Shirvan  are  nee,  silk,  m 
some  cotton,  and  tobacco.     The  climate,  particular  It 
that  part  which  is  called  the  Island  of  Salyan,  and  wl 
is  in  fact  the  Delta  of  the  Koor,  is  so  warm  and  tio  frr:  . 
that  it  would  produce  in  the  greatest  abundance  rr.*  * 
tropical  plants,  but  its  natural  advantages  have  hut,<' 
been  turned   to  little  account    This  island  baa  also  r 
fisheries,  which  bring  in  to  the  government  on  an  avc  i ... 
an  annual  revenue  of  about  28,000/.    The  industry     - 
Shirvan  consists  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  silken  >-i  -'- 
which  are  concentrated  in  the  town  of  Old  Shanakhe^  • 
some  villages  in  its  vicinity,  and  which  occupy  about  r 
looms,  each  requiring  the  co-operation  of  four  indixiOL^  * 
There  are  also  some  cotton  manufoctures  as  well  as  a  i.  j 
tanneries  in  the  same  place.  The  district  of  Laguish«  «  h    .. 
is  situated  in  the  mountains  and  in  a  very  cold  and  bar.- . 
region,  ia  inhabited  by  a  population  entirely  distinct  tr  ■» 
that  of  the  rest  of  Shirvan,  who  are  exclusively  employ  e*i    . 
the  fabrication  of  arms,  copper  vessels,  and  sundr>  roc 
wares,  from  which  they  derive  oonsiderable  profit  as  i«  * 
parent  from  their  condition  being  superior  to  that  ol  i   . 
rest  of  the  inhabitants  of  Shirvan.    The  commerce  «}.    - 
is  carried  on  with  Persia  by  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  v 
Astrakan  and  Tiflis  overland,  is  not  oonsiderable. 

The  chief  place  of  the  province  is  the  town  of  Old  Si^j- 
mahkee,  which  was  celebrated  for  its  trade  duniii;  t!:f 
middle  ages,  when  it  was  the  chief  mart  and  the  crni'i^  ' 
that  commercial  intercourse  whidi  we  have  alruidv  •  •■> 
scribed.  It  continued  to  be  an  important  city,  iwiw. 
standing  the  change  of  the  above-mentioned  rommm-u 
route,  as  well  aa  many  political  vioiasitudes ;  and  it  wax  .u 


GEO 


175 


a  JB  O 


the  most  flomriflhing  condition  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  centnrj,  when  it  was  socked  (1717;  in  the  most 
barbarous  manner  by  the  highlanders  of  Daghestan.  Since 
that  time  Shamahkee  has  never  recovered  its  antient  splen- 
dour, and  it  is  now  inhabited,  according  to  the  omcial 
returns  of  1832,  by  only  2233  &milies. 

The  khanat  of  Taligh,  being  situated  between  38^  31' 
and  39'^31'N.  lat,  is  the  most  southern  possession  of 
Russia.  On  the  north  it  borders  on  the  steppe  of  Moghan, 
which  makes  part  of  Shirvan ;  on  the  east,  on  the  Caspian 
Sea;  and  on  the  south  and  west  it  is  enclosed  by  the 
Persdan  dominions.  This  province  is  entirely  mountamous, 
with  the  exception  of  one  great  plain,  which  runs  between 
the  mountains  and  the  sea,  and  contains  about  3000  sauai-e 
vorsts.  Its  soil,  with  few  exceptions,  is  a  black  loam 
capable  of  producing  the  most  luxuriant  vegetation.  This 
richness  of  the  sou,  combined  with  a  hot  climate  and 
abundance  of  water,  renders  it  practicable  to  cultivate  va- 
rious tropical  products  on  the  plain  of  Talish ;  and  many 
persons  who  have  examined  the  country  consider  that  the 
su'.^ar-cane,  cotton  of  the  finest  quality,  indieo,  and  the 
orange-tree,  &c.,  would  succeed  perfectly ;  while  the  slopes 
of  the  mountains  are  very  favourable  to  the  cultivation  of 
the  vine,  as  well  as  the  almond,  olive,  and  other  trees  which 
rei|uire  a  dry  boU.  At  present  the  state  of  agriculture  is 
very  low,  and  the  greatest  part  of  the  grounds  are  only  used 
as  pastures. 

The  climate,  which  is  now  rather  unhealthy  on  account 
of  the  great  number  of  marshy  grounds,  may  be  improved 
by  draining  these  swamps,  which  contain  an  extraordinary 
quantity  of  snakes  and  other  venomous  reptiles.  It  is  a 
l^at  advantage  to  the  khanat  of  Talish  Uiat  it  is  situated 
along  the  sea-coast,  which  offers  great .  facilities  to  its 
commerce.  It  has  two  ports,  or  rather  roadsteads :  Lenkoran, 
wlu'ch  is  80  shallow  that  vessels  can  never  approach  the 
coast  nearer  than  one  mile,  and  are  frequently  obliged  to 
anchor  even  at  a  greater  distance;  and  Sara,  which  is  the 
best  port  in  the  Caspian  Sea.  Sara  is  situated  on  the 
north-western  side  of  a  little  island  of  the  same  name,  and 
M  about  2)  English  miles  from  tlie  shore.  Vessels  drawing 

14  feet  water  can  come  within  150  fathoms  of  the  coast.  It 
is   the  usual  station  of  the  Russian  war  flotilla. 

The  population  of  the  khanat  of  Talish  is  of  the  same 
deiscription  as  that  of  the  province  of  Shirvan,  and  all  that 
w«  have  said  respecting  it  is  applicable  to  the  inhabitants 
or  Talish.  The  amount  of  tne  population  seems  not  to 
hnre  been  exactly  ascertained.  There  are  some  few  wan- 
dering tribes,  who  live  in  a  very  wild  state,  and  are  much 
ai^dicted  to  predatory  habits.  The  industry  of  Talish  u 
in  a  very  low  state,  and  limited  to  the  production  of  some 
sdk,  rice,  honey,  &c.  Tlie  manufiictures  supplv  a  few  silk 
and  cotton  stuffs.    The  chief  and  only  town  of  the  province 

15  Lenkoran,  in  38*  43'  N.  lat.  and  48**  54'  £.  long.    It  is  a 
« notched  place,  with  about  500  houses. 

The  province  of  KandMgh,  which  is  separated  on  the 
«outh  by  the  Araxes  from  the  Persian  dominions,  and 
enclosed  on  all  other  sides  by  the  Russian  provinces  of 
Shirvan,  Sheki,  Slizabethpol,  Nakhichevan,  and  Erivan, 
has  an  area  of  about  13,000  souare  versts.  Prom  its  exten- 
sive forests,  it  has  received  the  name  of  Karabagh,  which 
Mt^mfies,  in  the  Turko-Tahtar  language, '  a  black  garden.' 
Many  parts  are  covered  with  hills;  Uie  nighest,  called  Saree 
i>iira,  is  5000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Caspian.  These 
hills  are  generally  covered  with  wood  or  fine  grass,  and 
barren  rocks  are  very  rare.  There  is  a  great  plain  which 
contains  about  2400  square  versts,  and  a  soil  almost  univer- 
:<ally  fertile;  even  the  greatest  part  of  the  hills  are  covered 
wixii  a  black  loam.  The  climate  in  the  high  parts  is  rather 
CT>]d.  The  plains  are  hot  and  unhealthy.  Besides  the  Koor 
and  the  Araxes,  the  province  is  drain^  bv  a  great  number 
of  small  rivers  and  mountain  streams,  which  afford  great 
fticitities  for  irrigation.  The  products  of  Karabagh,  owing 
to  the  hilly  character  of  the  country,  are  those  of  a  mode- 
rate rather  than  a  warm  climate,  and  the  forest-trees  are 
of  the  same  description  as  those  of  Europe,  and  supply 
timber  of  the  best  quality.  The  mineral  products  consist 
of  a  small  quantity  of  naphtha,  copper,  ana  salt,  collected 
fr\>m  lakes. 

The  population  of  Karabagh,  according  to  the  official 
returns  of  1832,  consisted  of  13,965  Mohammedan  and  1491 
Armenian  families,  besides  some  Nestorian  Christians  and 
Gipsies.  This  limited  population  may  be  ascribed  to  the 
frequent  wars  which  have  long  desolated  the  province,  and 


to  the  emigration  to  Persia  of  many  Mohammedan  families 
since  its  subiecfion  to  Russia,  altnougli  many  Armenians 
were  inducea  by  the  Russian  government,  after  the  peace 
of  Toorkmanchay,  to  emigrate  n-om  Persia  to  Karabagh. 

All  that  has  been  said  of  the  Mohammedan  population 
of  Shirvan  and  Talish  is  equally  applicable  to  that  of 
Karabagh,  with  the  exception  that,  oesides  the  two  Mo- 
hammedan sects  of  the  Shiites  and  Soonnees,  there  is  a  third, 
called  Aliallaga.  Its  followers  are  distinguished,  besides  a 
particular  veneration  for  Ali,  by  abstinence  from  tobacco 
and  snuff,  which  is  carried  so  far,  that  they  shun  the  inter- 
course of  those  who  make  use  of  them ;  but  they  drink 
wine  and  distilled  liquors. 

The  Armenians  of  Karabagh  have  a  nobility,  consisting 
of  some  families  to  whom  Shah  Abbas  the  Great  granted 
the  title  of  melibks  or  princes,  which  is  enjoyed  by  their  de- 
scendants. They  have  a  numerous  clergy,  comprising  two 
archbishops,  many  bishops,  abbots,  and  several  convents, 
besides  the  secular  clergjy.  Both  clergy  and  laity  are  very 
ignorant,  and  their  religious  observances  are  much  relaxed. 
Anybody  who  is  married  to  a  virgin,  and  is  able  to  read, 
may  become  a  priest  by  remaining  in  a  churchy  or  a  room 
attached  to  it,  during  forty  days  and  nights,  and  reading 
the  Scriptures.  Having  passed  this  probation,  he  is  conse- 
crated by  the  local  bishop ;  but  should  the  priest,  after 
having  lost  his  first  wife,  manv  again,  he  loses  his  sacred 
character.  The  Armenians  oi  Karabagh  have  intermin- 
gled with  their  religion  many  Mohammedan  and  even 
Pagan  rites  and  customs.  Tliey  are  called  to  the  church 
by  a  public  crier,  and  enter  it  without  uncovering  their 
heads.  At  the  baptism  they  give  Mohammedan  names  to 
their  children,  and  sacrifice  several  kinds  of  animals  and 
birds  to  the  saints  at  the  entrance  of  churches.  The 
Nestonans  have  emigrated  into  Karabagh  from  Persia 
since  the  treaty  of  Toorkmanchay. 

The  only  town  in  Karabagh  is  Shooshee,  situated  on  a 
high  rocky  mountain,  about  4000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Caspian.  It  is  fortified  by  nature  and  a  little  by  art :  it 
contains  about  1700  houses.  The  population  is  composed 
of  762  Armenian  and  936  Mohammedan  frimilies.  The 
Missionary  Society  of  Basel  has  an  establishment  at  Shoo- 
shee, composed  of  a  few  missionaries,  who  maintain  gratui- 
tously a  school  for  the  natives,  where,  besides  the  Christian 
religion,  are  taught  the  Armenian  language,  arithmetic, 
and  geography,  as  well  as  the  Greek  and  English  languages. 
The  missionaries  have  also  a  small  printing-office,  in  which 
they  print  some  religious  tracts  and  schoonbooks  in  Arme- 
nian. There  are  also  two  Armenian  schools,  one  for  boys, 
and  another  for  girls ;  and  7  Mohammedan  schools,  besides 
one  established  by  the  Russian  government. 

The  province  of  Sheki  is  situated  between  40'  lO'  and 
41°  16' N.  lat.,  and  45°  56'  and  48°  7'B.  long.  On  the 
north  it  borders  on  a  part  of  the  Caucasian  ridge  called  Sal- 
vat-dagh  and  Shak-dagh,  bv  which  it  is  separated  from 
several  independent  tribes  of  the  Lesghis ;  on  the  east  on 
the  province  of  Shirvan ;  on  the  south  on  that  of  Karabagh  ; 
and  on  the  west  on  the  territory  of  the  sultan  of  Elisooy 
and  the  district  of  Elizabethpol.  Its  length  from  north  to 
south  is  something  more  than  70  English  miles,  and  its 
breadth  in  the  northern  part  about  the  same  ;  but  it  nar^ 
rows  towards  the  south.  The  surface  is  calculated  at  about 
9000  square  versts.  The  country  is  generally  mouutainous:, 
but  there  are  also  some  level  tracts ;  the  climate  is  temper- 
ate, except  during  the  few  summer  months,  when  the  heat 
becomes  oppressive  in  the  plains.  The  products  consist  of 
different  kinds  of  grain,  which  are  cultivated  in  the  billy 
part  Silk  is  produced  in  the  plains :  this  latter  branch  of 
mdustry  has  of  late  made  great  progress,  and  may  become 
very  important  by  the  improvements  introduced  into  the 
preparation  of  the  silk  by  an  establishment  fur  preparing  it 
after  the  European  manner,  which  was  made  by  the  govern- 
ment in  1829.  Some  cotton  is  also  cultivated  in  the 
plains;  but  although  circumstances  are  favourable  to  its 
growth,  it  is  now  produced  to  a  very  small  amount,  and  of 
a  rather  inferior  kind.  Some  silks  of  a  good  quality  are 
manufactured  by  the  women  in  several  villages.  Great 
fiocks  of  sheep  and  cattle  are  reared  in  the  province. 

The  population  of  Sheki  amounts,  according  to  the  offi 
cial  returns  of  1833,  in  the  town  of  Nookha,  and  270  vil- 
lages, or  nomadic  encampments,  to  21,264  families,  consist- 
ing of  55,773  males.  This  number  comprehends  46,300 
Mohammedans,  8938  Armenians,  and  485  Jews.  What 
has  been  said  about  the  Mohammedan  and  Armenian 


G  EO 


176 


GEO 


poiAlationfl  of  iha  other  provinoes  ii  applicaUo  to  tlioM^of 
Sheki.    The  Jews  are  engaged  in  a  petty  retail  trade. 

Nookha,  the  chief  place  of  the  province,  contains  about 
6000  inhabitants.  It  is  in  a  yalley,  inclosed  on  all  sides  by 
mountains,  a  circumstance  which  prevent  a  free  circulation 
of  air,  and  accounts  for  the  unhealthiness  of  the  place. 
Sheki,  which  is  now  a  small  village,  must  have  been  a  con- 
siderable place,  since  it  has  given  its  name  to  the  whole 
province.  Fit-daghf  a  little  fortress  situated  on  a  mountain 
of  the  same  name,  has  naturally  a  very  strong  position, 
and  in  former  times  served  as  a  place  of  refuge  to  the 
khan,  when  he  was  defeated  by  his  enemies. 

Baku  is  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  between  48** 
9' and  50**  12' B.  long.  A  great  part  of  this  province  is 
formed  by  the  peninsula  of  Apsheron,  which  juts  into 
the  Caspian  Sea.  Its  surface  is  calculated  at  about  2800 
square  versts ;  the  soil  is  generally  poor,  and  the  climate, 
although  hot,  is  not  unhealthy.  Among  the  natural 
productions  of  the  province,  the  most  remarkable  is 
naphtha  or  petroleum,  which  is  found  in  great  quantity 
close  to  the  shores  of  the  Caspian.  It  is  drawn  from 
wells  dug  in  the  ground.  There  are  two  kinds  of  naphtha, 
the  white  and  the  black:  it  is  exported  to  Persia,  and 
partly  oensumed  in  the  Caucasian  provinces,  where  it  is 
used  for  lighting  the  houses.  There  are  many  salt  lakes 
on  tbe  peninsula  of  Apsheron,  which  furnish  a  great  quan- 
tity of  salt.  The  population,  according  to  the  official  returns, 
amounts  to  15,128  male  individuals.  They  are  generally 
Mohammedans,  of  the  Shiite  sect ;  all  that  has  been  said 
about  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  inhabitants  of  other 
Mohammedan  provinces  is  equally  applicable  to  them. 
They  are  however  more  industrious  than  the  other  Moham- 
medansi  and  are  in  a  comparatively  better  condition.  The 
active  commerce  which  is  carried  on  by  Baku  on  the  Cas- 
pian Sea  greatly  favours  their  industry.    [Baku.] 

The  province  of  Kooba  borders  on  that  of  Baku  on  the 
south.  It  contains  a  surface  of  about  10,500  square  versts. 
The  western  part  of  the  province  is  hilly ;  but  there  are  ex- 
tensive plains  of  the  most  fertile  soil  along  the  shores  of 
the  Caspian.  The  climate,  is  rather  cold  in  the  mountains, 
but  warm  in  the  plains.  The  country  produces  in  abundance 
every  kind  of  corn,  with  some  rice,  cotton,  silk,  and  tobacco. 
Numerous  flocks  graze  on  the  rich  pastures.  Tlie  popula- 
tion, according  to  the  official  returns  of  1832,  amounts  to 
46,094  males,  who  are  Mohammedans.  Kooba,  the  capital, 
and  the  only  town  of  the  province,  contains  about  650 
wretched  houses,  built  in  an  irregular  manner. 

Derbend  has  already  been  described.    [Deruend.] 

AH  the  above-mentioned  provinces  are  governed  by  Rus- 
siafi  military  commanders. 

Having  described  the  Russian  provinces  which  constitute 
the  government  of  Georgia,  we  shall  give  a  brief  sketch  of 
those  countries  which,  having  preserved  their  national 
rulers,  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  Russia,  and  are  de- 
pendent on  the  governor-general  of  Georgia. 

Mingrelia. — This  principality,  which  extends  alone  the 
banks  of  the  Rion,  or  Phasis,  was  well  known  in  antiquity 
under  the  name  of  Colchis.  It  became  subject  to  the  Romans ; 
and  after  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins  formed 
a  province,  or  at  least  a  dependency  of  the  empire  of  Tre- 
bizond.  The  Turks  took  possession  of  it  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  but  left  the  government  to  the 
native  princes,  who  continued  vassals  of  the  Porte  till  the 
treaty  of  Kaynargee  in  1774,  between  Russia  and  Turkey, 
bv  which  Mingrelta  was  declared  independent.  In  1804, 
Creorge  Dadian,  prince  of  Mingrelia,  acknowledged  himself 
a  vassal  of  Russia ;  and  his  son  and  successor  Levan  Da- 
dian (Dadian  is  their  family  name),  a  Russian  lieutenant- 
general,  is  the  present  ruler  of  that  country. 

Minsprelia  lies  between  42°  and  43'^N.lat^  and  41''  1 9' and 
42*  vy  E.  long.  On  the  north  it  borders  on  the  Caucasian 
range,  on  the  west  on  Abkhazia  and  the  Black  Sea,  on  tbe  east 
on  Imiretia,  and  on  the  south  on  Gooria.  Its  greatest  breadth 
is  60,  and  its  length  about  75  English  miles.  Its  surface 
is  calculated  at  about  1 0,000  square  versts.  The  soil,  climate, 
and  productions  are  the  same  as  those  of  Imiretia.  The 
population  amounts  to  90,000  souls,  and  consists  of  Min- 
grelians  and  Souanets.  with  a  few  Abkhazians,  Armenians, 
and  Jews.  The  Mingrelians  speak  a  dialect  of  the  Georgian 
language,  and  profess  the  Greek  religion.  They  have  an 
archbishop  and  three  bishops,  subject  to  the  spiritual  supre- 
macy of  the  Catholicos  of  Greorgia.  Their  political  divisions, 
und  their  mannert  and  customs,  are  the  same  as  those  of 


I  ;• 


L!t     .t 


Imiretia,  The  eonntiy  »  divided  into  taree  dietneti^  cali*' 
Sennakh,  Legchoom,  and  Zoogdeet,  and  the  territory  «r 
the  Souanets,  who  are  a  highland  tribe  profesaing  part  I  %  1 1. - 
Mohammedan  religion,  but  their  manners  and  eusioro»  -^^ 
very  little  known.  The  little  town  of  Sennakh  is  the  <  i  '•' 
place  of  the  country,  and  the  residence  of  the  soverpi. 
Russia  possesses  on  the  coast  the  fortresses  of  Rt^^u.- 
Kale  and  Anaklia. 

The  principality  of^ooria  has  long  been  governed  b>   .< 
own  sovereigns,  who  are  descendants  of  the  Geor^.;.. 
dynasty,  and  have  been  vassals  to  the  Ottoman  Porte  »i:i'> 
the  16th  centurv.  In  1810  its  ruler  became  vassal  of  Ri.-  . 
He  left  on  his  death  a  son,  a  minor,  to  whom  the  siuti-* 
sion  to  the  throne  was  confirmed  by  the  Russian  f;T>\  l  r :: 
ment,  under  the  regency  of  his  mother,  the  Princess  Swpn 
with  a  Council  of  the  first  nobles  of  the  country*.     1 .. 
Princess  Sophia,  not  being  satisfied  with  the  Ru&siau  { : 
tection,  opened  negotiations  with  the  Turks  in  order  tc  • « * 
rid  of  it.     Her  intentions  were  discovered,  and   hhv    \    ■ 
obliged  to  flee  with  her  son  to  the  Turkish  domin.u  * 
Since  that  time  the  government  of  the  countrv  ba»  U  • 
intrusted  to  the  abovementioned  council  of  nobles,  witii  « 
Russian  field-ofiicer  at  its  head,  and  dependent  on  the  Kn* 
sian  commander  in  Imiretia. 

Gooria  lies  between  41"  40'  and  42''  5'  N.  lat;  it  . 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Mingrelia,  on  the  west  hy  in 
Black  Sea,  on  the  east  by  Imiretia,  and  on  the  south  i-; 
the  Turkish  possessions. 

It  contains  about  1600  square  versts.  The  country  i%  v 
hilly,  and  covered  with  large  forests,  containing  excel  . 
timber  for  ship-building.    The  soil  is  exceedingly  f^rr 
the  products  are  the  same  as  those  of  Imiretia  and  M . 
grelia.     The  population,  which  consists  of  Georgian^  .. 
some  Armenians,  amounts  to  36,700  souls.     The  p^}  ... 
tion  is  divided  into  classes  of  princes,  nobles,  &c., 
Georgia. 

The  religion  is  Greek,  and  the  church  establishment  c 
sists  of  an  archbishop  and  two  bishops,  under  the  sp.nt 
superintendence  of  the  Catholicos  of  Georgia.    Tlie  coui. 
is  divided  into  two  districts,  Ozoorget  ana  Nagomar,  t 
containing  a  little  town  of  the  same  name.    The  moat  : 
portant  place  is  the  Russian  fortress  of  Poti,  at  the  m-j. 
of  the  nver  Rion.    It  was  taken  by  the  Russians  p  1  ? 
but  was  restored  to  the  Turks  at  the  peace  of  Bucbart-«: 
1812.    It  was  again  captured  bv  the  Russians  during  '  ^ 
last  war,  and  ceded  to  them  by  the  treaty  of  AdrianoLif  ..* 
1829. 

A  general  sketch  of  Daghestan  has  already  been  giu:.. 
[Daghkstan] 

We  shall  here  add  a  few  particulars  about  the  petty  j>i  •'  • 
which  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  Russia,  and  ane  t  • 
sidered  as  part  of  that  empire. 

The  possessions  of  the  Shamkhal  of  Tarkoo,  which  r 
tain  about  40,000  souls,  extend  along  the  Caspian  Sea    1 .  .• 
Shamkhal,  although  a  vassal  of  Russia,  governs  hi^   (   > 
sessions  with  unlimited  power.    His  dignity  dates  from  ^ 
time  when  the   Arabs  conquered  the  countr)';   anti 
name  is  Arabic,  signifying  *  the  Syrian  prince*  (from  S^i    \ 
Syria,  and  khal,  prince).    The  Shamkhals  had  bc^ti 
some  time  vassals  of  Persia,  and  had  the  title  of  \ «.  -. 
of  Daghestan.    Tliey  have  several  times  acknowledged  xr: 
supremacy  of  Russia,  but  it  is  only  since  1786  that  thv 
have  become  permanently  her  vassals.    Tarkoo,  the  capi^  U 
of  the  Shamkhal*s  dominions,  situated  near  the  Ca>ptjr, 
contains  a  population  of  8000  souls.    Near  it  is  the  tolU^  >* 
Boornaya,  which  is  garrisoned  by  Russian  troops.     T..- 
supremacy  of  the  Shamkhal  is  nominally  acknon  led j<  d 
by  the  Lesghian  tribe  of  Acoosha,  which  is  a  kmd  m(  re- 
public composed  of  about  10,000  families,  who  are  much 
addicted  to  predatory  habits,  and  are  ready  to  enter  i;.- 
service  of  any  body  who  will  pay  them.    They  never  »:ti.  k 
the  Shamkhal,  on  whose  pastures  they  are  permit  tin]  *. 
graze  their  Hocks.    Having  revolted,  they  were  defea    •. 
by  the  Russians  in  1819,  and  since  tliat  time  have  reniaiiui 
tranquiL 

The  other  vassal  pnnces  of  Russia  m  those  parts  arc  t'r.  - 
Ootsmey,  or  prince,  of  the  Karakaydans,  who  rules  o\«r  « 
population  of  about  69,000  souls;  and  the  Cadee  of  Ta^ii.^- 
scran,  having  a  population  of  about  50,000  souls. 

Lesghistan,  or  the  country  of  the  Lesghis. — ^The  Lr-cb  * 
inhabit  a  country  situated  between   DoghesUn.  Gwrs  :. 
the   Caucasus,   and    the    provinces  lately   acquire<l   t- 
Persia.    The  whole  surface  of  ^heir  country  is  oalcubuJ 


» k 


•ic 


GEO 


vm 


GEO 


fined  to  that  little  district.  It  is  intermingled  with  the 
Circassians  all  over  the  country  that  extends  along  the 
coast  of  the  Black  Sea  as  far  as  the  hanks  of  the  Koohan. 
Klaproth  estimates  their  population,  which  is  divided  into 
ten  tribes,  at  about  54,000  families.  The  ruins  of  many 
churches,  which  are  still  held  in  great  veneration  by  the 
natives,  prove  that  the  Christian  religion  was  once  esta- 
blished in  this  country :  the  exercise  of  it  however  seems  to 
have  been  dropped  among  the  Abasians  many  centuries 
as^o;  and  about  seventy  years  back  they  were  converted, 
ttirough  the  instrumentalityof  the  Turkish  government,  to 
the  Mohammedan  creed.  Their  Islamism  is  however  very 
im{)6rfect,  and  limited  to  some  rites  and  observances  pre- 
scribed by  the  Koran.  Their  country  is  fertile,  and  has 
many  large  forests,  which  contain  excellent  timber.  The 
climate  is  considered  healthy.  The  nation  is  divided  into 
four  classes — 1st,  the  nrinccs ;  2nd,  the  nobles;  3rd,  the 
liberated  serfs ;  4tb,  the  serfs.  They  resemble  in  many 
resnects  the  Circassians,  and  are  frequently  confounded 
with  them. 

The  great  and  little  Kabardahs  are  inhabited  by  Circas- 
sians who  have  submitted  to  Russians.  Their  population  is 
composed  of  about  15,000  families. 

General  observations  on  the  Caucasian  Highlanders. 
— ^Tho  general  characteristics  of  the  Caucasian  high- 
landers,  although  there  are  differences  among  them  in 
origin,  language,  and  many  other  respects,  are  a  strong  love 
of  independence  united  with  predatory  habits.  Robbery  is 
considered  the  most  honourable  occupation  of  a  free-born 
man,  and  the  greatest  reproach  that  a  Circassian  girl  can 
make  to  a  youni^  man  is,  '  You  have  not  been  able  to  steal 
even  a  cow.*  Tueir  education  and  their  earlv  habits  are 
calculated  to  inure  them  to  the  hardships  of  a  life  spent  in 
constant  danger.  A  Circassian  prince  never  educates  his 
son  at  home,  for  fear  of  his  being  spoiled  by  the  tender  care 
of  a  mother.  The  son  of  a  prince  is  entrusted  to  the  care 
of  some  noble  three  days  aher  his  birth,  and  the  &ther 
never  sees  him  before  his  marriage.  The  boy  remains  all 
this  time  with  his  tutor,  who  teaches  him  the  warlike 
exorcises  in  which  the  Circassians  excel.  He  undertakes 
with  him  the  first  warlike  expeditions,  and  chooses  for  him 
a  wife,  after  which  the  young  prince  returns  to  his  family. 
Hospitality  is  a  sacred  duty  amone  all  these  highlanders. 
AVhenever  a  Caucasian  has  receivecTa  person  into  his  house, 
ho  will  protect  liim  against  all  his  enemies,  even  at  the  risk 
of  his  life.  The  law  of  retaliation  is  more  strictly  enforced 
among  the  Caucasians  than  among  the  Beduin  Arabs :  to 
avenge  the  death  of  a  relation  becomes  a  sacred  obligation 
which  descends  from  father  to  son,  unless  the  quarrel  is 
settled  by  a  compensation  accepted  by  the  aggrieved 
party. 

Although  many  Caucasian  tribes  have  been  converted  to 
Mohammedanism,  the  most  part  of  them  may  be  callea 
idolaters,  as  they  frequently  worship  some  inanimate  objects. 
It  is  very  remarkable  that  the  prophet  Elijah  is  a  particular 
object  of  adoration  among  almost  all  the  Caucasian  tribes, 
both  Mohammedan  and  Pagan.  There  are  several  caverns 
in  different  parts  of  the  Caucasus  consecrated  to  this  pro- 
l)het,  where  the  inhabitants  assemble  on  certain  days  to 
offer  sacrifices  to  him.  If  a  person  is  killed  by  thunder,  the 
hii^hlanders  say  that  he  was  killed  by  the  prophet  Elijah, 
and  consider  it  a  great  blessing  for  him.  The  burial  of 
such  a  person  is  accompanied  with  the  songs  and  dances 
of  his  relations,  who  rejoice  in  his  death  instead  of  mourn- 
ing at  the  event  The  attempts  made  by  the  Russian  go- 
vernment to  civilize  the  Caucasian  highlanders  have  gene- 
rally proved  abortive.  There  are  many  mstances  of  in- 
dividuals belonging  to  those  tribes,  who  being  educated  in 
Russia  have  risen  to  a  high  rank  in  her  military  service, 
but  nevertheless  have  returned  to  their  own  country  and 
abandoned  European  manners  and  customs  for  those  of 
their  ancestors. 

GEORGIA,  the  most  southern  of  the  United  States  of 
North  America,  on  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It 
extends  fi-om  north  to  south  between  30**  32' and  35**  N.  lat, 
and  from  east  to  west  between  81^  and  85^  40'  W.  long.  Its 
length  is  300  miles,  its  greatest  breadth  280,  and  its  mean 
breadth  203  miles.  Its  area  is  61,000  square  miles,  or  about 
.1(100  square  miles  more  than  the  surface  of  England  and 
Wales  together. 

It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic.  On  the  south 
it  is  bounded  by  Florida  for  255  miles,  the  river  St,  Mary, 
coiutituting  the  bgundary-Uao  tbx  about  80  miles ;  on  the  west 


lies  Alabama,  with  a  boundary-line  of  306  milea.  On  the 
north  lie  the  States  of  Tenessee,  and  of  North  and 
South  Carolina.  Its  common  boundary  with  the  finit  i%  ^<% 
with  the  second  67,  and  with  the  last  260  milea.  The  Sa- 
vannah River  separates  Georgia  from  South  CartiUna,  amj 
the  Chattahoochee,  a  branch  of  the  Appalacbicolat  dividcA  i 
for  a  considerable  extent  from  Alabama. 

The  line  of  coast,  extending  105  miles  in  a  straight  lit^ 
runs   from    south-south-west  to  north-north -ea<t,  with  i 
slight  bend  westward.     Though  generally  unifurm   a«  r . 
course  from  point  to  point,  it  is  very  irregularly  indenii-^f. 
and  skirted  oy  numerous  islands,  which  are  low,  and    •> 
their  length  extend  parallel  to  the  shores.    The  prinni  .! 
of  these  islands  from  north  to  south  areTybce,  \Vaf-.i  •. 
Ossabow,  St  Catherine^  Sapello,  St.  Simons,  Jek)l,  at -l 
Cumberland.    These  islands,  as  well  as  some  tracts  on  tl  • 
adjacent  shore,  have  a  light  sandy  soil,  well  adapted  i  *: 
the  culture  of  cotton.    The  cotton  grown  here,   kiiii*. 
by  the    name  of   Sea-Island    cotton,    fetches    a   hi^K  r 
price  in  the  market  than  any  other.    The  inlets  snd  s^>uii';^ 
which  divide  the  islands  from  one  another,  and  pcnetrau 
several  miles  inland,  are  generally  very  shallow,  and  adiu.L 
only  vessels  of  less  than  100  tons.   Vessels  of  larger  dmu  n 
sions  can  enter  only  three  harbours.  The  bar  at  the  m^m''- 
of  St,Mary*s,  at  the  most  southern  extremity  of  the  Stau . 
has  thirteen  feet  of  water  on  it ;  that  at  the  mouth  uf  lU- 
Alatamaha,    between    St  Simons  and  Sapello,  fourtt   n 
feet,  and  the  embouchure  of  the  Savannah  sovente<.*n  f<   * 
of  water;  the  last-mentioned  river  is  navigable  for  lar^-.r 
vessels  to  the  city  of  Savannah. 

The  surface  of  Georgia  is  naturally  divided   into   tn  . 
regions,  a  plain  and  a  hilly  country.    The  boundur^'l.i.L 
between  them  is  indicated  by  the  falls  of  the  rivofs  wh:* :. 
occur  in  the  Savannah,  near  Augusta,  in  the  Oconee,  ne.ir 
Milledgeville,  in  the  Ocmulgee,  near  Macon,  in  the  Fl  :  t 
River,  at  Fort  Lawrence,  near  Knoxville,  and  in  the  Chatty 
hoochee,  near  Fort  Mitchell.  The  plain  which  occupies  U.^* 
country  south  of  this  line  extends  in  its  western  prolonga- 
tion through  the  states  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi  to  tbt* 
banks  of  the  river  Mississippi,  and  continues  north-ea^t«dr ! 
through  the  states  of  Soutn  and  North  Carolina  and  Vir 
ginia  to  Chesapeake  Bay.     In  Georgia  it  is  a  deail  fl^; 
along  the  shores  of  the  ocean,  with  a  sandy  soil,  which  pi 
duces  no  trees  but  the  pine  and  palmetto.    In  many  pla<  rr^ 
it  is  intersected  with  swamps,  which  are  however  k^^ 
numerous    and   less    extensive   here   than  in  the   mu.u 
northern  states,  but  still  occupy  perhaps  one-tenth  uf  t;« 
whole  tract     The  largest  of  these  swamps  is  the  Okefln.!*-^! 
Swamp,  near  the  boundary  of  and  partly  within   FluruiiL. 
which  is  about  50  miles  in  length  and  30  in  breadth.     Ii 
the  rainy  season,  when  the  greater  part  of  it  is  covered  vi  a':, 
water,  it  appears  like  an  inland  sea. 

This  swampy  tract  ceases  about  50  or  60  mQes  from  thr- 
sea,  except  theOkefinoke  Swamp,  which  lies  farther  inlau'l 
West  of  the  swampy  tract  the  country  is  dry,  and  the  M)ti 
consists  of  a  mixture  of  sand  and  loam;  but  bein^^  ct>iii- 
monly  destitute  of  water,  it  is  nearly  unfit  for  cultivatiMit. 
Only  along  the  bottoms  of  the  rivers  there  occur  level  tn:  :• 
fcom  a  quarter  to  half  a  mile  wide,  which,  in  their  natur..! 
state,  are  covered  with  reeds,  and  have  an  excdleut  ^  il. 
well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  most  agricultural  producti  •»«, 
particularly  rice.  The  higher  dry  grounds  arc  mu^t!> 
covered  with  pines. 

Tlie  hilly  regbn,  which  occupies  nearly  the  northern  li.t'.f 
of  the  state,  contains  a  much  greater  portion  of  arable  Lr:«l. 
The  best  land  is  along  the  rivers,  where  the  soil  is  a  di^ '  . 
rich,  black  mould,  with  a  small  portion  of  sand.  The  griit  V 
declivities  of  the  hills  also  contain  large  tracts  of  culU\.a.f 
land,  and  it  is  only  their  dry  and  sandy  summits  which  *i  • 
not  admit  of  cultivation  and  are  covered  with  pines.  Tiit* 
productiveness  of  the  country  which  till  lately  belonged  tv 
the  Cherokees  is  very  imperfectly  known.  Tlie  u.->: 
southern  ridges  of  the  Appalachian  mountains  occur  alvin:: 
the  northern  boundary-line  of  Georgia,  but  they  du  i  ; 
appear  to  attain  a  great  elevation,  probably  nowhere  niw  i* 
than  1500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  rivers  which  drain  Georgia  fall  partUr  into  the  Gutr 
of  Mexico  and  partly  into  the  Atlantic.  The  former  tr..- 
verse  either  Alabama  or  Florida  before  they  reach  the  h-.  ^ 
The  most  western  is  the  Etowah  river,  a  brancii  of  1 1 « 
Coosa,  one  of  the  principal  branches  of  the  AlalKima.  Tht- 
Etowah  drains  the  country  lately  in  posso&&ion  of  ttte 
Cherokees,  and  runs  about  80  miles  within  Georgia.    Tuu 


GEO 


179 


GEO 


most  important  river  of  Georgia  which  fUlls  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  is  the  Appalachicola,  or  rather  its  two  principal 
branches,  the  Chattahoochee  and  Flint  rivers;  for  it  is  only 
at  the  extreme  south-western  angle  of  this  state  that  these 
two  rivers  unite  and  take  the  name  of  Appalachioola.    The 
Chattahoochee  rises  hetween  the  most  southern  spurs  of 
the  Appalachian  range,  ahout  34"  40'  N.  lat.     It  runs  in  a 
general  south-western  direction  through  the  northern  part 
of  Georfria  for  ahout  200  miles,  and  in  approaching  33^ 
N.  lat.  it  begins  to  turn  gradually  to  the  south  until  it  flows 
due  south,  forming  for  about  1 90  miles  the  houndarv  be- 
tween Georgia  on  one  side  and  Alabama  and  Florida  on 
the  other.    It  runs  above  400  miles  before  it  Joins  the  Flint 
river.    The  Flint  river  rises  in  the  western  districts  of  the 
hiily  region,  between  33**  and  34**  N.  lat.,  and  flows  in  a 
suuihern  direction  as  far  as  32**  N.  lat.,  whence  it  gradually 
declines  towards  the  west,  until,  south  of  31°  N.  lat.,  it  turns 
nearly  due  west,  and  joins  the  Chattahoochee.     Its  whole 
course  is  about  210  miles.  The  Ocklockonnee  and  Suvanee, 
two   rivers  of  Florida,   rise  in  the  southern  districts  of 
Georgia,  and  the  Ogecchee  in  the  northern. 

The  most  southern  river  that  falls  into  the  Atlantic  is 
St.  Mary's  river,  whose  sources  lie  partly  in  Okefinoke 
8wamp,  and  partly  north  of  it.  It  flows  with  a  very  tor- 
tuous channet  first  south,  tnen  east,  afterwards  north,  and 
again  east,  and  enters  the  sea  between  Amelia  and  Cum- 
berland islands,  alter  a  course  of  110  miles.  The  Alatamaha 
runs  through  the  central  districts  of  Georgia ;  it  is  formed 
by  the  rivers  Ocmulgee  and  Oconee,  both  of  which  rise 
towards  the  centre  of  the  hilly  region,  near  34**  N.  lat,  and 
run  to  the  east  of  south  for  160  miles  nearly  parallel  to  one 
another,  at  a  mean  distance  of  40  miles.  Havin^^  passed 
the  parallel  of  34^  the  Ocmulgee  turns  east,  and  joins  the 
Oconee  near  30**  N.  lat  The  river  thus  formed,  called 
Alatamaha,  flows  first  east  and  afterwards  bends  to  the 
south-east,  until  it  empties  itself  in  the  ocean  between  St. 
Simons  and  Sapello  islands.  Its  course  is  about  90  miles, 
and  the  whole  length  of  the  river  upwards  of  280  miles. 
Larger  vessels  can  only  ascend  this  river  to  Darien,  but 
boats  of  30  tons  are  navigated  up  the  Oconee  to  Milledge- 
ville,  and  an  equal  distance  up  the  Ocmulgee.  The  Savan- 
nah river  rises  on  the  most  southern  declivity  of  the 
Appalachian  range,  and  runs  ui  all  its  course  of  250  miles 
south-south-east,  forming  in  all  this  distance  the  boundary 
between  Georgia  and  South  Carolina.  It  is  navigable  for 
large  vessels  to  the  city  of  Savannah,  and  for  vessels  of  70 
tons  to  Augusta. 

The  climate  of  a  country  extending  over  more  than  four 
deQ;reea  of  latitude,  and  whose  northern  half  is  several  hun- 
danl  feet  more  elevated  than  its  southern  districts,  must  of 
course  present  great  varieties.  The  hiUy  region  is  rather  cold 
in  winter.  Frost  is  of  common  occurrence,  and  snow  some- 
times falls  to  the  depth  of  five  or  six  inches.  But  these  dis- 
tricts are  very  healtny.  The  plain  approaches  in  its  climate 
the  tropical  regions  of  the  globe.  It  is  unhealthy  on  the 
l>ottoms  of  the  rivers,  and  alon^  the  sea-coast  in  the  vicinity 
of  stagnant  ^water.  The  heat  m  summer  is  very  great,  and 
the  tbermonoeter  sometimes  rises  to  98**  or  even  102°.  Its 
common  ramge  is  between  76^  and  90**  in  this  season ;  but 
Bs  the  trades-winds  on  the  coast  of  the  New  Continent  ad- 
vance in  sutmmer  to  32®  or  33°  N.  lat,  they  moderate  the 
heat  Yet  this  season  is  very  inconstant  and  subject  to 
storms  of  tliunder  and  lightning.  In  winter  the  thermo- 
meter ranges  between  60°  and  40^,  and  sinks  occasionally 
lower.  Tbe  weather  however  is  then  dry  and  constant 
and  this  is  considered  the  most  healthy  and  pleasant  season 
of  the  year.     The  rains  are  most  firequent  in  spring. 

The  great  difference  in  the  climate  produces  a  corre- 
sponding difference  in  the  productions.  In  the  southern 
iiistricts  the  temperature  is  suitable  to  the  sugar-cane, 
oranee,  olive,  flg»  pomegranate,  &c.  Agriculture  however  is 
^nostly  limited  to  Indian  com,  sweet  potatoes,  cotton,  rice, 
tobacco,  and  indigo.  The  hilly  region  resembles,  in  climate 
as  well  as  in  products,  the  countries  of  Middle  Europe. 
The  greatest  part  of  the  plain  is  covered  with  several  kinds 
of  the  nine,  a  tree  which  extends  also  over  the  higher  portion 
of  the  nilly  region.  But  along  the  sea-coast  as  well  as  on 
the  bottoms  of  the  rivers,  oak,  hickory,  ash,  palmetto,  and 
some  other  trees,  are  common. 

Bears  and  deer  are  very  numerous  in  the  forests  and  near 
the  swamps.  Alligators  frequent  the  Alatamaha  and  other 
nvers.  Honey-bMs  are  frequent  in  the  swamps  east  oi 
Flint  river.    The  rivers  abound  with  several  kinds  of  fish. 


Iron  and  copper  occur  in  several  places  in  the  hilly 
country,  and  the  ore  is  said  to  be  ricn.  The  gold  region 
of  the  Southern  States  passes  through  the  countir  of  the 
Cherokees.  From  the  hills  dividing  the  plain  from  the 
northern  districts  millstones  are  obtained,  and  sometimes 
exported  to  the  northern  States  of  the  Union. 

The  whole  population  of  Georgia  is  now  composed  of 
Europeans  and  Africans,  or  their  descendents.  Not  a  trace 
remains  of  the  old  Indian  population.  The  Creeks,  who  up 
to-  1826  inhabited  the  country  between  the  flint  and 
Chattahoochee  rivers,  sold  their  lands  in  that  year,  and  emi- 
grated to  the  banks  of  the  Arkansas.  Up  to  1835  the 
Cherokees  were  in  possession  of  the  north-western  corner 
of  the  state,  but  in  that  year  were  obliged  to  abandon  it. 
[Cherokbbs.]  The  population  consisted  at  the  last  census 
(in  1830)  of  616,520  individuals,  of  whom  217,470  were 
slaves,  and  Uttle  more  than  2000  free  blacks.  This  popula- 
tion is  very  unequally  distributed  over  the  surface  of  the 
country.  The  counties  along  the  upper  course  of  the 
Savannah,  and  those  along  the  hills  which  divide  the  plain 
from  the  hilly  region,  are  the  best  peopled :  the  greatest 
part  of  the  plain,  and  also  the  north-western  corner  of  the 
state,  are  nearly  uninhabited,  though  the  last,  the  country 
of  the  Cherokees,  is  fertile  and  well  adapted  to  agricul- 
ture. 

The  agricultural  produce  of  Upper  Georgia  is  not  ex- 
ported, bein^  of  the  same  description  as  that  of  the  northern 
states,  which  have  the  advantage  of  the  vicinity  of  the  sea, 
good  harbours,  and  an  easy  internal  navigation,  whilst  Upper 
Georgia  is  about  150  mile^  from  its  ports,  which  besides 
have  not  water  enough  for  large  vessels.  The  expense  of 
bringing  the  wheat  and  flour  to  these  ports  is  so  great  as 
to  preclude  the  farmers  from  entering  into  competition 
witn  the  northern  states.  Only  a  comparatively  small 
quantity  of  tobacco  and  live-stock  are  brought  down  the 
country.  The  agricultural  produce  of  Lower  Creorgia 
consists  principaUy  of  cotton,  rice,  sugar,  and  indigo, 
all  of  which  form  articles  of  export.  The  imports  into 
this  state  consist  principally  of  manufactured  goods. 
East  India  products,  and  wines  from  the  southern  coun- 
tries of  Europe.  An  active  commerce  is  carried. on  with 
the  northern  states,  which  furnish  butter,  cheese,  fish,  and 
some  other  articles  of  less  importance.  Slaves  are  also 
imported  from  Virginia  and  other  northern  slave-holding 
states. 

The  difficulties  attending  the  internal  commerce  of  the 
state  have  prevented  the  growth  of  large  cities.  Savannah, 
situated  about  17  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the 
same  name,  has  a  population  of  about  7500  souls,  and  carries 
on  a  very  active  trade  in  the  staple  articles  of  the  country,  a 
large  part  of  which  is  shipped  for  Charleston.  The  capital 
of  the  state  is  Milledgeville,  on  the  river  Oconee,  where  it 
begins  to  be  navigable  for  steam-boats ;  it  has  about  3500  in- 
habitants, and  in  its  neighbourhood  vines  are  cultivated  with 
success.  At  Athens  [Athens],  an  insignificant  place  north 
of  Milledgeville,  is  Franklin  College,  an  extensive  institu- 
tion erected  in  1785,  which  however,  up  to  this  time,  has 
not  answered  the  intentions  of  the  government  Augusta, 
on  the  Savannah  river,  a  town  of  td>out  7000  inhabitants, 
carries  on  an  active  inland  trade :  it  has  also  a  medical  college. 
Darien,  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the  Alatamaha,  has  also 
some  commerce,  and  a  population  of  2000.  St  Mary,  near 
the  mouth  of  St  Mark's  river,  contains  only  800  inha- 
bitants. 

The  colony  of  Georgia  was  founded  in  1732  by  a  pri\^te 
company,  and  received  its  name  in  honour  of  King 
George  II.  In  1733  General  Oglethorpe  founded  the 
town  of  Savannah.  In  1752  it  became  a  royal  govern- 
ment, and  in*  1755  a  provincial  legislature  was  established. 
It  joined  the  other  provinces  in  1776  in  declaring  war 
against  Great  Britain;  but  in  1778  was  occupied  by  a 
British  force,  and  continued  in  such  occupatiun  till  the  peace 
of  1783.  A  new  constitution  was  introduced  in  1785,  and 
afterwards  amended  in  1798.  The  legislative  body  is 
composed  of  a  senate  and  a  house  of  representatives.  The 
senators,  ninety  in  number,  and  the  one  hundred  and 
eighty-five  members  of  the  house  of  representatives,  are 
elected  annually.  Every  free  white  male  citizen  twenty 
years  of  age  and  paying  taxes  has  a  vote  in  the  election 
of  the  members  of  both  houses.  The  governor,  who  is 
invested  with  the  executive  power,  is  chosen  by  the  legis- 
lative body  for  the  term  of  two  years.  The  state  sends 
two  memblers  to  the  senate  and  nine  to  the  house  of  repre- 

2  A2 


given  to  tba  Dahlift, 


]  for  the  Lenamngi  of 


GEO  1 

wntstiTM  at  WisbijigtoD.      (Dubf*!  Vime  tf  ike  United 
Slcdrt,  flee.) 

GEORGICS.    [ViBAiL.] 

GEORGl'NA,k  ni 
but  iroproperlT. 

GEORGiUM  8IDUS.    [U»A.xDt.} 

GECyRYCHUS,  Illigoi* 
Cuvier.     rMoKiD*.] 

GEOSAURUS,  Curier'i  name  for  m  (ubgeDUi  of  Sau- 
rians,  fmiad  in  a  fbuil  ilate  only,  and  eoDiidcred  by  bim  u 
inlfrmediate  between  the  Croeodilet  and  tbe  Monilort. 

The  DutUoTofa  review  in  tbe  'Zoological  Joarnal'  (voL 
iv.  p.  259)  on  tbe  'Nova  Acla  pbyiico-inedica  Aoademiv 
CiMares  Leopoldino-Carolince  Natune  CurioHrum,'  torn. 
xiiL  (Bono.  1B26-7),  wilh  referenoe  to  an  article  therein, by 
Dr.  Ritgcn,  in  which  tbe  doctor  jKopotet  the  reUoratioa  (d 
the  pelves  of  three  ipeeiea  of  animaii  from  the  foasil  ftag- 
mctils  of  their  ikeletoaa.  bai  thii  paaaage:  'The  fint  of 
tlicm  ii  the  Lacerta  giganlea  of  Soemmering.  Motataunu 
of  Cunybcnre  and  Parkinson,  for  which  Dr.  Ritgen,  without 
kiUiKning  a  iia^le  rea&oD  for  the  change  of  name,  it  pleased 
lu  adupt  the  more  than  i>e«qui pedal ian  title  of  Haliliwtno- 
laarut  eriicoditoidet.  This  appellatioa  however  may  serve, 
ill  some  degree,  to  explain  nia  views  of  its  atSnitiM  and 
original  habitaliun.  inasmuch  at  it  sbows  that  ha  regard*  it 
as  a  tacerline  animal  resembling  a  crocodile  and  inhabiting 
Ball-«alet  marshes,  intermediale  therefore  between  the  ex- 
tinct Enaiiotauri,  at  sea-liiards,  and  the  living  crocodile*  of 
fre^h'TCater  streams.  It  ti,  moreover,  the  Geonuru*  of 
Cuvier's"Os6emensFogsile8."  There  it  some  little  obscuritv 
here,  which  we  will  endeavour  to  di«pcL  That  Cuvier's 
name,  Geotaurut,  should  be  retained  according  to  the  laws 
of  nomenclature,  thcie  can  be  no  doubt ;  and  it  appean 
that  this  provisional  name  was  given,  not  in  reference  to  the 
habits  of  ihc  extinct  lizard,  but,  to  use  Cuvier's  own  words, 
("par  allusion  -X  Terre,  mere  dcs  G^ans") — by  an  allusion 
to  Terra,  the  Earth— Go  (Fq)  of  the  Greeks,  the  &bled 
mother  of  the  Giantt.  Indeed  the  sclerotic  plates  still 
remaining  in  tbe  portion  of  the  cranium  figured  by  Cuvier 
in  hia  "  Ossemens  Fossiles,"  couid  not  have  escaped  the 
observation  of  that  acute  loologist  (who  was  so  eminently 
alive  to  the  taws  of  co-eiislence),  aa  indicating  aquatic 
habits.  That  he  considered  it  subgeaerically  different  from 
Monuauriu  appears  from  the  followmg  observations:  Im- 
mediately after  the  allusion  to  the  origin  of  the  name, 
Cuvier  says,  "  I  cannot  retain  for  it  the  epithet  eigaatat* 
<Je  ne  peux  lui  laisser  I'fpithite  gigantesque) ;  for,  in  the 
great  genus  Lacerta  we  have  already  the  animal  of  Haes- 
tricht,  or  Motataurut,  which  greatly  surpassed  it,  and  there 
is  also  another  (the  Mfgalasaurui]  which  is  very  superior 
in  size — (noua  avons  d'ubord  I'auimal  de  Haestr^cht,  on 
Mo»a»auru»,  que  1e  eurpasse  de  hcaucoup,  et  nous  allons  en 
voir  un  autre  (le  Megalotaurut),  qui  lui  est  aussi  tris  supe- 

Again,  in  a  note  to  the  previous  article  in  the  'Orsemena 
Fossiles,'on^foratiiuru«: — 'Wilh  regard  to  the  fossil  animal 
of  Munltelm  ('  Geoiaurut'),  which  H.  de  Soemmering  ha* 
also  regarded  as  identical  with  that  of  Maestricht  iMota- 
*aurut),  wo  shall  see  in  «  succeeding  article  that  it  differs 
from  the  Maestricht  onitnal  in  many  respects.'    H.  Uer- 


nann  n»  Hqrer,  in  hit  moat  oKful  work, '  Kl*ologica 
■or  Greachichte  der  Erde  nud  ihrerGeacUuple,'  (Bto^  FrBiib- 
fort,  1832),  widdy  separates  Ibe  two  snbgaiera.  The  fir^t, 
Geotaunu,  be  exemplifies  by  Geommnu  Simntti  rittgti , 
tyti-  Lacerta  gisantat,  Sommering,  HalUim»vmmrut  erv 
codiloidet  of  Riigen-  Tbeaecond,VasaaaNr«u,  Qi&ybean', 
SaurochampMo,  Wagler,  be  exempbtea  by  Mnnttntrut 
Camperf,  syn.  M.  Huftmmm,  Laeeria  gigamtta.  Si'iiu- 
mering,  sum  Tbeil  (in  part).  In  his  '  Sysleai  Aa  Fou,jlen 
Saurier,'  which  fossil  Saurians  he  dtride*  into  fiior  aectiun*, 
denoted  by  the  letters  A.  B.  C.  and  D,  he  placet  Grasauriu 
under  section  A — (Saurier  mit  lehen,  itmbch  denen  au 
den  Icbendcn  Sauriern  *),  and  Moaaaant  niwier  crctw>a 
C — (Saurier  mit  flotsartigenGliedmasaent). 

The  remains  upon  which  Cuvier  feanded  his  sub- 
Benus  were  founa  in  the  canton  Ueoleahardt,  kl  iU« 
depth  of  ten  feet,  and  a  &w  nooa  fnm  the  eroeudihr 
desetibed  by  Cuvier  (Gavial  of  Hoobeia  and  of  Boll . 
'Oss.Faa«.'tom.  v.  pp.  120-125:  OntooiUMu  pruau of  Sim- 
mering;  ..Cofodon  pnVciu  of  Hecmaon  van  Meya-),  by  ilw 
labouren  employed  to  work  tbe  mines  of  granular  in>D  ( tKi- en 
grain*)  which  fills  the flatiueaof  tbe  atnUa of  cakaraontaehut. 


GBR 


182 


6  E  R 


«nd  retained  his  employment,  &•  he  tells  us  himself,  for 
twenty  years. 

His  Iy)ndon  residence  was  in  Holbom,  where  also  he  had 
a  large  physic  garden  of  his  own,  which  was  probably  the 
first  of  its  kind  in  England  for  the  number  and  variety  of 
its  productions.  It  should  seem  that  in  his  younger  days 
he  nad  taken  a  voyage  into  the  Baltic,  since  ne  mentions 
hadng  seen  the  wild  pines  growing  about  Narva.  He  also 
says  of  the  bay  or  laurel  tree  (Herbal,  pp.  1177,  1223), '  I 
have  not  seen  any  one  tree  thereof  growing  in  Denmark, 
Suecia,  Poland,  Livonia,  or  Russia,  or  in  any  of  those  wild 
countries  where  I  have  travelled.' 

Among  the  Lansdowne  manuscripts  in  the  British  Mu- 
souni  (No.  cvii.,  art.  92)  is  a  letter  of  Gerarde's  own  draw- 
ing up  for  Lord  Burghley  to  send  to  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge, recommending  the  establishment  of  a  physic  garden 
there,  to  encourage  *  tlie  facuUie  of  simpling ;'  Grerarde 
himself,  whom  Lord  Burghley  calls  his  servant,  to  be  placed 
at  the  head  of  it :  '  So  that  if  you  intend  a  work  or  such 
emolument  to  yourselves  and  all  young  students,  I  shall  be 
glad  to  have  nominated  and  fUmished  you  with  so  expert 
an  herbalist ;  and  youselvcs,  I  trust,  will  think  well  of  the 
motion  and  the  man.*  As  we  read  no  more  of  it,  it  is  pro- 
bable that  the  scheme  did  not  take  effect. 

The  earliest  publication  of  Gerarde  was  the  catalogue  of 
his  own  garden  m  Holbom : '  Catalogus  Arborum,  Fruticum, 
ac  Plantarum,  tam  indigenarum  quam  exoticarum,  in  horto 
Johannis  Gerardi,  civis  et  chirurgi  Londinensis,  nascen- 
tium,*  impensis  J.  Norton,  1596,  4to.;  reprinted  in  4to. 
1599.  The  first  edition  was  dedicated  to  Lord  Burghley; 
the  second,  af^er  that  nobleman's  death,  in  very  flattering 
terms,  to  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  A  copy  of  the  first  edition 
(of  extreme  rarity)  is  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  British 
Museum,  where  it  proved  of  great  use  to  Mr.  Aiton  in  pre- 
paring his  *  Hortus  Kewensis,*  by  enabling  him  to  ascertain 
the  time  when  many  old  plants  were  first  cultivated. 

In  1597  came  out  his  *  Herbal,  or  General  History  of 
Plants,*  printed  by  John  Norton,  in  folio.  The  wood-cuts 
with  which  it  was  embellished  were  procured  from  Franc- 
fort,  being  the  same  blocks  which  had  been  used  fbr  the 
'  Kreuterbuch,'  the  German  herbal  of  TabcrnsBmontanus, 
fol.  Franc,  on  the  Mayn,  1 588.  A  second  edition  of  Grerarde's 
'  Herbal*  was  published  by  Dr.  Thomas  Johnson,  with  emen- 
dations and  corrections,  fbl.  Lond.  1633 ;  and  this  work 
continued  to  be  one  of  the  best  sources  of  botanical 
intelligence,  at  least  to  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century 

Gerarde  died  about  the  year  1607.. 

(PuUeney's  Sketches  qf  the  Progress  qf  Botany  in  Eng- 
land, vol.  i,  p.  110-125 ;  Chalmers's  Biogr,  Dict^  vol.  xv., 
p.  414.) 

GERBERT,  MAP  TIN,  Prince-Abbot  of  St.  Blaise,  near 
Freiburg,  a  learned  and  laborious  writer  on  music,  was  bom 
at  Horb-sur-le-Neeker,  in  1722.    Attached  from  his  youth 
to  church-music,  he  cultivated  it  assiduously,  and  havine 
determined  to  write  a  history  of  that  highly  important  branch 
of  the  art,  which  he  thought  intimately  connected  with  his 
sacred  profession,  he  travelled  during  three  years  in  France, 
Italy,  and  various  parts  of  Germany,  for  the  purpose  of  col- 
lecting materials  in  aid  of  his  work,  which  was  published  in 
two  quarto  volumes,  in  1774,  and  entitled  De  Cantu  et 
Munea  Sacra,  d  prima  Ecclesia  JState  usque  ad  prwsens 
Tempos.    He  divides  his  history  into  three  parts.    The  first 
finishes  with  the  pontificate  of  St  Gregory;  the  second 
reaches  the  ISth  century;  and  the  third  comes  down  to 
nearly  the  date  of  his  own  volumes.    Though  the  illustrious 
Abbot  directed  his  attention  almost  wholly  to  the  music  of 
the  Catholic  church,  that  is,  to  the  Mass,  he  liberally  notices 
that  of  the  Protestant  establishments,  and  mentions  in 
favourable  terms  Dr.  Boyce's  collection ;  but  being  one  of 
those  who  disapprove  the  use  of  fUgue,  and  dl  such  laboured 
compositions,  in  ecclesiastical  music,  he  censures  the  style 
while  he  admits  the  genius  and  skill  of  the  English  com- 
posers for  the  church.    Gerbert  published  in  1 784  another 
work,  of  equal  importance  with  the  former,  in  two  volumes, 
under  the  title  of  Scriptoree  Eceleeiastiei  de  Musiea  Sacra 
Potissimwn,  fiic,  which  is  a  collection  of  authors  who  have 
written  on  the  subject  of  his  fiivourite  pursuit,  from  the 
third  centuiy  to  the  invention  of  printing.    These,  in  num- 
ber upwards  of  forty,  are  arranged  chronologically.     The 
work  is  extremely  rare,  but  M.  Forkel  has  given  a  useful 
of  it  in  his  History  of  Music.    Crerbert  died  in 
SehlichtegroU't  Necrology,  v6i  iL) 


GERBERT,  afterwards  pope  Sylvester  11.,  was  bom  of 
poor  parents  at  Aurillac  in  Auvergne.  The  time  of  his  bci  t 
does  not  appear  to  be  known;  ho  died  in  1U03, at  a  \< 
advanced  age. 

When  younfp  he  entered  the  monastery  of  St.  Geraul'i  •* 
Aurillac,  and  m  that  school  commenced  his  studiiH.  I  i 
afterwards  visited  Catalonia,  where  he  learned  mathi^ni:it.  . 
from  a  Spanish  bishop.  About  968  he  made  a  joarni*. 
to  Rome,  a  circumstance  which  gave  him  the  oppunutt  % 
of  still  further  satisfying  his  thirst  for  knowledge.  \\U'  -i 
Otho  L  conferred  on  him  the  abbey  of  Btibbio,  C^bert'**  n* 
dustry  was  not  diminished  by  his  promotion.  He  ompl4>>  i*  i 
himself  actively  in  teaching,  and  for  several  yearsi.  while  :•• 
continued  to  reside  at  Bobbio^  his  fkme  attracted  studt-oi* 
from  all  quarters.  Though  he  kept  his  abbey  till  bis  elc » ..  • 
tion  to  the  pontifical  chair,  he  gave  up  his  residence  in  lt.i.> 
on  account  of  the  uneasy  life  which  ho  led  there.  Frma 
Italy  he  is  said  to  have  gone  to  Germany,  where  he  becat:.v 
the  tutor  of  young  Otho,  afterwards  the  second  emperur  ' 
that  name.  From  Germanv  he  went  to  Reims,  and  vj« 
made  secretary  to  the  archbishop  of  Reims,  and  roa^i*  r 
of  the  cathedral-school.  It  is  as  a  teacher  that  GeHM'rt 
established  a  reputation  which  few  men  since  his  time  lia\o 
acquired.  Under  his  care  the  school  of  Reims  became  <»r>e 
of  the  first  in  Europe,  and  its  high  character  was  roamtaine  i 
for  near  a  century  after  his  death.  Among  Grerbert*s  pupil » 
we  find  the  names  of  Nithard  and  Remi.  In  a.o.  992  G^  t- 
bert  was  promoted  to  the  archbishopric  of  Reims,  from  wht-  u 
however  he  was  deposed  a  few  years  after  his  elevation.  1  n 
998  he  received  the  archbishopric  of  Ravenna  fivra  th^' 
emperor  Otho  III. ;  and  in  999  ne  was  elected  to  the  pon- 
tifical chair,  which  he  filled  for  nearly  five  years,  under  the 
name  of  Sylvester  II. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  Gerbert  was  a  man  of  great  abil  it » 
and  of  very  extensive  acquirements  for  his  age.    He  ^..% 
also  a  most  voluminous  writer.    The  Benedictines  of  St 
Maur  {Histoire  LittSraire  de  la  France^  tom  vi.,  677,  ic. » 
have  devoted  many  pages  to  the  consideration  of  his  \rr.f 
in^;  but  they  have  shown  no  great  discrimination  in  Uir  r 
criticism.     Geometry  and  astronomy  were  Gerbert*^  fa- 
vourite pursuits ;  there  is  or  was  extant  a  MS.  treat)>c  •  f 
his  on  sun-dials,  and  he  also  wrote  on  the  astrolabe.    H  - 
is  said  to  have  been  acquainted  with  the  Greek  lans^aj< 
His  letters,  printed  by  Du  Chesne,  1636,  at  the  end  oi  ti  i* 
second  volume  of  his  '  Historians  of  France,*  throw  s^n  •« 
light  on  the  ecclesiastical  intrigues  and  political  eventi    ^ 
the  time. 
GERBILLU8.    [Jerboa.] 
GERFALCON.    [Falcowidjb;  Falconry.] 
GERMAIN,  ST.,  a  town  in  France  in  the  department 
of  Seine  et  Oise,  distinguished  from  a  multitude  of  oth«*r 
places  of  the  same  name  by  the  epithet  en  Laye,    It  t»  .  n 
the  left  bank  of  the  Seine,  14  or  15  miles  ihym  Paris  on  ii>t* 
road  to  Evreux  and  Caen.    The  town  had  its  origin  from  a 
monastery  fouQded  by  King  Robert  (who  reigned  ajx  996— 
1031),  dedicated  to  St  Germain  and  St  Martin.  Then?  ww 
a  royal  residence  here  firom  a  very  early  period,  bat  the  pn> 
sent  palace,  the  chief  edifice  in  the  town,  was  oommeno.  -! 
by  Francis  I.  and  enlarged  by  Louis  XIV.    TTie  town  i»  it 
considerable  extent,  containmg  in   1831  a  population  uf 
10,671.    It  is  i^reeably  situated  on  a  height  which  cx>jn- 
mands  a  beautiful  proroect  of  the  valley  and  the  sinuuui 
course  of  the  Seine,  with  a  distant  view  of  St  DenLs  Pari<. 
and  its  environs.    The  streets  are  handsome  and  well  Um 
out,  and  the  houses  lofty  and  well  built :  there  are  mar  v 
antient  mansions,  once  the  residence  of  the  lords  of  i\  v 
court,  before  Louis  XIV.  forsook  this  place  for  VetsaiJUM. 
The  chfiteau,  or  palace,  is  a  heavy  building,  ehiefly  of  bnrV. 
surrounded  by  wide  and  deep  ditches;  the  apartraenu  arr 
handsome.  The  chateau  was  used  under  Louis  XVIII.  &!nJ 
Charles  X.  as  a  barrack  for  a  company  of  the  Gardee*  d  . 
Corps.     The  Chfiteau  Neuf,  built  by  Henri  FV.  for  h  » 
mistress  '  La  Belle  Gabrielle,*  is  now  a  heap  of  ruins.    TUr 
forest  or  park  of  St  Germain,  surrounded  by  walls  and  or^  -j- 
pying  more  than  10«500  acres,  is  adorned  by  trees  of  iir. 
mense  size,  and  has  numerous  broad  avenuesL    The  rcts.J 
family  resort  hither  to  hunt  the  deer  and  other  game.'  s,*i 
which  there  is  a  oonsiderable  quantity.     A  noble  terrao*. 
of  more  than  a  mile  and  a  quarter  in  length  and  nearly  1 1  m 
feet  wide,  extends  from  the  palace  along  the  sktrfs  of  \r 
forest,  and  affords  to  the  towns-people  an  agreeable  jtr.- 
menado.    In  the  forest  are  several  small  edifices  erected  i: 
different  periods  by  the  kings  of  France.    Tha  town  has  ■ 


G  E  R 


iB3 


G  E  R 


chnroli  of  modern  erection»  a  new  corn-market,  and  a 
theatre.  It  is  the  residence  of  a  Jugede  Pais.  The  manu- 
Ihctures  are  of  little  account ;  they  are  of  stockings  and 
leather.  A  yearly  fair  is  held  for  business ;  and  one  a  few 
days  afterwards  fbr  pleasure :  the  latter  is  held  in  the  forest, 
and  attracts  a  number  of  visitors  from  Paris  and  the  sur- 
rounding villages.  There  are  many  schools;  and  in  the 
neighbourhood  is  a  subsidiary  school  for  the  education  of 
200  orphan  daughters  of  the  members  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour.  There  are  a  small  public  library  and  an  hospital 
for  the  sick  and  aged. 

Henri  11.,  Charles  IX.,  and  Louis  XIV.  were  bom  at  St. 
Germain ;  and  Louis  XIIL  died  there.    James  11.  of  Bng« 
land  and  his  family  found  in  exile  an  asylum  there.  James 
died  at  St.  Germam  in  1701,  and  his  remains  were  disco- 
vered in  1886  in  digging  the  foundations  of  the  new  church. 
GERMAN'S,  ST.    [Cornwall.] 
GERMAN-BANATE,  a  considerable  district  o£  Southern 
Hungary,  forming,  with  the  Illyrian-Walachian  district,  the 
province  called  the  '  Banate,  or  Hungarian  Frontier.'     It 
18  the  most  westerly  part  of  it,  lies  next  the  Danube  in  the 
south  and  west,  and  has  the  Hungarian  counties  of  Torontal 
and  Temesch  for  its  northern  ana  eastern  boundaries.   The 
area  is  about  1581  square  miles;  it  has  one  town  and  sixty 
villages  and  hamlets ;  and  its  population,  which,  by  the 
conscription  lists,  was  61,988  in  1799,  and  85,635  in  1815, 
is  now  about  116,000,  the  majority  of  whom  are  of  the 
Greek  finith.    The  surface  is  a  complete  level,  in  the  centre 
of  which  is  the  great  sandy  plain  of  Bieloberdo.  It  is  watered 
by  the  Themes,  Nera,  &c.,  has  extensive  swamps,  and 
produces  much  grain,  as  well  as  hemp,  vegetables,  wine,  &c 
The  woods  cover  an  area  of  about  1 1,970  acres.    Consider- 
able numbers  of  horses,  oxen,  sheep,  and  swine,  are  reared. 
There  is  only  one  town  in  the  Bismate,  Pancsova,  at  the 
•onfluence  of  the  Themes  and  Danube,  in  44''  49'  N.  lat, 
and  20°  38'  E.  long.:  it  is  a  fortified  place  and  a  free  town» 
with  extensive  lands  lying  around  it,  which  belons  to  the 
municipality.    Its  population  was  6765  in  1806,  and  it  now 
amounts  to  nearly  9000:  it  has  two  churches,  a  gvmnasium, 
a  mathematical  and  a  normal  school,  several  other  schools 
of  an  inferior  clas8»  and  about  950  houses.    It  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Austrian  German-Banate  regiment,  and 
has  a  brisk  trade  with  Turkey. 

GERMAN  OCEAN.  [North  Ska.] 
GERMA'NICUS,  CifiSAR.  the  eldest  son  of  Drusus 
Nero  Germanicus  and  of  Antonia  the  younger,  the  nephew 
of  Tiberius,  and  brother  of  Claudius,  afterwards  emperor, 
was  bom  in  the  year  14  B.C.  Augustus  on  adopting  Tiberius 
made  the  latter  adopt  his  nephew  Germanicus.  At  the  age 
of  twenty  Germanicus  served  with  distinction  in  Dalmatia, 
and  afterwards  in  Pannonia,  and  on  his  return  obtained  a 
triumph.  He  married  Agrippina  the  elder,  grand-^ughter 
pf  Augustus,  by  whom  he  had  nine  ohildroi ;  among  others 
Caius  Caligula,  and  Agrippina  the  younger,  mother  of 
Nero.  In  ajx  12  Germanicus  was  made  consul,  and  soon 
after  he  was  sent  hy  Augustus  to  command  the  legions  on 
the  Rhine.  On  the  news  of  the  death  of  Augustus  some  of 
the  legions  on  the  lower  Rhine  mutinied,  while  Germanicus 
was  ahsent  collecting  the  revenue  in  Gaul;  he  hastened 
back  to  the  camp,  and  found  it  a  scene  of  tumult  and  con- 
fusion.  The  young  soldiers  demanded  an  increase  of  pay, 
the  veterans  tneir  discharge.  They  had  already  driven  the 
centurions  out  of  the  camp.  Some  offered  their  assistance 
to  raise  Germanicus  to  the  supreme  power,  but  he  rejected 
their  offers  with  horror,  and  left  his  judgmentrseat,  heedless 
of  the  clamours  and  threats  of  the  mutineers.  Having 
retired  with  a  few  friends  to  his  tent,  after  some  consulta- 
tion on  the  danger  to  the  empire,  if  the  hostile  Germans 
khould  take  advantage  of  the  conftision  caused  by  this  sedi- 
tion of  the  troops,  be  determined  upon  exhibiting  to  the 
soldiers  fictitious  letters  of  Tiberius,  which  granted  moat 
of  their  demands^  and  the  better  to  anpease  them  he 
disbursed  to  them  immediately  a  eonsiaerable  sum  by 
way  of  bounty.  He  found  still  greater  difficulty  in  quel- 
ling a  second  mutiny,  which  broke  out  on  the  arrival  of 
legates  from  the  senate^  who  brought  to  Germanicus  his 
promotion  to  the  rank  of  Proconsul.  The  soldiers  suspect- 
ing tliat  they  came  with  orders  fbr  their  punishment,  the 
camp  became  again  a  scene  of  confusion.  Germanicus 
ordered  his  wife  Agrippina,  with  her  son  Caius  Caligula, 
attended  by  other  officers'  wives  and  children,  to  leave  the 
camp,  as  being  no  long^er  a  place  of  safety  for  tbsm.  This 
sight  affected  and  mortified  the  soldiers,  who  begged  their 


commander  to  revoke  the  order,  to  piuish  the  guilty,  and  to 
march  against  the  enemy.   They  then  began  to  inflict  sum- 
mary execution  on  the  ringleaders  of  the  mutiny,  without 
waiting  for  the  order  of  their  commander.    A  similar  scene 
took  place  in  the  camp  of  two  other  legions,  which  were 
stationed  in  another  part  of  the  country  under  the  orders 
of  CflBcina.      Availing  himself  of  the  present  state   of 
excitement  of  the  soldiers*  Germanicus  crossed  the  Rhine, 
attacked  the   Marsi.    the   Bructeri,  and    other   German 
tribes,  and   routed  4hem  with  great  slaughter.      In  the 
following  year,  taking  advantage  of  a  quarrel  between  Ar- 
minius,  the  conqueror  of  Varus,  and  Segestes,  another  Ger- 
man chie(  he  attacked  Arminius,  and  penetrated  to  the 
spot  where  the  legions  of  Varus  had  been  cut  to  pieces. 
The  bones  of  the  Roman  soldiers,  which  still  lay  on  the 
grouLid,  were  collected  and  buried  by  their  countrymen. 
Arminius  however  fought  bravely,  and  was  near  defeating  a 
division  commanded  bv  Csocina.  In  the  following  campaign 
Germanicus  embarked  his  troops  on  board  a  flotilla  which 
he  had  constructed  or  collected  for  the  purpose,  and  sailing 
ft'om  the  island  of  the  Batavi,  he  landed  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Ems,  ftom  whence  he  marched  towards  the  Visurgis,  or 
Weser,  where  he  found  Arminius  encamped.    Two  obsti 
nate  iMittles  were  fouffht  in  succession,  in  both  of  which 
Arminius  was  defeatedl    Gfermanicus  raised  a  trophy  with 
this  inscription :  *  The  army  of  Tiberius  Csesar,  having  con- 
quered tue  nations  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe,  con  - 
secrates  this  monument  to  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Augustus.' 
After  this  victory  he   sent  part  of  his  legioos  by  land 
to  their  winter-quarters  on  the  Rhine,  and  with  tiie  rest 
embarked  on  the  Ems^  to  return  by  sea ;  but  being  surprised 
by  a  dreadftil  storm,  his  vessels  were  dispersed,  many  were  lost, 
and  he  himself  was  cast  on  the  coast  of  the  Chauci,  whence 
he  returned  to  the  Rhine  and  placed  the  legions  in  winter- 
quarters.      Meantime  Tiberius  wrote   repeatedly  to   his 
nephew,  that  he  had  earned  enough  of  glory  in  Grermsny^ 
and  that  he  ought  to  return  to  Rome  to  enjoy  the  triuniph 
which  he  had  merited.   Germanicus  asked  for  another  year 
to  complete  the  subjugation  of  Germany,  but  Tiberius,  who 
felt  jealous  of  the  glory  of  his  nephew  and  of  his  popularity 
with  the  troops,  remamed  inflexible,  and  Germanicus  was 
obliged  to  return  to  Rome,  where  he  triumphed  in  the  ^l- 
lowine  year,  a.d.  17.    The  year  after,  he  was  consul  for  tl^ 
secona  time  with  Tiberius  himself,  and  was  sent  to  the  East, 
where  serious  disturbances  had  broken  out,  with  most 
extensive  powers.    But  Tiberius  took  care  to  have  a  watch 
over  him  by  placing  in  the  government  of  Syria  Cneus  Pise* 
a  violent  and  ambitious  man,  who  seems  to  have  been  well 
qualified  for  his  mission,  as  he  annoyed  Germanicus  in 
every  possible  way,  and  his  wife  Plancina  seconded  him  in 
his  purpose.    The  frank  and  open  nature  of  Germanicus 
was  not  a  match  for  the  wily  intrigues  of  his  enemies* 
Ail^er  making  peace  with  Artabanus,  king  of  the  Parthians, 
and  calming  other  disturbances  in  the  East,  Germanicus 
fell  ill  at  Ajutioch,  and  after  lingering  some  time  he  died, 
plainly  expnsssing  to  his  wife  and  ftiends  around  him  his 
conviction  that  he  was  the  victim  of  the  treason  of  Piso  and 
Plancina ;  whether  he  meant  through  poison,  or  through 
their  annoyances,  has  been  a  subiect  of  doubt    His  wUb 
Agrippina,  with  her  son  Caius  and  her  other  children,  re- 
tumeid  to  Rome  with  the  ashes  of  her  husband.    [Agrip- 
pina. TB£  EJ.DER.] 

Germanicus  was  generally  and  deeply  regretted.  Like  his 
father  Drusus  he  was  while  living  an  object  of  hope  to 
the  Romans.  He  died  ajx  19,  in  the  34th  year  of  his 
a^e.  He  is  praised  for  his  sincerity,  his  kind  nature,  his 
disinterestedness,  and  his  love  of  information,  which  he 
exhibited  in  his  travels  in  Greece  and  Egypt.  (Tacitus, 
Annali,  lib«  i  iuj  Dion  Cassius,  lib.  67.) 


Coin  of  Gcnnanieaa. 
Britbh  Moflenm.    Aeluai  •ize.    Conier.    Weight,  171  gndas. 

GERMANY  extends  from  45^  4'  to  67«  60'  N.  lat.  and 


GE  R 


184 


OER 


from  6^  20^  to  20°  10'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  west 
by  the  Netherlands,  .Relgium,  and  France ;  on  the  south, 
by  Switzerland  and  the  Austrian  territories  in  Italir ;  on 
the  east,  by  the  kingdoms  of  Hungary,  Gallioia,  Poland,  and 
Prussia ;  and  on  the  north,  by  the  Baltic.  Its  area  is  stated 
to  be  284,000  square  miles,  or  about  twice  and  a  half  the 
area  of  the  British  islands. 

The  suifkoe  is  divided  into  four  distinctly  marked  dis- 
triets,  two  plains  and  two  mountain-regions.  One  of  the 
plains  is  low,  and  rises  only  a  little  abofe  the  level  of  the  sea ; 
the  other  attains  a  considerable  eleration.  Between  the  two 
plains  extends  a  mountain-region,  whose  summits  in  no 
part  attain  the  snow-line,  which  in  this  parallel  is  calculated 
to  be  about  6000  feet  above  the  sea-level.  To  the  north  of 
this  region  extends  the  low  plain,  and  to  the  south  of  it 
the  elevated  plain,  which  on  the  east  and  west  is  enclosed 
by  mountainous  tracts  belonging  to  that  region.  The 
southern  boundary  of  the  elevated  plain  is  formed  by  the  Alps, 
which  constitute  the  fourth  natural  division  of  Crermany. 

The  ^010  f^ain  is  only  a  small  section  of  the  great  plain 
which  extends  nearly  over  the  whole  northern  part.of  the 
old  continent  This  section  occupies  the  northern  portion 
of  Germany,  which  lies  on  the  southern  shores  of  the  North 
and  Baltic  Seas,  and  extends  to  the  peninsula  of  Jutland. 
Its  length,  from  the  boundary  of  the  Netherlands  and  the 
Rhine  to  the  borders  of  Russia,  including  the  kingdom  of 
Prussia,  is  nearly  600  miles ;  but  its  width  varies,  being,  on 
the  west  of  the  Elbe,  on  an  average  about  160,  and  to  the 
east  of  that  river  about  300  miles.  The  line  which  sepa- 
rates it  from  the  mountain-region  south  of  it  may  be  deter- 
mined in  the  following  way : — ^Beginning  on  the  west  with 
the  bank  of  the  Rhine,  it  follows  the  course  of  the  river 
lippe  (51®  40^  N.  lat)  as  fiir  as  the  town  of  Paderbom,  and 
thenoe  fbUows  a  line  drawn  from  that  town  in  a  north- 
eastern direction  to  Hanover,  and  so  on  through  Bruns- 
wick to  Magdeburg  on  the  Elbe.  From  Magdeburg  it 
runs  neariy  south  to  Halle  on  the  Saale,  and  thence  south 
of  Leipsiff  to  Dresden.  From  the  capital  of  Saxony  it 
extends  due  east  to  Breslau  on  the  Oder,  from  which  town 
it  Ibllows  the  course  of  this  river  nearly  to  its  source,  and  to 
the  Carpathian  mountains,  which  constitute  its  southern 
boundary  fturther  eastward. 

There  is  probably  no  tract  of  country  in  Europe  of  equal 
eoctent  which  has  a  less  fertile  soil  than  this  plain.  Even 
the  steppes  of  Southern  Russia  to  the  north  of  the  Black 
Sea  have  a  better  soil,  but  as  they  have  not  the  ad- 
vantage of  abundant  rains,  which  are  enjoyed  by  the 
German  plain,  the  latter  is  much  better  cultivated  and  more 
thickly  inhabited  than  the  Russian  steppes.  This  plain  is 
luppoaed  to  have  been  once  covered  by  the  sea.  Its  sub- 
stratum is  formed  by  limestone,  chalk,  gypsum,  and  sand- 
■tone,which  are  covered  by  loam,  clay,  and  sand,  to  an  average 
depth  of  200  feet.  If  this  country  were  situated  under  a  tro- 
pical climate  and  deprived  of  the  abundant  rains  and  snow 
which  annually  descend  upon  it,  the  surface  would  resem- 
ble the  Sahara  or  the  great  Indian  plain. 

Though  sterility  is  the  general  character  of  this  plain, 
still  there  is  a  remarkable  diflference  between  Uie  countries 
west  and  east  of  the  Elbe  river.  On  the  west  of  that  river 
the  plain  is  nearly  destitute  of  trees.  It  presents  a  succes- 
sion of  tracts  covered  with  heath  and  juniper  bushes,  and 
of  moors  which  mostlv  consist  of  turf;  a  hundred  feet  deep 
and  upwards.  Each  of  these  tracts  occupies  an  extent  of  1 2 
or  15  miles  square,  and  the  succession  is  sometimes  in- 
terrupted by  tracts  entirely  covered  with  sand  and  nearly 
without  vegeUtion.  A  sandy  tract  of  this  description,  which 
has  been  particularly  described  by  the  German  geographers, 
is  called  the  Huimling.  It  extenos  along  the  eastern  banks 
of  the  river  Ems,  between  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  Hase 
and  Leda,  is  at  a  considemble  elevation  above  the  sur- 
rounding country,  and  at  its  base  is  neariy  24  miles  in  cir* 
cumferenoe.  Ail  over  this  plain  cultivable  ground  occurs 
only  in  the  shape  of  oases  which  are  at  great  distances  frt>m 
one  another.  The  soil  produces  on  an  average  only  three  or 
at  the  utmost  four  times  its  seed.  To  complete  the  picture  of 
this  plain,  we  shall  add  a  description  of  those  districts  which 
are  distinguished  by  fertility.  The  rivers  run  in  depres- 
sions from  100  to  200  feet  below  the  level  of  the  plain. 
Along  their  banks  there  are  bottoms  with  a  fertile  soil, 
which  are  covered  in  their  natural  state  by  forest  trees,  and 
when  cultivated  produce  good  crops.  These  bottoms  vary 
in  width,  according  to  the  volume  of  water  in  the  rivers. 
^*— >  the  great  rivers  (Weser,  Elbe),  they  are  ftom  thiee 


to  six  miles  wide,  where  these  riven  iasQc  from  the  moon- 
tain  tracts  in  which  they  originate;  but  farther  down  they 
widen  to  twenty  or  thirty  miles  and  even  more.  Whtfte 
the  rivers  approach  the  sea,  the  bottoms  are  united  with 
the  marshes  which  line  the  shores  of  the  North  S«a 
these  marshes  are  not  of  great  extent,  being  only  fi^< 
or  six  miles  across  on  the  average,  but  they  do  not  >  ield 
in  fertility  to  any  tracts  in  Europe.  Being  below  the  l«r»el 
of  the  sea  at  high  tides,  it  is  necessary  to  nrotect  tbcm 
by  dikes  from  its  invasions.      Nearly  in  the  middle  of 


oy  01 
the  pi 


ain  occurs  another  fertile  tract,  enclosed  by  two  ridi^va 
of  high  hills,  which  issue  from  the  mountain-tract  fartbrr 
south,  on  both  sides  of  the  parallel  of  52*  N.  lat.   The  ni(i*'c 
northern  of  these  ridges,  called  the  Siintel,  rises  to  the  south 
of  the  town  of  Hanover,  whence  it  runs  westward,  and  eoulL 
of  Minden  forms  the  Porta  Westphalica,  where  it  is  broken 
through  by  the  river  Weser.    To  the  west  of  this  mcr  it 
continues  westward,  and  terminates  about  six  miles  frvo 
the  river  Ems.    This  ridge  hardly  reaches  an  elevation  >( 
1000  f^t  above  the  sea.  The  southern  ridge  has  the  name  *  f 
Egge  east  of  Paderbom,  and  runs  there  south  andnorth«  Ix.i 
north-east  of  that  town  it  turns  west-north-west,  and  *^  f^. 
tinues  in  that  direction,  approaching  gradually  the  Sui  s 
Hills,  which  however  it  does  not  join,  as  it  terminates  al>  ^ut 
three  miles  from  the  Ems,  opposite  Schiittorf,  and  about 
the  same  distance  from  the  western  extremity  of  the  SO  n't  I 
Hills.    Tliis  ridge  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Teutobur- 
^r  Wald,  or  Osning;.  The  valley  between  these  two  rvl;:  • 
IS  of  considerable  £rtility ;  its  eastern  portion  forms  tlir 
principality  of  Lippe  Detmold,  and  its  western  belonf:^  i  • 
the  Prussian  province  of  Westphalia  and  the  Hano\t*u.i% 
province  of  Osnabriick.    That  portion  of  the  plain  wh.rh 
IS  situated  to  the  south  of  this  valley  contains  a  murh 
larger  portion  of  arable  land  than  that  which  is  north  of  .u 
The  country  between  the  Weser  and  Elbe  does  not  differ  i 
its  general  character  from  that  west  of  the  Weser  in  ::« 
northern  districts,  but  towards  the  south  it  partakes  m'*r>.* 
of  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  plain 
being  mostly  covered  with  forest  trees  of  the  pine  kin*: 
Such  is  the  heath  of  Liinebur^,  which  occupies  the  «>k>!v 
space  between  that  town  and  Hanover. 

That  portion  of  the  plain  which  lies  east  of  the  Elbe  h?  > 
a  somewhat  different  cnaracter.    Tracts  covered  with  he^t.: 
and  moor  occur  here  also,  not  contiguous,  butseparatod  fn>m 
each  other  by  great  intervals  of  sandy  surface.      Tbr»c 
sandy  tracts  however  are  not  destitute  of  vegetation,  near.* 
all  of  them  being  covered  by  various  kinds  of  pine,  whtt ' 
give  the  soil  a  greater  degree  of  solidity.    Still  all  land*  o! 
this  description  are  only  cultivated  in  a  comparatively  fm 
and  fkvoured  places,  and  the  crops  arevery  scanty ;  but  Ui  » 
portion  of  the  plain  contains  a  g^reater  number  of  ftrt-.W 
tracts,  which  in  some  places  are  of  considerable   extent 
The  bed  of  the  rivers  is  less  depressed  below  the  level  of  thr 
plain,  and  the  rich  lands  along  their  banks  have  a  ereati? 
width.    The  marshes  which  are  adjacent  to  such  lands,  ami 
nearly  on  the  same  level  with  them,  have  been  drained,  atiJ 
changed  into  meadows  and  fields.    Along  the  shores  of  the 
Baltic  no  marshes  occur,  but  the  larger  rivers,  especially 
the  Vistula  and  Niemen,  form  deltas  at  their  moutha,  who^ 
alluvial  soil  is  of  great  fertility,  and  can  hardly  be  exhausttil 
by  successive  crops.    Besides  these  there  are  several  fert:!- 
tracts  at  some  distance  from  the  rivers,  whoee  soil  is  a  heav% 
loam  of  considerable  fertility.  Such  lands  are  more  oomm^r 
between  the  Elbe  and  Oder  than  between  the  bst-nameii 
river  and  the  Vistula,  and  still  more  so  between  this  n\vi 
and  the  Niemen. 

Through  the  northern  part  of  this  plain  a  higber  tnir{ 
mav  be  traced,  which  in  general  runs  west  and  caat»  but 
with  two  great  bends.    It  begins  on  the  west  at  Oldcalo  in 
Holstein,  whence  it  runs  east-south-east  nearly  in  a  atrat^iVi 
line  to  Schwedt  on  the  Oder,  where  it  is  about  seventy  mi;t> 
from  the  sea.    East  of  that  river  it  continues  due  cast  t . 
Arendswalde,  and  then  inclines  to  the  north,  gradually  a^ 
preaching  the  sea.      Some  distance  west  of  Dansig  it  taKc ^ 
a  short  south-east  course,  and  then  again  due  east,  trrcr; 
nating  on  the  banks  of  the  NiemenJ  near  Grodno.    Th  v 
tract  of  high  ground  forms  the  watershed  between  a  titxz.i 
number  ofsmall  rivers  which  fall  into  the  Baltic  and  mai:^ 
others,  with  a  much  longer  course,  which  run  off  to  t  ^ ' 
southward,  and  increase  the  waters  of  the  Elbe,  Oder,  ar:  ♦ 
Vistula.    It  is  also  remarkable  for  the  immense  number    f 
small  lakes  which  occur  on  its  higher  parts  or  near  them. 
Some  of  these  are  lakes  of  considerable  extent,  as  the  lake 


GBR 


186 


GBR 


boundary  lather  lew  than  600  feet  high.  Aoeordindy,  we 
find  that  nearly  dl  the  watercourses,  as  the  Saale,  Werra, 
Fulda,  and  many  others,  run  off  towards  the  north. 

The  northern  boundary  of  the  central  mountain  region  is 
not  so  strongly  marked  by  nature  as  the  southern,  excepton 
the  east,  where  it  is  formed  by  the  Harz  mountains.  This 
mountain-range,  the  mo&t  northern  in  Germany,  occupies 
an  area  of  nearly  800  square  miles,  between  5  r  30'  and  52^ 
N.  laL,  and  10®  and  1 1**  30'  B.  long.  It  lies  nearly  parallel 
to  the  Frankenwald  and  Thuringerwald,  and  about  60 
miles  from  it,  and  runs  east-souln-east  and  west-north- 
west. Its  length  is  about  55,  and  its  mean  width  probably 
does  not  exceed  18  miles.  On  the  north  and  south  the 
mountains  rise  with  a  rather  steep  ascent ;  on  the  east  they 
sink  into  an  elevated  plain,  and  on  the  west  pass  gradually 
into  the  hflly  tract  wnich  joins  it  in  that  direction.  No 
continuous  ridge  can  be  observed.  The  range  consists  of 
an  assemblage  of  irregular  mountain-summits,  with  gene- 
rally level  tops,  covered  with  earth  and  with  trees.  A 
few  of  the  summits,  which  consist  of  granite  and  horn- 
blende, are  bare,  and  rise  higher  and  with  a  steep  ascent 
The  valleys  between  them,  some  of  which  are  wide  and 
otJ^ers  narrow,  lie  in  every  direction.  The  forests  are  mostly 
composed  of  pine,  except  to  the  east,  where  the  mountains 
are  lower,  and  oovereot  with  other  trees,  as  elms,  ash,  &c. 
The  higher  parts  are  covered  with  snow  from  October  to 
May.  jThe  nucleus  of  the  Harz  is  granite,  which  however 
is  generally  covered  with  porohyry,  grauwacke,  clay-slate, 
limestone,  gypsum,  and  sanostone.  In  the  western  dis- 
tricts are  rich  lead-mines,  which  produce  a  considerable 
quantity  of  silver ;  in  the  eastern  iron  ore  is  abundant 
The  highest  summits  are — the  Brocken,  3740  feet,  the 
Kbnigsberg.  3420  feet,  the  Bruchberg,  3420  feet,  the  Ach- 
terraanns-hohe,2880feet,  and  the  Warmberg,  3080  feet  above 
the  sea-leveL  There  are  some  remarkable  caverns  in  it,  as 
the  Baum ANN8-H0H1.B.  A  line  drawn  from  Ilsenburg  over 
the  Brocken,  the  Achtermanns-hohe,  and  the  Bruchberg, 
divides  the  whole  range  into  twoparts,  of  which  the  eastern 
and  lower  is  called  the  Lower  Harz,  and  the  western  and 
higher  the  Upper  Harz.  The  same  line  separates  the 
waters  which  run  to  the  Elbe  and  Weser  respectively. 

The  connexion  between  the  Harz  mountains  and  the 
Thiirin^crwald  is  formed  at  the  western  extremity  of  both 
rant^cs  by  an  elevated  table-land  lying  south  of  the  Harz, 
called  the  Eichsfeld,  whose  surface  is  perhaps  1 500  feet 
above  tlie  sea-level.  From  its  southern  extremity  issues  a 
range,  which  rests  on  a  base  about  800  feet  high,  and  runs 
southward  to  the  Inselsberg  in  the  Thiiringerwald,  under 
the  names  of  Hainich,  Finne,  and  Diin.  This  range  has  a 
flat  level  on  its  highest  parts,  but  some  summits  attain  an 
elevation  of  1400  or  1800  feet  The  hilly  country  east  of 
this  connecting  range  towards  the  plain  of  Saxony  is  gene* 
rally  fertile. 

llie  western  extremity  of  the  Harz  mountains  is  con- 
nected with  a  hilly  country,  which  extends  to  the  Weser, 
and  as  far  north  as  Minden.  The  hills  which  occupy  this 
district  rarely  rise  to  the  elevation  of  mountains,  except  in 
the  Soiling,  where  the  Moosberg  attains  16S0  feet  This  hilly 
country  continues  west  of  the  Weser  totheEgge,  east  of  Pa- 
derbom,  which  is  a  narrow  range,  rising  in  its  highest  sum- 
mits to  about  2000  feet,  and  overgrown  with  fine  forest 
trees.  At  its  southern  extremity  (about  51°  30'  N.  lat) 
the  Egge  range  turns  to  the  west,  and  runs  to  the  very 
banks  of  the  Rhine  between  the  rivers  Ruhr  and  Lippe. 
This  latter  range  is  called  on  the  east  Aardei,  and  towards 
the  west  Haarstrang.  It  is  a  narrow  ridge,  the  most  ele- 
vated parts  of  which  probably  do  not  exceed  1500  feet,  and 
its  mean  elevation  not  1000  feet  It  consists  of  bare  rocks. 
The  Haarstrang,  the  Egge,  the  hilly  country  between  the 
Egge  and  the  Harz,  and  the  last^mentioned  range,  form 
the  boundary  between  the  low  plain  and  the  central  moun- 
tain-region of  Germany.  Alons  this  line,  towards  the 
north,  extends  a  tract  with  an  undulating  surface.  It  is  of 
inconsiderable  width  (from  4  to  8  miles),  but  fertile. 

The  western  declivity  of  the  central  mountain-region  is 
formed  by  three  table*lands,  of  a  very  uneven  surface,  which 
begin  on  the  very  banks  of  the  Rhine,  and  rise  gradually 
as  they  advance  towards  the  east  The  most  northern, 
which  is  contiguous  to  the  ridge  of  the  Haarstrang  to  the 
south,  is  callea  the  Sanerland,  which  extends  as  fu  soutib- 
~*ud  as  the  river  Sieg,  a  tributary  of  the  Rhine.    On  a 

a  of  about  500  feet  rise  several  ridges  and  summits,  a 
of  them  to  2^00  or  8800  IMt   It  hia  noitly  •  aWny 


surface  of  very  indifferent  quality,  but  it  ooptains  ooppcr. 
coal,  and  immense  quantity  of  iron-ore.  The  numeroii* 
articles  of  hardware  from  this  district  are  well  known  ci 
Germany.  The  hills  do  not  advance  close  to  the  Hhiur. 
but  are  separated  from  the  river  by  a  level  tract  of  grv-^: 
fbrtility. 

South  of  the  Sauerland  extends  the  Westerwald,  bctwis  'i 
the  rivers  Sieg  and  Lahn.  Its  western  border  comes  clu^" 
Up  to  the  Rhine,  south  of  Bonn,  and  is  known  under  tli** 
name  of  the  Siebengebirge  (Seven  Mountains).  In  some- 
places  it  extends  in  level  fiats,  which  may  be  fh>m  50u  t> 
800  feet  above  the  sea ;  in  others  it  rises  in  single  summit-, 
or  ridges.  Some  of  the  summits  are  near^  2Buu  f^.'^  i 
above  u\e  sea.  The  highest  summits  in  the  Stebengebtr^*- 
are  theLowenberg(1550  fbet),  and  the  Oelbcrg  (1550  fct^t). 
This  part  of  the  Westerwald  exhibits  some  traces  of  vol- 
canic action.  This  region  is  composed  of  grauwacUf. 
basalt,  lava,  limestone,  and  clav-slate.  Its  soQ  is  stony  and 
dry,  and  very  little  adapted  for  agriculture ;  a  few  pla>'^-s 
onlv  are  wooded.    Coal  is  abundant  in  this  tract 

The  third  hilly  plain,  which  occupies  nearly  the  whuW 
space  between  the  rivers  Lahn  ana  Main,  is  called  iUv 
Taunus.  It  very  much  resembles  the  Westerwald  in  i?^ 
structure,  except  that  it  is  less  elevated  and  more  fertile. 
The  hiffhest  summit  is  the  Feldberg,  which  attains  27bO 
feet  The  Taunus  sinks  with  a  steep  descent  towards  tlin 
Main  and  Rhine,  but  gradually  towards  the  Lahn  on  tbr 
north.  It  also  advances  close  up  to  the  Rhine,  and,  ^\\\k 
the  Westerwald,  renders  the  scenery  on  that  river  so  inte- 
restinff  between  Bonn  and  Mainz.  The  Taunus  does  »<•; 
join  the  Spessart,  being  separated  from  that  range  by  an 
extensive  nilly  tract,  whica  is  generally  very  ferule*  espi: 
cially  the  Wetterau. 

The  interior  of  the  central  mountain  region,  or  the  ruu:- 
tries  enclosed  by  the  mountain-ranges  which  we  have  dv 
scribed,  presents  nothing  but  a  succession  of  valleys  ar. ' 
high  hills.    The  valleys  are  frequently  wide,  but  genemlU 
of  only  moderate  fertility.    The  hilb  have  in  general  > 
gentle  descent  and  many  of  them  are  cultivated  to  v>:i)** 
height.    No  hill  rises  to  the  elevation  of  a  mountain  exi*v; : 
the  Vogelsberg,  north  of  the  Spessart  and  west  of  the  R  • 
mountains,  which  consists  of  basalt  and  lava.  It  extends  aU*  >i.: 
20  miles  from  east  to  west  and  15  from  north  to  south.    I-  > 
highest  part  called  the  Oberwald,  is  a  level  plain,  nearly  t  i 
miles  in  length,  and  more  than  2560  feet  above  the  Ve4- 
level;    in  summer  it  is  always  covered  with  fogs,  and   .: 
winter  with  snow.    It  is  surrounded  by  many  samni:t-. 
which  rise  to  2300  or  2400  feet    This  mountainis-ma^^  *^ 
only  cultivated  in  the  narrow  valleys  towards  its  lu^vr 
declivities. 

The  system  of  the  Rhenish  mountains,  which  enclose  tl^* 
elevated  plain  on  the  west  rise  at  their  northern  extrem.t  * , 
at  no  great  distance  from  the  place  where  the  river  M...  . 
joins  the  Rhine,  a  few  miles  south  of  the  town  of  Frankfort. 
They  begin  with  low  hills,  which  however  soon  riM    ti» 
mountains,  forming  a  continuous  range,   and  extetulit.c 
along  the  bank  of  the  Rhine,  south-south-west  to  the  in- 
nermost angle  of  the  great  bend  of  the  river  which  is  opf-  - 
site  to  Basle.    The  continuity  of  this  range,  which  exteii-N 
over  a  tract  of  about  180  miles  in  lene^h,  is  onlv  inter- 
rupted bv  the  narrow  valley  through  whicn  the  river  Keck  ir 
flows.    <)wing  to  this  circumstance  the  range  is  knovri 
under  two  names,  the  northern  being  called  Odenwidd.  oivi 
the  southern  SchwarzWd,  or  Black  Forest    The  Odcii- 
wald  advances  close  up  to  the  Main,  between  Ostheim  and 
Miltenberg  in  Bavaria,  and  is  here  separated  only  b%  i 
narrow  valley  from  the  Spessart  which  rises  on  the  otlicr 
side  of  the  nver.    It  occupies  the  whole  space  between  tbi^ 
river  and  the  Neokar,  whose  banks  it  constitutes  betwi^*. 
Ebersbach  and  Heidelberg  in  Baden.   Its  length  from  noi" :» 
to  south  is  about  35  miles,  and  its  width  probably  not  W^» 
than  25  miles.    It  is  composed  of  graniteL,  which  ta  ym.T\'  »■ 
covered  with  limestone  or  sandstone.      Some  ver>>   Kt^h 
tracts  are  uncultivated,  but  by  fkr  the  greatest  portii^n  > 
covered  with  trees,  or  well  cultivated,  especially  tov(i..;« 
the  east  where  it  descends  with  a  much  more  gentle  s^   -.- 
than  on  the  side  towards  the  Rhine  and  in  the  valley  v  1  u 
valleys  run   mostly  longitudinally.    The  single  aumm    « 
lie  in  the  direction  of  south  and  north.    The  highest  sunt 
mit,  which  is  near  its  southern  extremity,  is  called    t . 
KatzerbuckeL  and  rises  to  2320  feet    Fartner  north  arv  i.  •■ 
Neukircher  Hohe  (1936  feet),  the  Triimm  (1930  feeti^  vj  . 
.  the  Malcheo,  or  Helibocus*  i  700  fbtt  abovo  tht  tm.  AXoix^ 


GER 


188 


OBR 


be  connidered  as  a  part  of  tbe  Ardennes,  and  is  only  sepa- 
rated from  the  Hochwald  and  Hundnriiek  by  the  deep  val- 
ley in  which  the  Moselle  runs.    It  extends  on  the  very 
banks  of  the  Rhine  as  far  north  as  Bonn,  and  its  descent 
towards  the  river  is  exceedingly  steep  between  Andemach 
and  Siniie.  Westward  it  advances  about  thirty  miles,  until 
it  joins  tne  Ardennes.    This  extensive  rocky  mass  has 
lately  attracted  the  attention  of  geologists.    Its  upper  sur- 
ftoe,  which  appears  rather  as  a  plain  of  a  very  ruegcd  sur- 
ihoe,  on  whicn  several  summits  rise  to  some  height,  is 
partly  covered  with  sand  and  swamps,  and  partly  with 
pumice-stone  and  lava.    There  are  numerous  depressions, 
mostly  filled  with  water,  which  have  been  recognised  as 
extinct  volcanoes.    From  one  of  these  depressions,  called 
the  lake  of  Laach  (750  feet  above  the  sea),  a  lava-tmct 
extends   five   miles  in  length,  and    nearly  three   miles 
in  width,  to  the  small  river  Nette.    This  mountain-mass 
consists  mostly  of  limestone,  slate,  and  basalt.    In  some 
parts  it  is  covered  with  stunted  trees,  and  in  others  is  a 
complete  desert.    Tlie  highest  summits  upon  it  are  the 
Hochacht,  composed  of  bfi^lt,  which  attains  2336  feet ;  the 
Schneifel  is  2940  feet,  and  the  Emstberg  is  about  the  same 
height    The  north-western  part  of  the  Eifel  is  the  Hohe 
Veen  (called  by  the  French  Haut  Fange8),'a  mountain 
plain,  extending  about  fifteen  miles  in  every  direction.    Its 
surface  rises  and  lowers  imperceptibly,  and  very  few  sum* 
mits  occur  on  it;  but  as  its  elevation  is  from  1800  to  2200 
feet  above  the  sea-level,  it  is  very  sterile,  mostly  covered 
with  swamps,  and  nearly  all  the  year  round  enveloped  with 
ibgs,  so  that  it  is  dangerous  to  cross  it 

,The  Eifel  and  the  Hohe  Veen  constitute  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  low  plain  on  the  we«t  of  the  river  Rhine. 
In  this  part  the  plain  extends  over  Belgium  and  the  southern 
provinces  of  the  Netherlands.  Though  the  districts  united 
to  the  Netherlands  are  not  much  superior  in  fertility  to  that 
.part  of  tbe  lotw  plain  which  lies  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Rhine,  those  which  form  Bel«rium  and  which  belong  to 
Germany  exhibit  a  difiierent  character,  being  fertile  to  a 
considerable  degree. 

Climate, — The  climate  of  the  different  parts  of  Grermany 
differs  in  no  great  degree,  if  we  except  the  countries  situated 
on  the  southern  declivity  of  the  Alps  and  its  valleys.  At 
Trieste,  on  ^the  Adriatic  Sea,  the  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture is  58*;  but  north  of  the  Alps,  the  temperature  is 
nearly  equal  all  over  Crermany.  Though  the  northern  dis- 
tricts are  seven  or  eight  degrees  farther  north  than  the 
southern,  the  difference  of  temperature  due  to  this  cause 
is  compensated  by  the  much  higher  elevation  of  the 
southern  districts.  The  mean  annual  temperature  varies 
only  between  45"*  and  50**  of  Fahrenheit  (that  of  London  is 
48**),  as  ma^  be  seen  in  the  following  table  :^- 

Konigsberg,  in  Prussia     .        •         •       43*5* 

8agan,  in  Silesia      •         •         •         •       46*5 

Ingolstadt,  in  Bavaria       •         •         .45*5 

Breslau,  in  Silesia   •         .         •        •      46*2 

lena,  in  Saxony       •        •         .         •      46*3 

Ratisbon,  in  Bavaria        .         •         •      46*4 

Tubingen,  in  Wiirtemberg        •         •      46*4 

Munchen,  in  Bavaria        •         •        .47*0 

Erfurt,  in  Prussia  •        •         •        .47*1 

Gottingen,  in  Hannover  •         •        •      47*8 

Berlin,  in  Prussia   •         •         •         •      49*2 

Prag,  in  Bohemia    •         •         •         •       49*3 

Karlsruhe,  in  Baden         •         •         •      49*7 

Frankfort,  on  the  Main    •         .        .       50*0 

Stuttgard,  in  >Yiirtemberg        •         •      49*7 

Trier,  in  Rhenish  Prussia         •         •      50*0 

Wiirzburg,  in  Bavaria      •        •        •      50*2 

Manheim,  in  Baden         •         •        •      49*7 

Wien,  in  Austria     .         •         .        «      50*8 

Diisseldorf,  in  Rhenish  Prussia         .       50*8 

In  the  greatest  degree  of  cold  which  has  been  experienced, 

the  thermometer  sunk  to  31*  below  zero,  and  in  the  greatest 

degree  of  heat  it  rose  to  95*.  The  countries  along  the  banks 

of  the  rivers  Rhine  and  Main  enjoy  the  mildest  climate, 

and  here  the  almond-tree  and  the  chesnut-tree  succeed 

very  well.    Vines  do  not  grow  north  of  51*  N.  lat,  unless 

peculiar  care  is  taken  to  shelter  them. 

The  low  plain,  which  lies  exposed  to  the  winds  that 
blow  from  the  northern  seas,  has  a  much  moister  and 
more  variable  climate  than  the  interior,  which,  owing  to  its 
greater  elevation,  is  much  drier  and  less  subject  to  sudden 
^d  flraquont  variations.    The  quantity  of  rain  which  an*  | 


nnaHy  fells  tariet  'greatly  with  the  loealitiaa  f  pteeaa.  It 
amounts  at  Wittenberg  to  eighteen,  at  Berlin  to  tweoty-onv, 
at  Ulm  to  twentv-eight  inches. 

(Gutsmuth,  DeuUchei  Land;  Hoifraann^B  DeuUehUxni 
und  seine  Bewohner;  Stein ;  Horschelmann.) 

For  the  present  political  divisions  of  Genaany,  u» 
EuBOPB,  vol  X.,  p.  89. 

Antient  Germany. — ^The  word  Germania  was  employc^l 
by  the  Romans  to  designate  a  country  of  mater  extrnt 
than  modern  Germany.  They  included  under  this  naioe 
all  the  nations  of  Europe  east  of  the  Rhine  and  north 
of  the  Danube,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  German 
Ocean  and  the  Baltic,  including  Denmark  and  the  ncnrh- 
bouring  iaslnds,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Sarmatians  aii<i 
Dacians.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  how  fer  (aerroany 
stretched  eastwards.  According  to  Strabo  (vii.,  c  I )  Gvr- 
manic  tribes  dwelt  nearly  as  far  as  the  mouths  of  the  Bo- 
rysthenes  (Dnieper).  The  northern  and  north-eastrm 
parts  of  Gaul  were  also  known  nnder  the  name  of  Ger- 
many in  the  time  of  the  emperors,  after  the  provinrc  •.•f 
Belgica  had  been  subdivided  into  Germania  Prima  xwl 
Germania  Secunda,    [Franck,  vol.  x.,  p.  4  23.1 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  had  very  little  knowlodire  **f 
Germany  before  the  time  of  Julius  Csssar,  who  met  wii  ..• 
several  German  tribes  in  Gaul,  and  crossed  the  Rhine  nu>rr 
than  once,  rather  with  the  view  of  preventing  their  incur- 
sions into  Graul  than  of  making  any  permanent  conquest*. 
His  acquaintance  was  however  limited  to  those  tnhe« 
which  dwelt  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine.  Under  tho  rarl\ 
Roman  emperors  many  of  these  tribes  were  subdued,  aii'l 
the  country  west  of  theVisurgis  (Weser)  was  frequently 
tmversed  by  the  Roman  armies.  But  at  no  period  had  the 
Romans  any  accurate  knowledge  of  the  country  east  of  tht« 
river ;  and  it  is  therefore  difficult  to  fix  with  certainty  tho 
position  of  the  Grerman  tribes,  particularly  as  the  Geraaii* 
were  a  nomad  people.  Some  parts  of  Gcmany  were  iniia- 
bited  by  the  Gauls,  who  wore,  according  to  Canar  (£eV.  <r^^ 
vi.  24)  the  more  warlike  nation  in  eany  tiroes.  Two  grru 
countries  of  Germany,  Bohemia  (Boihcmum),  and  Bann^ 
(Boioaria),  derived  their  names  from  the  Boii,  a  Gallic  tn)»^. 

The  name  of  German!  was  first  applied  by  Cspsar  to  tW 
whole  nation  east  of  the  Rhine,  though  it  properly  bckinc^-i 
only  to  those  tribes  which  he  conquered  in  Gaul.  Tar:  ?■« 
states  {Germ,,  e.  2)  that  the  first  tribe  which  oros««d  t:« 
Rhine  were  the  Tungri,  who  were  afterwards  called  Gcr- 
mani,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  fP'ehrmafft* : 
that  is, '  man  of  war.'  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  6ermai?« 
themselves  employed  any  one  name  to  designate  the  wIkiIl 
nation.  Tacitus  (Germ.,  c  2)  divides  them  into  thnv 
tribes:  1.  IngsDVones,  boidering  on  the  ocean.  2.  Hcmii* 
ones,  inhabiting  the  central  parts.  3.  Istovones,  inclttfim:; 
all  the  others.  Pliny  (Nat.  Hiet.,  iv.  14)  makes  five  t\i\\- 
sions:  1.  Vindili,  including  Burgundiones,  Vanni,  Cariov 
Guttones.  2.  Ingsevones,  including  Cirobri,  Teutooi,  a  no 
Chauci.  3.  Istsevones,  near  the  Rhine,  including  the  m-d- 
land  Cimbri.  4.  Hermiones,  inhabiting  the  central  paru, 
including  the  Suevi,  Hermunduri,  Catti,  and  Chenisri  ;. 
Peucini  and  Bastarnse,  bordering  on  the  Daciana. 

The  following  list  gives  the  position  of  the  princi^iai 
tribes  as  fer  as  they  can  be  asoertaine<l :  Airther  paittacul;.r« 
will  be  found  in  some  separate  articles,  such  as  Catt-, 
Chauci,  Cimbri,  &c 

1.  Tribee  on  the  eea-eooit. —  Between  the  Rbenu^ 
(Rhine)  and  the  Amisia  (Ems),  the  Frisii.  Betwe<>n  Ctf 
Amisia  and  the  Albis  (Elbe),  the  Chauci,  divided  into 
Chauci  Minores  and  Chauci  Majores.  East  of  the  Alb;*, 
tlie  Cimbri,  Saxones,  and  Angli.  The  peninsula  of  J  ai 
land  was  also  called  Cimbrica  Uhersonesus.  Farther  va*: 
the  Guttones  and  Teutones  or  Teutonu 

2.  Tribes  on  the  right  bank  qfthe  Bhine. — Between  th*- 
Frisii  and  the  Luppia  (LippeX  and  bounded  on  the  eost  \.\ 
the  Visurgis,  the  Bnicteri,  Tubantes,  Chamavi*  Marni. 
Dulgibini,  Angrivarii,  Usipii  or  Usipetes.  Tbe  Usipii.  lu 
com  unction  with  the  Tencteri,  made  an  irmption  into  Gjui 
in  the  time  of  Coosar  (Ca».,  Bel.  Gal.,  iv.,  l-l  5).  Between  tJi* 
Luppia  and  Mosnus  (MaynX  the  Sigambri  or  Sirambn. 
Tencteri,  and  Mattiaci.   South  of  the  Mcenus,  the  Alemaoiu 

3.  Tribes  on  the  Uft  bank  qf  the  Danube^ — Between  thr 
Danube  and  the  Erzgebirge  and  Riesengebirge,  the  Her 
raunduri,  Narisci,  Quadi,  and  Marcomanni,  who  dwelt  in 
the  districts  formerly  inhabited  by  the  Boii. 

4.  Tribes  in  the  Central  porlt.— Tbe  moat  powerfiu  oi 


GBR 


J90 


OBR 


burg  (1)25-37),  vbo  became  emperor  by  making  great 
ooncessions  to  the  church. 

The  Buccessor  of  Lotharios  was  Conrad  m^  duke  of 
Franconia,  of  the  family  of  Hohenstaufen  (1138-52).  He 
was  constantly  devoted  to  the  Roman  see  and  greatly  in- 
creased the  influence  of  the  clergy.  Conrad  was  succeeded 
oy  his  nephew,  Frederick  L,  or  Barbarossa  (1152-90),  a 
prince  of  ability,  whose  reign  is  memorable  for  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Hanseatie  League.  His  life  was  spent  in  con- 
stant wars  with  the  Italian  republics  and  the  Pone ;  and  he 
died  on  his  expedition  to  the  Holy  Land.  Freaerick  Bar- 
barossa was  succeeded  by  his  son  Henri  VI.,  who  having 
married  a  princess  of  Naples,  possessed  himself  of  that 
kingdom  as  well  as  of  Sicily,  where  he  died  in  1197. 
The  peace  of  the  empire  was  disturbed  fbr  some  time 
by  the  competition  between  Philip,  brother  to  the  late 
emperor,  and  his  nephew,  Otho  of  Saxony.  The  diroute 
was  settled  by  an  arrangement  that  Philip  should  have 
the  crown,  and  that  Omo  should  succeed  him.  The 
former  died  in  1208,  and  the  latter,  who  became  emperor 
under  the  title  of  Otho  IV.,  was  driven  from  the  throne  by 
Frederic  II.,  son  of  the  emperor  Henri  VL,  who  was 
crowned  in  1215.  Frederic  H.  aied  in  1250 :  his  reign,  after 
that  of  Charlemagne,  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  period 
of  the  middle  ages.  His  son,  Conrad  IV.,  was  opposed  by 
WiUiam  of  Holland,  and  died  in  1254.  Upon  0>nrad's 
death  there  were  several  competitors  for  the  Imperial  crown, 
among  whom  was  Richard,  earl  of  C!omwall,  brother  of 
Henry  III.  of  England.  The  parties  who  supported  the  dif- 
ferent competitors  took  advantage  of  the  disturbed  state  of  the 
empire  in  order  to  strengthen  their  own  power.  Peace  was 
restored  by  the  accession  of  Rudolph  I.,  count  of  Habsburg 
(1272-91).  This  great  prince  destroyed  the  strongholds  of 
the  nobles,  who  exercised  constant  depredations  on  the 
adjacent  country,  and  established  order  by  severe  measures. 
Rudolph  is  the  founder  of  the  Habsburg  dynasty,  which 
through  a  female  line  still  reigns  in  Austria.  After  his  death, 
Adolphus,  duke  of  Nassau,  was  elected  emperor.  He  was 
killed  in  battle  in  1298,  and  Rudolph's  son,  Albert  I.  of 
Austria,  ascended  the  throne.  Albert's  reign  (1298-1308)  is 
rendered  remarkable  by  the  emancipation  of  the  Swiss  from 
Austr  a.  Albert  was  succeeded  by  Henry  VII.  of  Luxem- 
bourg, whose  reign  was  spent  in  constant  wars  in  Italy, 
which  at  that  time  was  divided  between  the  Guelph  and 
the  Ghibeline  parties. 

After  Henry's  death  Louis  of  Bavaria  was  elected  em- 
peror ;  his  reign  (1314-47)  was  marked  by  freauent  wars  in 
Italy.  He  was  succeeded  by  Charles  IV.  of  Luxembourg, 
king  of  Bohemia,  whose  reign  (1346-78)  is  particularly 
remarkable  by  the  constitution  of  the  empire  which  he  pro- 
claimed (in  1356)  under  the  name  of  the  Grolden  Bull.  This 
constitution  regulated  the  rights,  privileges,  and  duties  of 
the  electors ;  the  manner  and  formalities  of  the  election 
and  coronation  of  an  emperor ;  the  coinage,  customs,  and 
other  articles  relating  to  the  commerce  of  the  empire ;  the 
rights  and  obligations  of  the  free  imperial  cities,  &c. 
Charles's  son,  Wenceslaus  (1378-1410),  was  a  weak  prince 
whose  reign  was  disturbed  by  internal  commotions  and 
distinguished  by  the  commencement  of  Huss's  reformation. 
After  the  death  of  Wenceslaus,  his  brother  Sigismund  as- 
cended the  throne  (141 1-37).  During  his  reign  the  council 
of  Constance  was  held,  when  Huss  was  executed,  a  transac- 
tion which  gave  rise  to  the  wars  of  the  Hussites.  Sigis- 
mund was  succeeded  by  Albert  II.  of  Austria  (1437-39), 
whose  short  reign  presents  no  particular  event. 

The  long  reign  of  Albert's  successor,  Frederick  III. 
(1439-93),  a  weak-minded  prince,  was  marked  by  the  great 
progress  of  science,  which  was  promoted  by  the  foundation 
of  mauy  universities  in  Grermany.  Frederick's  son,  Maxi- 
milian 1.  (1493-1519),  was  a  prince  of  a  superior  mind  and 
character.  He  put  an  end  to  many  abuses  which  had 
desolated  the  empire,  particulariy  private  feuds.  He  im- 
proved the  organization  of  the  courts  of  justice,  introduced 
a  system  of  police  for  the  better  security  of  the  inhabitants, 
bjA  established  (in  1516)  the  post  He  ^ve  also  a  new 
and  better  organization  to  the  army,  bemg  himself  an 
accomplished  military  commander.  It  was  also  during  his 
reign  that  the  reformation  of  Luther  began  (1517),  at  the 
university  of  Wittemberg,  which  had  been  founded  in  1502. 

Maximilian  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Charles  V., 
king  of  Spain.  After  the  abdication  of  Charles  in  1556,  he 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Ferdinand  I.,  who  was  of  a 
conciliatory  character,  and  granted  entire  toleration  to  the 


Protestants.  Ferdinand^s  ion  and  iaeee«Qr,limitBii1iaa  11^ 

reigned  from  1564  to  1576 ;  and  his  son  Rudolph  IL,  from 
1576  to  1612.  Rudolph  was  a  weak-oitnded  prince,  mito 
neglected  the  duties  of  his  exalted  station,  and  ocoupictl 
himself  with  chemistry,  astrology,  and  meehaniet.  Al- 
though a  zealous  Roman  Catholic,  he  was  obliged  to  grant 
to  his  hereditary  Bohemian  subjects  the  ftiU  ei^oym«ni  uf 
religious  liberty.  Under  his  successor  Matthias  (1612-191, 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  commenced  in  1618.  If  atihiaa  v  & • 
followed  by  Ferdinand  IL  (1619-37X  a  bigotted  RomAti 
Oitholic,  whose  fanatical  leal  against  the  Protestaota,  as  writ 
as  his  political  ambition,  continued  to  involve  Oermanv  in  th« 
Thirty  Years' War.  Ferdinand  HI.,  son  of  the  precedjn*^, 
reigned  from  1637  to  1657.  The  treaty  of  Weatphalia,  whirh 
terminated  the  war  in  1648,  established  a  new  oiganizadi.n 
of  the  C^erman  empire.  By  ^is  treatr,  which  served  as  the* 
basis  of  the  constitution  of  Germany  till  the  formation  of  t  h< 
Confederation  of  the  lUune  in  1806,  the  religious  and  politi- 
cal liberties  of  the  (yermans  were  establisned  on  a  sure 
footing.  The  sovereignty  of  the  states  of  the  empire  wsi4 
acknowledged,  as  well  as  their  right  to  form  alliances  amont; 
themselves  and  with  foreign  states,  provided  none  were  con- 
cluded against  the  emperor  or  the  empire.  It  was  al<^j 
declared  that  the  emperor  should  not,  without  the  oonserit 
of  the  states,  put  any  one  of  them  under  the  ban  of  the 
empire.  The  Palatine  of  the  Rhine,  who  ha4  lost  his  state*, 
recovered  them  by  that  treaty  and  was  created  an  elector. 
The  Protestants  were  confirmed  in  all  the  liberties  whir  h 
they  possessed  before  the  war,  and  the  estates  of  the  Roiiia:\ 
Catholic  church,  which  had  been  seized  by  the  Protestatisi 
and  possessed  by  them  in  1634,  were  left  in  their  hand*, 
but  tnose  seized  after  this  time  were  restored  to  the  Roni  •  n 
Catholics.  The  members  of  the  Reformed  Church  reoei\  cI 
equal  rights  with  the  Lutherans.  Several  bishoprics  aiul 
abbeys  were  secularized,  and  given  as  an  indemnity  lo  dif- 
ferent states.  All  the  soverei^s  were  put  under  an  obliga- 
tion not  to  persecute  their  subjects  who  professed  a  relitzton 
different  from  their  own.  Alaeitia  was  ceded  to  Francr 
Sweden  received  a  part  of  Pomerania,  Bremen,  Verdeii. 
Wismar,  and  a  sum  of  five  million  dollars  for  its  arm>  . 
Brandenburg  received  the  secularized  bishoprics  of  Hallter- 
stadt,  Minden,  Kamin,  and  the  expectation  of  the  po»»e««uin 
of  Magdeburg;  Mecldenburg.  the  secularized  bisuoprK^  •>( 
Schwerin  and  Ratzeburg.  Hanover  was  invested  with  th<* 
right  to  have  one  of  its  princes  created,  alternately  with  a 
Roman  Catholic,  sovereign  bishop  of  Osnabriick,  and  aU  » 
received  some  convents  with  their  estates.  The  abbey  <if 
Hirschfeldt  and  600,000  dollars  were  given  to  Hessen  Ca.vs^>l. 
Austria  consented  to  all  these  measures  in  order  to  |>ri- 
serve  her  hereditary  states.  Holland  was  acknowled^*.-: 
by  Spain  as  an  independent  state.  France  and  Sweden  ^li- 
clared  themselves  guarantees  of  all  the  provisions  of  tb«* 
abovementioned  treaty.  Leopold  I.  (1657-17051,  was  in- 
volved in  constant  wars  with  France  and  with  theTurka,  who 
besieged  his  capital,  Vienna,  which  was  saved  by  J<th.. 
Sobieski,  king  of  Poland.  Leopold  granted  in  1 692  the  «1«.  c  - 
toral  dignity  to  the  duke  of  Brunswick-Lunebtti^,  and  con- 
ferred in  1 701  the  royal  crown  on  the  elector  of  Brandenbur^\ 
who  took  from  that  time  the  title  of  king  of  Prussia. 

The  whole  reign  of  Leopold's  son  and  successor,  Joaepli 
L  (1705*1 1),  was  occupied  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  sune«-^- 
sion.  He  was  suoceeaed  by  his  brother  Charles  VL  ( i  r  u  - 
40),  with  whose  death  the  male  line  of  the  Habsburi: 
dynasty  became  extinct,  and  his  only  daughter*  M^  ».*. 
Theresa,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  the  hereditaiy  states  u! 
Austria. 

The  elector  of  Bavaria,  who  was  elected  emperor  in  174^ 
put  forward  claims  to  the  succession  of  the  Austrian  staf«-v 
and  other  sovereigns  took  advantage  of  that  circunutat.c  .- 
to  attack  Maria  Theresa,  who  was  married  to  the  dnkc  * 
Lorraine.  A  war  ensued,  which  was  ended  by  the  |>ea«.Y  .< 
Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748;  but  the  emperor  CS&arles  VII 
having  died  in  1 74  5,  the  husband  of  MaiiaTheresa  was  ritt.*t*  . 
emperor  under  the  name  of  Francis  I.  In  his  feign  I'ur 
Seven  Years'  War  was  concluded  b^the  trsaty  of  Hubvn^burc 
in  1763.  Francis  was  succeeded  m  1765  by  his  son  Jo»«-:  • 
II.,  who  distinguished  himself  by  the  numerous  iwinn:  • 
which  he  introduced  into  his  dominions,  and  particularU  t'« 
his  act  of  toleration  to  all  the  religious  pcisaasiotis,  vki> 
claimed  in  1781.  Joseph  was  succiwdecL  1790,  by  his  br;j 
ther,  Leopold  II.,  who  had  been  duke  of  Tuscany  bc^furv  I  i«. 
accession  to  the  imperial  throne.  The  short  reign  of  Lr>»- 
pold  is  marked  by  the  treaty  of  PSlniti^  which  he  oondisdcu 


G  Ifi  R 


191 


G  E  R 


in  1791  with  Um  kills  of  Frassiaagsinst  the  French.  Leopold 
woii  succeeded  in  1792  by  his  son,  the  late  emperor  Francis, 
\v  ho,  after  the  formation  of  the  Rhenish  Ccmfederation, 
having  resigned  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Germany,  took  that 
of  Emperor  of  Austria.    The  Confederation  of  the  Rhine 
was  established  by  an  act,  signed  at  F^ris  on  the  12th  of 
July,  1806,  by  the  kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wirtemberg,  the 
elector  of  Mainz,  the  elector  of  Baden,  the  duke  of  Cleves 
and  Beig  (Murat),  the  landgrave  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  the 
princes  of  Nassau-Usingen,  Nassau-Weilburg,  Hohenzol- 
lem-Hechingent  Hohensollem-Siegmaringen,   Salm-Saim, 
Salm-Kyrburg ;   the  duke  of  Aremberg;  the  princes  of 
(sen  burg,  Birstein,  Lichtenstein,  and  the  count  of  Leyen. 
By  t  hitf  act  the  elector  of  Mainz  received  the  title  of  the  Prince 
PHmate ;  the  elector  of  Baden,  the  landgrave  of  Hesse- 
[>armstadt,  and  the  duke  of  Berg,  received  the  titles  of 
rrand-dukes»  with  royal  rights  and  privileges ;  the  prince 
>f  Nassau- Usingen  received  the  ducal,  and  the  count  of 
L«eyen  the  prinoely  dignity.    The  French  empnror  declared 
itmself  Protector  of  the  Confederation.    By  the  establish- 
nent  of  this  confederation  many  towns  and  principalities 
cat  their  political  existence :  such  were  the  imperial  city 
>f  Niimbeig^  which  was  given  to  Bavaria;  and  Frankfort, 
which  was  given  to  the  prince  primate.    Several  petty 
kivereign  princes  were  by  tne  same  act  mediatised,  or  de- 
prived of  their  sovereign  rights,  such  as  making  laws,  con- 
rluding  alliances,  declaring  war,  coining  money,  &c. :  they 
retained  their  hereditary  estates,  but  beoBime  subjects  to  the 
sovereigns  who  were  members  of  the  Confederation.    The 
object  of  the  Confederation  was  declared  to  be,  the  main- 
tenance of  external  and  internal  peace  by  the  mutual  as- 
sistance of  all  the  members  of  the  Confederation  as  well  as 
Df  France,  in  case  any  one  of  them  should  be  attacked  by 
m  enemv.    The  affiiirs  of  the  Confederation  were  to  be 
londucted  by  a  congress  sitting  at  Frankfort  on  the  Main, 
ind  divided  into  two  colleges — the  roval  one,  in  which  the 
raod-dukes  had  also  their  seats,  and  tne  prinoely  one.  The 
resident  of  the  congress  in  general,  and  of  the  royid 
olle^e  in  particular,  was  the  Prince  Primate,  but  the  presi- 
ent  of  the  prinoely  college  was  the  duke  of  Nassau.    The 
Lector  of  Wiirzburg  joined  the  Confederation  in  the  same 
ear,  and  the  king  of  Prussia  meditated  the  establishment 
Livder  his  own  protection,  of  a  similar  Confederation,  com- 
posed of  the  princes  of  Northern  Germany,  in  order  to 
counterbalance  the  power  of  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine.    This  project  was  destroyed  by  the  war  of  1806, 
wrhich  was  not  over  when  the  elector  of  Saxony,  who  had 
received  the  title  of  king,  by  his  treaty  with  France,  on  the 
1 1th  of  December,  1806,  joined  the  Confederation,  and  his 
example  was  followed  by  all  the  Saxon  princes.    By  the 
treaty  of  Warsaw,  on  the  13th  April,  1807,  the  two  princes 
of  Schwaizburg,  the  three  ducal  lines  of  Ajihalt,  the  princes 
of  Lippe  Dettmold  and  of  Lippe  Schaumburg,  and  the 
princes  of  Reasa»  were  received  members  of  the  Confede- 
ration, which  was  increased  by  the  accession  of  the  newly- 
erected  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  as  well  as  that  of  both  the 
dukes  of  Mecklenburg,  and  of  the  duke  of  Oldenburg.  Thus 
in  1808  the  Confederation  comprehended  5916  geographical 
square  (Gennan)  miles,  vrith  a  population  of  1 4,608,87  7  souls ; 
the  army  of  the  Confederation,  which  was  fixed  in  the  be- 
ginning at  63,000,  was  increased  to  the  number  of  119,180. 
The  act  of  the  Confederation  was  violated  by  its  protector 
himself,  who  united  with  France,  by  a  decree  of  the  10th 
I>eoember,  1810«  all  the    country  situated    between   the 
mouths  of  the  Schelde  and  the  Elbe,  and  deprived  many 
sovereign  princes  of  their  dominions,  taking  away  from  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine  an  extent  of  532  geographical 
square  ( German)  miles,  with  a  population  of  1 , 1 33,05 7.  Napo- 
leon did  not  observe  any  better  the  promise  which  he  gave 
at  the  establishment  of  the  Confederation  not  to  meddle  with 
its  internal  affairs,  but  treated  it  in  every  respect  as  one  of  his 
provinces.    The  events  of  1813  put  an  end  to  the  Confede- 
ration of  the  Rhine ;  and  the  Congress  of  Vienna  established, 
in  1815,  the  Germanic  Confederation,  composed  of  all  the 
itates  of  Germany.     The  present  Germanic  Confedera- 
tion* established  by  an  act  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  on 
the   8th  June*  1815,  consists  of  thirty-eight  Independent 
States  enumerated  in  the  Statistical  Tables  of  Eubopb.* 
The  central  point  and  the  organ  of  the  Confederation  is  the 
Federative  aftet»  which  sits  at  Frankfort  on  the  Main.    Its 

■  To  thoM  nuirked  with  an  Mtcriik  in  Braon  (toL  x.,  |t.  89)  u  waveniga 
■UIM  must  be  added,  Frankfort  on  Um  Main,  Holaian  and  Lauenbarg:  and 


sesgfons  were  opened  on  the  5th  of  November,  1816.    It 
exercises  its  authority  in  a  double  form :  1,  as  a  general  as« 
sembly,  called  Plenum;  and  2,  as  a  minor  council,  or  the 
Federative  government.    The  Plenum  meets  only  whenever 
an  organic  change  is  to  be  introduced,  or  any  affair  relating 
to  all  the  Confederation  is  to  be  decided.   The  Plenum  con- 
tains seventy  votes,  of  which  Austria  and  the  eight  German 
kingdoms  have  each  four  votes,  and  the  other  states,  in 
proportion  to  their  importance,  three,  two^  or  one  vote  each. 
The  Federative  government  is  composed  of  seventeen  votes, 
out  of  which  eleven  principal  states  have  each  a  single 
vote,  and  the  remaining  twenty-seven  only  six  joint  votes. 
Austria  presides  in  both  the  assemblies,  and  decides  in  case 
of  equality.    The  Federative  government  has  the  initiative, 
and  deliberates  on  the  projects  which  are  presented  to 
the  Plenum,  where  they  are  not  debated,  but  simply  decided 
by  a  majority  of  ayes  or  noes.    It  executes  the  enactments  of 
the  Plenum,  and  despatches  the  current  business  of  the  Con- 
federation. It  decides  by  a  simple  majority,  and  seven  votes 
form  a  q  uorum.  The  meetings  of  the  Federative  diet  are  either 
those  wherein  preparatory  debates  take  place,  but  no  proto- 
cols are  made,  or  those  wherein  affairs  are  finally  decided. 

The  object  of  the  Germanic  Confederation  and  the  duties 
of  the  Federative  diet  are—the  maintenance  of  external  se- 
curity or  mutual  defence  from  a  common  enemy,  and  the 
preservation  of  internal  peace  among  the  Federative  states, 
which  have  no  right  to  declare  war  on  each  other,  but  must 
submit  their  differences  to  the  decision  of  the  diet.  The 
maintenance  of  internal  security  comprehends  not  only  the 
prevention  of  conflicts  among  the  Federative  states,  but 
also  the  suppression  of  anv  attempt  by  the  subjects  of  any 
of  the  'states  to  subvert  tne  existing  order  of  things.  It 
was  in  consequence  of  this  principle  that  the  central  com- 
mission of  inquiry  into  revolutionary  measures  was  esta- 
blished at  Mainz  in  1819-28.  A  further  development  of 
the  same  principle,  occasioned  by  the  revival  of  liberal  opi- 
nions throughout  Germanv  by  the  French  Revolution  of 
July,  was  made  on  the  28tn  June,  1832,  by  the  proclama- 
tion of  the  following  articles,  particularly  directed  against 
the  constitutional  states  of  Germany : — 1st.  The  German 
sovereigns  are  not  only  authorised  but  even  obliged  to  re- 
ject all  propositions  of  the  states  which  are  contrary  to  the 
fundamental  principle,  that  all  sovereign  power  emanates 
from  the  monarch,  and  that  he  is  limited  by  the  assent  of 
the  states  only  in  the  exercise  of  certain  rights.  2.  Tho 
stoppage  of  supplies  by  the  states,  in  order  to  obtain  the 
adoption  of  their  propositions,  is  to  be  considered  as  sedition 
agamst  which  the  Confederation  may  act.  3.  The  legisla- 
tion of  the  federative  states  must  never  be  in  contradic- 
tion either  to  the  objec^t  of  the  Federation  or  to  the  ful- 
filment of  federal  duties;  and  such  laws  (as  for  in- 
stance, the  law  of  Baden,  which  established  the  liberty  of 
the  press)  may  be  abolished  by  the  diet.  4.  A  permanent 
commission  of  federal  deputies  shall  watch  over  the  legis- 
lative assemblies  of  the  federal  states,  in  order  that  nothing 
contrary  to  the  federal  act  may  occur.  5.  The  deputies  of 
the  legislative  assemblies  of  the  federal  states  must  be  kept 
by  the  regulations  of  their  governments  within  such  limits 
tnat  the  public  neace  shall  not  be  disturbed  by  any  attacks 
upon  the  Confederation.  6.  The  interpretation  of  the  fede- 
ral laws  belongs  exclusively  to  the  federal  diet.  On  the 
5th  July,  1833,  the  federal  diet  proclaimed  a  new  law  con- 
sisting of  the  following  10  articles:  1.  All  German  works 
containing  less  than  20  sheets  which  appear  in  foreign 
countries  cannot  be  circulated  in  the  federal  states  without 
the  authorization  of  the  several  governments.  2.  Every  as- 
sociation having  a  political  object  is  prohibited.  3.  Political 
meetings  and  pubhc  solemnities,  except  such  as  have  been 
establisned  for  a  long  time  and  are  authorized,  cannot  be  held 
vrithout  the  permission  of  the  several  governments.  4.  All 
sorts  of  colours,  badges,  &c.  denoting  a  party  are  proscribed. 
5.  The  regulations  for  the  surveillance  of  the  universities,  pro- 
claimed in  1819,  are  renewed  and  rendered  more  severe.  By 
the  remaining  5  articles  the  federative  states  pledged  them- 
selves to  exercise  a  vigilant  watch  over  their  respective  sub- 
jects, as  well  as  over  foreigners  residing  in  their  states,  in 
respect  of  revolutionary  attempts;  to  surrender  mutually  all 
those  individuals  who  had  been  guilty  of  political  offences, 
with  the  exception  of  their  own  subjects,  who  are  to  be 
punished  in  their  own  country ;  to  give  mutually  military 
assistance,  in  case  of  disturbance,  and  to  notify  to  the  diet 
all  meaaucet  adopted  with  xefeienoe  to  the  above-mentionei 
olgiBOl0B 


G  E  R 


192 


OB  R 


On  the  30th  October,  1 834,  tho  meeting  of  the  Federatire 
diet  unanimously  agreed  to  the  proposition  of  Austria,  to 
establish  a  tribunal  of  arbitration  in  order  to  decide  differ- 
ences which  might  break  out  in  any  state  of  the  Confedera- 
tion between  the  government  and  the  chambers  respecting 
the  interpretation  of  the  constitution,  or  the  encroach- 
ments on  the  rights  of  the  sovereign  by  the  chambers,  or 
their  refusal  of  subsidies.  This  tribunal  consists  of  34  ar- 
bitrators nominated  by  the  seventeen  members  of  the  minor 
council,  each  member  nominating  two  arbitrators. 

Comiiiulion  qf  the  German  Empire  cu  it  tpot  b^are  the 
French  Revolution. — ^The  states  of  the  Germanic  empire 
consisted  of  the  following  members,  divided  into  three 
colleges,  or  chambers : — 

I.  The  Electoral  College,  which  consisted  of  the  Eccle- 
siastical Electors. 

1 .  The  archbishop  of  Mainz,  arch-chancellor  of  the  empire 
for  Germany. 

2.  Archbishop  of  Treves,  arch-chancellor  of  the  empire 
for  Gallia  and  the  kingdom  of  Aries  (a  purely  titular  office). 

3.  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  arch-chancellor  for  Italy  (also 
a  titular  office). 

11.  The  Secular  Electors  were — 

4.  The  king  of  Bohemia,  arch-cupbearer  of  the  empire : 
he  presented  the  emperor  at  the  coronation  banquet  with 
a  cup  of  wine  and  water. 

$.  The  elector  of  Bavaria,  arch-carver  of  the  empire :  he 
bore  at  the  coronation- procession  the  golden  bull  before 
the  emperor,  and  presented  to  him  the  dishes  at  the 
banquet. 

6.  The  elector  of  Saxony,  arch-marshal  of  the  empire : 
he  bore  in  the  great  solemnities  of  the  empire  the  sword 
of  state,  and  at  the  coronation  preceded  the  emperor  on 
horseback. 

7.  The  elector  of  Bmndenburg,  arch-chamberlain  of  the 
empire :  he  bore  in  the  coronation-procession  the  sceptre, 
and  presented  to  tho  emperor  a  basin  with  water  to  wash 
his  hands. 

8.  The  elector  palatine  of  the  Rhine  had  the  title  of  the 
arch-treasurer  of  the  empire :  his  duties  were  to  scatter  at 
the  coronation  gold  and  silver  medals,  struck  for  the  occasion, 
amongst  the  people.  This  electorate  became  united  with 
that  of  Bavaria  by  the  accession  of  the  elector  to  the  throne 
of  the  last-named  principality  in  1777,  after  the  extinction 
of  the  reigning  house  of  Bavaria. 

9.  The  elector  of  Brunswick-Luneburg,  or  Hanover, 
created  by  the  Emperor  Leopold  I.  in  1692,  received  in 
1706  the  title  of  arch- treasurer;  when  the  emperor,  having 
put  to  the  ban  of  the  empire  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  took 
from  him  the  office  of  the  arch-carver,  and  bestowed  it  on 
the  elector  palatine  of  the  Rhine,  whose  office  on  that 
occasion  was  given  to  Hanover. 

The  Secona  College  consisted  of  the  princes  of  the 
empire,  who  were  in  rank  next  to  the  electors :  they  had 
eacn  a  vote  in  the  diet  of  the  empire,  and  were  divided  into 
Spiritual  and  Temporal  princes. 

The  Spiritual  princes  of  the  empire  who  had  a  vote  in  the 
diet  were :— the  archbishop  of  Sabburg,  and  formerly  the 
archbishop  of  Besan9on ;  the  grand-master  of  the  German 
order;  tne  bishops  of  Bamberg,  Wiirzburg,  Worms, 
Bichstaedt,  Spires,  Strasburg,  Constance,  Augsburg,  Hil- 
desheim,  Paderborn,  Freysingen,  Passau,  Ratisbon,  Trent, 
Brixea,  Basil,  Miinster,  Osnabriick,  Liege,  Chur,  Fulda, 
Lubeck;  tho  princely  (gefursteto)  abbot  of  Kempten  ;  the 
princely  prebendaries  of  Berchtolsgaden  and  Weissenburg; 
tho  princely  abbots  of  Priim,  Stable,  and  Cervey. 

The  Temporal  princes  were: — the  archduke  of  Austria; 
the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  Magdeburg ;  the  counts  palatine 
of  Lautem,  Simmern,  and  muburg;  of  Deuxponts  (Zwei- 
briicken),  of  Veldenz,  and  Lautereken ;  the  dukes  of  Bremen, 
of  Saxen-Weymar,  Eisenaeh-Gotha,  Altenbuig,  Coburg; 
the  margraves  of  Brandenburg-Culmbach,  and  of  Branden- 
burg-Onolzbach ;  the  dukes  of  Brunswick,  Zell,  Gruben- 
hagen,  Calenberg,  and  Wolfenbiittel ;  the  prince  of  Halber- 
stadt;  the  dukes  of  Upper  and  Lower  Pomerania;  of 
Verden,  Mecklenburg- Schwerin,  Mecklenburg  -  Gustrow 
(afterwards  Strelitz);  of  Wirtemberg;  the  landgraves  of 
Hessen-Cassel  and  Hcssen-Darmstadt ;  the  margraves  of 
Baden-Baden,  Baden-Durlach,  and  Baden-Hochberg ;  the 
dukes  of  Hulstein,  Gottorp,  of  Saxe-Lauenburg;  the 
->rince  of  Minden ;  the  lanugrave  of  Leuchtenberg ;  the 

'nee  of  Aohalt;  the  princely  count  of  Hennebeig;  the 


princes  of  Schwerin,  Kamin,  Ratseburg,  and  Hefdbldt ;  tke 

princely  count  of  Montheliard.  The  princes  enumerated 
belonged  to  the  old  body ;  the  following,  who  were  elevated 
to  their  dignities  after  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Ferdi- 
nand U.,  were  called  the  new:— the  duke  ofAremhcrg; 
the  princes  of  HohenzoUern,  Salm,  Lobkowits,  Dietnch- 
stein,  Nassau-Hadamar,  Nassau-Dillenburg,  Aacnbcty. 
East  Friesland,  Schwarzenberg.  Lichtenstein,  Thiam-Taxiv 
and  Schwarzburg.  Many  of  these  principalities  were  in  tl*o 
possession  of  one  individual,  who  had  consequently  sevend 
votes,  the  votes  being  attached  to  the  states  and  not  u*  in- 
dividuals. 

The  prelates,  abbots,  and  abbesses  of  the  empire  wen* 
divided  into  two  benches,  the  Suabian  and  the  Rhenish,  ^4 
which  each  had  one  vote.  The  counts  and  nobles  of  I  be 
empire  were  divided  into  four  benches ;  of  Suabia,  FtaocM- 
nia,  Westphalia,  and  of  Wetterau,  each  having  one  >oCr. 
They  belonged  to  the  second  college. 

The  free  Imperial  cities  formed  a  college  at  the  diet,  di- 
vided into  two  benches,  the  Rhenish  with  fourteen  cities. 
and  the  Suabian  with  thirty-seven.    Each  town  had  a  \olv. 

The  above-mentioned  three  colleges  formed  the  diet  «if 
the  empire,  whose  ordinary  meetings  were  formerly  bum- 
moned  by  the  emperors  twice  a-vear,  in  addition  to  extru- 
ordinary  meetings.  But  from  tne  year  1663  the  diet  •mt 
at  Ratisbon.  The  emperor  at  first  appeared  personalis 
at  the  diet,  but  in  course  of  time  he  sent  a  deleeat/-, 
called  Principal  Commissiarius,  who  was  always  himself  a 
prince  of  the  empire,  and  who  had  an  assistant,  caltc^^ 
Con-commissiarius.  The  elector  of  Mainz,  as  arch-chancelliir 
for  Germany,  or  his  deputy,  presided  in  the  diet,  and  every 
despatch  addressed  to  the  diet  was  directed  to  him,  an«I 
communicated  from  his  chancery  to  the  members  of  the  diet 
The  president  of  the  first  college  was  the  elector  of  Mainx : 
of  the  second,  alternately,  the  archbishop  of  Salsburg  and 
the  arch-duke  of  Austria ;  and  of  the  third,  the  represmt- 
ative  of  the  town  where  the  diet  was  held.  Every  collets 
voted  separately ;  and  when  their  respective  decisions  on  tbn 
subject  under  discussion  agreed,  the  matter  was  preeenied 
for  the  ratification  of  the  emperor ;  after  which  it  bec&inis 
law,  and  was  called  eonclunan  imperii.  The  emperor 
could  refuse  his  ratification,  but  could  not  modify  the 
decisions  of  the  diet. 

The  diet  had  the  right  of  enacting,  abolishing,  and  inter- 
preting laws ;  of  declaring  war ;  concluding  peace ;  con- 
tracting alliances ;  receiving  foreign  ambassadors,  &c.  A 
declaration  of  war  was  decided,  on  an  Imperial  propositiAiti, 
by  a  majority  of  votes;  and  when  it  was  decided,  e^tro 
those  states  that  had  voted  against  it  were  obliged  to  ftimt^h 
their  contingents.  The  diet  also  imposed  taxes  tor  the 
eneral  expenses  of  the  empire. 

There  were  two  tribunals  for  the  decision  of  points  m 
dispute  between  the  members  of  the  empire;  ueAulM* 
council  of  the  empire,  which  had  its  seat  always  at  the 
residence  of  the  emperor ;  and  the  Cameral  tribunal  of  tlie 
empire  (Cameralgericht),  which  sat  at  Wetzlar.  They  were 
composed  of  members  delegated  by  the  dilTereot  atatca  of 
the  empire,  and  an  imperial  deputy  presided. 

The  emperor  was  elected  only  by  tne  electors,  who  eould 
do  it  either  personally  or  by  deputies.  The  place  of  elect  ion 
was  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  where  the  coronation  also 
took  place,  although  the  golden  bull  of  Charles  IV.  declared 
that  the  emperor  should  be  elected  at  Frankfort,  but 
crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  All  strangers,  even  the  prinrc« 
of  the  empire  and  foreign  ambassadors,  were  obliged  t^ 
leave  the  town  on  the  day  of  the  election,  which  look  place 
in  a  chapel  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Church.  Maim  was  the 
teller ;  and  after  having  collected  the  votes,  gave  his  own 
to  Saxony.  The  emperor,  immediately  after  the  electioo, 
swore  to  the  constitution,  or,  as  it  was  legally  termed,  capt- 
tulation.    He  could  do  it  either  personaUy  or  by  deputy. 

The  immediate  nobility  of  the  empire,  who  acknowledge 
no  other  sovereign  than  the  emperor  himself,  and  who,  %•  wv 
have  mentioned,  had  their  collective  votes  in  the  dieta,  wc-rv 
also  judged  by  the  two  above-mentioned  courts  of  juatice. 

German  Language  and  Literaiure.'^The  Gemiaa  le 
Teutonic  language  ma^  be  divided  into  two  grsat  brancbc^s 
which  are  subdivided  uto  several  dialects;  the  Hieh  Ger> 
man,  or  the  language  of  Southern  Germany;  and  Uie  Uiiv 
German,  or  Saxon,  which  is  used  in  the  northern  port  c( 
that  country. 

The  High  German  wu  fomerty  dirided  Into  two  «lia- 


GBR 


194 


QBR 


naa^.  Thk  l^oetiy  being  written  in  the  Snabian  dialect, 
whicn  came  into  fiuhion  through  the  influence  of  the  reign- 
ing fkmily,  is  generally  called  the  Suabian.  Germany  at 
that  time  had  made  great  progress  in  civilization,  particu- 
hurly  by  ita  frequent  intercourse  with  Italy,  which  was  owing 
to  tne  expeditions  of  the  emperota  to  that  country.  This 
circumstance  led  to  an  acquaintance  with  the  Troubadours 
of  Proyenoe ;  and  the  Crusades  also,  which  brought  the  Ger- 
mans into  contact  with  more  civilized  nations,  such  as  the 
Greeks  and  the  Saracens,  powerfully  contributed  to  advance 
the  intellectual  development  of  the  nation,  and  to  exalt 
their  chivalrous  spirit.  The  poets  of  that  period  are  known 
under  the  name  of  Minnesingers,  fh)m  the  old  German 
word  minne,  which  signifies  '  love.'  They  mav  be  com- 
pared  in  many  respects  with  the  Troubadours  of  Provence, 
and  were  generally  [knights  and  nobles,  whose  life  was 
divided  between  the  occupations  of  love,  war,  and  devotion, 
which  inspired  their  poetical  effusions  with  tender,  noble,  and 
pious  fteungs.  They  lived  chiefly  at  the  courts  of  German 
princes,  who  were  fond  of  poetry,  and  many  of  whom  were 
poets  themselves.  Such  were,  among  others,  the  Emperor 
Frederick  U.,  Leopold  lY.,  duke  of  Austria,  Henry  mar- 
grave of  Misnia,  Herman  margrave  of  Thuringia,  &c.  The 
court  life,  which  was  spent  amidst  tournaments  and  splendid 
entertainments  of  every  kind,  gave  to  their  poetry  a  high 
degree  of  refinement  and  brilliancy.  Love  and  the  praise 
of  ladies  were  the  principal  themes  of  their  compositions,  in 
which  however  were  intermingled  the  description  of  chi- 
Yalrous  exploits  generally  performed  cither  in  defence  of 
religion  or  for  the  honour  of  the  fair.  Most  of  these  poems 
are  original  and  written  on  national  subjects.  There  are 
many  however  which  are  imitations  firom  the  Troubadours. 
The  versification  of  theso  poems  is  exceedingly  varied, 
and  they  were  generally  set  to  music  and  sung  by  their 
authors.  The  most  antient  Minnesinger  whose  works 
have  reached  us  is  Henry  Von  Veldck  ;  next  to  him  the 
most  celebrated  are  Walter  von  der  Vogelweyde,  Reimar 
the  Old,  Reimar  von  Zweter,  Ulrich  von  Lichtenstein,  Wol- 
firam  von  Eshenbach,  Hartman  von  der  Aue,  and  some 
others,  who  all  lived  either  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  or  at 
the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  last  of  theso 
poets  who  deserve  notice  are  John  of  Wiirzberg  and  John 
Hadloup,  who  both  lived  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  oest  and  most  complete  collection  of  the  small  poems 
of  this  period,  which  contains  between  1400  and  1500  songs, 
the  labour  of  140  poets,  was  made  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury by  Riidiger  Von  Manesse,  Burgomaster  of  Zurich,  and 
published  by  Bodmer  andBreitinger,  in  ten  volumes  quarto, 
1758-59,  at  Zurich. 

The  most  remarkable  production  of  that  time  is  the 
oelebrated  '  Nibelungen  Lied,*  which  is  quite  difierent  from 
the  poems  of  the  Jifinnesingers,  and  whose  origin  is  by 
many  ascribed  to  a  much  more  remote  period.  It  is  a 
kind  of  epic  poem,  of  which  the  chief  heroes  are  Attila, 
or  Etzel,  king  of  the  Huns,  and  Dietrich,  or  Thedoric,  of 
Berne,  king  of  the  Goths.  There  are  several  minor  poems 
of  the  same  kind  and  on  similar  subjects,  which  were  col< 
lected  and  published  for  the  first  time  in  1490,  under  the 
title  of '  Heldenbuch,*  or  heroic  book.  This  collection  has  been 
reprinted  several  times  in  the  old  language,  and  also  trans- 
lated into  modern  German.  Tlie  decline  of  chivalry  put  an 
end  to  the  Minnesingers,  and  the  art  of  poeti^  descended 
fVora  the  nobles  to  the  burgers  of  cities ;  welfare  and  civi- 
lization being  secured  by  their  fortified  towns,  gave  them 
a  decided  advantage  over  the  nobles,  who  abandoned  them- 
selves to  the  greatest  excesses,  and  lived  in  a  most  lawless 
state,  being  constantly  engaged  in  mutual  feuds  and  depre- 
dations during  the  troubles  which  agitated  the  German  em- 
pire^ in  the  latter  part  of  the  Idth  century,  after  the  death 
of  Frederic  II. 

The  cultivation  of  poetry  by  the  burgers  became  a  kind 
of  trade,  and  the  poets,  who  formed  a  corporation  like  other 
artisans  and  tradesmen,  were  called  Meistersingers,  or  mas- 
ter singers.  They  had  their  rules  like  other  corporations,  and 
tho  members  were  obliged  to  submit  to  an  apprenticeship. 
Their  poetry  was  of  a  ditferent  kind  from  that  of  the  Minne- 
singers. The  exploits  of  chivalry  and  the  enthusiastic  love  or 
rather  worship  of  ladies  were  no  longer  the  exclusive  themes 
of  their  compositions,  although  they  produced  some  metri- 
cal chronicles.  The  general  subjects  of  the  poems  of  this 
period  are  of  a  moral  and  satirical  character,  but  there  are 
also  some  of  the  didactic  kind.  The  moat  celebrated  pn>- 
ductioni  of  thia  Khool  are  the  weU-known  poema^  *  Reineoke 


Der  Fucha»*  translated  into  English*  and  pnUtahed  for  t}.4» 
first  time  under  the  following  title :— '  The  RistDry  of  Rry- 
nart  the  Foxe,  by  me  William  Caxton,  translated  from  tl  •• 
Dutch  into  English,  inThabbey  of  Westmcatre,'  \4f<l^  fMlui. 
which  has  been  firequently  reprinted  ;  and  the '  Narren^tcb:  *'/ 
which  has  also  been  translated  (not  ft'om  the  German  on^i 
nal,  but  firom  a  Latin  translation,  entitled  '  Stultifem  Na- 
vis ')  into  English  under  the  title  of  the  'Shippe  of  Foclts/ 
by  Alexander  Barclay. 

There  are  many  other  productions  of  a  similar  kind,  iH 
characterized  by  an  overflowing  comic  and  satirical  hunio*.r 
The  best  specimen  of  this  national  humour  is  the  celeb rai-c-i 
production  called  'Eulenspiegel,'  translated  into  Engl«^  : 
under  the  title  of  'Owleglass,*  London,  1709. 

To  this  epoch  belongs  the  commencement  of  the  origin  i' 
dramatic  literature  of  Germany,  which  ia  due  to  the  m^:»* 
tersingers'  school  of  Niimbe^.     Before  that  period  the 
Germans  were  only  acquainted  with  the  so-callecf  m}stcr;'  • 
or  dramatized  biblical  stories,  written  and  perfi)rmed  for  ti.i 
most  part  in  Latin.    About  the  middle  of  the  15th  century. 
Hans  Volz,  a  barber  by  profession,  Rosenblut,  and  sorxi'* 
others,  introduced  a  kind  of  iarce  called  '  Carnival  Pla}  «. 
They  were  all  excelled  by  Hans  Sachs,  a  shoemaker  b\'  Pr-^ 
fession,  who  lived  from  1494  to  1576:  his  works  are  rufl  <  f 
wit  and,  invention,  and  next,  to  the  Spaniard  Lope  de  T«f|^»« 
he  is  the  most  fertile  of  dramatic  writers. 

Many  historical  and  allegorical  poems  were  written  dunn,; 
the  15th  century,  and  several  ballads  and  other  nctnt-r.l 
productions  were  rendered  into  prose,  which  may  bo  C4n- 
bidered  as  the  commencement  or  the  novel  in  German  >. 
Amongst  the  historical  works  which  belong  to  this  pen  -l 
we  may  mention  the  chronicles  of  Bishop  Otho,  of  Frei^.ti- 
gen.  and  his  *  History  of  Frederick  I.' ;  the  works  of  Her. :  t 
of  Erfurt,  who  died  in  1370 ;  those  of  Gobelinus,  who  'li*  1 
about  1 420 ;  and  some  others,  all  written  in  Latin.    Tl  - 
•  Fiirstenbuch,  or  Book  of  Princes,'  by  John  Enonkel,  12 '»•• ; 
the  *  Metrical  Chronicle'  of  Ottokor,  of  Horneck,  bom  al*.  •  • 
1264 ;  the  'Chronicles' of  James  Von  Koenigshofen.  ofJoia. 
Rothe,  of  John  Thurmap  (Aventinus) ;  the  '  Pomerai.  ^ 
Chronicle,'  by  Kantzow,  and  that  of  Lubeck,  bv  Detmar.  w  v :  •  • 
written  in  German.    The 'Chronicle  of  the  World,'  b>  S 
bastian  Frank,  is  the  first  universal  histonr  in  the  Gvrn:.  . 
language.    Among  the  scholastic  philosophers  several  G  • 
mans  distinguished  themselves  from  the  b^inning  uf  ;'  •• 
13th  century;  we  may  quote  as  one  of  toe  most    * «  !•  - 
brated  Albert  Grosz,  or  Grot,  better  known  undt-r    «^  •• 
name  of  Albertus  Magnus,  who  distinguished  himself  a  > 
by  a  knowledge  of  natural  philosophy  superior  to  that  of  ..  ^ 
contemporaries,  and  who  in  many  respects  may  be  c*  :ii- 
pared  with  Roger  Bacon.    Many  collections  of  laws  Wc '  «< 
also  made  during  this  period,  of  which  the  most  celebra*- 
are  the  Sachsenspiegei  and  the  SckwabenmegeU  i-  ^.   t .  < 
Saxon  and  the  Swabian  Mirror,  both  compiled  in  the  1  "*  . 
century.    The  invention  of  the  art  of  printing,  of  wh    \ 
the  Germans  are  so  justiv  proud,  gave  a  new  impulse   * 
literature  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  Reformation.     \V.* 
conclude  the  brief  sketch  of  this  period  with  the  name^  •> 
the  following  authors  who  belong  to  it: — Rudolph  Agrit-  '  * 
1443-85,  professor  at  the  university  of  Heidelberg ;  and  C  it- 
rad  Celtes,  1459-1508.    Reuchlin,  Ulaic  Von  Hutten,  ; :. ' 
CamerariuSfform  a  link  between  this  and  the  following  per. 

Third  period:  from  the  beginning qf  the Reformtiii 
1517,  /o  the  present  day.— The  Reformation  of  Luther  ^': 
an  extraordinary  impulse   to  the   national  bteratun; 
Grermany,  and  Luther  himself  contributed  more  ifaaji  ar.v 
other  man  to  the  advancement  of  the  German  Ian  gua^> 
which  may  be  considered  as  having  been  fixed  by  his  trai  -> 
lation  of  the  Scriptures.     The  religious  quarrels  wl. 
agitated  Germany  during  the  sixteenth  century  gaic  t 
literature  a  theological  duection,  and  the  first  scholars  « . 
that  time  were  more  or  less  engaged  in  religious  ccntr » 
Ycrsy.    Among  the  poets  we  may  mention  Luther  him.M  *. 
who  composed  many  religious  songs ;  Rudolph,  Weckhcr ..?;. 
and,  above  all,  Opitz,  the  founder  of  the  so-called  Silc^. .  : 
schooL 

Opitz  (1597—1639)  greatly  improved  the  atyle  of  G^r 
man  poetry  bv  imitating  the  daaaica.  The  Cserman  It  -*• 
guage  is  indebted  to  him  for  more  correctness  and  l:r 
mony,  but  particularly  for  having  purified  it  ttom  t  ' 
barbarisms  with  which  it  had  been  loaded.  Amone  t  • 
principal  followers  of  Opitz,  who  form  the  Sileaian  sch<H  1. 
we  may  mention -^  Paul  Flemming,  1609 — 40;  Sizat't^'t 
Dach,  1605—59;  A.Tchcming,  1611—59;  PauIG«rLarJ. 


G  E  R 


195 


G  fi  R 


1606—76;  F.  VaiiLogftU»  1604—55;  A.  Gryphius,  1616— 
»4 ;  and  John  Rist,  1607—61.  Many  literary  societies,  whose 
object  was  to  |Kn>mote  the  national  literature,  were  formed 
in  the  seventeenth  centory ;  the  moat  remarkable  were  the 
^rder  of  Flowers,  established  in  1044,  and  the  Fructifying 
Society,  established  in  1617,  by  Louis»  prince  of  Anhalt 

The  German  poetry  of  the  seventeenth  century  is  how- 
ever very  defleient  in  real  merit,  and  except  some  religious 
ionga  there  is  scavoely  any  poetical  production  which  can 
>e  read  at  present.  The  general  characteristics  of  the  poetry 
»f  this  period  are  ridicubns  bombast  and  affected  man- 
ic rism  introduced  by  some  imitators  of  the  Italian  poetry 
»f  Marino's  sehool. 

Among  the  prose  writers  we  mnst  mention  in  the  first 
•lace  the  mvstical  authors,  or  the  so-called  theosophists, 
rho  united  the  study  of  divinity  and  metaphysics  with  that 
f  nature)  philosophv.  The  most  celebrated  are  Paracelsus, 
^ell  known  as  a  pnysician  and  diemist;  and  Weigel,  a 
axon  clergvman,  who  mav  be  considered  as  the  pupil  of 
^aracelsus,  having  imbibed  his  doctrines  from  the  works  of 
is  master,  and  adapted  them  to  divinity  and  ethics.  To 
tie  same  school  belongs  Jacob  Boehme. 

The  best  historical  works  of  this  period  are  the  Magde- 
urg  'Centurie,'  an  eoclesiasticBl  historv  written  in  Latin, 
1  order  to  nrove  the  concordance  of  the  Protestant  doc- 
rines  with  those  of  the  primitive  church.  It  derives  its 
itle  from  being  divided  into  centuries,  of  which  one  is 
ontained  in  each  volume.  Steidanus  wrote  a '  Universal 
iistory,'  in  Latin ;  and  Carrion  composed  a '  Chronicle*  in 
xerman,  about  the  middle  of  Uie  sixteenth  oentorv.  There 
ire  verv  few  historical  writers  in  this  period :  and  we  may  | 
onclude  this  notice  by  mentioning  Pnffendorf,  who,  besides 
lis  treatises  on  international  law,  wrote  seveial  historical 
i^orks ;  and  Herman  Conring,  who  wrote  on  several  historical 
nd  biographical  subjects.  Botli  these  writers  belong  to 
be  seventeenth  century. 

In  the  natural  sciences  the  first  place  belongs  to  Conrad 
resner  (bom  in  1516),  who,  on  account  of  his  great  know- 
!dge  in  all  the  branches  of  natural  history,  was  named  the 
(criuan  Pliny.  In  the  sixteenth  centiory  Otto  Guerike 
x^uired  a  justly  merited  reputation  by  his  invention  of 
le  air-pump. 

To  this  period  belong  Kepler;  Leibnitz,  who  however 
ten  preferred  writing  in  French ;  and  the  learned  Wolf. 
Gottsched  0  700 — 66)  did  a  great  deal  towards  purifying 
e  German  language  and  fixing  its  grammatical  rules , 
it   he  was  too  servUe  an  imitator  of  the  classics  and  of 
o    French  authors;  and  his  excessive  strictness  in  ad- 
Ming  to  the  rules  laid  down  by  the  great  literary  autho- 
ties  of  antient  and  modern  times  led  him  into  an  absurd 
■dantry.     Grellert  (1715 — 69)  introduced  a  better  taste 
to  German  literature,  particularly  by  his  fables  and  tales, 
^  ^ell  as  bis  lectures  on  poetry  and  eloquence.    Lessing 
729—81)  powerfully  contributed  to  the  reformation  of 
«rman  literature  by  his  criticisms  as  well  as  by  his  hte-. 
iry   compositions.     Gaertner  (1712—91)  did  a  great  deal 
awards  improving  the  taste  of  bis  countrymen  and  banish- 
ig  many  of  the  prevailing  errors  whicn  obstructed  the 
Dprovement  of  the  literature  of  Grermany.    Rabener,  who 
.  i^ell  known  for  his  satirical  compositions,  laboured  towards 
ic  same  end  by  attacking  the^  pedantry  and  the  assump- 
kon  of  some  writers. 

We  shall  here  briefly  enumerate  the  principal  authors, 
K^ginning  with  the  poets  who  have  appeared  in  Germany 
ince  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  and  at  the  same  time 
;ive  a  rapid  survey  of  their  works,  following  the  alphabetical 
Oder. 

Charles  Gustave  Brinkman  was  born  in  1764,  in  Sweden, 
ui  educated  in  Germany,  where  he  afterwards  spent  a 
reat  part  of  his  life  in  a  diplomatic  capacity.  He  pub< 
Lshed  several  poems  in  German,  which  are  distinguished 
y  great  purity  and  harmony  of  language. 

Biirger  is  the  well-known  author  of  Eleanora  and  other 
allad».  Claudias  Mathius  (1743—1815)  wrote,  under  the 
ame  of  Asmus,  or  *  the  messenger  of  Wandsbeck,'  numerous 
[)ngs,  ballads,  elegies,  and  fiibles,  characterised  by  prac- 
ical  good  sense,  wit,  and  humour,  which  gave  them  a  uni- 
ersal  popularity  among  all  classes.  The  tendency  of  his 
rritiugs  is  always  moral,  and  calculated  to  promote  religion, 
atriotism,  and  all  the  virtues,  while  he  mercilessly  lashes 
oily  and  vice.  The  productions  of  the  latter  part  of  liis 
ife  show  a  strong  tendency  to  mysticism,  and  are  entirely 


works  were  published  in  8  volumes.  Many  of  his  songa 
were  set  to  music,  and  are  known  over  all  Germany.  John 
Andrew  Cramer,  chancellor  of  the  university  of  Kiel  (1 723 
— 88),  wrote  many  lyric  poems;  his  religious  odes  and 
hymns  are  the  best.  Michael  Denis  (1729 — 1800),  a  cele- 
brated bibliographer,  translated  Osdan  into  hexameters^ 
and  wrote  several  poems  in  the  style  of  Ossian,  which  he 
published  under  the.name  of  the  '  Poems  of  the  antient  Ger- 
man bards.* 
Gessner,  Solomon.  [GassNERf  Solomon.] 
J.  W.  L.  Gleim  (1719 — 1803),  who  is  considered  one  of 
the  best  Grerman  poets  of  his  time,  distinguished  himseU^ 
particularly  by  his  fables,  tales,  epigrams,  and  songs  for 
children.  His  collected  works*  in  8  volumes,  have  passed 
through  ^veral  editions. 

Gocking  (1748 — 1828)  wrote  songs,  allegorical  poems, 
and  epistles,  but  his  reputation  was  chiefly  estabb'shed  by  the 
*  Songs  of  two  Lovers,  which  first  appeared  in  1777.  They 
attracted  the  general  attention  of  the  (verman  public,  and 
were  warmly  eulogised  by  the  best  critics. 
Goethe.  [Gosthe.] 

Grotter  (1746-97)  wrote  tragedies,  comedies,  operas,  epis- 
tles, tales,  songs,  &c  His  works  are  distinguished  by  great 
perfectian  in  their  construction,  but  display  no  superior  poeti- 
cal genius. 

J.  N.  Gbtz  (1721-81)  wrote  with  considerable  success 
odes,  elegies,  idylls  or  eclogues,  tales,  and  allegorical  poems, 
which  are  characterised  by  great  elegance,]  ease,  and  bril- 
liancy. 

Frederick  Hagedom  (1708-54)  acquired  celebrity  by  his 
fables,  tales,  merrv  songs,  and  several  minor  poems.  He 
may  be  considered  as  the  first  Grerman  poet  who  succeeded 
in  this  style  of  composition. 

Haller,  the  celebrated  physician  and  naturalist,  wrote 
also  many  elegiac  and  didactic  poems. 
Herder.    [HaaDEa.] 

Hippel  (1741—1796)  is  considered  the  first  of  the  hu- 
morous writers  of  Grermany.  •His  works  are  rendered 
exceedingly  attractive  by  the  shrewd  observations  and  tho- 
rough knowledge  of  human  nature  which  the  author  dis- 
plays, particularly  in  representing  'some  well-known  con-  - 
temporary  characters.  He  was  most  successful  in  satire, 
but  his  comedies,  religious  hymns,  eclogues,  and  other 
poetical  compositions,  are  by  no  means  devoid  of  merit.  His 
life  and  character  were  full  of  singularities,  and  exhibited 
the  most  striking  contrasts.  Unlike  the  generalitv  of  poets, 
he  left  at  his  death  140,000  dollars,  although  he  oegan  his 
career  with  scarcely  any  fortune. 

Holty  (1 748-76)  is  considered  one  of  the  best  lyric  poets 
of  Germany,  and  his  poems,  particularly  his  idylls  ana  ele- 
gies, are  very  popular  in  that  country. 

Anna  Louisa  Karsch  (1722 — 1791),  the  daughter  of  a 
publican,  who  was  married  successively  to  a^weaver  and  to  a 
tailor,  spent  a  great  part  of  her  life  in  struggling  against  the 
greatest  misery,  imtil  she  found  some  benevolent  patrons. 
She  enjoyed  for  some  time  considerable  reputation,  but  her 
poems  are  now  nearly  forgotten. 

Kastner,  a  celebrated  mathematician  (1719 — 1800),  was 
also  known  by  his  witty  epigrams. 

Ewald  Kliest  was  bom  in  1731,  and  fell  in  battle  in  1 759. 
He  wrote  several  poems,  of  which  his  *  Spring'  acquired  at 
oilce  a  universal  jM>pularity,  which  it  still  enjoys. 
Klopstock.    [Klopstock.] 

Kosegarten  (1758 — 1818)  spent  the  greatest  part  of  his 
life  as  a  pastor  of  a  parish,  on  the  island  of  Rugen,  where 
he  devoted  to  literary  pursuits  all  the  time  that  was  lei1t  to 
him  from  the  duties  of  his  avocation.    In  1807  he  became 
professor  of  divinity  at  the  university  of  Griefswald,  where 
he  remained  till  his  death.    Besides  some  novels,  he  wrote 
many  poems  belonging  to  the  so-called  romantic  school, 
which  nave  attained  considerable  reputation  in  Germany. 
Kotzebue.    {KorrzEBUB.] 
Lichtwer  (1719-83)  is  a  popular  writer  of  fables. 
Mathisson  (1761 — 1831)  tvas  a  lyric  poet  of  considerablo 
popularity,  whose  works  are  however  more  distinguished  by 
skilful  versification  than  by  poetical  genius. 

Frederick  Miiller,  known  by  the  name  of  Painter  Miilier, 
was  a  painter,  engraver,  and  poet  (1750—1825).  Besides 
some  dramatic  productions,  he  wrote  chiefly  elegies;  his 
works  are  distinguished  by  passionate  inspiration,  and  a 
successful  delineation  of  character,  although  they  are  some- 
times wild  and  ineoherent. 


PPOI«d  to  Um  »Fint  of  Iii>  .ewly  Ynting*.  JOia,  coUwted  |  .  M9Ub«ck. »  diOMtic.Foet,  wOblisbed  his  reputation  by 


G£  R 


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6ER 


his  poem,  entitled  '  Minenl  Wealth,'  written  in  bezame- 

ters. 

Baron  Nicolay  (1737 — 1820)  was  bom  and  educated  at 
Strasburg,  but  spent  the  greatest  part  of  his  life  in  Russia, 
where  he  was  invited,  in  1769,  to  superintend  the  ednca* 
tion  of  the  Prince,  afterwards  the  Emperor  PauL  He  wrote 
ihbles,  tales,  elegies,  epistles,  and  ballads,  as  well  as  some  dra- 
matic pieces,  which  were  favourably,  received  in  Gennany. 

G.  K.  FfeiTel  (1736—1809),  brother  of  the  celebrated  po- 
litical writer  of  that  name,  wrote  numerous  fiiblesand  tales, 
which  attained  some  popularity. 

Rammler  (1725 — 98),  a  lyric  poet,  translator,  and  cri- 
tical author.  His  works  do  not  display  any  great  poetical 
genius,  but  have  the  merit  of  extreme  correctness,  refined 
taste,  and  purity  of  language,  and  in  these  respects  they 
may  be  considered  as  models.  He  translated  Martial,  Ca- 
tullus, and  Horace.  Among  his  original  poems  the  most 
successful  is  'The  Death  of  Jesus,'  and  some  other  lyrical 
productions. 

Schiller.    [Scbilleil] 

Christiau  Count  Stolberg  (1748— 182  U  wrote  several 
dramatic  pieces,  and  translated  into  German  several  of 
the  Greek  poets.  He  was  particulariy  successful  in  the 
expression  of  tender  feelings,  and  in  painting  domestic 
scenes.  His  works  were  published  in  twenty  volumes  at 
Hamburg,  in  1821.  His  younger  brother,  0)unt  Frederick 
Leopold  (1750 — 1819),  who  far  excelled  him  in  poetical  ta* 
lent,  is  known  as  a  poet  by  his  odes,  hymns,  elegies,  bal- 
lads, satires,  and  dramatic  compositions ;  as  a  prose  writer, 
by  his  novel,  entitled  the  'Island,'  and  by  his  travels 
through  Grermany,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Sicily.  He  ac- 
quired also  considerable  reputation  by  his  translation  of  Ho- 
mer ;  of  some  dialogues  of  Plato ;  and  of  some  tragedies  of 
^schylus.  His  poems  have  a  greater  boldness  of  thought 
and  more  imagery  than  those  of  his  brother.  All  his  works 
are  characterised  by  a  glowing  enthusiasm  for  nature,  friend- 
ship, liberty,  and  all  that  is  dear  to  a  noble  mind.  The 
tone  of  his  productions  is  very  diversified,  and  ranges  from 
the  simple  song  to  the  fiery  expression  of  the  dithyramb. 
In  his  *  Life  of  Alfred  the  Great'  he  displayed  an  exact 
knowledge  of  Anglo-Saxon  history.  His  conversion  fh>m 
the  Protestant  to  the  Roman  Catholic  relieion  produced  a 
great  sensation  in  Germany,  and  embroiled  nim  with  many 
of  his  ftlends. 

ThClmmel  (1738 — 1817)  gained  a  reputation  bv  his  comic 
heroic  poem,  although  written  in  prose,  '  Wilhelmina,  or 
the  Married  Pedant.'  He  wrote  several  lyric  poems,  but 
his  reputation  was  chiefly  established  as  a  prose  writer  by 
his  'Travels  in  the  southern  provinces  of  France,'  a  kind  of 
novel  full  of  wit  and  humour.  The  only  fault  of  the  work 
is  its  extreme  length,  10  volumes.  * 

XJz  (1720-96)  wrote  various  poems  of  different  kinds,  but 
his  epistles,  his  merry  poems,  and  religious  hymns  are  his 
best  productions. 

Voss(175l — 1823)  is  perhaps  the  best  translator  of  the 
classical  authors  into  modem  languages  that  has  appeared. 
He  translated  Homer,  Virgil,  Ovid,  Horace,  Hesiod,  Aristo* 
phanes,  Theocritus,  Bion,  Moschus,Tibullus,  and  some  other 
minor  authors,  into  Grerman  verse.  These  translations  are 
remarkable  for  the  fidelity  with  which  they  express  the 
meaning,  and  frequently  the  peculiar  character  of  the  origi- 
nal. Tne  difficulty  of  the  undertaking  and  the  author's 
success  are  perhaps  in  no  instance  better  shown  than  in 
his  happy  translation  of  the  most  difficult  parts  of  the 
'  Idylls'  of  Theocritus.  In  connexion  with  his  sons  Henry 
and  Abraham,  he  also  made  a  translation  of  the  complete 
works  of  Shakspeare.  Of  his  original  works  the  most  cele- 
brated is  his  poem  called  *  Louisa,'  which  is  a  masterpiece 
in  its  kind.  The  subject  is  a  description  of  the  wedding  of 
a  country  clergyman's  daughter;  the  metre  is  hexameter 
and  the  style  an  imitation  of  that  of  Homer:  and  yet  with 
these  apparent  absurdities  it  contains  great  beauties  and  is 
one  of  the  most  popular  works  in  Germany. 

Wieland.    [Wixland.] 

Zacharia  (1726-77)  is  one  of  the  best  comic  poets  of  Ger- 
many, and  his  works  are  still  held  in  high  estimation. 

The  living  writers  of  Germany  denr  all  enumeration. 
The  «  Pocket-book  of  Comedians,*^  published  by  Lambert 
(1823)  mentions  no  less  than  287  living  dramatic  writers. 
This  will  serve  as  a  specimen  of  the  number  of  individuals 
engaged  in  literary  pursuits.  It  is  almost  needless  to  remark 
that  a  great  mass  of  worthless  books  must  be  produced  by 
nuch  »  host  of  writers.    Mooy  however,  have  atttiaed  a 


weB-deierred  npatatioQ.     We  ihall  briefly  SMBtiMi  thm 
prineipal  writen,  Ibllowinff  the  same  ofder. 

Cbamliio  was  bom  in  Franee  In  178U  but  emigrmted  in 
his  ehUdhood  to  Germany,  where  he  raoeived  his  edncatiorn. 
He  Is  a  man  of  great  infonnation,  partieularly  in  the  na- 
tural sciences.  In  1815  he  embarked  in  a  voyage  roond 
the  world  as  a  naturalist  to  a  Russian  expedition,  and  ob 
his  return,  in  181 8f  he  reeeived  a  situation  at  the  botanind 
garden  at  Berlin,  where  he  still  remains.  He  has  wntuo 
several  romances  and  ballads  founded  on  popular  traditiuDs 
which  have  had  great  success.  He  is  oonsiaered  one  of  th< 
most  natimal  poets  of  Germany,  although  bom  a  French- 
man. Chamisso  is  the  author  of  the  well-known  tale  cf 
'  Peter  Schlemihl,'  which  has  been  translated  Into  s«%ert; 
languages  of  Europe,  and  of  which  an  SngUbh  edition  b*.* 
appeared  with  designs  by  Cruikshank.  Besides  his  wurk^ 
01  imagination  he  Iws  written  a  volume  on  his  voyage  routsd 
the  world.  Mid  a  work  on  the  plants  of  Northern  iSenasuiy . 

Helmina  Cheiy,  the  widow  of  the  well-known  French 
Sanscrit  scholar  of  the  same  name,  and  daugbtar  of  Ue 
celebrated  German  authoress  Karaz,  is  oonsidcfed  by  tii» 
Germans  to  be  one  of  their  first  living  poets. 

Heine,  a  poet  and  political  writer,  bom  in  1797,  is  one  of 
the  most  popular  poets  of  (Germany,  and  undoubtedly  pes 
sesses  great  talents,  although  his  style  is  full  of  inequalitjr% 
frequently  passing  from  sublimity  to  vulgarity,  and  fx<>ia 
deep  feding  to  an  extreme  frivolity.     He  has  writte.-: 
two  tragedies,  '  Almansor,'  and '  Radcliff^'  besides  inaD> 
smaller  productions.    Amongst  his  prose  works,  his  timwl 
ling  sketches  have  a  great  popularity  in  Grermanv,  bui 
although  they  contain  manv  beautiful  description^  and  m  it:.f 
and  shrewd  observations,  mey  are  often  disfigured  by  grea: 
coarseness.    Heine  lives  at  nris :  his  work  on  the  poliui-^ 
state  of  FhAoe  has  produced  a  general  sensation  m  Ger- 
many. 

Loben  (Gount),  bora  m  1 786,  died  1 815,  belongs  to  the  pr, 
pular  writers  of  Germany ;  he  wrote  chiefly  ballads  and  talv? 

Platen  (Gount),  bom  in  1795,  besides  several  drama:, 
pieces  has  written  many  other  poems,  particularlv  inuu- 
tions  of  Oriental  productions,  which  his  great  knowledge  •..' 
the  Persian  language  and  literature  has  enabled  him  to  <i  > 
with  considerable  success.  He  is  a  general  favourite  wiiu 
the  public  of  Germany. 

Pyrker  is  archbishop  of  Erlau  in  Hunsary,  where  he  w 
born  in  1 772.  His  epic  poems  entitled  *Pearls  of  the  H< »« 
days  of  yore,'  '  Tunisias,'  and '  Rudolfias,*  though  they  can- 
not claim  the  merit  of  being  faultless  epic  poema,  eon  tan 
great  poetical  beauties  and  snow  a  very  refined  taste. 

Riickeit,  better  known  under  his  assumed  name  of  Frc«- 
mund  Reimar,  bom  in  1789,  is  now  professor  of  Orient  si 
languages  at  the  university  of  Erlangen.  He  is  consideiti 
to  be  one  of  the  best  lyric  poets  that  Ciermany  has  ever  h» : 
Besides  a  great  many  original  poems  he  has  made  xnM^} 
translations  from  Oriental  authors. 

Schwab,  born  in  1792,  is,  next  to  XJglana,  the  moat  popv< 
lar  writer  of  romances  and  ballads. 

Schenkendorf  (1784—1817)  is  the  author  of  several  r< .. 
ious  and  patriotic  poems  which  enjoy  great  popularity,  \:.i 
e  would  have  perhaps  become  one  of  the  first  poei«    f 
Crermany  if  his  premature  death  had  not  cut  short  his  !.:«• 
rary  carser. 

Tiedge,  bom  in  1752,  who  is  still  living  at  Dresden*  is  •'  .■ 
of  the  most  popular  authors  in  Germany.  His  poem^  i.i 
chiefly  of  the  lyrical  and  didactic  kind,  and  are  oi>nsid«>r'<i 
scarcely  inferior  to  those  of  Riickert  Many  of  his  pQr:.ji 
have  been  set  to  music  by  the  first  composers  of  Germa' « 
An  edition  of  his  complete  works  was  publislicd  in  l  $uv.  J2 
eight  vols. 

Tieck,  born  in  1773,  has  written  several  poems,  but  a 
much  better  known  by  his  critical  works  and  by  hi*  tnr  «- 
Utions  of  Don  Quixote,  several  plays  of  Shakspeare,  &  .i 
of  other  old  English  dramatic  writers.  Tieck  baa  wr-.r*.fm 
several  humorous  tales  and  dramas;  he  has  published  C^ 
a  collection  of  poems  of  the  antient  Minnesingers^  and  xh\M\ 
introduoed  among  his  countrymen  a  taste  for  their  antuiC 
literature. 

Uhland,  bom  In  1787»  Is  one  of  the  best  lyric  poet^  / 
German;^  and  exceedingly  popular.  He  is  also  a  lviarr«4. 
antiauarian,  and  his  work  on  Walter  Von  der  Vo^eNi  .-y 
a  oelebiated  Minnesinger,  and  his  reseaxehes  into  \'^m 
northern  mythological  Sagas  of  Tbor,  show  a  t£urw>wii:h 
knowledge  of  his  subject 

ZeidUU(Au:oD)b  been  in  1790,  has  established  his  puei..-il 


r: 


G  E  k 


196 


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rated  in  Gennany :  indeed  we  may  aay  that  Germany  is  its 
birth-place.  Antient  geography  was  treated  for  the  first 
time  by  Cellarias  in  nis  *  Oeoeraphia  Antiqua,'  Leipzig, 
1686.  which  has  been  since  republished  many  times  under 
the  title  of  'Notitia  Orbia  Antiqui.'  This  work  is  now  no 
further  useful  than  as  showing  the  progress  made  since  it 
was  written.  Among  the  many  German  writers  on  antient 
geography,  the  best  works  are—*  Geography  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  founded  on  their  Writings,  by  Conrad  Man- 
nert,  lOrols.,  Leipzig,  1788-1820— a  work  of  labour  and 
research,  valuable  as  all  German  works  of  the  kind  are  for 
the  authorities,  but  liable  to  the  objection,  in  common  with 
many  other  German  works,  of  an  madequate  estimation  of 
them.  '  The  Geography  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  from 
the  Earliest  Times  to  Ptolemy,*  by  Ukert.  A  valuable  con- 
tribution to  the  history  of  geography  is  the  '  History  of  the 
most  important  Geographical  Discoveries  to  the  arrival  of 
the  Portuguese  at  Japan,'  by  Sprengel.  '  The  Comparative 
Dictionary  of  Antient  Geography  with  that  of  the  Middle 
Ages  ana  Modem  Times,  by  Bishoff  and  MoUor,  is  a  very 
useful  book  for  geographical  students.  Modern  geography 
was  for  the  first  time  treated  on  something  like  a  system  by 
Biisching,  whose  •  Universal  Geography,*  m  10  parts,  1754- 
92,  was  long  considered  a  standard  work.  The  numerous 
political  changes  which  have  taken  place  since  the  time  of 
Its  publication  have  rendered  it  of  little  use  even  as  a  de- 
scription of  political  divisions ;  and  physical  geo^aphy  at 
that  time  hardly  existed.  Since  the  time  of  Biischmg  many 
valuable  works  on  modem  geography  have  appeared  in 
Germany.  The  'Universal  Geography'  uf  Sliiitz,  m  30  vols., 
which  appeared  at  Vienna,  1824-33,  is  a  collection  of  spe- 
cial descriptions  of  all  the  countries  of  the  world,  by  the 
most  eminent  writers.  The  first  geographical  writer  in 
Germany  is  Charles  Ritter,  in  Berlin,  whose  work,  '  Geo- 
graphy in  its  relation  to  the  Nature  and  History  of  Man, 
or  Universa]  Comparative  Geography,'  is  now  in  course  of 
publication.  ^The  labours  of  Berghaus  also  demand  honour- 
able mention. 

The  first  geographical  dictionary  in  German  was  pub- 
lished bv  Hiibner,  1740,  under  the  name  of  the  '  Zeitungs- 
lexicon,  or  Gazetteer.  It  was  however  not  a  mere  geogra- 
phical dictionary,  like  the  English  gazetteers,  but  it  con- 
tained articles  relating  to  war  and  politics,  which  were  the 
common  topics  of  the  gazettes.  This  work  has  been  re -pub- 
lished many  times ;  it  appeared  for  the  last  time,  with  all 
the  corrections  and  adaitions  rendered  necessary  by  the 
progress  of  events,  in  1828,  in  4  vols.,  at  Leipzig.  There 
are  several  works  of  a  similar  character  in  German :  the 
*  Geographico-Statistical  Lexicon'  of  Hassel ;  that  of  Schorch 
and  Ehrman ;  of  Jager,  &c. 

Statistics  first  received  a  scientific  form  and  method,  as 
well  as  a  name,  ftom  Achenwall  (born  in  Poland,  1719), 
who  began  to  lecture  on  this  subject  at  the  University  of 
Gottingen,  in  1749.  A  great  number  of  German  authors 
have  since  written  on  this  important  department  of  political 
knowledge.  We  may  mention  as  the  most  distinguished  of 
them,  Schlbtzr,  Meusel,  Hassel,  (batterer,  Manncrt,  Spren- 
gel, and  several  other  authors,  whom  we  Lave  already  enu- 
merated among  the  historians  and  geographers  of  Ger- 
many. 

Grermany  has  produced  many  eminent  writers  on  every 
branch  of  jurisprudence.  The  predominant  school  in  that 
country  is  now  the  historical,  which  is  divided  into  the 
Teutonic,  chiefly  represented  by  Fr.  Ch.  Eichhorn  (son  of 
the  historian  whom  we  have  ^Jready  mentioned),  author  of 
the  'Political  and  Legal  History  of  Germany,'  4  vols.,  last 
edit.  1823;  and  the  Roman,  whose  principal  leader  is  Gus- 
tavus  Hugo,  professor  at  Gottingen.  the  author  of  many 
valuable  works  on  Roman  law.  Savigny,  perhaps  the  first 
of  German  jurists,  is  the  author  of  several  highly  esteemed 
Works,  of  which  the  history  of  the  Roman  law  during  the 
middle  ages  has  appeared  in  an  English  translation.  His 
valuable  work  on  the  right  of  possession,  *  Das  Recht  des 
Besitzes,'  Gicssen,  1827,  is,  we  believe,  little  known  in  this 
country,  though  it  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  exact 
analyses  of  a  complicated  legal  question  that  has  ever 
appeared.  Among  the  great  jurists  of  Germany,  Thibaut 
of  Heidelberg,  the  author  of  the  '  System  dcs  Pandek- 
ton  Rechts,*  holds  a  distinguished  place.  Of  the  authors 
belonging  to  the  Roman  school  may  be  mentioned  Gans 
of  Berlin,  author  of  an  historical  work  on  the  Law  of  In- 
heritance, and  of  some  other  treatises.  Criminal  Law  has 


I'l 


Mittelmeyer,  Klebsohrod,  Konopach,  &e.  The  tnily  phi 
losophic  spirit  in  which  the  study  of  law  is  proaeeutud  ,: 
Germany  as  a  braneh  of  academic  education  and  of  \m.- 
litical  investigation,  fbrms  a  atrikinf  contrast  with  iUe 
almost  totfld  neglect  of  legal  and  political  studies  in  iU*. 
English  academic  ooune  of  instruction. 

The  Protestant  divines  of  Germany  may  be  divided  into 
three  schools:  1,  the  Orthodox  or  Supernatural;  2,  thv 
Rational ;  and  3,  the  Pietist  The  Orthodox  or  SupeniA- 
turfldists  may  be  subdivided  into  the  decided  Supematur- 
alists,  whose  religious  conviction  is  entirely  founded  on  iK- 
authority  of  a  supernatural  revelation,  ana  which  is  chiefl  j 
represented  by  Tholuck,  Hen^tenberg,  Gruericke,  Hal  in. 
Harms,  Olshausen,  and  Sartonhs:  and  the  Rational  Supt  r- 
naturalists,  who  found  their  belief  in  a  supernatural  reveU- 
tion,  not  on  human  reason,  but  on  historical  authority,  z  . 
mitting  human  reason  as  a  means  to  understand  it;  tu  ti.  • 
school  belong  Steudel,  Schwarz,  aud  Zollick.  The  RatiMi 
alists  may  also  be  divided  into  two  sections:  the  Decitl*  ^ 
Rationalists,  who  admit  no  other  standard  in  judgincr  "^ 
religious  matters  than  human  reason;  such  are  R<>ltr. 
Wegsheider,  Paulus,  Gesenius,  Shalthesr,  Baumirari'  .. 
Crusius,  and  David  Schutz;  and  the  Supernatural  Ratr  *: 
alists,  who  admit  a  supernatural  revelation,  but  oon^.d.  r 
human  reason  as  the  only  test  by  which  it  ought  to  be  :.•  • 
knowledged;  this  section  is  represented  byAmmon,  Bohni* . 
Hase,  and  Koster.  There  are  indeed  many  divines  « ti  • 
do  not  belong  either  to  the  supernatural  or  rational  sc1k»«  1. 
but  who  pretend  that  there  is  no  real  contradiction  bctv  t  ^  :. 
these  two  principles,  which  they  think  to  conciliate  by  ^ 
philosophical  explanation  of  the  orthodox  doctrines:  th«.:t. 
are  also  shades  even  in  this  party. 

The  Pietists  form  no  separate  school  as  segards  doctri:  «>. 
but  belong  to  the  orthodox  or  supernatural  one.     Tkcy  .i:  t 
distinguished  by  a  more  strict  adherence  to  religious  c 
servances,  and  greater  zeal  in  all  their  views  for  prom^'.'  . 
religion.    They  frequently  adopt  exaggerated  notions  abt  -  .: 
the  duties  and  obhgations  of  a  Christian.    Their  nuiul  .  : 
has  lately  much  increased  in  Germany.    Their  vie w>  ^.^ 
advocated  in  several  religious  periodicals,  and  the  ni* 
celebrated  author  of  that  party  is  Jung  Stilling.    Tlie  n^i 
known  Madame  Krudener  was  a  great  promoter  of  the  su  u. 
party.   In  connexion  with  theology,  the  Germans  ha\o  |  t 
secuted  with  unwearied  industry  the  study  of*the  HcImi  vk. 
the  Arabic,  and  other  Oriental  languages.    Tlie  stud}    ■  f 
the  Sanscrit  and  of  Indian  antiquities,  which  would  Mrct.. 
to  have  peculiar  claims  on  England,  have  been  followed  u 
in  Germany  with  a  zeal  which  ought  to  put  to  shame  the  r.  • 
tion  that  ^verns  India.    It  is  sufficient  here  to  mentmn  t  :..• 
names  of  Bopp,  A.  W.  Schlegel,  Rosen,  Bohlen,  and  La.^ >>«•!:. 

In  pure  philosophy  the  names  of  Kant,  Fichte,  Schelli:  j 
Hegel,  and  many  others,  reflect  a  lustre  on  their  native  la  it  .. 
German  metaphysics  however  will  scarcely  find  a  numcri*  j<^ 
class  of  readers  in  any  other  country,  and  this,  niap.!- 
owing  to  two  causes;  first,  the  difl!culty  of  mastering  i\ 
language  so  fts  to  understand  these  writers;  and  sccuti'i.  . 
die  great  extent  of  their  works,  which,  as  theyare  pan^  •  : 
a  system,  require  to  be  studied  completely.    That  no  t.*  m 
can  prosecute  the  study  of  the  profound  thinkers  of  c;.   • 
many  without  deriving  great  improvement  from  the  iii'<  - 
Icctual  discipline  to  which  he  must  submit,  is  undeniub  «.  : 
but  a  partial  acquaintance  with  them,  through  the  mediiir 
of  inadequate  translations,  can  only  produce  a  superCc^.. 
knowledge  and  a  spirit  of  dogm)itism. 

In  thisraj)id  and  imperfect  sketch,  our  object  has  Ihm:.. 
as  in  the  article  on  Frknch  Literaturk,  merely  to  prv^ 
some  general  notions  on  what  is  commonly  called  tne  ].% 
rature  uf  the  German  nation;  that  in  fact  which,  in  cw:-^ 
civilized  country,  gives  us  the  best  idea  of  a  nation**  charj< 
ter  and  mode  of  existence.    That  the  industry  and  suc«'.-> 
of  the  Germans  in  prosecuting  every  branch   of  uny.:.  . 
which  relates  to  the  phsnomcna  of  nature,  have  kcp*  ^»<. 
with  their  efforts  in  literature,  hardly  needs  to  be  rer.iai  ki 
The  prodigious  mental  energy  of  thisi)cople.  as  vxh),  -  • 
by  the  unwearied  and  apparently  inexhaustible  acti\.:\ 
the  press,  is  unequallea  in  any  other  part  of  tho  m  '>t,  i 
What  the  men  of  other  countries  could  no,  if  they  moUi  I  — 
if  they  had  time  enough,  and  patience  enough,'  ai>d  /    . 
enougn  in  their  several  nursuls — is  done,  and  i*  «lat.\  .. 
progress,  in  Germany.    There  seem  to  be  two  main  c^i.-  - 
of  tnis  mental  activity  of  the  Germans.    One  i**.  the  iiu:. 
her  of  sovereign  states  into  which  thccountr)'  is  di^tribntfi 


O  ft  R 


WO 


GSR 


Ibm  of  ib»  depirtmeiit  is  yery  eomptot:  iU  gnat6tt( 
lengtb,  from  etst  to  west,  ii  Beventy-three  mflei ;  it  greatest 
breadth,  at  right  angles  to  the  length,  flfty-three  miles :  the 
area  is  computed  at  2424  square  miles,  a  trifle  abore  the 
average  of  the  French  departments,'and  rather  more  than  the 
conjoint  area  of  the  English  counties  of  Chester  and  Salop. 
The  population  in  1831-32  was  312,160;  in  1836,  312.882; 
this  last  calculation  gives  129  inhabitanU  to  a  square  mile, 
which  is  considerably  below  the  arerage  relative  population 


370  miles  in  a  straight  line  south  by  west  of  Paris,  or  479 
miles  by  the  road  through  Orleans,  Limoges,  CSahors,Mont- 
auban,  and  Toulouse. 

Surface^  HydrogrMhy,  Commumeationt.^^The  surface 
of  the  department  slopes' gradually  from  south  to  north, 
and  is  traversed  by  several  branches  of  the  Pyrenees,  which 
follow  the  same  direction  and  become  lower  as  they  approach 
the  northern  limits  of  the  department.  None  of  them  are 
much  above  1200  feet  in  height.  The  most  important  of 
these  branches  is  that  which  separates  the  basin  of  the 
Adour  from  that  of  the  Garonne.  The  streams  east  of  this 
branch  flow  either  to  the  north  or  the  north-east,  into  the 
Garonne,  no  part  of  which  stream  is  in  the  department : 
the  principal  aretheBayse,  and  iU  tributary,  theLosse;  the 
Gers,  the  Rabs,  the  Gimone,  and  the  Save.  The  streams 
west  of  the  branch  of  the  Pyrenees  are,  the  Douze,  the 
Midou,  and  the  Arros,  which  have  a  north-west  course,  and 
belong  to  the  system  of  the  Adour ;  the  Adour  itself  flows 
for  a  short  distance  through  the  department  None  of  the 
rivers  in  the  department  are  navigable ;  nor  is  there  water 
conveyance  of  any  kind.  There  are  eight  Routes  RoyaUi  fgo- 
vernment  roads),  having  an  aggregate  length  of  258  miles, 
but  not  a  mile  and  a  half  is  in  proper  repair :  the  Routes 
D6partementales  (roads  under  the  charge  of  the  local  ad- 
ministration) are  seventeen  in  number,  and  have  an  aggre- 
gate lonsth  of  324  miles ;  four-fifths  of  these  are  in  good 
repair.  The  Chemins  vicinaux  (bye  roads  and  paths)  are 
estimated  at  6000,  and  are  in  length  above  6000  miles. 
Of  the  government  roads,  one  of  the  second  class  leads  from 
Agen  (Lot  et  Garonne)  by  Lectoure,  Fleuranoe,  Auoh, 
Mirande,  and  Mi6lan  to  Tarbes  and  Bardges  (Hautes  Py- 
r6n6es) ;  most  of  the  others  lead  from  Auch  to  different 
parts  of  the  department. 

Geological  CharacteTj^The  snpercretaceous  strata  oc- 
cupy the  whole  department.  No  metals  are  found;  but 
there  are  gypsum,  potters*  clay,  brick  earth,  fhUers'  earth, 
and  a  fusible  spar,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glass ;  there 
are  a  few  mineral  springs. 

Climate,  Soil,  Agricmtural  Produce,  ^.— The  climate  is 
temperate  and  salubrious ;  frosts  are  of  short  duration,  and 
snow  is  rare.  The  winds  are  variable ;  the  south-east,  south- 
west, and  west  predominate.  Fogs  are  not  unfreouent  in 
Mav  and  June,  and  are  considered  injurious  to  the  harvests. 

The  soil  is  of  middling  quality,  and  does  not  produce  very 
abundant  harvests.  It  is  thus  appropriated : — ^arable,  823,870 
acres ;  meadows  and  grassland,  150,321 ;  vineyards,  216,775; 
woods,  146,397;  orchards,  nurseries,  and  gsjrdens,  15,065; 
osier-beds,  willow-plots,  &c.,  642 ;  variously  occupied,  50,958 ; 
heaths,  commons,  8cc,  88,197 ;  pools,  ponds,  and  ditches, 
575 ;  lakes,  rivers,  and  brooks,  5641 ;  forests  and  other 
non-productive  lands,  3594;  unascertained,  45,011 :  total, 
1,547,046  acres. 

The  arable  land  is  chiefly  devoted  to  the  growing  of 
wheat;  the  quantity  that  is  raised  is  very  great;  maize  u 
grown  to  a  considerable  extent,  also  oats,  rye,  and  pulse ; 
some  barlev  is  grown,  but  this  grain  is  not  much  cultivated 
in  the  south  of  France ;  potatoes  are  grown  to  a  greater  ex- 
tent than  in  most  of  the  southern  departments,  and  cabbages 
and  onions  are  grown  on  a  large  scale.  The  vineyards, 
though  numerous,  do  not,  with  few  exceptions^  produce 
good  wine ;  the  produce  of  the  vintage  is  chkfly  converted 
into  brandy,  known  as  Armagnac  brandy,  and  ranking 
next  to  that  of  Cognac  in  excellence.  In  the  pastures  are 
reared  homed  cattle,  many  sheep,  a  few  horses,  and  a  consi- 
derable number  of  asses  and  mules.  An  abundance  of  poultry 
is  reared,  especially  ducks;  the  legs  and  wings  of  these  are 
salted,  and  form  an  important  store  of  provisions  for  the  in- 
habitants, and  their  livers,  which  are  of  great  size,  make 
excellent  pies.  Game  and  wild  animals  (as  the  wolf  and 
fox)  are  rare.  There  are  few  Ash  in  the  rivers,  bat  more  in  the 
vatera. 
t#,  Towns^  ^.-^The  d«partment  eomprehendi  « 


portion  of  Haut  or  Blanc  Armagnae,  the  whole  of  Pefansie. 
Fezenzaouet,  Gaue,  and  Noir  Armagnae,  and  portions  uf 
Eauzan,  Riviere  Basse,  BruUois,  Lomagne,  Les  Baron ni<A« 
Astarac,  and  the  county  of  Ile-Jourdain :  all  these  were 
subdivisions  of  the  county  of  Armagnac.  A  considerable 
portion  of  Condomois,  and  a  smaltor  portion  of  Com- 
minges  are  also  included  in  the  department  Armagnae, 
Conaomois,  and  Comminges,  were  all  subdivisions  of  Ga* 
cogne. 

The  department  is  subdivided  into  five  arrondissemeots 
as  follows: — 

Capital.  PomOatloDlB  IllMttoa.  Araa.  Por.oTAfroA'f  •. 

1S31  ISSS.  •q.^HMb  inl.  1»>V. 

AUih,  9^1  10,461  CttttraL  497  61.S4S  eii.« 

UtHovn,  S.49S  SbSSft  N.B.  38.  SSjSil  5y  *-  '^ 

MirsDda.  9,538  9.S38  8.W.  661  84  ja  a>2<» 

Condom.  7.144  7,098  N.W.  5''4  71.487  7I.'»-  . 

Lombei.  1,641  1.699  8.B.  M6  40,644  4t>.-i 


9494       Sll.160       31:f.*S 

The  department  comprehends  39  cantons,  and  498  cuiu- 
munes. 

In  the  amndissement  of  Auch,  besides  die  capital  [Auch] 
on  the  Gers.  are  Vio-Feienzae,  otherwise  yic-«ur-Lu% 


w 


(population,  2574  town.  3679  commune)  on  the  Lt>H.^ ; 
Pavie  and  Seissan,  on  the  Gers;  Castlenau-Barbarmns  an  1 
Aubiet,  on  the  Rals;  Sarramont  and  Gimont  (pop.  2t''J4 
town,  2952  commune),  on  Uie  Gimone;  Barran.  Birbn. 
Jcgun,  Lavardens,  Montant,  and  Pessan :  none  of  the^  ar ** 
of  any  importance. 

In  the  arrondissement  of  Lectoure,  are  the  capital  L^c 
toure,  near  the  Crers,  Montastruc,  Fleurance,  and  Caatcrx*. 
on  the  same  river;  Mauvesin,  Toumecoupe,  and  Sl  CUr. 
on  the  Rals;  Solomiac,  near  the  Gimone;  Ligardes,  Ti:r- 
raube,  Le  Mas,  La  Sauvetat,  C6san,  St  Avit,  Mtradoux. 
Plieux,  Montfort,  Gaudonville,  and  Sarrant  or  Samn. 
Lectoure,  situated  on  an  eminence,  ig  an  old  and  lU-buJt 
town ;  but  one  of  its  places  commands  an  extensive  bn'. 
magnificent  prospect.  A  maible  statue  has  been  erected  ;:. 
the  town  to  the  memory  of  Lannes,  duke  of  MontebeV.  •. 
who  fell  in  the  battle  of  Essling,  jld,  1809.  The  inhabit  At.  t 
manufacture  leather,  and  carry  on  a  oonsidend>le  trade  :i. 
corn,  cattle,  wine,  and  brandy.  There  are  a  subordinat« 
court  of  justice,  an  hospital,  a  high-school,  and  an  agrif  ui 
tural  society.  This  town  existed  in  the  time  of  the  Romaus 
under  the  name  of  Laotora,  and  was  the  capital  of  the  I^r- 
torates  or  Lactorates,  an  Aquitanian  tribe.  In  the  tlnrii 
century  after  Christ  Lactora  was  a  Roman  colony.  Ma..> 
Roman  antiquities  have  been  found  here.  In  the  Mid«:> 
Age  Lectoure  was  strongly  fortified  with  a  triple  wall  <  if 
which  there  are  some  remains)  and  a  castle.  It  was  in  tu- 
possession  of  the  counts  of  Armagnae,  who  often  reM  \  . 
here.  Jean  V.,  the  last  count,  whose  unbridled  licenii»^u^ 
ness  and  violence  involved  him  in  disputes  both  v^ith 
Charles  YII.  and  Louis  XL,  was  besieged  in  Lectoure  I  > 
the  troops  of  the  latter,  and  assassinated  soon  after  the  bur 
render  of  the  town.  At  Fleurance  is  a  fine  markel<pla<*c. 
in  which  are  held  eight  considerable  yearly  fairs  for  cvro 
and  goose-feathers ;  the  other  places  are  unimportant 

In  the  arrondissement  of  Mirande  are  the  capital,  on  tb« 
Bayse ;  He  de  Nod,  or  lie  Bayse,  on  the  same  stream ;  Eesu- 
marchez  and  Plaisance,  on  the  Arros;  Mi^lan,  Tilhac.  or 
Tillac,  and  Marciac,  on  the  Boues*  a  ISoeder  of  the  aame 
stream;  Masseube,  on  the  Gers;  Vulla,  Barcelonne.  o: 
Barcelone,  Riscle,  Aignan,  Lupiac,  Baasoues,  and  Manu* 
quiou.  Mirande  was  formerlv  capital  of  the  district  of  As- 
tarac ;  it  is  tolerably  well  built,  and  is  still  surrounded  I  > 
walb  in  good  repair.  The  neighbourhood  is  barren.  T».« 
town  carries  on  some  trade  in  wine,  brandy,  wool,  ac'i 
leather. 

In  the  arrondissement  of  Condom  are  the  capital  [Con 
Dou],  on  the  Bayse;  Valence,  on  the  same  river;  No^aro 
and  Monguillem,  on  or  near  the  Midou;  Manciet  uuA 
C^aubon,  on  the  Douze;  Eause  (pop.  3202  commune),  ou 
the  Gelize,  a  tributary  of  the  Lauboucb  which  flows  ia:4 
the  Losse ;  Monrdal,  on  the  Lauboue ;  Le  Houga,  Lancpax. 
Gondrin,  and  Lialores,  Eause,  or  Eauze,  derives  its  narcc 
from  Elusa,  an  antient  city,  which  in  the  time  of  the  Ro 
mans  was  the  capital  of  the  Elusates,  and  metropolitan  sc^- 
of  Novempopulana,  a  district  embracing  all  that  part  *•{ 
(Saul  which  was  8.W.  of  the  Gkrumna,  or  Garonne.  U 
the  eighth  or  ninth  century  Elusa  was  destroyed  by  iIk- 
Normans,  and  the  metroiK>litan  see  was  transferred  t  > 
Auch,  the  diocese  of  Eause,  the  town  which  rose  out  of  the 
ruins  of  Elusa,  being  a  simple  bishopric.  The  ruins  of  tl  c 
Roman  dty,  which  preserve  the  designation  of  La  Guut, 


GGR 


202 


GE  S 


'OtiaTmpefiilta'sMlffeMiTe^in  the  CothmianCollectton, 
Vcap,  E.i.,  B&din  the  Library  of  CC.C.  Cambr,  cod.  414; 
they  comprise  tho  tmtite*  entitled  '  Mundi  Dcscriptto.'  and 
■  Db  Mirabilibus  Mundi,'  sscribed  to  him  u  lepaisle  narks. 
Nicolton,  Effgl-  Hitt.  Lib.  edit.  1776,  pp.  SO,  151,  Eiscribei 
to  him  Uie '  Black-book  of  the  Exchequer ;'  but  Madox,  who 

gibliihed  B  very  correct  edition  of  that  work,  p^es  it  to 
ichardNelion,l)tahop  of  London.  (T^nner.Bt'U-Srif  JfiA, 
p.  3li;  Nicholion,  Hut.  £tfr. ;  Nasmith'i  Cat.  ofHuMSS. 
in  C.C.C.C.,  p.  38S ;  Vi»AfTt,Hut£xekeii.  dto.  edit.,  vol  ii., 
p.  33S,  See.) 

OGRV1LL1  A,  a  ffeniu  of  conchifen  ot  hivalvei,  hitherto 
on^  found  in  a  fowu  ilate.  M.  Defiance  tint  noticed  the 
ssniu,  which  he  named  after  M.  de  Gcrvillo,  who  diicavered 
in  the  Bacnlite  limestone  of  Normandy  the  species  on  which 
tho  ^nui  WD8  established.  M.  Deslonchamps  {Mimoiret 
de  la  Societt  Lintenrtede  Calvadot.  1B24)  proposed  several 
modiflcalians  of  ibc  character,  so  ai  to  allow  the  eenut  to 
embrace  foot  other  sheila  in  addition  to  the  flrstdescribed 
apecies,  Gervillia  tolenmdes,  vii. : — GerviUim  pemoidei 
{Pena  amculo\d«t.  Sow.,  '  Min.  Con.,'  t.  fiG),  Siliqua,  mo- 
nolit  and  cotlatula,  which  are  flgured  and  described  in 
the  memoir.  M.  Defrance  thou^t  that  the  bivalve  waa 
furnished  with  a  hyuus,  but  M.  Deslonchamps  conceives 
that  Gervillia  has  no  opening  far  the  passage  of  that  ap- 
pendage. '  Should  this  prove  to  be  tne  case,'  write*  the 
reviewer  of  the  memoir  (Zoot.  Joum.  vol.  i.),  'which  we  are 
mher  inclined  to  doubt,  it  will  effectually  separate  the 
shells  of  this  f^om  those  of  the  other  genera  of  the  Afal- 
leactie.  Their  nearest  affinity  is  with  those  of /"ema,  from 
which  they  may  be  at  once  distinguished  by  posscsaioc 
an  apparently  inner  additional  hinge,  funned  of  several 
obliquo  teeth,  variously  disposed,  according  to  the  species.' 
Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby  {Genera  of  Recent  and  Fbifil  Shellt, 
No.  11),  who  judges  the  genus  to  have  been  marine  from 
its  associates,  and  who  states  that  there  Is  good  reason  for 
presuming  that  it  waa  adherent  by  a  hy8»u^  gives  the 
tblluwing 

Generic  CSarM/*r.— Shell  oblong,  nearly  equivalve, 
very  inequilateral,  and  oblique;  hinge  line  rather  long, 
linear,  nearly  ttraieht,  with  many  irregular,  rather  trani- 
verse  little  pita,  and  teeth  placed  below  the  dorsal  edge. 

Mr.  Sowerby  regards  it  as  an  intermediate  genus  between 
Avieuta  and  Pema.  It  resembles,  he  observes,  the  former 
in  its  general  form  and  external  appearance ;  whilst  its 
hincre  is  somewhat  like  that  of  the  latter,  though  suIBcieiitly 
didfrent  to  enable  us  to  point  out  without  dilScully  the  pe- 
culiarities by  which  it  may  at  once  be  known. 

Cuvier,  in  his  last  edition  of  the  '  RSgnc  Animal,'  places 
it  under  Let  Pemei  {Pema  at  Bruguilres),  between  Crt- 
naluta  and  Inoceramu*. 

H.  de  Blainville  arranges  the  genus  under  his  family 
Margaritaeea  (the  third  of  his  AeepAalophora  Lfonellibran- 
chiata),  between  Pulvimte*  and  Aviatla.  He  notices  that 
the  shell  gapes  anteriorly,  perhaps  for  the  passage  of  a 
byssus,  ana  describes  the  ligament  as  multiple  and  inserted 
in  many  conical  fosto)  forming  a  row  within  the  binge. 
He  also  dAcribes  the  abdominal  impression  as  single,  and 
as  rather  anterior, 

M.  Rang  gives  Gervillia  a  place  under  the  iSaUtaeea  of 
Lamarck,  between  Mallctu  and  Inoctramui.  In  his  de- 
scription he  notices  the  slight  anterior  opening  as  being 
doubtless  {lani  doute)  for  the  passage  of  a  oyssus. 

M.  Deshayes,  in  hia  edition  of  Lamaick,  notices  the 
memoir  of  M.  Deslonchamps,  speaks  of  the  multiple  liga- 
ment and  the  single  somewhot  oval  muscular  impression 
placed  towards  the  middle  of  the  length  of  the  shell  and  on 
the  side  of  the  dorsal  edge,  and  remarks  that,  like  the  Perrue 
and  other  genera  of  the  family  Malleaeeee,  the  GerviUiee 
are  covered  externally  with  a  delicate  layer  of  fibrous 
matter,  and  that  they  may  be  regarded  as  Pema  with  an 
articulated  hinge.  The  place  assigned  to  them  by  M. 
Dttshayea  is  between  Pema  and  Catillut. 

Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby  observes  that  many  species  have 
occTirred  at  various  geological  periods  from  the  lias  upward 
to  the  Boculiie  limestone  of  Normandy.  H.  de  Blainville 
mentions  the  species  as  found  in  the  department  of  La 
Manchc.  M.  Deshayes  says  that  they  had  not  been  found 
at  the  lime  he  wrote  (ISM),  except  in  the  Bccondury  bed.". 
The  genus  occurs  in  the  Cretactou*  Group  (Green  Sand), 
and  largclyin  the  Ooiilie  Group.  (De  la  Beche's  Geological 
Manual ;  Dr.  F'lton's  Syrtemalic  and  Straiigraphical  Lilt 
"f  Fauilt,  in  hit  paper  On  tht  Strata  below  the  Chalk; 


7Vo«».  G«rf.Si»;„2na series,  vol. iv.lBSe—MfcS  tear;  anl 
the  work*  of  Conybeare,  De  la  Beche,  Da  Caumont,  I><  - 
friince.  Deslonchamps,  Deshayes,  Desnoyera,  Dumf.i.:. 
Hoeningbsus,  HoU,  Lonsdale,  Hantell,  MiinitBr,  Muirhi*.  t., 
Phillips,  J.  and  G.  Sowerby,  SedRwiok,  Thirria,  Tliuno*... 
Voltt,  and  the  German  translation  of  Da  la  Beche's  Af on •<■-'. 
&c) 


•  ihGavlUumnloidB.    fmSovoV*  Q"*-*^' 


GERYl'SIA  (Zoology),  a  name  given  by  MM.  Q.. 
and  Gaimard  to  a  genus  of  small  roollusks  approxiniiii  : 
nearly  to  Pleurobranefiut. 

GERYO'NIA.    (ZoologT.)    rMBDUs.i.] 

GKSNER.  CONRAD,  an  eminent  ».holflT  and  naii.i  ■ 
ist,  who  wo*  a  shilling  example  oflhc  truth  of  the  nm-ii. 
(hat  those  who  have  most  tu  du  and  uo  wiUiug  to  work  &.  - 


G  as 


203 


G  £  S 


most  time.    Beginning  his  career  under  all  the  digadvan- 
tages  attendant  on  poverty,  sickneas,  and  domeatie  calamity, 
and  cut  off  at  the  early  age  of  48,  Gesner  left  behind  him, 
iiotwithstandint^  the  cares  of  the  medical  profession,  which 
he  activelv  and  successfully  exercised,  suca  an  amount  of 
literary  labour  as  would  have  won  for  him  the  title  of  one 
of  the  most  learned  and  industrious  of  men,  if  his  useful 
life  hod  been  occupied  solely  in  its  production.    Zuridb  was 
his  birth-place,  where  on  the  26th  of  Mareh,  1A16,  he  oame 
into  the  world  to  adcl  to  the  difficulties  of  his  parents,  who 
were  struggling  to  support  a  laxge  family.    His  ftither  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  skinner  or  worker  in  hides ;  and  his 
mother's  name  was  Friccius  or  Frick.    To  his  maternal 
uncle,  John  Fticoius,  he  seems  to  have  been  indebted  for 
kind  assistance  and  tuition  i*^  but  this  good  relation  died-~ 
the  father  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Zug  (1531),  when  the 
son  was  only  15-»a&dthe  poor  lad,  after  struggling  with  a 
dropsical  disorder,  set  out  for  Strasburg  to  seek  bis  fortune. 
He  was  amone  strangers ;  but  his  spirit  bore  him  uj^  and,  in 
the  service  of  the  well-known  Lutheran,  Wol%ang  Fabricius 
Capito,  he  resumed  thestudy  of  the  Hebrew  language,  which 
he  had  begun  to  learn  at  Zurich.    On  his  retiurn  to  Swit- 
zerland the  academy  of  Zurich  allowed  him  a  pension,  which 
enabled  him  to  travel  in  France.    At  Boujgetb  where  he 
stayed  a  year,  Chreek  and  Latin  principally  eni^^ed  his  atten- 
tion, and  to  assist  in  defraying  his  expenses  he  taught  in 
school.    From  Bourges  he  proceeded  to  Paris,  where  he 
does  not  appear  to  have  done  much ;  and,  after  a  short  stay 
at  Straabuig,  whither  he  was  led  by  the  hope  of  employ- 
ment, the  university  of  Zurich  sent  for  him,  and  he  became 
a  teacher-  thereii    He  now  married,  at  the  age  of  20,  not 
with  the  approbation  of  his  ftiends,  who  saw  that  his  income 
could  not  be  equal  to  hia  wants. 

The  church  was  his  destination,  but  the  strong  impulse  of 
liiH  mind  stimulated  him  to  the  study  of  ph|rsic,  to  which  he 
determined  to  apply  himself  with  a  professional  view;  and, 
resigning  his  situation  at  Zurich,  he  went  to  Basel  as  a  me- 
dical stiwent,  his  pension  being  still  continued.    Here  he 
seems  to  have  commenced  hia  labours  for  the  public  in  su- 
perintending the  edition  of  the  Greek  dictionary  of  Favorinus 
<  Phavorinus).   A  wish  to  be  intimately  acquamted  with  the 
works  of  the  Gbreek  physicians  led  him  to  the  acquisition  of 
that  lanffuage ;  and  he  laboured  with  auch  earnest  leaX  and 
success  Uiat  he  was  oftred  the  Greek  professorship  in  Uie 
the  newly-founded  university  of  Lausanne,  an  appomtment 
which  he  accepted.    He  aflervarda  passed  a  year  at  Mont- 
pellier,  where  he  formed  an  intimate  acquaintance  with 
Laurent  Joubert,  the  celebrated  physician,  and  Rondele- 
tius,  the  great  naturalist    Hia  enolumenta  were  now  not 
only  adequate  to  his  expeaaesb  but  moreover  enabled  him 
to  prosecute  the  medical  and  botanical  pursuits  ao  dear  to 
him ;  and  at  Basel,  in  1541,  OTt  as  others  say,  in  1540,  he 
took  his  decree  of  doctor  in  medicine     Ziirich  was  the  field 
of  his  practice,  which  enabled  him  to  cultivate  his  taste  for 
natural  history.    He  founded  and  supported  a  botanic  gar- 
den, collected  a  fine  library,  made  numerous  drawings,  and 
gave  constant  employment  to  a  painter  and  to  an  engraver 
io  wood.    In  the  midst  of  his  laborious  profession,  the  asto- 
nishing  industry  of  the   man  found  time  for  the  prin- 
cipal works  on  which  hia  fhme  rests     He  lived  honoured 
aod  respected  for  his  talents  and  benevolence  in  his  native 
towrit  tul  an  attack  of  the  pestilence  which  he  had  success- 
fully combated  in  the  cases  of  others,  and  to  which  his  pro- 
fessional activity  mostprobably  exposed  him,  carried  nim 
off  in  his  49th  year,   mien  the  plague-boil  appeared  in  his 
axilla,  accompanied  by  the  worst  symptoms,  he  knew  that 
his    death  was  certain.    He  desired  to  be  carried  to  his 
museum,  where,  amidst  the  treasures  he  had  collected  and 
surrounded  by  the  old  familiar  objects  of  his  studies,  he 
breathed  his  last  in.  the  arms  of  his  a£Eectionate  wife,  for 
whose  conjugal  love  and  piety  conta^on  and  death  had  no 
terrors,  with  the  calmnesa  of  a  Christian  philosopher.  This 
excellent  woman  survived  hinL    Gesner  left  no  children. 

l^us  died  Gesner  on  the  13th  of  December,  1565,  on  the 
fifth  day  of  the  attack.  His  remains  rest  in  the  cloister  of 
the  great  church  at  Zurich,  near  those  of  his  friend  Frisius. 
He  was  bewailed  in  abundance  of  Latin  and  in  some  Greek 
verses.  Tlieodore  Besa  was  among  the  most  elegant  of  these 
tributaries;  and  his  ftmeral  oration  was  pronounced  by 

•Somm  of  Us  blofnwlMrt  iteto  that  lolui  3wmm  Anmiui,  piofcMaroT 
rb«t«rie  ftl  Zfiridi*  took  lite  to  Us  koiipt  and  offntd  to  dehay  tiM  ttpeiM  of 

hi«  educatio4,  Md  tUi  bD  itBiiiwi  wiib  Uit  vtotvuoi  thcei  jna  ftudyiiis 


Josias  Simler,  who  wrote  his  life  (1566,  4to.),  of  which 
Gesner  himself  had  given  some  details  in  his  Bibliotheca* 
De  Thou  in  his  great  history  speaks  of  him  with  high  and 
deserved  praise ;  but  perhaps  the  most  complete  biography 
is  that  of  Schmiedel,  prefixed  to  Gesner's  botanical  works. 
He  must  have  been  much  lamented  by  his  contemporaries ; 
for,  in  addition  to  his  other  amiable  qualities,  he  appears  to 
have  been  a  general  peace-maker, — his  calm,  canoid,  aiMl 
equable  temper  enabling  him  to  soothe  the  angry  feelinga 
of  authors  under  their  real  or  imagined  wron^  Then 
again  he  would  lay  aside  hia  own  labour  to  assist  others ; 
and  he  devoted  his  time  to  the  supervision  and  publication 
of  Moiban's  w<Nrk  on  Diosoorides  mr  the  emolument  of  hia 
deceased  friend's  family.  Similarity  of  taste  attached  him 
to  Valerius  Cordua,  who  died  at  Rome  in  1544,  at  the  age 
of  twentv-nine»  whilst  on  his  travels;  and  the  Hui&ria  Plaa- 
tamm  of  the  latter  was  subsequently  edited  by  Gesner,  wha 
however  appears  never  to  have  had  a  personal  interview 
with  Cordus.  It  was  otherwise  with  David  Kyber,  with 
whom  Gesner  waa  very  intimate,  who  died  of  the  plague  at 
Strasburg  in  1553,  and  whose  Lexicon  Ret  Herbcarua  7Vt> 
Ungue  was  published  in  that  year  by  the  same  indefatigable 
editor,  with  an  epistle  to  the  fother  of  the  author  full  of 
affectionate  consolation. 

In  tbe  year  1545  Gesner  journeyed  to  Venice  and  Augs- 
burg where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  many  learned  and 
meritorious  men ;  and  this  leads  ns  to  the  Uterary  works 
which  have  justly  rendered  Gesner*s  name  famous,  fur  then 
it  was  that  he  commenced  the  publication  of  his  Bibliotheca 
Universalit,  a  grand  design,  and  the  first  modem  biblio- 
paphioal  work  upon  a  large  scalei  As  it  was  the  first,  so 
It  may  be,  hitherto  at  least,  said  to  be  the  last ;  for  though 
an  approach  was  made  to  it  in  Dr.  Robert  Watt's  Biblto- 
theea  Britannicoy  that  useful  and  well>executed  work  is,  as 
might  be  expected,  conversant  chiefiy  with  English  books. 
[Bibliography,  vol.  iv.,  p.  381.]  Gesner's  Biwiotheca  waa 
a  catalogue  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  Hebrew  works,  with  cri- 
ticisms, and  frequently  specimens  of  the  author  quoted,  and 
appeared  in  I  vol.  folio  (1545,  Zurich).  The  volume  *  Pan- 
dectarum,  sive  Partitbnum  Universalium'  (1548)  may  be 
considered  as  the  second  of  the  BMiotheca.    Genier  never 

Sublished  the  book  relating  to  medical  works,  because  he 
id  not  consider  it  to  be  sufficiently  perfect  An  abridg- 
ment of  the  Bibliotheca  by  Lyoosthenes,  and  completed  by 
Simler  and  J.  J.  Fries,  was  published  in  1583  (foUo).  nai- 
ler's Bibliotheca  Botamca  and  Bibhoiheca  Anatmnica  were 
probably  imagined  firom  Gresner's  work. 

But  the  Hietoriis  Animalium  must  be  considered  the 
great  work  of  Gesner.  These  well-filled  folio  volumes  ap- 
peared at  Ziirich  in  the  fiillowing  order:  Viviparous  Quad* 
rupeds  (1551);  Oviparous  Quadrupeds  ( 1554) ;  Birds  ( 1 555) ; 
Fishes  and  other  Aquatic  Animals  (1556),— this  volume 
contains  the  labours  of  his  contemporaries  and  ftienda 
Belon  and  Rondolet,  with  some  additions  by  himself;  Ser- 
pents (posthumous  and  published  by  James  Carron,  a 
Frankfort  physician,  1587)— this  is  more  rare  than  the 
other  vols.,  and  there  is  usually  added  a  treatise  on  the 
Scorpion,  posthumous  also,  and  published  in  the  last-men- 
tion^ year  at  Zurich  by  Caspar  "Wolf.  There  is  slso  an 
edition  in  Grerman.  Of  tne  *  Insects,*  some  inedited  figures 
of  butterflies  are  all  that  are  known ;  but  that  Gesner  had 
not  neglected  this  class  of  animals  is  manifbst  fh>m  Mouf- 
fet*s  Jfuechrum,  give  Minimorum  Animaliism  Theairum : 
olim  ab  Edoardo  fVoitono,  Conrado  Oemero,  Thomaque 
Pennio,  inchocUum  (fol.,  Lond.,  1634),  which  is  partly  made 
up  from  (josner's  fragments.  The  work  does  not  comprise 
the  Mollusks  and  Ttotaceans  as  a  class. 

AH  anee  that  this  compilation,  having  for  its  object 
nothing  less  than  a  general  history  of  animated  nature,  con- 
centratmg  and  critically  revising  all  that  had  been  done 
befbre  the  time  of  the  author,  enriched  with  his  own  know- 
ledge, and  illustrated  by  many  incidental  remarks  in  the 
departments  of  botany  and  medicine,  might  have  been  con- 
sidered as  evidence  of  most  persevering  and  praiseworthy 
industry,  if  it  had  been  the  production  of  a  recluse  whose 
long  Ufe  had  been  entirely  spent  in  the  task ;  whereas  it 
was  only  one  of  many  boyks  written  by  a  man  who  gained 
his  subsistence  by  perhaps  the  most  harassing  and  time- 
oonsuming  of  all  professions,  and  who  died  in  harness  when 
he  was  not  forty-nine  years  old. 

Gesner,  in  wis  work,  which  he  carried  out  to  oooa- 
pletion  as  fkr  as  the  Vertebraia  are  concwned,  fbUowed  the 
method  of  Aristotle ;  and  thougU  Uioro  is  not  any  estabUihr* 


G  E  S  20 

nant  of  genera,  it  may  be  congidared  u  tha  principal  louicc 
of  more  modeiQ  loology,  from  which  lucceedio^  writen 
drew  Ivgelyi  and  of  which  their  public«tions  mainly  con- 
■iated.  Tbui  it  wai  copied  in  many  parti,  almoit  litenlly, 
hj  Aldrovindui ;  and  Janilon'i  HUloria  Naturalit  u 
little  more  than  an  abridgment  of  it. 

Gesner'B  Huluriiw  were  compreued  and  appeared  undei 
the  titlei  of  Jcorut  AnimtUium,  &e.  Tbi*  book  ii  tnucl: 
more  common  than  the  original. 

Paatiag  by  the  various  learned  Ireatites  that  flowed  tma 
Oeener't  proliBc  pen,  we  must  notice  the  complete  traDila- 
tionof  the  works  or^CIian  (1516).  Gemer'a  notei  ilw  ap 
pear  in  the  edition  ofGronoviiu  (London,  1744),  be. 

Thii  extraordinary  man  is  next  presented  to  ui  in  anothei 
point  of  view ;  fir  he  is  said  to  have  designed  and  painted 
more  than  ISDO  plant*.  A  large  share  of  the!  SOD  fiKure*  pre' 

Sared  by  Gesnec  for  his  *  History  of  Plants,'  and  left  at  hii 
eatb,  paued  into  the  Epilome  Mallhiaii,  published  by  Ca 
memrius  in  ISSG ;  and  in  llio  same  year,  as  aUo  in  a  seconc 
edition  in  1590,  they  were  used  as  illustrations  of  ar 
abridged  translation  of  Matthiolus.  bearing  the  name  o. 
the  German  Herbal.  The  Eame  blocks  were  used  by  Uffen 
bach  (1G09)  fur  tbe  Herbal  of  Castor  Durantei,  printed  ai 
Frankfort,  and  comprising  948  of  Gesner's.  After  th( 
death  of  Camerarius.  Goorlin,  a  bookseller  of  Ulm,  pur- 
chased the  blocks,  and  they  embellished  the  Pamaitiu  He 
didnalii  Iliuitratut  of  Barker  (Ulm,  1633).  In  1676  the; 
found  a  place  in  Bernard  Veriacba's  German  Herbal ;  am: 
they  appeared  again  in  the  Thealrum  Bolanicum  (Basel 
1G96),  and  In  an  edition  of  that  work  ko  late  as  1744. 

Besides  the  above.  Gesner  is  said  to  have  left  Ave  va 
lt>Des,  consisting  entirely  of  figures  which,  together  will 
hi*  botanical  works  in  manuscript,  became  at  last  the  pra 
perty  of  Trew  of  Nuremberg,  and  were  published  under  th( 
care  of  Dr.  Scbmiodcl,  physician  to  the  margrave  of  An* 
pai-h  (Niirnberg.  2  vols.,  folio,  173J-1770). 

In  closing  our  notice  of  this  amiable,  learned,  and  indu* 
liiotis  man,  it  may  no)  be  uninteresting  to  state  that,  ac- 
•ording  to  Haller.  it  is  probable  that  Conrad  Gesner  wai 
the  first  short-sighted  person  who  aided  the  defect  of  bii 
eye  with  concave  glasses.  Plumler  dedicated  to  him  i 
genus  of  plants  of  the  family  Campanulaeem,  under  th( 
Dame  of  Ge»nera.     [Gisnkracex.] 

GESNBR,  JOHN  MAITHIAS,  bom  near  Anspacl 
in  tfiOl,  became  rector  of  the  echool  of  Weimar,  and  wai 
aAcrwards  professor  of  eloquence  and  poetry  at  Giiltingea 
He  distinguished  himself  as  a  classical  scholar.  His  prin 
(lipal  works  are  :  I.  '  Novui  lingus  et  eruditionis  Ro 
uann  Thesaurus,  4  vols,  fol,  Leipzig,  1749,  a  ui^eful  com- 
pilatlon.  2.  '  Primm  linciD  l~Bgogca  in  Eruditionem  unl 
vorsalcm,  nominallm  Plillologiam,  Historiam  et  Philoso- 
phiam,  in  usuni  prcelectinnum  ducm,'  2  vols.  Bvo.,  Leipiig 
1773.  3.  '  Biogriphia  Academlca  Gottingensis,'  3  vol* 
8ro.,  17G9.  4.  A  good  and  handtome  edition  of  th< 
antient  Koman  writers  on  agriculture :  '  Scriptores  Roi  RuS' 
ticn  veteres  Latinl,  Cato,  Varro,  Columella,  Palladius, 
quibus  occedit  Vegetius  do  MulO'Mediclna,  et  Gargili 
Martialis  Fragracntum,'  i  vols.  4to.,  Leipiig,  1 735,  with 
Notes  variorum,  and  an  Index,  or  Lcxiron  Rusticum. 
He  published  also  edition*  of  Horace,  Quintilian,  Claudian, 
&e.,  and  of  Phllopalild  '  DIalogus  Lucianeus,'  with  a  dis- 
aertation  on  the  authority  and  age  of  the  same.  Gcsnei 
died  at  Gotlfngen  in  1761. 

GESSNER,  SOLOMON,  born  at  Zilrich  in  1730,  and 
a  painter  by  profession,  distinguished  himself  both  a*  a 
painter  and  a  poet.  His  flrst  publication  was  some  pastoral 
poems,  '  Idyllen,'  which  had  a  consldeiahle  success  at  the 
time,  but  Ibey  are  rather  tame,  and  have  the  fault  of  all 
compMitiona  of  the  same  kind,  that  of  representing  a  state 
of  socittty  which  does  not  exist.  Hii  '  Tod  Abels,'  '  The 
Death  of  Abel,'  written  in  prose,  has  ensured  to  its  author 
a  more  lasting  reputation.  He  has  taken  hi*  subject  from 
tho  impressive  event  recorded  in  Geneals,  the  finl  vititation 
of  death  upon  mankind,  and  that  death  a  murder.  In 
his  narialive  he  ha*  given  full  scope  to  his  poetical  fancy, 
without  however  overstepping  tho  boundaries  of  proba- 
biLty,  or  laying  himself  open  to  the  charge  of  profane- 
not*.  But  the  Kenulne  (nthot  of  the  sentiments  and 
tbe  sketch  of  the  patriarchal  manners  conatilute  the  great 
charm  of  the  work.  The  character  of  Mehala,  (Jain's 
wife,  ia  pecuUarly  interesting.  Hii  '  First  Navigator*  it 
■1*0  a  juoaaiiiK  flctioD.  0«atiwr  enjoyed  mucn  popu- 
"itvui  bit^tintiuw,  both  uaong  hit  eountiymea  vaA 


GHB 


206 


GUR 


Gheel  have  with  insanity,  has  led  tbem  to  understand  the 
best  mode  of  treatment  for  each  particular  state  of  the  dis- 
order, and  has  enabled  them  to  adopt  the  most  efficacious 
means  for  controlling  their  patients,  so  that  it  is  exceedingly 
rare  to  find  any,  after  even  a  short  residence,  exhibit  signs 
of  violence.  Chains  and  every  other  instrument  of  bodily 
restraint  are  unknown  among  them.  The  patients  almost 
invariably  mix  with  the  family,  and  employ  themselves  in 
the  same  occupation  with  those  under  whose  care  they  are 
placed,  enioying  all  the  liberty  which  can  safely  be  given  to 
Ihem.  This  mode  of  treatment  is  said  to  bo  followed  by 
the  happiest  results.  The  insane  persons  sent  to  Gheel  are 
of  almost  every  rank.  The  chief  number  is  composed  of 
indigent  persons  sent  from  the  hospitals  of  other  towns,  and 
although  the  pavment  for  them  is  extremely  small,  their 
treatment  is  in  all  respects  as  kind  as  is  used  towards  others 
who  are  more  profitable  inmates. 

GHENT,  properly  Oent,  or  Gend^  andby  the  French  called 
Gand,  a  city  in  Belgium*  the  capital  of  East  Flanders,  twenty- 
three  miles  south-west  from  Antwerp,  twenty  miles  south- 
east from  Bruges,  and  twenty-five  miles  north-west  from 
Brussels,  in  5r  3'  N.  kt.,  and  3'  43'  S.  long. 

The  city  is  built  at  the  confluence  of  the  Schelde  and  the 
Lys,  and  is  intersected  by  a  great  number  of  navigable 
canals  which  communicate  with  those  rivers,  and  thus  form 
twenty-six  islands  connected  with  each  other  by  numerous 
bridges.  The  Sas-van-Ghent  canal,  which  runs  from  Ghent 
towards  the  north  into  Zealand,  where  it  joins  the  Neozen 
canal,  connects  Ghent  with  the  West  Schelde,  and  allows 
sea-goine  vessels,  drawing  eighteen  feet  water,  to  enter  the 
city.  The  canal  of  Sas-van-Ghent  was  originally  intended 
only  for  carrying  off  the  superfluous  waters  of  the  province, 
and  its  adaptation  to  navigation  was  determined  upon  whQe 
the  work  was  in  the  course  of  execution.  The  canal  was 
begun  and  fihished  in  two  years.  The  city  of  Ghent  con- 
tributed a  million  of  firancs  towards  the  cost;  the  remainder 
was  furnished  by  the  general  government.  It  was  opened 
for  use  in  December,  1828. 

The  origin  of  Ghent,  as  well  as  that  of  many  other  towns 
in  Flanders,  is  very  doubtfUl.  Some  writers  assert  that  the 
citv  which  existed  at  the  time  of  the  irruption  of  the  Van- 
dals into  Belgium  in  the  fifth  century,  received  from  them 
the  name  of  Vanda,  which  was  aUerwards  changed  to 
Ganda»  or  Gandavum  Castrum.  This  is  mere  trsulition, 
but  it  is  supposed  to  receive  confirmation  from  the  ex- 
istence of  a  fort  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Schelde  within 
the  city,  bearing  the  name  of  Wandelaers  Kasteel  (Castle 
of  the  Vandals).  About  the  year  629,  king  Dagobert  sent 
St  Amand  to  Ghent  to  convert  its  inhabitants  from  pa- 
ganism, and  he  founded  two  monasteries  to  the  honour  of 
St  Peter,  one  on  a  rising  ground  called  St  Peter's  Moun^ 
the  other  near  the  Antwerp  Gate.  Manv  of  the  inhabitants, 
who  were  converted  to  Ciinstianitv  by  the  preaching  of  St 
Amand,  bequeathed  their  wealtn  to  the  second  of  these 
monasterios.  One  of  these  benefiictors  gave  his  name  to 
the  -abbey  of  St  Bavon,  some  part  of  the  ruins  of  which 
building  are  still  visible :  this  quarter  of  the  city  for  some 
time  bore  the  name  of  St  Bavon. 

In  868  Baldwin  Iron-arm,  the  first  count  of  Flanders, 
built  a  fortress  at  Ghent,  which  was  called  Count's  Castle. 
In  941,  the  first  church  was  built  and  consecrated  to  Saint 
John  the  Baptist.  Eight  years  after  this  Otho  emperor  of 
Germany  entered  Flanaers  at  the  head  of  an  army,  and  de- 
stroyed everything  with  fire  and  sword.  In  the  year  968, 
Baldwin  the  Younger,  count  of  Flanders,  introduced  the 
art  of  weaving  into  Ghent  In  1046,  Baldwin  of  Lille  made 
himself  master  of  the  Count's  Castle.  About  this  time  the 
city  was  visited  by  an  epidemic  disorder,  which  carried  off 
more  than  600  nersons  daily. 

About  theena  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  Flemish  noblesi 
in  order  to  equip  themselves  with  splendor  for  the  Crusades* 
sold  their  domains  to  their  vassals,  who  by  that  means 
were  enfranchised.  Such  of  them  as  resided  in  Ghent  pro- 
ceeded to  establish  a  form  of  municipal  government ;  tney 
elected  sheriffs,  adopted  a  public  seal,  and  established  a 
court  of  justice.  They  obtained  at  this  time  various  privi- 
leges in  favour  of  their  trade  and  manufactures,  and  joined 
the  association  of  the  Hanse  Towns.  They  further  obtained 
from  the  emperor  Frederick  I.  the  free  navigation  of  the 
Rhine.  In  1180  Ghent,  which  was  then  a  populous  city, 
became  the  capital  of  Flanders,  and  obtained  a  charter  from 
Count  Baldwin  of  Hainault,  with  great  privileges.     The 

preamble  to  thia  charter  contains  the  fttlowins  rciBMlwbk 


words : — *  It  is  eonfocmable  to  the  law  of  Qod,  and  to  the 
light  of  reason,  that  princes  who  desire  to  be  honoured  anil 
served  by  their  subjects  should  consider  it  on  thetr  D^n  a 
duty  to  respect  and  maintain  inviolate  the  rights  aud  <*ti* 
toms  of  the  latter ;  and  it  is  with  these  consioeiatioos  thbi 
at  the  desire ^f  my  dear  and  faithftil  citizens  of  Ghent  i 
have  assured  to  them  in  manner  foUowiag  their  nghts  an  i 
customs,  as  well  as  the  freedom  of  their  city.*  The  firtt 
article  of  the  charter  dechires  that  *The  citixens  of  Ghcr*'. 
owe  to  their  prince  fidelity  and  attachment  while  he  shnl. 
treat  them  conformably  to  justice  and  reason,  bv  wbirh 
mode  of  acting  alone  the  prince  can  reign  fbr  the  advanta^;'. 
of  all.'  By  a  regulation  passed  in  1202,  the  eitixena  wvtv 
disabled  fh>m  acquiring  estates  beyond  certain  verf  eon  fine  .1 
limits  around  the  city,  which  circumstance  is  said  to  hat : 
been  productive  of  great  prosperity  to  its  manufbcturtr^ 
In  return  for  this  restriction,  tne  citizens  were  secunrti  lu 
the  monopoly  of  employments  within  the  city,  and  U>r  ^ 
certain  distance  round  ;  and  aU  who  were  unpro\ided  ««*.. 
the  means  of  Uving  independently,  or  of  contributing  I  % 
their  skill  to  the  prosperity  of  the  city,  were  expelled  from  •  i. 
Considerable  inducements  were  held  out  to  induce  fbreigncr  s 
to  bring  their  skill  and  capital,  and  to  settle  among  them. 

By  these  means  the  city  increased  so  rapidly,  that  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  it  exceeded  :ii 
extent  and  population  the  capital  of  France.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  number  of  i:<» 
citucns  tjmployed  in  the  manufacture  of  wooUens  b  saj'i 
to  have  amounted  to  40,000,  and  in  times  of  war  fur- 
nished from  their  number  18,000  men  under  arms.  Cb&rlc« 
v.,  afterwards  king  of  Spain  and  emperor  of  Germauy 
was  bom  at  Ghent  in  February,  1500.  During  hta  n:i^  . 
the  city  contained  35,000  houses,  and  a  population  •  f 
175,000  souls.  In  1537  Maria,  sister  of  Charles  V..  >»hj 
then  administered  the  government  of  the  Nethertandi,  U-. 
manded  from  Flanders  an  extraordinary  subsidy  of  1,2 00. ti  • : 
florins  of  gold,  one-third  part  of  which  waa  lo  be  paid  l>f 
the  citizens  of  Ghent  who,  having  already  advanced  c^:x 
siderable  sums  to  the  emperor  towards  the  expenses  of 
the  war  with  France,  refhsed  to  comply  with  this  fheah  dr> 
mand,  and  made  a  show  of  armed  resistance,  but  were 
speedily  reduced  to  submission ;  and  the  emperor,  to  punt^u 
tne  citizens,  took  away  from  them  all  their  privilBg;es,  l«- 
sides  confiscating  the  property  of  such  as  had  been  active.  ]% 
concerned  in  the  revolt  several  of  whom  were  condemn vi 
to  death.  On  this  occasion  a  citadel  wag  erected  for  tLv 
purpose  of  holding  the  citizens  in  check. 

When  the  confederation  was  formed  fbr  expelling  tb* 
Spaniards  from  the  Belgian  provinces,  a  congreas  was  hcl  1 
in  Ghent ;  and  a  document  known  in  history  aa  *  the  fu- 
cification  of  Ghent*  was  publicly  signed  by  the  oonfbderau-^ 
met  together  in  the  town-hall,  8th  November;  1576.  Ou 
the  lltn  of  the  same  month,  the  Spanish  mrriaon  shut  u;> 
in  the  citadel  capitulated  to  the  cituen&  This  citadel  was 
afterwards  destroyed. 

The  capitulation  signed  17th  September,  1584,  agam 
placed  Ghent  under  the  dominion  of  Spain ;  the  citadel  « jt 
rebuilt  and  so  many  of  the  inhabitants  quitted  the  c;:y 
that  one-third  of  the  nouses  were  empty.  In  1598  the  Bi.! 
gian  provinces  were  severed  from  the  crown  of  Spain  in  fA* 
vour  of  Isabella,  daughter  of  Philip  II.,  who  married  Albcr. 
son  of  the  emperor  of  Germany.  Ghent  was  taken  by  L<jut» 
XIV.  in  1678,  after  a  siege  of  six  days.  The  city  wa^  ocxu- 
pied  bv  Marlborough  in  1706.  In  1745  Louis  XV.  ha%  u..: 
entered  Flanders  with  Marshal  Saxe  at  the  head  of  lOO.iov 
men,  took  Ghent  by  surprise,  but  the  country  soon  aga;u 
came  into  possession  of  Austria.  In  1792  the  Netherlands 
fell  under  the  power  of  France,  and  Ghent  was  oonstitutcxi 
the  capital  of  the  department  of  the  Schelde,  and  so  cou- 
tinned  till  the  downfal  of  Napoleon  in  1814,  when  Fla::- 
ders  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  United  NetherUn«U. 
In  1814  the  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  here  between  Gretc 
Britain  and  the  United  States  of  North  America,  whii  h 
put  an  end  to  the  war  between  the  two  countries. 

Ghent  is  a  handsome  well-built  city.  On  the  l$t  of 
January,  1830,  it  contained  11,823  houses,  inhabited  )•> 
16,438  fiLmilies,  comprising  39,543  males,  and  44,^40  U- 
males.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls,  and  has  seven  cntroticv 
gates.  The  Brussels  gate,  called  also  the  1Emperor*s  gato. 
in  memory  of  Charles  v.,  was  originally  built  m  13UU,  sr.l 
restored  in  1523.  The  Courtrai  gate  was  destroyed  in  ir>J 
by  order.of  Joseph  II.,  and  rebuilt  in  1803,  when  it  receiv(.>i 
the  namo  of  the  Napoleon  gate.    SU  rater's  gatoy  built  in 


G  H  I 


208 


G  I  A 


Beside  the  Friday  market,  horse-ftdrs  art  held  in  Mid- 
Lent,  and  on  the  2Srd  of  Jnly ;  there  is  also  a  general  fkir 
in  August 

Ghent  ia  the  residence  of  the  governor  of  the  proYince ; 
it  is  also  the  seat  of  a  tribunal  of  first  resort,  and  of  a  court 
of  appeal,  which  last  has  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  pro* 
vinee ;  it  is  likewise  the  residence  of  a  bishop. 

From  returns  printed  b^  the  former  Netherlands  govern* 
ment,  it  appears  that  the  mcrease  of  the  population  of  this 
city  by  natural  means,  between  1700  and  1814,  was  18,647, 
the  btrths  having  amounted  during  that  period  to  195,405, 
and  the  deaths  to  176»758.  The  mean  terms  are  therefore 
1699  birth  and  1537  deaths;  the  greatest  number  of  births 
(2169)  occurred  in  1811,  ana  the  greatest  number  of  deaths 
(2780)  in  1809.  The  number  or  births  and  deaths  in  the 
first  and  last  years  of  the  series  respectively  were,  in 
1700,  1662  births  and  1021  deaths;  in  1814,  2038  births 
and  2499  deaths.  The  actual  number  of  inhabitants  in 
1814  was  62,226.  During  the  next  sixteen  years  the  in- 
crease was  21,557,  or  about  35  per  cent,  equal  to  a  mean 
annual  increase  of  2}  per  cent,  showing  that  a  considerable 
part  must  have  nroceraed  from  immigration. 

GHIBELINIS.    [Dante;  Florknck.] 

GHIBERTI,  LORENZO.  Of  this  sculptor,  who  makes 
an  epoch  in  the  history  of  Italian  and  modern  art  generally, 
the  precise  year  of  his  birth  is  not  known,  for  though 
Vasari  states  it  to  have  been  13S0,  it  is  more  probable  that 
it  was  rather  earlier ;  and  accordingly  some  of  his  later 
biographers  have  presumed  it  to  be  1378.  He  was  bom  at 
Florence,  where  he  received  his  first  instructions  in  draw- 
ing from  his  stepfather  Bartoluccio,  who  practised  orejlceria, 
a  branch  of  art  at  that  time  in  high  repute,  and  extending 
to  designing  all  kinds  of  ornamental  work  in  metals.  He 
also  aoquir^  some  practice  of  painting  in  his  youth,  and 
executed  a  fresco  in  the  palace  of  Pandolfo  Malatesta  at 
Rimini,  in  1401,  the  year  following  that  in  which  he  left 
Florence,  on  account  (as  he  himself  informs  us  in  the 
memoir  relative  to  the  competition  for  the  bronze  gates  of 
the  Baptistery)  of  a  pestilence  in  the  city,  and  the  distressed 
state  of  affairs.  We  learn  from  the  same  source  that  he 
applied  himself  with  great  diligence  and  ardour  to  this 
task,  his  mind  being  almost  entirely  engrossed  by  painting ; 
but  hardly  had  he  completed  it  when  a  circumstance  took 
place  which  proved  the  means  of  his  signalizing  himself,  not 
only  as  the  greatest  sculptor  of  his  own  times,  but  as  one 
whose  works  have  excited  the  admiration  of  after-ages. 
This  was  no  other  than  the  competition  for  a  second  pair  of 
bronze  doors  for  the  Baptistery  at  Florence,  worthy  to 
accompany  those  executed  by  Andrea  Pisano  about  1340. 
This  memorable  competition  attracted  all  artists  of  any 
eminence,  and  from  among  their  number,  seven,  including 
Donatello,  Brunelleschi,  and  Ghiberti,  were  chosen  to  make 
trial  of  their  skill,  the  subject  given  them  being  the  Sacri- 
fice of  Isaac,  to  be  executed  in  bas-relief  as  a  model  for  one 
of  the  panels.  Of  the  designs  produced  on  this  occasion 
only  two  have  been  preserved,  namely  those  of  Ghiberti 
and  Brunelleschi,  botn  of  which  are  engraved  in  Cicog- 
nara's '  Storia  della  Scultura.'  Neither  of  them  is  free 
from  a  certain  stiffness  in  the  attitudes,  but  Ghiberti's 
exhibits  greater  elegance  in  the  forms  and  more  judicious 
composition  ;  Brunelleschi  himself  not  only  felt  the  supe- 
riority of  his  rival,  but  generously  avowed  it,  and  refusing 
to  take  any  share  in  the  work,  solicited  that  all  the  sculp- 
tures might  be  entrusted  to  Ghiberti  alone.  These  doors, 
which  contain  twenty  compartments,  or  panels,  filled  with 
as  many  reliefs,  consisting  of  scriptural  subjects,  besides  a 
profusion  of  ornamental  work  in  the  intermediate  spaces, 
obtained  from  Michel  Angelo  the  well-known  eulogium,  that 
they  were  worthy  to  be  the  gates  of  Paradise.  Yet  a 
modem  critic  (Yon  Rumohr),  whose  discrimination,  as  well 
as  his  intimate  acquaintance  with  early  Italian  art,  entitles 
his  opinion  to  more  than  ordinary  respect,  says  that  al- 
though they  display  great  invention  and  admirable  skill, 
they  in  some  respects  fidl  short  of  those  by  Andrea  Pisano, 
who  treating  his  subjects  with  greater  simplicity,  and  more 
conformably  with  the  principles  of  sculpture,  avoided  the 
conAised  and  crowded  appearance  which  prevails  in  those  of 
Ghiberti.  The  latter,  he  goes  on  to  say,  give  us  the  spirit 
of  painting  working  upon  materials  belonging  to  the  plastic 
art ;  io  that  in  order  to  be  fully  appreciated  and  enjoyed, 
they  ought  to  be  looked  upon  as  pictures  rather  than  as 
*^ere  sculptures — for  as  such  their  author  evidently  con- 

ved  them 


Remarks  of  a  similar  tendency  have  been  made  by  olhmw 
who  have  obiected  to  the  attempt  to  give  the  effect  of  per- 
spective and  distance  by  means  of  various  degrees  of  n\^f 
as  utterly  futile,  because  the  parts  which  are  nearly  in  fuil 
relief  must  inevitably  throw  shadows  on  those  next  them 
although  these  latter  may  be  intended  to  represent  ob|«et« 
at  a  considerable  distance  beyond  theoL  On  the  other  nmxui 
these  productions  of  Ghiberti  display  extraordinary  gv^ 
nius,  an  attentive  study  of  nature,  ana  a  sudden  emaiict|»tiar 
firom  that  formal  traditionanr  style  of  design  and  eompoaitioa 
which  had  till  then  been  adhered  to  by  the  Italian  maftten 
of  that  period. 

He  afterwards  executed  for  the  same  building  anotbrr 
pair  of  bronze  doors,  containing  ten  reliefs  upon  a  \mrgr: 
scale,  representing  various  suSjects  from  the  Old  Te&ta 
ment,  those  of  the  first  door  beinj^  entirely  firom  thr 
New.  Being  thus  limited  as  to  their  number,  he  eodca- 
vourtd  to  render  each  history  as  complete  as  poaeifalr. 
by  combining  in  each  compartment  four  distinct  acttouA. 
In  the  first,  for  instance,  he  has  introduced  the  creation  rf 
Adam,  that  of  Eve,  their  disobedience  in  tasting  (he  for  bid 
den  fruit,  and  their  expulsion  firom  Paradise;  amounting  m 
all  to  a  great  number  of  figures.  Among  his  other  work^ 
may  be  mentioned  the  admirable  bronse  relief  ia  tbr 
Duomo  at  Florence,  representing  San  |Zenobi  briagini?  t 
dead  child  to  life,  and  the  three  bronse  statues  of  St.  Jolin 
the  Baptist,  St.  Matthew,  and  St  Stephen,  at  the  church  nf 
Or  San  Michele  in  the  same  city.  He  also  painted  on  ci^v^ 
and  executed  some  of  the  windows  in  the  Duomo.  He  V2< 
even  appointed  Brunelleschi*s  coadjutor  in  the  erection  of 
the  cupola  of  the  edifice  just  mentioned ;  and  was  ronstiUe  i 
by  artists  and  their  patrons  upon  every  important  uuder 
taking.  The  exact  time  of  his  death  is  not  known*  but  it  s 
supposed  to  have  happened  shortly  after  he  made  his  wtl], 
which  was  dated  November,  1456,  when  he  was  about  r.* 
years  old. 

Several  of  the  bas-reliefs  of  the  second  or  larger  doer  <-  f 
the  Baptistery,  namely,  that  facing  the  Duomob  ha\e  h^v 
engraved  by  Piroli  for  a  work  on  the  monuments  of  Modi-m 
Italy,  previous  to  the  time  of  Raffaelle  ;  and  a  very  inSere«i 
ing  kind  of  artiatical  biography  of  him,  including  notict^  uf 
all  his  roost  celebrated  contemporaries,  has  been  pubh%hi« 
bv  August  Hagen,  under  the  title  of  '  Die  Chronik  seiLtr 
Vaterstadt  vom  Florentiner  Lorenz  Ghiberti/  1833. 

GHILAN.    [Persia.] 

GHIRLANDAIO  (Dominico  Corradi,  called  Drl  k  fr  ni 
the  profession  of  his  father,  one  of  the  old  Florenftr*- 
painttsrs,  was  bom  in  1451,  and  died  in  1495.  He  vn 
fertile  in  invention,  and  later  artists  often  made  use  of  •:!« 
works  He  was  one  of  the  first  who,  with  some  correct  uf^* 
of  outline,  gave  character  to  the  face;  and  was  the  Hr-- 
Florentine  whose  works  evince  a  due  knowledge  of  per<>p<  • 
tive.  His  greatest  works,  consisting  of  events  in  the  1;  >  r* 
of  St.  Francis,  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  St  John  ihe  B«pt>'. 
are  in  the  Sassetti  chapel,  the  church  of  the  Holy  Tnnrr 
and  the  choir  of  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Novella.  Hi» 
brothers,  David  and  Benedetto,  were  not  equal  te  him 
His  son  Ridolfo,  who  died  in  1560,  aged  seven ty-fire,  w«i 
a  pupil  of  Fra  Bartolomeo  and  a  friend  of  Raphael,  sen* 
analogy  with  whose  genius,  but  with  inferior  powers*  mat 
be  traced  in  his  pictures.  Dominico  has  the  honor  nf 
numbering  among  his  pupils  Michel  Angelo  Buonaiott!. 

GHIZNI.    [Afghanistan.] 

GHOOLGHOOLA  is  a  remarkable  hill  in  the  vallev  r.^ 
Bameean.  This  valley  is  situated  in  Afghanistan,  to  'iht 
north-west  of  the  town  of  Cabul,  at  a  distance  of  about  %n 
or  40  miles.  It  extends,  in  general,  ^east  and  vest,  an : 
has  acquire<l  notoriety  on  account  of  the  great  number  of 
excavations  in  the  mountains  which  enclose  the  valley  v,i 
both  sides,  but  the  greater  number  of  the  eaves  occur  oa 
the  northern  face.  The  hill  of  Ghoolghoola,  which  i>  df^ 
tached  and  in  the  middle  of  the  valley,  is  quite  bonet- 
combed  with  excavations,  and  consists  of  a  rontinue«i 
succession  of  caves  in  every  direction.  Not  far  from  it  arr 
two  colossal  statues^  a  male  and  a  female,  cut  out  in  the 
mountain-rock ;  they  are  in  alto-rilievo  on  the  lace  of  the 
hill.  The  male  figure  a  about  120  feet  high,  aiid  the  ie- 
male  about  70  feet.  They  are  without  symmetrv,  n^ir  e 
there  much  elegance  in  their  drapery  (BomeaV  7mW#  tt 
Bokhara.) 

GHUNPORE.    [Hydbrabad.] 

GIANNO'NE.  PIKTRO,  bom  at  Isohitella,  in  the  pro. 
vmeeofCapitanata,  in  1676;  studied  at  Naples,  and  apfOita 


G  I  A 


210 


G  I  A 


u made  of  giants  in  aeireral  places  in  Scriptine;  befon  the 
flood,  in  the  sixth  chapter  of  Genesii,  and  more  plainly  after 
it.  Numb,  xiii.:  but,  as  Dr.  Derham  observes,  the  antienU 
Tanr  as  to  the  signification  of  the  Hebrew  word  nephilim 
in  Genesis.  Some  translate  it  by  a  word  si§pifying '  violent 
men/  and  think  that  instead  of  giants  in  stature,  monstera 
of  rapine  and  wickedness  were  intended  to  be  represented; 
and  br.  Johnson  savs  that  the  idea  of  a  giant  is  always  as- 
sociated with  something  fierce,  brutal,  and  wicked.  With 
regard  to  the  giants  in  Numbers,  who  are  more  particularly 
mentioned,  it  is  probable  that  the  fears  of  the  spies  maffnifled 
their  dimensions.  Races  of  giants  are  also  alluded  to  by  the 
Greek  and  Roman  historians.  The  Germans  are  particu- 
larly noticed  by  Cssar  {Dg  Bel  OalL,  lib.  1),  and  bv  Tacitus 
{De  Morib.  German,,  c.  4)  as  being  of  large  sise.  We  have 
no  data  for  determining  their  exact  stature,  but  there  is  no 
proof  that  it  exceeded  that  of  the  tallest  of  the  present  Ger* 
man  races,  many  of  whom,  as  the  inhabitants  of  Saxony  and 
the  Tyrol,  are  very  large  men.  The  notion  of  the  existence 
of  giants  in  former  times  has,  in  many  instances,  been 
founded  on  the  discovery  of  the  bones  of  diflferent  large 
animals  belonging  to  extinct  species,  which  have  been  as- 
cribed to  human  subjects  of  immoderate  stature.  (See  the 
story  in  Heiodotus»  i.  68.)  The  bones  of  an  elephant  have 
even  been  figured  and  described  by  Buffon  as  remains  of 
human  giants,  in  the  supplement  to  his  classical  work 
(tom.  v.).  TThe  extravagance  of  such  suppositions  has  been 
completely  exposed  by  the  accuracy  of  modem  investigation. 

Descending  to  more  modem  times,  the  people  who  have 
excited  the  most  curiosity  and  given  rise  to  tne  most  con- 
flicting statements  are  the  Patagonians.  The  first  naviga- 
tors by  whom  they  were  observed  represented  them  as  be- 
ing «f  colossal  stature,  but  though  more  recent  and  accu- 
rate accounts  describe  them  as  being  a  very  tall  race  of 
men,  yet  the  highest  does  not  much  exceed  seven  foot.  Cap- 
tain Wallis  measured  several  of  them  carefully,  and  found 
that  the  stature  of  the  greater  part  was  from  5  feet  10  inches 
to  6  foot  The  height  of  the  l4ttagonians  was  also  measured 
with  great  accuracy  by  the  Spanish  officers  in  1 785  and 
1 786 ;  they  found  the  common  height  to  be  from  6}  to  7 
feet,  and  the  highest  was  7  feet  If  inch. 

It  was  once  supposed  that  a  nation  of  white  dwarfii  existed 
in  the  interior  of  Madagascar  called  Quimos  or  Kimos,  with 
very  long  arms,  but  the  report  is  now  believed  to  be  per- 
foctly  ikbolous,  and  the  only  foot  adduced  in  support  of  it 
was  that  the  Count  de  Modave,  the  governor  of  the  French 
settlement  at  Fort  Dauphin,  purchased  a  female  slave  of 
light  colour  about  three  feet  and  a  half  high,  with  long  arms 
reaching  to  her  knees.  Blumenbach  thinks  that  this  was 
merely  a  malformed  individual.  From  these  and  similar 
observations  we  may  conclude  that  there  is  no  truth  in  the 
existence  of  giants  or  dwarlW,  except  in  peculiar  individual 
instances ;  at  any  rate,  as  Dr.  Pritchard  observes  {History 
qf  Mankind),  *  every  variety  of  stature  which  has  been  found 
to  occur,  as  the  eeneral  character  of  a  whole  race,  is  fre- 
quently surpassed  by  individual  examples  among  the  inha- 
bitants of  the  same  country. 

There  is  no  fixed  law  bv  which  the  human  stature  can 
invariably  be  determined^  though  there  is  an  average 
standard  f^om  which  the  deviations  either  way  are  not  very 
eonsiderable.  The  human  race  varies  mostly  in  height  from 
four  feet  and  a  half  to  a  little  more  than  six  feet,  though 
men  are  oocasionally  met  with  of  a  much  greater  stature. 
Taking  awav  the  disposition  to  deal  in  the  marvellous,  we 
nay  probably  assert  that  no  man  ever  existed  of  the  height 
of  more  than  eight  or  nine  feet  This  may  be  supposed 
from  what  we  see  at  present,  and  from  the  deviations  which 
eecur  in  the  ordinary  course  of  nature  in  animals.  A  ske- 
lelou  was  dug  up  some  years  ago  on  the  site  of  a  Roman 
camp  near  St  Albans  beside  an  urn  inscribed  Marcus  An- 
toninus. Mr.  Cheselden,  who  has  described  it  in  the  PhiL 
IVam^  No.  333,  judged  that  it  was  8  feet  in  height  Goliah, 
Qg  king  of  Basan,  Maximinus  the  emperor,  and  others 
mentioned  in  sacred  and  profane  history,  were  also  proba- 
bly very  tall  men,  whose  height  has  been  magnified,  but 
who  were  no  bigger  thaiv  some  now  occasionally  met  with. 
There  are  many  authentic  instances  of  men  who  havi^much 
exceeded  the  ordinary  height,  which  have  occurredin  our 
own  times :  one  of  the  king  of  Prussia's  gigantic  guards,  a 
Swede,  measured  8^  feet ;  and  a  yeoman  of  the  Duke  John 
Frederic,  at  Brunswick- Hanover,  was  of  the  same  height 
(Haller,  Element.  Phy„  lib.  xxx.,  sec.  1.)  Severallrishmen, 
measuring  from  7  to  8  feet  and  upwards,  have  been  exhibited 


in  this  country ;  the  most  celebrated,  when  tkekton  is  in  tl>e 
museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons  in  London,  was  CbarU*. 
Bjnme,  who  went  by  the  name  of  O'Brien  :  he  died  at  t  ht 
age  of  22,  in  1783,  and  measured  8  feet  4  tnehes.  1  trt 
skeleton  is  8  feet  in  height  Many  examples  of  dwAvs 
might  also  be  mentioned.  Buffon  says  that  Bebe,  the  d«  ui.' 
of  Stanislaus,  king  of  Poland,  was  23  inches  (French)  hu*h 
and  Well  proportioned;  he  died  at  23.  But  of  nuiner«>i  • 
other  instances  on  record  most  seem  to  have  been  racket t 
and  disessed  individuals.  Thus  in  the  skeleton,  in  the  m  .• 
seum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons,  of  Madlle.  Crachamu  tht 
Sicilian  dwarf,  who  died  at  the  age  of  10  years,  and  •  ht^'h 
is  only  20  inches  in  height,  the  bones  appear  to  h%Te  t  u 
dergone  hardly  any  change  after  birth.  There  seeroa  : 
have  been  a  complete  arrest  of  development,  the  epipb\  m:« 
of  the  bones  remaining  unossified. 

We  may  remark  that  the  ordinary  site  of  man  is  pariYri:. 
larly  well  adapted  to  his  wants  and  uses,  and  we  g»nem'<  . 
observe  that  those  individuals  who  deviate  greatly  flrum  >i.» 
common  standaid,  either  one  vayor  the  other,  are  nei  t  h  ■: 
well  proportioned  nor  healthy.  The  head  in  giants  is  «-r.in 
monly  too  small  for  the  rest  of  the  body,  and  in  dwarf  %  ten 
hree. 

Both  giants  and  dwarfe  baTa  frequently  oibpfinf  of  stmilir 
stature  to  their  own,  so  that  a  race  of  men  might  pot-^ihW 
arise  of  extraordinary  smallness  or  gigantic  site.    Of  tii'* 
nropagation  of  giants  we  have  an  experimental  proof  m  a 
met  related  by  Dr.  J.  R.  Forster  <  ObiervaOom  on  a  ^  V  v.  s- 
Rimnd  the  World),    It  is  well  known  that  the  king  p- 
Prussia  had  a  corps  of  gigantic  guards,  eonststini^  of  th< 
tallest  men  who  could  be  drawn  together  fnm  all  quaritf*r« 
A  regiment  of  these  huge  men  was  stationed  during  tx\  > 
years  at  Potsdam.    '  A  great  number  of  t  be  present  in b a \k\ 
ante  of  that  place,*  savs  Forster,  '  are  of  veiy^  high  statur 
which  is  jxixae  especially  striking  in  the  numerous  f;ig-.tnt> 
figures  of  women.  This  certainly  is  owing  to  the  oonnex.  *  > 
and  intermarriages  of  those  tall  men  with  the  feroaltr*    * 
that  town.'    Dr.  Pritchard  is  of  opinion  that  peculiar  it. f^ 
of  stature  may  in  some  measure  be  owing  to  peculianiicft  c\ 
climate.    In  his  *  History  of  Mankind'  (vol.  ii.),  he  obscr^*.* 
that  '  there  are  many  nations  of  very  considerable  ^.mui 
in  South  America.    The  Patagonians  are  t lie  most  remark 
able  example,  but  nearly  all  the  nations  of  this  great  cour- 
try,  though  distinct  from  each  other  in  language,  mamirr«. 
and  descent,  are  taller  and  stouter  than  the  average  stnn4 
ard  of  the  human  species.'    *  In  Ireland  men  of  unmtnxn  t> 
stature  are  often  seen,  and  even  a  gigantic  ferm  and  statute 
occur  there  much  more  frequently  than  in  this  inland  :  ;»-: 
all  the  British  isles  derived  their  stock  of  inhabitants  fror^ 
the  same  sources.     We  can  hardly  avoid  the  conclu^i'Ti 
that  there  must  be  some  peculiarity  in  Ireland  which  ^\^ 
rise  to  these  phenomena.'    Again :  *The  tall,  lank,  gau&t 
and  otherwise  remarkable  figures  of  the  Yirginiana  and 
men  of  Carolina  are  strikingly  diff^erent  from  tnose  of  th« 
short,  plump,  round-faced  fermers  in  England,  who  mrv  c  f 
the  same  race.'    Lawrence  (Lecturet  on  Man)  thinks  that 
the  source  of  the  deviations  from  the  ordinary  statorv  m 
man  is  entirely  in  the  breed,  and  that  they  are  quite  inde- 
pendent of  external  influences.    In  endeavouring  to  ao 
count  fer  the  diversities  of  stature  which  occur  we   mu»t 
make  an  observation  which  is  equally  applicable  to  differ- 
ences of  colour,  features,  and  other  particulars,  in  wh:rh 
individuals  and  particular  races  differ  from  each  oth^r. 
namely,  that  the  law  of  resemblance  between  parents  a:.  . 
offspring  which  preserves  species,  and  maintaxna  unifurxcit) 
in  the  living  part  of  creation,  suffers  ocmsiona]  and  rarv  «\- 
oeptions ;  but  that  under  certain  dreomstanees  an  offspriT'i: 
is  produced  with  new  properties  different  ihmi  thoae  of  tL« 
proffenitors. 

GIANTS'  CAUSEWAY,  a  remarkable  eolumnw  In 
saltio  formation  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  toiuit^   -' 
Antrim,  in  Ireland,  situated  about  midway  betiums    t»if 
towns  of  Ball^castle  and  Coleraine. 

The  trap  district  with  which  this  formation  ie 
occupies  almost  the  whole  of  the  county  of  / 
considerable  portion  of  the  eastern  part  of 
comprehending  an  area  of  about  Sffff 
both  sides  of  the  valley  of  the  Baiia* 
gradually  from  the  channel  of  tlrin 
considerable  elevation  on  each 
in  precipitous  escatpments, 
tive  district  of  Londonderry 
the  ooast  on  the  east  ana 


O  1  b 


Zii 


a  k  h 


but  his  instrumental  music  is  now  forgotten,  and  the  pro- 
bfikbility  is  that,  being  deficient  in  depth  and  vigour,  it  will 
never  be  revived. 

GIBBON.  (Zoology.)    [Hylobatis.] 

GIBBON,  EDWARD,  was  bom  at  Putney,  in  the 
county  of  Surrey,  on  the  27  th  of  April,  1737.  He  has 
given  us  in  his  *  Autobiography/  which  was  published  after 
his  death  by  Lord  Sheffield,  copious  particulars  concerning 
his  life  and  writings.  From  his  own  account  we  learn  that 
in  childhood  his  health  was  very  delicate,  and  that  his  early 
education  was  principally  conducted  by  his  aunt,  Mrs. 
Porten.  At  the  age  of  nine  he  was  sent  to  a  boarding- 
school  at  Kingston-upon-Thames,  where  he  remained  for 
two  years,  but  made  little  progress,  in  consequence  of  the 
frequent  interruptions  of  his  studies  by  illness.  The  same 
cause  prevented  his  attention  to  study  at  Westminster 
school,  whither  he  was  sent  in  1 749,  and  '  his  riper  age 
was  left  to  acquire  the  beauties  of  the  Latin  and  the  rudi- 
ments of  the  Greek  tongue.'  After  residing  for  a  short 
time  witli  the  Rev.  Philip  Francis,  the  translator  of  Horace, 
he  was  removed  in  1752  to  Oxford,  where  he  was  matricu- 
lated as  a  gentleman  commoner  of  Magdalen  College  in  his 
fifteenth  year.  Though  his  frequent  absence  from  school 
had  prevented  him  from  obtaining  much  knowledge  of 
Latin  and  Greek,  his  love  of  reading  had  led  him  to  peruse 
many  historical  and  geographical  works ;  and  he  arrived  at 
Oxford,  according  to  his  own  account,  'with  a  stock  of  eru- 
dition that  might  have  puzzled  a  doctor,  and  a  degree  of 
ignorance  of  which  a  school-boy  would  have  been  ashamed.' 
His  imperfect  education  was  not  improved  during  his  resi- 
dence at  Oxford ;  his  tutors  he  describes  as  easy  men,  who 
preferred  receiving  the  fees  to  attending  to  the  instruction 
of  their  pupils;  and  after  leading  a  somewhat  dissipated 
life  for  fourteen  months,  he  was  compelled  to  leave  Oxford 
in  consequence  of  having  embraced  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith.  His  conversion  was  effected  by  the  perusal  of  Dr. 
Middle  ton's  *  Free  Inquiry  into  the  miraculous  Powers  pos- 
sessed by  the  Church  in  the  early  Ages,'  in  which  he  at- 
tempts to  show  that  all  the  leading  doctrines  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  are  supported  by  the  miracles  of  the  early 
fathers,  and  that  therefore  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  of 
Rome  must  be  true,  or  the  miracles  false.  Gibbon's  early 
education  bad  taught  him  tc  revere  the  authority  of  these 
fathers ;  he  was  induced  to  read  some  works  in  favour  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  faith;  and  in  1753,  he  '  solemnly,  though 
privately,  abjured  the  errors  of  heresy.'  With  the  object  of 
reclaiming  him  to  Protestantism,  his  father  sent  him  to  Lau- 
Fanne  in  Switzerland,  to  reside  with  M.  Pavillard,  a  Cal- 
viuist  minister.  The  arguments  of  Pavillard  and  his 
own  studies  had  theeffect  which  his  father  desired :  in  the 
following  year  he  professed  his  belief  in  the  doctrines  of  the 
Protestant  church,  and,  according  to  his  own  statement, 
'  suspended  his  religious  inquiries,  accjuiescing  with  implicit 
belief  in  the  tenets  and  mysteries  which  are  adopted  by  the 
general  consent  of  Catholics  and  Protestants.'  He  remained 
in  Switzerland  for  five  years,  during  which  time  he  paid 
great  attention  to  study,  and  assiduously  endeavoured  to 
remedy  the  defects  of  his  early  education. 

During  his  residence  at  Lausanne,  he  had  become  per- 
fectly acquainted  with  the  French  language,  in  which  he 
cumposea  his  first  work,  entitled  '  Essai  sur  I'Etude  de  la 
Littcrature,'  which  was  published  in  1 761.  '  It  was  received 
with  more  favour  on  the  Continent  than  in  England,  where 
it  was  little  read  and  speedily  forgotten.'  His  studies  after 
his  return  to  England  were  much  interrupted  by  attention 
to  his  duties  in  the  Hampshire  militia,  in  which  he  was  ap- 
pointed captain;  and  tne  knowledge  of  military  tactics, 
A\bich  he  acquired  in  this  service,  was  not,  to  use  his  own 
words,  '  useless  to  the  historian  of  the  Roman  Empire.' 
During  his  visit  to  Rome  in  1 764, '  as  he  sat  musing  amidst 
the  ruins  of  the  Capitol,  while  the  bare>footed  friars  were 
singing  vespers  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  the  idea  of  writing 
the  decline  and  fall  of  the  city  first  started  to  his  mind.' 
Many  years  however  elapsed  before  he  began  the  composi- 
tion of  the  '  DecUne  and  Fall.'  On  his  return  to  England, 
he  commenced  a  work  on  the  Revolutions  of  Florence  and 
SiAitzerland ;  and  in  conjunction  with  a  Swiss  friend  of  the 
name  of  Deyverdun,  published  in  1767  and  1768  two  vo- 
lumes of  a  work  entitled  'M6moires  litt^raires  de  la  Grande 
Bretagnc.'  His  next  v/ork,  which  appeared  in  1770,  was  a 
•  Reply  to  Bishop  Warburton's  Interpretation  of  the  Sixth 
Book  of  the  ifineid.'  In  1774  he  was  returned  to  parlia- 
ment by  the  interest  of  Lord  Eliot  for  the  borough  of  Lis- 


keard;  and  for  eight  seuiont  ke  steadily  supported  l»y  kia 
vote,  thoueh  he  never  spoke,  the  ministry  of  Lord  North, 
for  which  ne  was  rewarded  by  being  made  one  of  the  oon- 
mtBsioners  of  trade  and  plantations,  with  a  salary  of  BOO Z. 
a  year.     In  the  next  parliament  he  sat  for  the  borough 
of  Lymington,  but  resigned,  his  seat  on  the  dissolution  oC 
Lord  Norto's  ministry,  when^he  lost '  his  convenient  selary. 
after  having  enjoyed  it  about  three  years.'  During  the  lisuc 
in  which  be  was  a  member  of  parliament,  he  published. 
in  the  French  language,  at  the  request  of  the  mtnMU7. 
a  pamphlet  entitled  'M^moire  Justificatif^'  in  reply  to  the 
French  manifesto  and  in  vindication  of  the  justice  of  iiju 
British  arms.    In  1776  the  first  volume  of  the  '  DecUne  ani 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire*  appeared  in  4ta«  and  was  rrcei\  d 
by  the  public  in  the  most  favourable  manner:  *  the  first  mi 
pression  was  exhausted  in  a  few  days ;  a  second  aiid  thi '  ! 
edition  were  scarcely  adequate  to  the  demand.*  The  secuo'i 
and  third  volumes,  which  terminated  the  history  of  the  f&II 
of  the  Western  Empire,  were  published  in  1781. 

In  1783  he  left  England,  and  retired  to  Lausanne,  to 
reside  permanently  with  his  friend  M.  Deyverdun.  Fn^m 
this  time  to  1 787  he  was  engaged  in  the  composition  of  tb« 
last  three  volumes  of  his  great  work,  which  appeared  m 
1788.  He  spent  some  time  that  year  in  Englanci  to  super- 
intend the  publication,  and  again  returned  to  Lausanne, 
where  he  remained  till  1793,  when  the  death  of  Lady  Shef- 
field recalled  him  to  his  native  country  to  console  his  frieud. 
He  died  in  London,  on  the  16th  of  January,  1794. 

The  '  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire'  comprises 
the  history  of  the  world  for  nearly  thirteen  centuries,  from 
the  reign  of  the  Antonines  to  the  taking  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Turks ;  for  the  author  does  not  confine  himself  lo 
the  history  of  the  princes  that  reigned  at  Rome  and  C«>d- 
stantiuople,  but  gives  an  account  of  all  the  various  nation* 
of  the  west  and  east  which  at  any  period  influenced  iii« 
destinies  of  the  Roman  empire.  In  tiie  prosecution  of  thi^ 
design  it  was  impossible  for  the  historian  to  neglect  the 
history  of  the  Christian  church,  which  he  properly  con- 
sidered  as '  a  very  essential  part  of  the  history  of  the  Komao 
empire.'  Gibbon  accordingly,  in  the  course  of  his  work, 
entered  fully  into  the  history  of  the  church,  and  in  the  fii >t 
volume  devoted  two  chapters  to  an  account  of  the  early  pr<y- 
gress  and  extension  of  Christianity.  In  relating  the  cauwi 
that  occasioned  the  spread  of  Christianity,  he  was  supposed 
to  have  sought  to  undermine  the  divine  authoritj  of  the 
system ;  and  numerous  works  were  published  in  oppositwo 
to  his  opinions,  to  none  of  which  did  he  make  any  repl* 
Mill  Mr.  Davis  presumed  to  attack  not  the  faith,  but  the 
fidelity  of  the  historian;'  when  he  published  his  'Vindica- 
tion of  the  Fifteenth  and  Sixteenth  Chapters  of  his  Histon  * 
Gibbon's  Sketch  of  Ecclesiastical  History  is  perhaps  ilic 
best  wqrk  on  the  subject  in  onr  language ;  but  it  muhX  aI 
the  same  time  be  allowed  that  he  writes  rather  as  an  ad^O' 
cate  than  as  an  historian,  and  though  he  seldom  if  e%tT 
wilfully  perverts  facts,  yet  he  seises  every  opportunity  of 
casting  ridicule  upon  the  faith  which  he  disbelieved. 

The  principal  fiiult  of  Gibbon's  history  is  owing  to  the 
extent  and  variety  of  the  subject-matter.    He  included  in 
his  plan  the  history  of  so  many  nations  that  no  siriglc 
individual    could   do  justice   to  every  particular.      Ine 
reading  of  Gibbon  was  very  extensive,  but  yet  not  suffi- 
ciently extensive  to  give  an  accurate  history  of  the  wurM 
for  thirteen  centuries.    His  knowledge  of  Oriental  history 
is  often  vague  and  unsatisfactory,  and  his  acquaintance  tk  ith 
the  Byzantine  historians  is  said  by  those  who  have  stud.v^ 
the  subject  to  be  superficial      But,  with  all  iU  dcfi-cK 
the  '  Decline  and  Fall '  was  a  great  accession  to  literal  uri  : 
it  connects  antient  and  modern  history,  and  contains  in- 
formation on  manjr  subjects  which   historians  geiicral!\ 
neglect  and  sometimes  unsuccessfully  attempt    Thuj^,  lu 
the  44th  chapter,  he  gives  an  historical  account  nf  ilc 
Roman  law,  which  is  perhaps  one  of  the  best  introdurtu  lu 
to  its  study  that  we  possess,  and  was  considered  by  a  cc\c- 
brated  foreign  lawyer,  Professor  Hugo,  to  be  worthy  of  a 
translation.     Hugo  published  it  at  Gottingen,  in   \7y: 
under  the  title  of  •  Gibbon  s  Historische  Ucbcrsicht  do 
Romischen  Rechts.'     The  'Decline  and  Fall'  has  b^n 
translated  into  almost  all  the  European  languages.    Tbe 
last  edition  of  the  French  translation  contains  notes  on  \\te 
history  of  Christianity,  by  M.  Guiiot;  and  in  a  biograpbv 
of  Gibbon,  by  the  same  writer,  in  the  *  Biograpfaie  Umv*/- 
selle,'  he  has  expressed  his  opinion  of  the  chief  ment5  <iiid 
defects  of  the  *  Decline  and  Fall.' 


O  I  B 


214 


G  I  B 


within  tb»  por^oo,  tliey  and  th«  doort  (whkh  tre  siiiuUrly 
patched  over  with  unmeaning  rustic  hlocks)  quite  dispel  the 
charm  that  would  he  produced  by  the  columns  alone.  The 
interior  is  not  at  all  better :  there  we  heboid  columns  cut 
by  deep  salleries  which  have  no  apparent  support,  and 
whose  capitals  are  surmounted  by  blocks  representing  so 
many  broken  bits  of  entablature,  from  which  spring  the 
arches  of  the  ceiling ;  and  this  latter  is  ornamented  more 
profusely  than  elegantly,  or  than  is  in  keeping  with  the  rest, 
r  or  this  church  Gibbs  submitted  two  other  designs,  which  he 
himself,  he  tells  us,  considered  preferable  to  the  one  exe- 
cuted. They  are  both  given  in  the  folio  volume  of  designs 
which  be  published  in  1728,  and  by  which  he  ui  said  to  have 
made  nearly  2,000/^  no  inconsiderable  sum  at  thai  time, 
especially  for  a  work  of  such  a  nature.  Much  as  those  dif- 
fer from  the  present  building,  the  body  of  the  church  in 
both  of  them  being  circular  in  its  plan  (about  95  feet  in 
diameter),  so  far  uom  displaying  invention,  they  show, 
even  in  the  way  of  alteration,  very  little  more  than  was  ab- 
solutely called  for  by  such  change  of  the  general  form.  The 
taste  manifested  in  them  partakes  far  more  of  Holland,  the 
country  where  Gibbs  made  his  first  sojourn  abroad,  than 
of  classical  Rome. 

The  same  remark  will  apply  to  his  next  work,  the  church 
of  St.  Mary  in  the  Strand,  an  exceedingly  heterogeneous 
composition,  with  nothing  in  its  ensemble  to  reconcile  ns 
to  its  individual  solecisms ;  and  yet,  though  this  building  is 
abandoned  to  censure  even  by  the  architect's  professed  ad- 
mirers, it  may  be  questioned  whether  upon  the  whole  it  be 
not  less  offensive  to  sound  taste  than  St  Martin*s ;  for  it  is 
at  least  more  consistent  in  its  whims,  and  is  not,  hke  that, 
an  uglv  appendage  to  what  would  else  be  a  noble  portico. 

In  the  church  of  All  Saints  at  Derby,  where  he  added  a 
new  body  to  the  old  Gothic  tower,  he  did  little  more  than 
repeat  with  some  slight  variation  what  ho  had  done  at  St. 
Martin's.  He  also  built  Marylebone  chapel,  the  upper  part 
of  the  steeple  of  St.  Clement's  Danes,  and  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Hospital.  His  best  work  is  the  Radcliffe  library  at 
Oxford,  a  rotunda  about  140  feet  in  diameter  externally, 
covered  by  a  dome  10&  in  diameter;  for,  notwithstanding 
that  the  niches  and  some  other  parts  are  the  reverse  of  ele- 
gant, there  ia  some  approach  to  simplicity  in  the  general 
mass  and  its  contours,  and  something  of  grandeur  in  the 
interior.  To  this  library,  which  was  begun  in  1737  and 
completed  in  about  ten  years,  and  the  designs  for  which  be 
published  in  a  separate  volume,  containing  83  plates,  Gibbs 
made  a  valuable  bequest  of  books.  He  died  Auguff  5lh, 
1764,  and  having  never  been  married,  left  his  property, 
amounting  to  about  15,000/.,  to  different  individuals  and 
public  charities,  not  forgetting  the  son  of  his  first  patron, 
the  earl  of  Mar,  to  whom  he  bequeathed  a  legacy  ot  1000/., 
besides  an  estate  worth  about  280/.  a  year. 

Neither  Walpole  nor  Dallaway  speaks  at  all  favourably 
of  Gibbs's  talents  as  an  architect ;  the  former  even  scorn- 
fully, yet  not  otherwise  unjustly  than  because  he  expresses 
his  opinion  too  summarily,  without  adducing  any  proofs  in 
support  of  it.  His  works  certainly  do  not  display  either 
grucr  ur  happiness  of  invention.  They  have  for  the  most 
part  all  the  heaviness  of  Vanbrugh's  designs,  without 
their  other  redeeming  qualities.  They  discover  neither  an 
innate  nor  acquired  perception  of  beauty  in  forms  and  of 
harmony  in  their  combination.  Nevertheless,  in  respect  of 
what  he  almost  accidentally  borrowed  on  one  occasion,  he 
is  generally  spoken  of,  not  as  a  judicious  copier,  but  as  an 
artist  of  original  mind  and  unouestionable  genius. 

GIBBSITE,  a  mineral  whion  occurs  massive,  in  irregular 
Malactitical  and  tuberculated  masses.  Its  structure  is 
fibrous,  radiating.  Its  colour  it  white,  with  a  slight  shade 
of  green  or  grey ;  streak  white :  it  is  slightly  translucent, 
lustre  feeble.  Its  specific  gravity  is  2-09  to  2*4.  Rathnr 
harder  than  calcareous  spar ;  easily  reduced  to  powder. 

Before  the  blow-pipe  it  whitens,  but  is  infusible;  does 
not  efftsrvesce  with  acids,  but  loses  water  by  heat 

It  is  found  at  Richmond,  in  Maasaohusetta,  in  a  n^leeted 
iron-mine. 

It  consists  of 


Alumina 
Water  . 


64-8 
36*7 

101-5 


Dr. 

Alumma       •  54*91 

Water     •       •  33*60 

Silica      .       .  8*73 

Peroxide  (^  iron  3 '  93 


lOVir 


GIBRALTAR,  a  town  and  fbitifled  loek  aAalali 
the  most  southern  piovinee  of  Spain.    Hie  rook,  which  ta 
connected  with  the  eontinent  by  an  isthmns  of  low  sartd, 
and  almost  wholly  sumHinded  by  the  wat«ra  of  the  l&edi* 
terranean,  forms  a  promontory  tliree  milee  in  length  from 
north  to  south.    The  width  is  irregular,  but  the  entire  cir- 
cumference is  about  seven  miles.    Towards  the  south  it 
terminates  in  a  point  called  Europa  Point,  which  is  ui 
36*  2'  30"  N.lat.,  and  5'  15' 1«"  W.lonff.    Thia  n^ck. 
under  the  name  of  Calpe,  and  Mount  Abyia  (now  called 
Ceuta),  opposite  to  it  on  the  African  coast,  were  called   by 
the  antients  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  and  in  very  early  ai^e^ 
were  regarded  by  the  people  dwelling  to  the  east  of  tbein 
as  the  western  boundary  of  the  world.    (As  to  Calpe,  m^ 
Strabo,  Caaaub.^  pp.  139, 166,  &c.)  In  the  early  part  of  tl»o 
eighth  century  an  army  of  Saracens  under  the  eomoaand  of 
Tarif,  or  Tarek,  from  the  coast  of  Africa,  landed  near  ta 
Gibraltar  with  the  intention  of  dethroning  Roderic,  kin^  of 
Spain.    The  Saracens  erected  a  castle  on  the  shoulder  ol 
the  rock,  and  called  the  rock  itself  Gibel*Tarif  (the  moun- 
tain of  Tarif),  whence  its  present  name  of  Gibraltar  i»  aup- 
posed  to  be  derived.    The  ruins  of  this  eastle  may  still  be 
seen.  The  African  Moors  continued  in  possession  of  Oibralur 
tUl  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  when  it  wms 
recovered  from  them  by  Ferdinand  IV.,  king  of  Castile  Aiid 
Leon.    It  subseouently  foil  into  the  hands  of  the  Iud|^  of 
Granada,  from  wnom  it  was  taken  in  1462  by  the  Chris- 
tians under  Henry  IV.  king  of  Castile,  who  gave  it  the 
arms  it  still  bears,  viz.  a  castle  with  a  key  hanging  to  the 
gate,  alluding  to  its  being  the  key  to  the  Mediterraoean. 
From  this  time  to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  Gi- 
braltar remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards,  Inr  wbom 
the  fortifications  were  so  far  increased  and  modernised 
that  the  place  was  looked  upon  as  impresnable  until  taken 
by  an  English  and  Dutch  fleet  under  Sir  Gecvge  Rooke 
and  the  prince  of  Hesse  Darmstadt,   on  the    24th   of 
July,  1704.    During  the  nine  following  years  several  un- 
successful attempts  were  made  to  recover  the  Intreaa  bv 
force  or  stratagem,  in  which  the  loss  of  the  assailenta  Ha* 
very  creat    In  1713  the  posaeision  of  Gibraltar  was  con- 
firmed  to  the  English  by  the  peace  of  UtreehU  In  1727  it  wse 
again  atUcked  by  the  Spaniards  with  an  army  of  20,00a 
men.    The  siege  continued  for  several  months,  ead  was 
terminated  by  the  general  peace  on  the  12th  of  May.    The 
last  and  most  memorable  of  all  the  sieves  of  Gibraltar  was 
commenced  in  1779,  and  did  not  temunate  till  the  2iid  ef 
February,  1783.    For  a  detailed  aooount  of  thia  siege  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  interesting  work  of  CMlain  John 
Drinkwater  and  M.  Bourgoing,  and  also  to  toe '  Lifo  of 
General  Greorge  Augustus  Elliot  (afterwards  lord  Heath- 
field),  the  governor  and  brave  defender  of  Gibraltar,  whoae 
conduct  throughout  forms  one  great  azample  of  moral 
virtue  and  military  talent    The  mnd  attack  took  place  on 
the  13th  of  September,  1782.    On  the  land  side,  btaides 
stupendous  batteries  mounting  200  pieces  of  heavy  ordnance, 
there  was  an  army  of  40,000  men,  commanded  by  a  tk- 
torious  general,  the  Duo  de  Crillon,  and  animated  by  the 
immediate  presence  of  two  princes  of  the  crown  of  France 
In  the  bay  lay  the  combined  fleets  of  France  and  Spain, 
consisting  of  47  sail  of  the  Une,  numerous  frigates  and 
smaller  armed  vessels,  besides  ten  battering  diipa,  which 
alone  had  cost  upwards  of  600,000/.    Four  bundled  piem 
of  the  heaviest  artillery  (reckoning  both  sides)  were  pia)iiic 
at  once.    The  battering  ships  were  found  to  be  of  ao  formi- 
dable a  conafruction  that  the  heaviest  shelb  rebounded 
from  them.     Eventually  however  two  of  them  were  de- 
stroyed by  the  incessant  discharge  of  red-hot  shot  fium  the 
garrison,  and  the  remaining  eight  were  burnt  by  the  enemy 
to  prevent  them  from  falling  into  the  handa  of  the  W- 
sieged.    The  remainder  of  the  enemy's  squadron  also  suf- 
fered considerably ;  but  notwithstanding  their  foiluie  the 
assailants  kept  up  a  less  vivid  fire  for  more  than  tev 
months,  and  the  siege  did  not  finally  terminate  till  the  ind 
of  February,  1783,  when  it  was  announced  that  the  pr^ 
minaries  of  a  general  peace  had  been  signed.    The  expen- 
diture of  the  garrison  exceeded  8300  loundaCnoie  uun 
half  of  which  were  hot  ballsX  and  716  barreb  of  powder. 
That  of  the  enemy  oould  not  be  asoertained,  but  their  b<«, 
including  prisoners,  was  estimated  at  2000,  while  that  <d 
the  garrison  only  amounted  to  !•  killed  and  68  wounded. 
While  the  floating  batteries  were  on  fire  a  detachment  U 
Bhtiah  OMiinea  under  Brigadier  Cuxtii^  waa  humensly  sod 
MMMMfiiUy  fnplQftd  iB^nieiiiBi  iwnabaw  uC  lb» 


G  I  E 


216 


G  I  P 


nlile  indexes  and  other  assistances  in  the  use  of  that  valuable 
histui-ical  remain.  The  work  was  printed  at  Oxford  in 
leU'i.  in  a  4to.  volume.  This  *  Chronicle.*  wliich  is  highly 
esteemed  by  historians,  is  the  work  of  different  hands,  and 
contains  an  account  of  English  affairs  to  the  year  1151,  in 
which  are  seyeral  things  not  found  in  the  corresponding 
chronicles  written  in  the  Latin  language.  At  that  early 
period  of  his  life  he  projected  and  accomplished  an  enlarged 
edition  of  the  English  translation  of  Camden*s  '  Britannia/ 
and  he  had  already  acquired  fume  and  interest  sufficient  to 
engage  in  his  assistance  many  antiquaries  in  different  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  by  whose  contributions  the  work  was  en- 
riched, and  came  forth  from  the  hands  of  Dr.  Gibson  a 
ereat  improvement  on  the  old  English  edition  of  Philemon 
Holland.  This  work  appeared  in  2  vols,  fol.,  in  1695.  It 
appeared  a^ain  in  an  enlarged  form  in  1722,  and  again  in 
1772.  Richard  Gough,  an  eminent  to|K>graphical  scholar, 
enlarged  it  still  more,  and  it  appeared  in  3  vols,  fol.,  in 
1789.  It  was  still  further  enlarged  to  4  vols.  fol.  in 
18U6.  But  though  works  of  this  kind  have  their  use, 
it  is  to  be  regretted  that  Bishop  Gibson  should  have  pre- 
ferred making  additions  to  a  former  work  instead  of  un- 
dertaking a  description  of  the  British  Islands  on  a  plan 
of  his  own,  embracing  many  particular  heads  of  infor- 
mation which  were  excluded  from  the  plan  which  Camden 
himself  adopted.  This  would  have  been  an  achievement 
more  worthy  of  himself,  and  more  just  to  the  memory  of 
his  illustrious  predecessor,  whose  singularly  beautiful  and 
learned  work  is  absolutely  lost  in  the  mass  of  matter 
which  has  been  heaped  upon  it.  [Camdkn.]  Another 
early  production  of  Dr.  Gibson  was  an  edition  of  some  his- 
torical remains  of  an  eminent  antiquary  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  Sir  Henry  Spelman,  which  was  published  at  Ox- 
ford in  1698,  under  the  title '  Reliquin  Spelmanianro.*  Tliese 
works  show  the  original  predisposition  of  bishop  Gibson's 
mind:  but  he  did  not  at  that  period  of  his  life  confine  him- 
self to  historical  literature,  for  in  1693  he  produced  an 
eilition  of '  Quintilian,*  which  is  highly  esteemed. 

The  proof  of  industry  and  learning  which  these  works 
affordea  introduced  him  to  the  notice  and  favour  of  Tenison, 
who,  in  1694,  succeeded  Tillot.*>on  as  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury. He  was  made  domestic  chaplain  to  the  archbishop, 
and  rector  of  the  pauish  of  Lambeth.  He  was  also  maae 
archdeacon  of  Surn^y. 

In  the  reigns  of  king  William  and  queen  Anne  there  was 
a  warm  controversy  concerning  the  nature  and  authority  of 
the  convocation  of  the  clergy.  In  this  controversy  Dr. 
Gibson  took  a  vory  active  part,  defending  the  power  of  that 
assembly,  in  which  his  historical  knowledge  was  made  to 
bear  powerfully  on  the  question.  This  led  to  the  publica- 
tion which  is  regarded  as  his  great  work,  the  '  Codex  Juris 
Ecclesiastici  Anglicani,*  2  vols,  fol,  1 713,  in  which  he  has  col- 
lected the  statutes,  constitutions,  canons,  rubrics,  and  articles 
of  the  Church  of  England,  and  digested  them  methodically 
under  proper  heads,  with  suitable  cx)mmentarie8,  prefaces, 
and  appendices,  forming  together  a  work  which  is  indispen- 
sable to  the  studies  of  those  who  desire  to  understand 
thoroughly  the  history  of  the  EngUsh  church.  It  was  re- 
printed at  0.\ford  in  1761. 

Jn  1715  be  was  promoted  to  the  bishopric  of  Lincoln; 
and  in  1 723  translated  to  London.  Wake,  the  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  was  at  that  time  in  an  infirm  state  of  health, 
and  so  continued  for  some  years,  during  which  period  the 
bishop  of  London  was  the  person  chiefly  consulted  by  the 
court  in  affairs  belonging  to  the  church. 

Bishop  Gibson  was  ever  a  strenuous  defender  of  the 
lightsof  the  church,  considered  as  a  political  community; 
but  he  was  of  what  is  called  the  liberal  school  in  respect  of 
doctrines,  and  he  warmly  approved  of  the  liberty  which 
tiie  law  had  granted  in  his  time  to  persons  not  confoi^ning 
to  the  church  to  meet  together  publicly  for  social  worship 
in  whatever  way  and  on  whatever  principles  they  might 
themselves  appro^'e.  He  published  a  largo  collection  of 
treutLscs  which  had  been  written  by  divines'  in  the  English 
church  against  popery,  forming  three  folio  volumes,  printed 
in  1738.  His  '  Pastoral  Letters*  is  the  last  of  his  works 
we  have  occasion  to  mention,  in  which  he  combats  at  once 
unbelief  and  enthusiasm. 

In  his  private  relations  the  bishop  was  greatly  beloved 
and  respected.  He  closed  a  life,  extended  to  his  eightieth 
vear,  almost  unequalled  for  labour  in  the  annals  of  literary 
exertion,  in  1748,  and  was  buried  at  Fulbam,  with  many  of 
kis  DredeccMon 


GIRN.      [I^IRBT.] 

GlESECKITE.  a  mineral  which  occara  in  bfxar-  :  i 
prisms.  Structure  granular,  and  henoe  it  has  be^n  *.;>• 
posed  that  the  Crystals  are  pseudoroorphons ;  fractun*  ur- 
even;  hardness  2*5  to  3 '5;  colour  externally  brown i%K 
and  internally  ^enish;  opaque,  or  feebly  translucent  «: 
the  edges;  specific  gravity  2*832. 

Before  the  blow-pipe  it  is  very  refractory. 

It  was  brought  from  Greenland  by  Sir  C.  Gieaecke. 

Analysis  by  Stromeyer  • — 

Silica  .  •  .  49*24 
Alumina  .  .  .33*82 
Potash    .         •         •  6-20 

Magnesia  .  .  .1*20 
Oxide  of  iron  .  •  3*35 
Oxide  of  manganese  •  1*15 
Water      .         .         .        4*80 

99^76 

GlESSEN,  a  bailiwick  of  the  Grand-duchy  of  HeMe. 

containing  two  towns,  two  market-villages,  thirty-five  ^a- 
lages  and  hamlets.  Giesien,  the  chief  town  of  this  bailt«  kv, 
as  well  as  of  the  province  of  Upper  Hease,  is  built  on  tt#- 
banks  of  the  Lahn  and  Wieseck.  which  form  a  junction  i: 
this  spot  in  the  centre  of  a  beautiful  country.  It  b  alK».*. 
thirty-three  miles  to  the  north  of  Frankfort  on  the  Ma::.. 
and  at  an  elevation  of  about  430  feet  above  the  level  oi  ii 
sea:  in  50°  34'  N.  lat.  and  8"*  40'  E.  long.  The  town  is  lui 
and  ill-built,  with  the  exception  of  three  or  four  broaU  stivt :« 
is  surrounded  by  the  two  rivers  on  all  sides,  and  cent  aim 
about  770  houses  and  7300  inhabitants  l  their  numbers  vc  rr 
4046  in  1806,  and  5500  in  1817.  The  fortifications  bb  . 
been  razed  and  their  site  converted  into  ahrubb^nes  a*-' 
promenades.  It  has  three  squares,  an  old  castle,  an  ar»«*iu. 
three  churches,  university  buildings,  a  hospital,  Uoum'  cf 
correction,  &c.  The  university  of  Giessen,  which  ia  the  oi.ii 
one  in  the  grand  duchy,  was  established  in  the  vear  1 60  7,  a :  o 
is  attended  by  about  400  students.  The  buildings  appro- 
priated to  its  use  are  handsome,  and  contain  lecture* nAi..- 
a  library,  clinical  establishment,  chemical  laboratory,  mu- 
seums of  natural  historv  and  the  arts  and  sciences*  ^-. 
Connected  with  it  are  the  academy  for  forest  oconotnt.  i 
gallery  of  antiques,  an  obstetric  institute  and  school,  o  lt< 
tanic  garden,  an  observatory,  schools  for  educating  teachers 
and  the  Senkenberg  librar}%  which  possesses  several  scur^* 
MSS.  Giessen  is  the  seat  of  government  for  the  pro\  n:  . 
of  Upper  Hesse.  It  is  not  a  place  of  much  commercial  in- 
dustry, and  the  manufactures  are  confined  to  woollen  }jrr 
spinning,  stocking-knitting,  and  cotton-weaving,  on  a  ^a. 
scale 

GIFFORD,  WILLIAM,  a  political  writer  and  critic  ^: 
no  small   influence   in  his  life-time,  was  born   at   A^^ 
burton,  in  Devonshire,  in  April,  1757.    He  was  de»con<'> 
of  a  family  once  of  some  name  in  the  county ;  but  tho  i . 
discretion  of  his  ancestors  gradually  wasted  tlie  pro|H'r!.. 
and  the  early  death  of  both  parents  left  him,  at  the  u«;t.  .  f 
thirteen,  penniless,  homeless,  and   friendless.     His  u- 
father,  on  a  claim  of  debt,  took  possession  of  their  M-a 
effects,  clogged  with  the  charge  of  the  orphan.    From  I. 
Gifford  received  little  kindness.     He  spent  some  time  ^^ 
cabin-boy  on  board  a  little  coasting- resscl :  at  the  a^'i*    . 
fifteen,  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker  at  Ashbun.* 
In  spite  of  a  neglected  education,  his  talents  showed  tbi .. 
selves  in  a  strong  thirst  for  knowledge,    Mathematir^  :t 
first  were  his  favourite  study ;   and  he  relates  that,   in  •  i 
want  of  paper,  he  used  to  hammer  scraps  of  leather  sui«^  •* 
and  work  his  problems  on  them  with  a  blunt  a\iL     II  < 
master,  finding   his  services  worth  nothing,  used    ha:^ . 
means  to  wean  him  from  his  literary  tastes;  and  Giffuo' 
hating  his  business,  sunk  into  a  sort  of  savage  mclam  ^    * 
From  this  state  he  was  withdrawn  by  the  active  kindiK^^  •  * 
Mr.  Cookesley,  a  surgeon  of  Ashburton,  who,  having:  t» 
oome  acquainted  with  his  firet  rude  attempts  at  poetr>.  u    ! 
with  his  sad  story,  conceived  a  strong  regard  for  him.  i'  i 
taxed  his  own  purse  and  interest  so  effectually  as  tu  r*.*  -i 
the  means  of  freeing  him  from  his  indentures,  placing;  i 
at  school,  and  sending  him,  after  two  well-spent  yearv  : 
E.\eter  College,  Oxford.     He  appears  to  have  oommcpci* 
residence  about  the  age  of  twenty-two  or  twenty-tlirec.   N  -: 
long  after  he  sustained  a  moat  severe  affliction  in  the  un 
timely  death  of  Mr.  Cookesley.    But  a  more  eflRcient  a    ' 
equally  sincere  friend  was  soon  raised  up  m  tlie  ncrv^ti  . :' 
Earl  Grosvenor,  who»  in  consequence  of  the  casual  pcr.*..« 


OI  h 


218 


Gl  L 


of  them  'are  fbunded  on  btttork^l  subjects.    The  fluroet, 

eleven  in  number,  are  the  best  part  of  Gil  IHcente's  pro- 
ductions, and  may  be  regarded  as  specimens  of  the  true 
comedy.  They  contain  a  great  deal  of  merriment,  and 
some  well-drawn  charactem,  but  they  are  generally  devoid 
of  plot  It  b  a  remarkable  circumstance  that  the  plot, 
which  is  the  soul  of  Spanish  plays,  is  generally  neglected  in 
the  Portuguese  productions  of  a  similar  kind.  (For  further 
particulars  see  Sismondi's  Histoire  de  la  LUUrature  du 
Midi,  vol.  iv.;  and  Biog.  Univ,) 

GILBERT,  GABRIEL,  lived  in  the  'seventeenth  cen- 
tury, but  the  periods  of  his  birth  and  death  are  alike  un- 
known. His  works  are  chiefly  dramatic,  and  are  sometimes 
referred  to  as  specimens  of  badness  ;  yet  it  is  supposed  that 
Racine  has  occasionally  borrowed  his  thoughts,  and  clothed 
tliem  in  more  ele^nt  language.  The  fact  of  his  having 
produced  a  tragedy  called  *  Rodogune,'  in  the  year  that 
Corneille  brought  out  one  with  Uie  same  title,  and  the 
remarkable  coincidence  that  the  6rst  four  acts  of  both  were 
nearly  alike,  occasioned  a  literary  controversv  as  to  whether 
Gilbert  bad  committed  a  plagiarism  or  not.  Queen  Christina 
of  Sweden  entertained  a  high  opinion  of  Gilbert's  genius, 
and  appointed  him  resident  of  the  court  of  Stockholm  in 
France.  On  her  death  he  fell  into  poverty,  when  M, 
d*Hervart,  a  Msocenas  of  the  time,  received  him  into  his  own 
house,  whei-e  probably  he  died. 

GILBERT,    NICOLAS  JOSEPH  LAURENT,    was 
born  in  1751,  at  Fontcnoi-le-Chuteau  in  Lorraine.    'His 
parents,  who  were  poor,  nearly  exhausted  their  trifling  means 
in  £i;iving  him  an  education.     He  went  to  Paris,  and  endea- 
voured  to  raise   himself  into  notice  by  writing  laudatory 
verses  to  great  persons.    This  expedient  failed,  and  he  be- 
came, in  consequence,  tinged  witn  misanthropy.   He  joined 
the  anti -philosophic  party  of  the  times  and  wrote  against 
the  in (i del  philosophers  a  satire  called  '  Le  Dix-huitidme 
SiScle,*  and  another  styled  '  Mon  Apolo^j^e,'  as  well  as 
several  odes  and  religious  poems.    He  died  at  the  Hotel 
Dicu,  at  the  early  age  of  29,  whither  he  had  been  removed 
on  account  of  insanity,  his  death  beine  occasioned  by  a 
small  key,  which  in  one  of  his  fits  he  swallowed.    His  satires 
are  reckoned  superior  to  bis  odea,  but  both  are  severely 
repreliended  by  La  Harpe  as  well  for  the  thoughts  they  em- 
body as  for  their  grammatical  defects. 
Gl  LD.    [Boroughs  of  England  and  Walvs.] 
GILD.\S  (sumamed  Sapiens,  or  '  the  wise*),  the  most 
antient  British  historian  now  extant,  according  to  Leland, 
was  born  in  Wales,  ad.  61 1 ;  but  according  to  otner  accounts 
in  493.     In  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  he  was  a  monk 
of  Bangor,  and  a  spectator  of  the  miseries  and  ruin  of  his 
countrymen.    His  epistle,  or  treatise, '  De  Calamitate,  Ex- 
cidio,  et  Conquestu  Britannise'  is  all  that  is  printed  of  his 
writing ;  and  is  orobabiy  all  of  his  that  is  extant ;  though  Bale 
and  Pits  make  him  author  of  several  other  books.    It  was 
first  published  and  dedicated  to  Cuthbert  Tonstal,  bishop  of 
London,  by  Polydore  Virgit,  whose  impertbct  and  corrupt 
text  was  reprinted  at  Paris  in  the  *  Bibliotheca  Patrum,'  m 
1610.    The  s*H»nd  edition  of  this  work  was  published  in 
the  *  Opus  Historiarum  nostro  Sieculo  convenient issimum,* 
pp.  484 — 649,  at  Basel,  8vo.,  1641  :  again,  in  a  separate  form, 
i2mo.,  Lond.  1668;   Basel,  in  the  same  year;   and  Par. 
1676:  and  lastly,  from  a  better  manuscript  than  was  used 
in  any  previous  edition,  by  Gale,  in  his  *  Rerum  Anglicarum 
Scriptores  Veteres,'  3  vols.  fol.   1684-7.    There  is  also  an 
Enirltsh  translation,  entitled  *  A  Description  of  the  State 
of  Great  Britain,  written  eleven  hundred  yeares  since,'  12mo., 
\joi\i\.,  1652.     Gildas  died,  accordins  to  Archbishop  Usher 
{ Primftrd.,  p.  477,  from  the  AnnaU  qfUlstdfr)  in  the  year  570. 
There  were  two  other  persons  of  the  name  of  Gildas  in 
the  sixth  century,  one  called  Gildas  Cambrius,  the  other 
Gilda.H  Quartus,  both  of  whom  seem  to  have  been  one  and 
thti  same  with  Gildas  Sapiens. 

(TaiHier,  JiibL  Brii.  HiK  p.  389-^32;  Nicolson*!  i?ii^/. 
Hht.  Lib.,  edit.,  1776,  p.  26.) 

GILDING.  The  process  of  gilding  b  one  of  the  most 
delicate  in  the  manufactures  in  metal,  and  its  success  de- 
peiiiU  on  a  nicety  of  eye,  a  dexterity  of  hand,  and  a  prac- 
tu'ul  (thou'^h  not  necessarily  a  theoretical)  aci^uaintance 
Willi  the  chemical  operations  involved  in  it,  which  cannot 
be  arquiretl  without  several  months'  or  even  years'  expe- 
rience. Me(*hanical  errors  and  difficulties  are  detected  and 
remedied  with  much  greater  fiicility  than  those  which  arise 
in  the  chemical  braoeh  of  maaufacturea.  Tq  these  latter  the 

incMiei  of  gOdins  vnd  colQUDBg  m«  ftrticularij  labj^c^ 


and  more  especially  the  procesi'of  gildinff;  and,  in  the 
homely  phraseology  of  the  workmen  and  tfieir  employ«n, 
the  tenacity  of  the  eril  spirit  to  the  gilding  shop  is  pro- 
verbial, and  his  exorcism  aooordingly  diAeult. 
The  gold  made  use  of  for  the  purpoee  of  gilding  b  celled 


having  been  poured,  or  'shot,'  when  in  a  fl|iid  atnte,  tnt<. 
cold  water.  This  operation  divides  it  into  pieces  of  ii! 
shapes  and  all  sizes,  from  the  smallest  grain,  scarcely  \Kt- 
ceplfble  by  the  naked  eye,  to  the  dimensiona  ef  a  pea  or  s 
nut.  This  form  of  the  metal  is  best  adapted  lor  the  pur* 
pose,  because  it  exposes  the  greatest  possible  qnantitt  of 
sorfhce  to  the  action  of  the  mercury  while  it  is  boiled  m  jf, 
and  is  thns  amalgamated  with  a  leas  waste  of  the  \mxxu 
metal  by  evaporation. 

The  union  of  the  gold  with  the  mercury  ia  eAwled  b? 
bofling  the  former  in  about  five  or  six  tiroes  ita  weiffbt  uf 
the  latter.  These  proportions  are  put  into  an  iron  ladle, 
which  must  have  been  previously  lined  with  a  coatmg  «<f 
whitening  and  water,  and  then  careftilly  and  tboroughi? 
dried.  Should  there  be  any  moisture  left  in  the  lining,  or 
if  any  cracks  should  expose  the  naked  surfeee  of  the  irun, 
the  ebullition  of  the  mercury  is  so  rapid  there,  owing  to  tiie 
more  rapid  conduction  of  the  heat,  that  a  portion  of  t>i# 
amalgam  is  thrown  out  by  the  violence  of  the  action.  It 
is  most  economical  to  place  the  ladle  and  its  oontenta  withm 
the  heated  iron  cylinder  used  for  the  evaporation  of  tb« 
mercury  from  the  articles  when  gilt,  by  which  arrangenr^t 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  mereury  which  is  evaporaud 
during  the  process  is  retained  by  the  condensers. 

As  It  is  not  easy  to  ascertain  by  inspection  the  moment 
at  which  all  the  gold  is  dissolved,  without  which  the  pruct-^ 
would  be  incomplete,  and  would  have  to  be  repeated  under 
circumstances  of  greater  inconvenience  than  theftnt  essa?. 
and  as  the  continuance  of  it  longer  than  requisite  iroul<i 
occasion  an  unnecessary  waste  of  the  quicksilver,  a  pra*^ 
tical  acquaintance  with  the  time  required  is  common!; 
relied  on.  That  time  varies  aeoordfng  to  the  bardnesks .« 
softness  of  the  gold  (that  which  has  been  nose  ammfmU-i 
by  the  refiner  appearing  browner  tiian  the  hard«r  aiid 
yellower,  and  requiring  a  longer  tise  for  eom^Wle  sohi- 
tion),  and  according  to  the  lamr  or  smaller  sue  of  the 
fragments  of  gold  made  use  oC  In  general,  half  a  troy 
pound  of  gold  is  completely  dissolved  by  being  kept  at  tb« 
boiling  temperature  of  mercury  for  about  twenty  or  tweott- 
Ave  minutes.  It  is  obvious  that  ^e  boiling  snould  be  u 
gentle  as  possible,  since  fast  boiling  ensures  no  higher  a  tem- 
perature, and  evaporates  a  greater  quantity  of  quickialver. 

When  it  has  been  sufficiently  boiled,  the  amalgam  i> 
poured  out  into  cold  water,  by  which  it  loses  a  great  part  '^ 
Its  fluidity,  and  becomes  only  semifluid,  the  contf^t- 
ence  depending,  of  course,  on  the  quantity  of  quicksih<*r 
originally  made  use  of,  and  the  proportion  of  it  that  hu 
been  evaporated.  It  is  then  put  into  a  piece  ef  cbamoit 
skin,  and  squeezed,  by  which  means  the  particles  of  quick- 
silver escape  through  the  pores  of  the  leather,  while  tfa<M.> 
of  the  gold  are  safely  retained.  It  is  oommonlj  suppi)*<ii 
that  the  leather,  after  having  been  once  used  ftr  thai  pur- 
pose, and  had  its  pores  opened  by  being  stretched  out  of  lU 
original  shape,  lets  pass  some  of  the  particles  of  goM,  but  it 
fk  probable  that  this  notion  rests  upon  the  traditienar%'  ima- 
ginations of  the  operatives,  rather  than  upon  any  experi- 
mental proof  of  its  correctness.  When  the  mass  is  Jeit  to 
be  hard  and  unyielding  within  the  leather,  it  is  weighed, 
and  its  value  is  determined  by  considering  five  parts  V% 
weight  of  the  amalgam  as  equal  to  one  part  by  weight 
of  the  gold  employed.  The  amalgam  then,  if  gou«L  t« 
of  about  the  consistence  of  a  stiff  clay,  has  a  greasy  and 
gritty  feel  on  being  divided  by  the  bone  spatula,  and  ii  in 
the  most  convenient  state  for  being  weighed  out  into  tKe 
portions  requisite  for  each  respective  quantity  of  work.  \( 
however  the  gold  be  adulterated  or  the  mercury  be  impur.'. 
it  often  approaches  more  or  less  to  fluidity,  appears  dirrr. 
and  deposits  a  black  adhesive  scum  on  every  Uiing  «ri 
which  it  comes  in  contact  Even  the  very  heat  asaal^aia 
nay  be  reduced  from  an  almost  solid  to  a  fluid  floirai  bf 
beating,  pressing,  and  agitation,  but  ft  leturas  lo  its  one-* 
nal  state  on  being  left  fl»r  a  few  minulea  in  a  stale  \t 
quiescence. 

The  mam  ol^eet  of  bringing  the  amalgaai  lo  ttia  m 
tenoe  and  these  pxepoxtSns  it  lo  Ittve  ft  a  •  flnn 


Q  I  L 


220 


G  I  L 


exhibits  a  pciimatic  mixture  of  Tarious  colours,  fVom  yellow, 
through  red,  violot,  and  brown,  to  almost  a  black.  The 
thicker  the  coating  of  gold  is,  the  longer  may  this  process 
be  continued :  if  the  oxidation  be  carried  too  far,  it  occasions 
a  scaly  incrustation,  which  causes  the  gold  to  fall  off,  and 
renders  the  whole  operation  worse  than  useless,  inasmuch 
as  articles  can  rarely  be  gilt  a  second  time  with  success. 

The  oxidation  of  the  copper  however  is  not  the  object 
intended  to  be  effected,  or  rather  it  should  be  said  that  it  is 
not  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  done,  though  it  furnishes  a 
very  accurate  indication  of  the  extent  to  which  it  should  be 
carried.  The  end  intended  to  be  effected  is  a  partial  oxi- 
dation of  the  surface  of  the  gold,  caused  by  means  of  the 
increased  temperature  of  the  metal  goods  after  the  mercury 
has  evaporateu,  and  which  remains  unaffected  by  nitric  or 
stiCphuric  acids  after  the  sliaht  film  of  oxide  of  copper  has 
been  instantaneoudy  removed  by  their  action.  This  partial 
oxidation  occasions  a  slight  difference  of  colour,  which  is 
perceptible  by  an  experienced  eye,  and  confers  on  the  ^old 
a  degree  of  that  orange  colour  which  is  so  generally  admired 
in  golden  and  gilt  articles.  The  degree  to  which  the 
*  heightening'  ought  to  be  carried  differs  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  gilding.  Tliose  which  are  richest  and  best 
gilt  may  be  heightened  till  they  are  of  a  brown  colour ;  the 
commoner  sorts  not  so  much  ;  and  yellow  similored  goods 
must  only  have  the  mercury  fairly  removed  from  them. 

Buttons  and  articles  of  a  similar  description  are  often 
gilt  only  on  their  tops,  or  on  some  other  portion  of  their 
surfaces,  while  the  remainder  is  left  unoovered  with  gold, 
and  of  the  native  colour  of  the  metal  of  which  they  are 
manufactured.  This  is  accomplished  by  brushing  them  over 
the  part  to  be  gilt  with  a liard  brush  wetted  with  'quick-water,' 
or  by  rubbinff  it  with  a  piece  of  chamois  leather  similarly 
moistened.  In  order  to  accelerate  the  process  in  buttons, 
&c.,  they  are  arranged  on  boards  in  holes  adapted  to  receive 
and  retain  them ;  and  the  '  quick-water'  is  then  applied  by 
the  brush.  They  are  afterwards  briskly  rubbed  with  a  dry 
brush,  which  gives  them  a  brilliantly  shining  metallic 
lustre,  and  a  colour  between  that  of  lead  and  of  silver. 
They  are  then  put  into  the  '  gilding-cap,'  which  is  a  white 
feit  hat  of  a  peculiar  sort  ana  shape.  The  amalgam  for 
this  description  of  work  is  brought  to  a  much  stiffer  con- 
sistence than  that  which  is  used  for  '  all-overs,'  and  is  put 
into  the  gilding-cap  along  with  them.  The  whole  is  then 
well  shaken  together  for  a  few  minutes,  when  the  amalgam 
will  be  perceived  clinging  to  the  amalgamated  parts  of  the 
goods,  but  leaving  the  remainder  in  their  original  state. 
They  are  then  put  into  the  cage,  the  mercury  is  evaporated, 
and  thev  are  afterwards  '  quick-watered'  in  the  manner 
already  described. 

Many  descriptions  of  articles  would  be  injured  or  de- 
stroyed by  the  method  of  gilding  just  now  described.    Such 
ace  all  those  which  are  oi  consmerable  dimensions  in  pro- 
portion to  the  thickness  of  the  metal  out  of  which  they  are 
made,  as  well  as  those  whose  individual  weight  and  extent 
of  surface  would  expose  them  to  such  attrition  from  the 
rotatory  motion  of  the  case  as  would  occasion  the  gold  laid 
on  to  be  entirely  or  partially  rubbed  off  in  the  process  of  its 
application,      besides  this,   there  is   in  thin  and  fra^le 
articles  an  imminent  danger  of  their  l)eing  broken  when 
they  are  amalgamated  ana  rendered  brittle  throughout  a 
great  part  of  their  substance  by  the  necessary  immersion 
m  the  quick-water.      To  obviate  the  inconveniences  that 
might  result  from  these  circumstances,  a  different  method 
is  employed,  so  far  as  regards  the  mechanical  part  of  it, 
though  the  chemical  principles  on  which  it  depends  are 
precisely  the  same.     Articles  of  this  description  are  most 
commonly  gilt  only  on  one  side,  and  there  are  two  modes 
of  preventing  the  amalgam  from  adhering  to  those  parts  of 
the  surface  that  are  intended  to  be  left  bare.     One  is  to 
lacquer  those  parts  (which  are  of  course  concealed  when 
the  article  is  fitted  to  the  spot  for  which  it  was  made),  and 
after  the  spirit  of  wine  is  thoroughly  evaporated,  to  immerse 
them  in  the  quick  water,  and  afterwards  apply  tlie  amalgam. 
The  gummy  surface  left  behind  by  the  lacquer  is  entirely 
unaltered  by  its  contact  with  the  mercurial  solution,  but  its 
exposure  to  the  high  temperature  necessary  in  the  subse- 
quent parts  of  the  process  chars  the  gum,  blackens  it, 
eauses  it  to  peel  off,  and  sometimes,  if  it  be  not  very  care- 
fhlly  dried  at  first,  occasions  portions  of  it  to  adhere  to  the 
gilt  surfisces  of  other  goods  with  which  it  comes  in  contact 
by  being  gilt  along  with  them.  The  other  mode  of  applying 
the  gold  i«  to  distribute  the  quick-water  over  the  parts  re* 


I  quiring  it  by  a  small  brush  or  camel's  hair  peacii»  and  ih^-  • 
then  have  the  amalgam  applied  as  before.     If,  as  »  «oT'-- 
times  the  case,  the  goods  are  to  be  entirely  covered,  t:  < 
arc  immersed  at  once  in  the  quick- water. 

The  goods  thus  prepared  are  laid  with  the  gilt  eurfj^i « 
uppermost  on  an  open  iron  pan,  of  a  shape  somethioc  ^  •-*' 
that  of  a  fr}'ing-pan,  which  is  held  over  a  coke  fire  b>  i 
oi>crative.    The  chimney  is  made  wide  at  the  bottom*  at  . 
narrows  rapidly  as  it  proceeds  upwards,  so  as  to  collect  ..* 
much  as  possible  of  the  mercurial  vapour,  for  the  rec(»%v^> 
of  which  no  effort  has  hitherto  been  made.    A  great  ].r  - 
portion  however  necessarily  escapes  into  the  apartniM.-. 
and  renders  this  mode  of  gilding  much  more  unhi^ui..*. 
than  the  use  of  the  cylinder  and  cage.    As  the  mernr 
gradually  evaporates  from  their  surfaces,  their  pii<itMi>n     ■ 
changed,  when  requisite,  by  means  of  a  short  pair  of  tor. 
and  when  entirely  free  from  it,  the  process  of  *  quick-water  a., 
is  performed. 

It  is  entirely  foreign  to  the  present  object  togt\e  3^^ 
remarks  on  the  medical  effects  or  mercury  on  the  hum  i- 
frame.      Its  consequences,  as  practicallv  experienced    * 
gilders,  consist  in  soreness  of  the  moutli  from  salixaii  ; 
nausea  and  sickness,  an  oppressive  head-ache,  and,  aflcr  tL 
lapse  of  a  few  years,  a  paralytic  tremour  and  agitation  * 
all  the  muscles  of  the  body ;  nor  does  any  treatment  <t*  : 
to  be  successful  which  does  not  include  an  entire  abstine: . 
from  the  prosecution  of  this  occupation,  and  even  ll<t»  . 
unavailing  when  'the  shakes'  have  taken  pusses»ii»n  • 
their  unhappy  victim.      Distressing  instances  have  1 
known  of  this  last  and  worst  stage  of  tlie  effects  of  the  pur  • 
in  which  the  unfortunate  sufferer  was  not  only  dcprivi-ti  «  ' 
the  power  of  locomotion,  bnt  unable  to  retain  a  gra^p  <  ' 
even  the  smallest  and  lightest  utensils  made  use  <^  in  /■• 
mestic  life.     The  intrc^uction  of  the  cylinder  and  (... 
(whicli,  simple  as  they  may  seem,  have  not  been  in  t.. 
very  many  years),  has  greatly  abated  this  serious  evil ;  a.  . 
those  operatives  the  nature  of  whose  work  prevents  ih« : . 
from  calling  in  these  accessories  may  prevent  a  great  port:>  • 
of  the  mischievous  consequences  likely  to  ensue  by  a  mm'.: 
and  scrupulous  attention  to  cleanliness.    A  gilder  \iho  h.  i 
by  the  age  of  about  fifty  amassed  a  little  competency  (>< 
his  trade,  sufHcient  to  enable  him  to  retire  from  bustti« ».«. 
ascribed  the  unbroken  health  he  enjoyed  to  the  practice  •>' 
employing  about  an  hour  every  evening  in  cleansing  \  •% 
nails  and  fingers  from  the  mint^e  particles  of  quickAil^t-r 
left  on  them  by  the  labours  of  the  day.  He  was  one  of  tb.-^* 
who  work  over  an  open  fire. 

Where  the  cylinder  is  employed,  it  should  be  swept  oi/ 
daily,  before  the  fire  has  heated  it  in  the  mominc.     A 
portion  of  the  gold  amalgam  is  rubbed  off  by  the  aiint . 
of  the  cage,  and  falls  on  the  inferior  surface  of  the  cylimK-r. 
whose  heat  melts  it  wholly  or  partially,  and  it  Vectimt « 
mixed  with  the  oxide  of  iron  that  is  constantly  in  rout^ 
production  by  the  elevated  temperature  of  the  c}hii     *> 
This  being  carefully  collected  and  refined,  is  found  to  ^u  :  ! 
an  average  of  about  l-30th  of  the  gold  employed,  to  uit,  '. 
dividend  the  richer  sorts  have  contributed  from  their  «<y*.r 
abundance  a  greater  proportionate  quantity  than  the  << ;.: 
moner  qualities. 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  respecting  the  extci.^.- 
bility  of  gold  under  the  hammer ;  but  tnis  property  is  nnu  ' 
more  remarkably  developed  in  its  application  to  gikli*'  - 
Similored  articles  arc  the  best  adaptea  to  show  the  c^t*  ..: 
over  which  the  metal  can  be  spread,  since  the  bra&&>  bm  .' 
gam  seems  to  have  a  more  powerful  affinity  for  the  amal^  j . 
of  gold.    In  this  description  of  goods  a  grain  of  gold  v 
cover  about  40  square  inches,  without  leaving  a  ^m^ 
aperture  bare  that  is  perceptible  to  the  naked  eye  or  c 
magnifying  glasses,  or  discoverable  by  the  action  of  &t)i«*- 
fortis.  A  cubic  foot  would  therefore  cover  about  402,6 -to, (•. 
square  inches,  which  gives  a  thickness  for  the  coaung  •  f 
gold  of  about  1  -233,00Uth  of  an  inch. 

The  profits  of  those  engaged  in  this  department  of  man  u 
factures  vary  greatly,  but  they  bear  a  very  high  iirop(>rti  r. 
to  the  average  of  those  of  the  individuals  engaged  in  tu  •  t 
other  brancl&es.  These  high  profits  are  a  sort  oi  remuner  j 
tion  for  the  unwholesome  nature  of  the  trade,  which  b}  i!« 
real  and  imaginary  terrors  (of  which  the  latter  are  prrha  ■« 
the  greatest)  creates  a  general  reluctance  in  the  work.  •: 
population  to  allow  their  children  to  be  brought  up  lo  it  ..- 
to  enter  it  themselves.  A  gilding  woman*a  wa^es«  «i..* 
works  bv  the  day,  are  about  4d.  an  hour  for  six  hour^  la 
the  middle  of  the  day,  and  6<i.  an  hour  for  extra  tttac.    A 


G  I  L 


222 


G  I  L 


of  his  virtues,  and  in  part  to  his  having  had  in  Bishop 
C^rleton  a  contemporary  biographer,  who  has  given  a  pleas- 
ing and  no  doubt  faithful  account  of  his  life  and  manners. 
In  later  times,  one  of  his  own  family,  the  Rev.  William 
Gilpin,  of  Boldre  (of  whom  in  the  next  article),  prepared  a 
larger  account  of  this  venerable  character  in  his  own  singu- 
larly pleasing  style  of  composition. 

Bernard  Gilpin  was  born  in  Westmoreland,  of  a  genteel 
family,  and  by  his  mother  was  related  toCuthbert  Tunstall, 
one  of  the  most  enlightened  churchmen  of  the  time,  who 
being  bishop  of  Durham  had  the  means  of  placing  his  rela- 
tion in  the  valuable  rectory  of  Hough ton-le-Spring,  and  ai 
the  same  time  giving  to  the  parish  a  pastor  singularly  well 
adapted  to  the  state  of  society  in  that  parish  and  its  vicinity. 
But  before  he  became  rector  of  Houghton-le-Spring  he  had 
shared  in  the  sufTerinss  of  the  Protestant  clerj^y.  Eariy  in 
the  reign  of  Queen  llarT  he  resigned  a  small  living  in  the 
diocese  of  Durham,  ana  went  abroad,  as  did  many  others 
who  had  been  favourers  of  the  Reformation  in  the  days  of 
King  Edward.  He  was  absent  three  years.  He  ventured  to  re- 
turn while  Queen  Mary  was  alive ;  and  was  cordially  received 
hvTunstalL  who  made  him  archdeacon  of  Durham  and  rector 
01  Houghton.  His  preaching  at  this  period  was  bold.  He 
inveighed  against  popular  vices  in  the  spirit  of  an  enthusi- 
astic reformer;  and  when  this  brought  upon  him  much 
odium  from  persons  who  were  touchea  by  him,  and  he  was 
accused  to  the  bishop  of  Durham,  the  bishop  protected 
him  so  efftctually,  that  his  accusers  brought  their  charges 
before  Bonn?r,  the  bishop  of  London,  whose  memory  is  held 
in  execration  for  his  insolent  behaviour  and  his  needless 
severities.  This  ^ed  to  a  remarkable  incident.  Gilpin  obeyed 
the  summons  of  this  unpit^ing  prelate.  Full  of  tlie  ex- 
pectation of  nothing  less  than  to  suffer  at  the  stake,  '  Give 
me,'  said  he,  before  he  set  out,  to  his  house-steward,  *  a  long 
garment,  that  I  may  die  with  decency.'  As  he  journeyed 
with  the  ministers  of  the  bishop,  an  accident  happened  to 
him  which  occasioned  a  delay.  It  is  said  that  his  leg  was 
broken.  While  he  lay  without  the  possibilitv  of  proceeding, 
intelligence  came  that  the  ^uecn  was  dead.  A  change  of 
system  instantly  took  place,  and  Gilpin  returned  in  joy  and 
peace  to  his  parishioners  at  Houghton. 

The  only  other  incident  in  his  life  which  requires  notice  is, 
that  the  bishopric  of  Cailisle  was  offered  to  him  by  Queen 
Elizabeth.  This  offer  he  declined,  and  continued  to  his 
death  the  rector  of  Houghton,  residing  constantly  in  his 
parish,  except  when  he  visited  the  ruder  parts  of  the  county 
of  Northumberland,  into  which  he  appears  to  have  introduced 
more  of  regular  habits  of  life  and  more  of  Christian  influ- 
ences than  had  resulted  from  the  labours  of  any  previous 
Christian  instructor  who  had  lived  amongst  them. 

The  parts  of  Redesdale  and  Tynedale,  debatable  land 
on  the  Marches,  are  particularly  named  as  the  scenes  of 
his  labours.  The  people  there,  living  on  the  borders  of  the 
two  countries,  had  long  led  a  lawless  life,  subsisting  mostly 
on  plunder.  Gilpin  went  fearlessly  amongst  them,  holding 
ibrtn  the  commands  and  the  sanctions  of  Christianity,  and 
did  much  to  change  the  character  of  the  country,  Hence 
*t  was  that  he  was  often  called  the  Northern  Apostle. 

His  own  parish  of  Houghton  however  was  the  chief  scene 
of  his  labours.  It  yielded  him  an  ample  income,  for 
Houghton  was  then,  as  now,  one  of  the  richest  benefices  in 
the  North.  He  was  himself  a  bachelor.  In  hospitality  he 
was  like  what  is  said  or  fabled  of  the  primitive  bishops. 
Every  fortnight,  we  are  told,  forty  bushels  of  corn,  twenty 
bushels  of  malt,  and  a  whole  ox,  were  consumed  in  his 
bouse,  besides  ample  supplies  of  provisions  of  many  other 
kinds.  The  rectory-house  was  open  to  all  travellers,  and 
so  great  was  the  reverence  which  surrounded  the  master, 
that  his  liberality  was  rarely  abused ;  even  the  most  wieked 
being  awed  by  it. 

His  skill  in  according  differences  was  scarcely  less  Aimed 
than  his  hospitaUty  and  his  preaching ;  and  when  to  this 
we  add  that  his  benevolence  took  the  wise  direction  of 
providing  instruction  in  human  learning  for  the  young,  and 
that  he  w^as  assiduous  in  his  attention  to  the  sick  and  to 
the  poor,  we  have  touched  upon  all  the  points  which  can  be 
prominent  in  the  life  of  a  good  pastor.  His  ceal  for  edu- 
cation was  manifested  at  once  in  the  education  of  the  poor 
children  in  his  parish  in  homdy  learning,  and  in  patron- 
ising promising  youth  in  their  studies  in  the  universities. 
He  was  sometimes  called  the  Father  of  the  Poor. 

Thus  this  good  man  lived  and  died.  No  on«  can  doubt 
that  he  did  great  good  in  hit  day  and  genentioa  in  that 


remote  part  of  the  kingdom ;  and  his  memory  being  to  wc.I 
embalmed,  as  little  can  we  doubt  that  his  life  has  inlluea'*oi 
many  since  his  time  to  be  faithful  and  sealous  pa*toi »  *  i 
the  church,  blessing  and  blessed  of  that  portion  of  it  wU.'  u 
was  committed  to  their  charge. 

GILPIN,  WILLIAM  (born  1724,  died  1804).  was  of  th' 
same  family  with  Bernard  Gilpin,  being  the  sixth  in  dem*  m 
from  William  Gilpin,  his  elder  brother.    There  was  anoiii*  r 
divine  in  this  family,  of  not  sufficient  note  to  have  a  pw  v 
in  a  general  biographical  dictionary,  yet  not  wholly  to  t>c 
passed  over: — Dr,  Richard  Gilpin,  who  resigned  the  re«*t  .i  * 
of  Greystockf  in  Cumberland,  on  non-compliance  with  t].*- 
terms  of  the  Act  of  Uniformity  in  1662,  and  continucfl  .. 
dissenting  minister  till  his  death,  in  1 699.   This  Dr.  Ruhr  r 
Gilpin  was  the  great  grandfather  of  William  Gilpitt,  w}i. « • 
father,  an  officer  in  the  army,  had  a  narrow  escape  fr    '. 
being  the  military  governor  of  Carlisle,  at  the  time  h  ii  ' 
it  was  taken  by  the  rebels  in  1745,  having  been  tli>i'.« 
before  superseded  in  his  command  there  by  an  oflloer  »t«  * 
thither  by  the  duke  of  Cumberland. 

Mr.  Gilpin  took  orders,  and  lived  for  some  time  on  a 
curacy  in  the  north,  among  his  relations;  but  ha\inK  o:  < . 
a  small  fortmie,  and  marrying  a  young  lady^huruu*. 
whose  fortune  also  was  small,  and  having  but  little  hi*\  c 
patronage  in  the  church,  he  removed  into  the  nei^^lUu). 
nood  of  London,  and  took  a  school  at  Cheam,  in  Surr. 
which  he  conducted  skilfully  and  successfully   for  u. 


r- 


years.    Among  his  pupils  were  the  present  V  iscount  s 
mouth  and  Lord  Bcxley,  and  the  late  Colonel  Mitfurd,  .).. 
author  of  the  H  istory  of  Greece. 

Mr.  Gilpin  is  said,  by  the  friend  who  has  drawn  a  vr:\ 
pleasing  picture  of  his  life  and  manners,  to  have  resol\c<':  *. 
retire  from  the  duties  of  a  schoolmaster  whenever  he  h . . 
realised  10,000/.;  and  having  at  length  succeeded  in  ii>  « 
he  adhered  to  his  i-cso1ution,  and  it  happened  fortuiiaM   , 
for  him  that  at  the  same  time  his  former  pupil.  Coin:. 
Mitford,  presented  him  to  the  living  of  Boldre,  on  the  bonl* :» 
of  the  New  Forest,  Hampshire.    To  this  village  Mr.  Gu] 
retired,  and  here  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life,  &car«- 
evor  leaving  it,  in  the  active  discharge  of  the  duties  ot  a 
village  pastor,  and  being,   like   his  venerable  ance«»tor.  . 
blessing  to  the  place.      Here  he  died  on  April  5,  18i'4.  r.: 
the  age  of  eighty,  and  is  buried  in  the  churchyard,  wht.r 
also  lies  his  widow,  who  survived  him  three  years,  *  hoj-  i.c 
to  be  raised  in  GikI's  good  time,  when  it  will  be  a  neu  ;,   y 
to  see  several  of  their  good  neighbours  who  now  lie  h*-^i- 
tered  in  those  sacred  precincts  around  them.* 

Mr.  Gilpin  however  is  not  to  be  regarded  only  in  his  ch  i- 
racter  of  a  o^ood  schoolmaster  and  an  excellent  parish  pa;^^^!  , 
he  has  enriched  the  literature  of  his  country  with  sever j: 
valuable  writincra  in  various  departments.  His  first  vorik. 
was  a  *  Life  of  Bernard  Gilpin,'  and  it  was  soon  aucceetlt  .1 
by  a  *  Life  of  Latimer,*  wuo  bore  some  resemblance  t* 
Gilpin.  At  a  later  period  of  life  he  published  livcw  of 
Cranmer,  Wickliff,  Huss,  Jerome  of  Prague,  and  Zu^a. 
He  was  the  author  also  of  a  body  of  'Lectures  on  tie 
Church  Catechism,' an  *  Exposition  on  the  New  Testament,* 
a  'Treatise  on  the  Amusements  of  Clergymen,' and '  8enujr4t 
for  Country  Congregations.'  These  works  are  all  wntua 
in  a  style  of  simpUcity  which  is  singularly  engaging. 

But  Mr.  Gilpin  was  a  person  of  a  remarkablj  te&m  J 
taste,  as  is  evinced  by  writings  of  his  of  a  class  eniirtU 
distinct  from  those  we  have  enumerated.  ThcM  are  h  « 
volumes  in  which  he  has  illustrated,  boUi  by  his  pencil  ai  \ 
his  pen,  thtf  picturesque  beauty  of  some  parts  of  Bnglar  4. 
and,  generally,  the  principles  of  beauty  in  landscape.  I'n^^ 
first  of  these  works  was  published  in  1790,  in  two  volumci, 
8vo. ;  it  was  entitled  *  Observations  relative  chiefly  tu  Ptc 
turesque  Beauty,  made  in  the  year  1776,  in  several  |vin« 
of  Great  Britain,  particularly  the  Highlands  of  ScotUml ' 
This  was  followed  by  two  other  volumes  of  the  same  ci*A 
racter,  the  greater  part  of  them  telatingto  Uie  Uke  oountr. 
of  Cumberland  ana  Westmoreland.  Two  volumes  murv*, 
on  '  Forest  Scenery,'  succeeded.  Besides  theses  there  aiv 
his  *  Essays  on  Picturesque  Beauty;*  '  Picturesque Tra\i-.'« 
and  the  Art  of  Sketching  Landsc^Ms;'  'Observations  ^  n 
the  River  Wye ;'  and  *  Picturesque  Remarks  on  the  West  c  u 
parts«of  England.'  These  form  a  body  of  works  whxh 
were  well  received  by  the  public  at  the  times  of  thiir 
appearance,  and  which  are  now  gathered  into  the  hbrurx^ 
of  the  tasteful  and  the  curious,  so  that  copies  rarely  presert 
themselves  for  public  sale.  One  work  mora  of  M^  Gihpui's 
mtist  be  Darned,  hia '  Essay  ou  Pontic'  in  which  be  did  not 


G  I  O 


2^4 


G  I  O 


was  more  congenial  to  Italy  than  that  of  the  other  two.    He 
was  soon  aAer  appointed  bistorio^phcr  of  the  kingdom. 

Gioja'a  reputation  restii  on  his  *  Niiovo  Prospetto  delle 
Scienze  Economiche/  6  vols.  4to..  Milan,  1815-17;  a  work 
of  considerable  research  and  labour,  in  which  the  author 
has  collected  and  examined  the  opinions  of  most  econo- 
mists, Italian  and  foreign,  and  tried  them  by  a  comparison 
with  the  historical  facts  and  ^stitutions  of  various  nations, 
antient  and  modern.  The  greater  part  of  the  work  is  in 
a  tabular  form,  the  tables  being  furnished  with  (quotations 
and  notes.  Gioja  prefers  large  properties  to  subdivided  ones, 
arts  and  manufactures  to  agriculture,  and  he  advocates  the 

Erinciple  of  association  as  a  powerful  means  of  production ; 
e  is  also  in  favour  of  a  system  of  universal  popular  edu- 
cation. At  the  end  of  the  sixth  volume  he  gives  a  list  of 
cases  in  which  the  interference  of  the  government  may  be 
useful  to  industry,  and  another  of  those  in  which  it  is  mis- 
chievous. As  a  sequel  to  this  work  he  published  a  treatise, 
'Del  Merito  e  delle  Ricompense,'  2  vols.  4to.,  1818-19,  a 
work  f\ill  of  bold  and  original  ideas,  many  of  which  may  be 
highly  useful,  whilst  others  appear  impracticable  in  the  pre- 
sent state  of  society.  In  it  the  author  exhibits  a  total  inde- 
pendence of  all  political  systems,  very  different  in  this  respect 
from  his  former  political  productions.  He  strives  to  ascer- 
tain and  fix  a  standard  fbr  the  various  kinds  of  merit  or 
value,  physical,  intellectual,  and  accidental,  of  men,  and  to 
point  out  the  authority  which  is  to  estimate  the  same.  This 
last  subject  engrosses  a  chapter  which  is  perhaps  the  most 
curious  in  the  whole  work.  Few  of  the  advocates  of  the 
political  rights  of  the  people  liave  openly  faced  the  question 
of  the  capabilities  of  the  majority  of  that  people  for  exer- 
cising those  rights.  Gioja  has  not  shrunk  from  the  thank- 
less task.  This  chanter,  iii.  of  book  I.,  on  the  judgment  of 
the  people  assembled  for  the  purpose  of  election,  is  divided 
into  the  following  heads: — 1.  Knowledge  required  in  the 
people  for  making  a  proper  choice  of  public  functionaries. 
2.  Will  of  the  people  in  making  a  cnoice.  3.  Power  or 
means  of  the  peonle  to  accomplish  the  same  object.  Gioja 
cites  opinions  ana  facts  both  favourable  and  unfaTourable 
under  each  head,  and  then  draws  his  own  inferences — that 
the  masses  of  the  people  are  easily  deceived  by  sophistry  and 
fake  appearances ;  that  they  are  led  astray  by  those  who 
know  how  to  flatter  their  vanity  and  their  envy  against  the 
rich ;  that  they  generally  prefer  rash  advice  to  slow  and  dis- 
criminating counsels ;  that  they  are  apt  to  run  from  one  ex- 
treme to  the  other ;  that  when  excited  by  fanaticism,  com- 
passion, or  fear,  they  become  cruel  and  ferocious,  while  in 
Guiet  times  they  are  indolent  and  careless,  or  open  to  bribes ; 
tnat  they  are  likely  to  adopt  the  most  unjust  course  in 
the  hope  of  having  provisions  cheap.  He  urges  there- 
fore the  necessity  of  restricting  the  number  of  electors  by 
means  of  qualifications  of  age,  income,  and  civil  and  moral 
requisites.  He  insists  chiefly  on  the  qualification  of  mature 
age  in  the  electors,  whilst  in  the  candidates  for  legislative 
functions  he  requires  principally  knowlerlge  and  morality, 
which  bethinks  might  be  ascertained  by  authentic  documents. 
Book  II.  treats  of  tlie  various  kinds  of  rewards  for  the  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  civic  merit ;  and  he  combats  Bentham  and 
Coudorcet,  who  assert  that  virtue  needs  no  reward.  Gioja 
says  in  his  preface,  that  the  first  idea  of  his  subject  was 
broached  by  Dragonetti,  a  Neapolitan  writer,  in  1765,  in  a 
small  pamphlet,  '  Delia  Virtii  e  dei  Premj ;  that  afterwards 
Diderot,  in  his  *£ssai  sur  leM^rite  et  la  Vertu,'  lost  himself 
in  metaphysical  abstractions ;  and  lastly,  Bentham.  in  his 
*  Thcorie  des  Peines  et  des  Rccompenses,'edited  by  Dumont 
in  1811,  worked  upon  the  idea  of  Dragonetti,  but  embraced 
only  a  small  portion  of  the  subject,  and  engrafted  upon  it 
several  errors,  which  he  (Gioja)  refutes  in  his  book.     ' 

Gioja's  work,  '  Dell*  Ingiuria  edei  Danni  e  del  Soddisfaci- 
mento,*  2  vols.  8vo.,  1821,  is  a  kind  of  penal  code,  the  main 
principle  of  which  is  compensation  to  the  injured  person. 
He  proposes  to  fix  a  scale  applicable  to  various  cases,  keep- 
ing in  view  chiefly  the  respective  circumstances  of  tne 
ofiender  and  of  the  ofibnded.  The  principle  of  the  author 
appears  just,  though  the  carrying  of  it  into  effect  is  subject 
to  many  difficulties.  A  srood  notice  of  the  work  is  eiven  in 
the  diblioteca  Italiana,  for  December,  1821.  Gioja  wrote 
also  a  •  Treatise  on  Ideology.*  *  Elements  of  Philosophv/  •  II 
Nuovo  Galateo.'  or  a  treatise  on  good  manners,  and  other 
works,  among  which  the  *  Filosofia  della  Statistica,'  2  vols. 
1826-7,  deserves  especial  mention.  The  first  book  treats  of 
physical  geography  and  its  various  branches,  in  which  he 
'ncludcs  climate;   the  Mcond^  of  the  population  as  af- 


fected by  the  physical  chorocter  of  the  country;  ( 
the  movement  of  the  population,  its  Dumber»  births,  mar* 
riages,  and  deaths;  the  physical  character  of  the  peopk, 
their  food»  their  habits  and  occupations ;  the  third*  of  the 
productions  of  countries,  vegetable,  animal,  and  nuDeraL 
The  work  is  highly  interesting,  and  deserves  on  fttteotivc 
perusal.  Gioja  died  at  MUan,  in  January,  1829.  His  re- 
mains were  followed  to  the  grave  by  his  disciples  end  Irieods 
With  some  eccentricities  of  temper,  he  was  a  most  renuxk- 
able  man  for  logical  perspicuity,  vastness  of  informatioa,  ana 
indefatigable  Ituiour.  He  ranks  among  the  venr  finl  writer* 
on  political  economy  that  Italy  has  produced.  (Pccchi\ 
De^li  Economuti  Italiani ;  Romognoli  pubUshed  e  biof;r «• 
phical  notice  of  Gioja  in  the  BMioteca  Italiana^  No.  1j6./ 

GIOJA.    [Compass.] 

GIORDA'NO,  LUCA,  called  Luca  fa  oresto,  1629—1  :cs 
The  above  dates  of  the  birth  and  deatn  of  this  eminent 
painter  are  those  given  by  Velasco,  which  seem  the  mu^t 
authentic ;  but  authors  differ  about  both  dates.  He  « x^ 
born  at  Naples,  where  he  studied  painting  under  Ribcri^u 
better  known  by  the  name  of  Spagnoletto.  He  afterwari^ 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  became  a  pupil  of  Pietro  d^ 
Cortona,  and  assisted  him  in  many  of  nis  great  workv 
Leaving  Rome  he  repaired  to  Lombardy  to  study  Correggi',-. 
and  then  to  Venice,  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  com  pent- 
tion  and  colouring  of  the  great  Venetian  artists.  Ttu*^ 
various  studies  not  only  impressed  on  bis  mind  a  vivid  vW  \ 
of  the  style  of  every  eminent  master,  but,  as  he  had  grvar 
readiness  of  hand,  enabled  him  to  imitate  them  so  closely  u^ 
to  deceive  even  experienced  connoisseurs.  He  had  not  only 
a  fertile  and  fine  imagination,  but  such  a  rapidity  uf  cxe- 
cution  that  the  number  of  great  works  executed  by  him  i« 
astonishing.  It  was  not  from  this  circumstance  howcxtr 
that  he  derived  the  name  of  Fa  Presto,  but  from  the  a\*arKx> 
of  his  father,  who  at  the  beginning  of  Luca's  career  sold  at 
a  high  price  his  designs  after  the  works  of  the  great  masters 
and  was  continually  urging  him  at  meals  as  well  as  at  wt.?  W 
by  saying  '  Luca,  fa  presto*  (Luca,  make  haste),  which  ht> 
companions  gave  him  as  a  nickname.  After  his  return  to 
Naples  he  was  very  much  employed  there,  till  in  167'j  ht 
was  invited  by  Charles  II.,  king  of  Spain,  to  adorn  the 
Escurial.  He  accordingly  went  to  Madrid,  where  \\^% 
polished  manners,  cheerful  temper,  and  lively  wit,  in  addition 
to  his  talents  as  an  art^glt,  gained  him  the  favour  of  the  court, 
where  he  remained  till  the  death  of  Charles  U.,  when  \w 
returned  to  his  own  country.  His  colouring  was  onecaMc, 
his  designs  were  spirited  and  ingenious,  and  hisdniwin?, 
when  he  allowed  himself  time,  correct ;  but  from  the  npiil.t  v 
with  which  he  proceeded,  his  works  are  often  deficient  m 
the  last  particular.  His  best  works  are  his  frescoes,  iii  the 
Escurial  at  Madrid,  at  Florence,  and  at  Rome.  Some  of  b;« 
finest  pictures  are  at  Dresden.  The  grand  altar-piece  iu  tin* 
Church  of  the  Ascension  at  Naples,  representing  the  BattU* 
of  the  Angels  and  the  Fall  of  Lucifer,  is  considered  as  xmw 
of  his  finest  performances. 

GIORGICXNE  DI  CASTELFRANOO  (Giorgio  Barba- 
relli,  called)  one  of  the  most  distinguished  artists  of  the- 
Venetian  school,  was  born  in  1477  at  Castelfronco.  in  tbc- 
Trevisano.  He  received  his  education  at  Venice;  where  be 
at  furst  devoted  himself  to  music,  and  became  an  excvlWni 
performer  on  the  lute.  He  however  soon  applied  to  paint- 
ing,  and  became  the  disciple  of  Giovanni  Bellini,  wb<>*<- 
minuteness  of  manner  he  speedily  rejected,  and  adopic«i  x 
much  freer  style,  distinguished  by  bold  forenihoil^xii  ,:. 
ample  outlines,  dignity  and  animation,  breadth  of  draptr>. 
richness   of  accompaniment,  a  more   natural  and  »otKr 

fradation  of  tints,  and  forcible  effects  of  chiaix>-scun*. 
*his  last  had  indeed  been  already  practised  by  Lionordo  \i^ 
Vinci,  but  there  appears  to  be  no  solid  ground  for  the  atett  • 
tion  of  Vasari,  that  Giorgione  was  indebted  for  hU  rhmrv- 
scuro  to  some  paintings  or  drawings  by  Lionardo.  In  it.<. 
school  of  Bellini  he  had  Titian  for  one  of  his  feUow-pupM». 
who  at  a  subsequent  period  of  their  lives  was  so  struck  t*  .Mi 
the  style  and  colouring  of  Giorgioue,  that,  as  some  wm.  -« 
afiSrm,  he  became  his  pupil,  but  it  appears  more  probable  th.  - 
he  cultivated  an  intimacy  with  him,  which  was  ended  br 
the  jealousy  of  Giorgione,  who  saw  that  his  friend  w&«  Xh- 
coming  a  formidable  T\yv\,  His  greatest  works  weit 
fresco,  and  he  adorned  the  fronts  of  many  large  buJ  Ii.u'< 
in  Venice  with  admirable  works,  of  which  nothing  now  r  - 
mains.  He  painted  however  many  oil  pictures*  whu  h  x  k 
distinguished  by  vigorous  impaato  and  fulness  of  pcnnl  )  I. « 
portraits,  says  au  eminent  artist,  have  every  excellLi.:tf 


G  I  R 


226 


G  I  R 


for  oaiTion  and  other  unclean  food.  Pottinger,  in  his 
'  Travels,'  saw  some  tribes  reaembling  them  in  Beloochistan. 
There  is  a  tribe  near  the  mouths  of  the  Iiidus  called  Tchin- 
ganes. 

The  gipsies,  in  their  language,  call  themselves  Sind ;  and 
their  language  has  been  found  to  resemble  some  of  the 
dialects  of  India.  {Bombay  Transactions,  1820.)  They 
have  no  traditions  or  records  concerning  their  origin ;  no 
religion  of  their  own,  but  they  adopt  the  outward  forms  of 
the  people  among  whom  they  live,  whether  Christians  or 
Mussulmans.  Everywhere  they  exhibit  the  same  roving 
habits,  a  dislike  to  a  fixed  settlement  and  to  the  arts  of  bus< 
bandry,  uncleanness  in  their  food,  licentiousness,  ignorance 
and  intellectual  apathy,  a  disposition  to  pilfer,  and  to  im- 
pose on  the  credulitv  of  others.  They  seldom  commit  vio- 
lent robbery  or  otner  heinous  crimes,  being  fearful  of 
punishment  Maria  Theresa  ordered  those  in  her  states  to 
be  instructed  in  agriculture,  with  a  view  to  their  permanent 
settlement ;  but  her  endeavours  were  not  very  successful. 
In  Hungary  and  Transylvania  however  many  of  them 
folfow  some  regular  trade  and  have  fixed  habitations; 
they  wash  gold  from  the  sand  of  the  rivers,  and  they  work 
iron  or  cop|)er ;  some  are  carpenters  and  turners,  others  are 
liorse-dealent,  and  even  keen  wine-shops  or  public-houses. 
They  aliound  in  Wallachia,  Moldavia,  and  Bessarabia,  and 
they  are  fuund  in  Russia  as  far  as  Tobolsk.  Grellman,  in 
his  *  Versuch  iiber  die  Zigcuner,'  Gottingen,  1787,  conjectures 
that  there  are  between  700,UU0  and  800,000  in  Europe, 
of  whom  40,000  are  in  Spain,  chiefly  in  the  southern  pro- 
vinces. In  England  they  have  much  diminished  of  late 
years  in  consequence  o(  the  inclosure  of  land  and  the  laws 
against  vagrants.  J.  Hoyland  has  collected  the  most  accu- 
rate information  that  could  be  procured  concerning  this 
strange  race,  in  his  Historical  Survey  qf  the  Customs, 
HabiU,  and  present  State  of  the  Gypsies ;  designed  to  de- 
velop the  Orisrin  of  this  Singular  People,  and  to  promote 
the  Amelioration  of  their  Condition,  8vo.,  Vork,  1816.  He 
has  largely  made  use  of  the  work  of  Grellman. 

GIRAFFE,  CAMELOPA'RDALIS  {Girafa  of  Brisson, 
Camelopard  of  Pennant  and  authors),  a  genus  ^of  Rumi- 
nants, with  persistent  horns  common  to  both  sexes,  com- 
prising the  tallest  of  the  known  quadrupeds. 

Organization. 

The  skeleton  of  a  Giraffe  arrests  the  attention  of  the  ob- 
server at  once : — the  head  lifted  on  high  upon  the  extremely 
elongated  neck,  the  liigh  withers,  and  the  slender  length  of 
limb,  taken  together  contrast  strangely  with  the  bony  fabrics 
of  the  other  Quadrupeds.  A  man  who  looks  up  at  such  a 
skeleton  for  the  first  time,  and  without  previous  knowledge 
of  its  structure,  must  be  struck  at  finding  that  the  towering 
neck  consists  of  exactly  the  same  number  of  bones  that  form 
his  own.  The  skull  is  light  and  thin.  The  horns  are  con- 
sidered by  Dr.  Riippell  (who,  during  his  travels  in  Northern 
Africa,  obtained  in  Nubia  and  Kordofan  three  specimens, 
two  males  and  one  female)  as  constituting  the  principal 
generic  character,  they  bein^  ibrmed  by  distinct  bones, 
united  to  the  frontal  and  parietal  bones  by  a  very  obvious 
suture,  and  exhibiting  throughout  the  same  structure  as  the 
other  bones.  In  botn  sexes,  he  observes,  one  of  these  ab- 
normal bones  is  situated  on  each  branch  of  the  coronal  su- 
ture, and  the  male  possesses  an  additional  one,  placed  more 
anteriorly  and  occupying  the  middle  of  the  firontal  suture. 
The  existence  of  this  third  appendage  is  considered  to  fur- 
nish a  complete  refutation  of  Camper's  theory  with  regard 
to  the  Unicom,  vis.  that  such  an  occurrence  is  contrary  to 
nature,  and  to  prove  at  least  the  possibility  of  the  existence 
of  such  an  animal.  This  appendage  is  conspicuous  fti 
the  plate  containing  the  crania  {Atlas  zu  der  Reise  im 
Nordlichen  4fi^^^  ^o^  Eduard  Riippell,— PI.  9,  fig.  a,  a), 
and,  as  it  is  there  represented,  rises  abruptly  firom  the  os 
fh>ntis  with  all  the  appearance  of  a  third  horn.  Cuvier,  in 
in  his  last  edition  of  the  'Rdgne  Animal'  (1829),  follows 
Dr.  Ruppell,  and,  speakinf^  of  the  horns,  savs,  their  bony 
core  (noyan  osseux)  is  articulated  in  youth  by  a  suture  on 
the  frontal  bone.  In  the  middle  of  the  chanfrein  is  a  tu- 
bercle, or  a  third  horn,  larger  and  much  shorter  but  equally 
articulated  by  suture. 

The  well-known  accuracy  of  Dr.  Riippell  demands  every 
degree  of  respect ;  and  if  the  figure  alluded  to  be  a  correct 
representation  of  the  ordinary  state  of  the  adult  Nubian 
omV)  Oixaffe,  and  not  an  accidental  deformity,  the  third 


Skull  of  m«l«  Oinife.  ttom  Ripp«U*t  flgOMi 

hem  would  form  a  good  ground  fbr  ipecifto  distinction 
There  are  skulls  of  the  Cape  Giraffe,  both  male  and  femalo. 
in  the  Museum  of 'the  College  of  Surgeons ;  and  that  of  the 
male,  which  is  an  adult  with  the  peratstent  teeth,  has  no 
such  horn;  but  there  is  a  considenble  gradually-risitic 
protuberance,  which  is  more  utxao^j  developed  than  t;  < 
same  part  in  the  female  oranium.    in  all  the  crania  whir  h 
we  have  seen,  and  in  all  the  living  sneeimeiis,  the  feniaU-% 
possess  this  protubeiance  as  well  as  tiie  males,  though  nut 
in  so  high  a  degree  of  development ;  and  the  true  horns,  at 
least  the  bony  cores,  are  much  larger  in  the  male!than  in  the 
female.    It  may  be  said  that  the  living  and  dead  apeeiraens 
wliich  we  have  latelv  received  fh>m  North  Africa  are  coin- 
paratively  young ;  though  some  of  them  are  not  so  very 
young.    The  three  Giraffes  now  (1838)  living  in  the  gardrn 
of  the  Zoblogical  Society  at  the  Regent's  Park  are  advannr.^* 
fiist  towards  their  full  growth,  and  in  all  of  them  the  profu- 
berance  will  be  seen ;  though  that  of  the  female  is  not  qui'c 
so  highly  marked  perhaps  as  those  of  the  males.    But  Mr. 
Owen,  in  his  paper  read  Defore  the  Zoological  Society  of  L  m- 
don  on  the  23rd  of  January,  1838,  wherein  he  entered  m:  ■ 
the  highly  interesting  details  which  the  dissection  of  three 
Nubian  uiraflfes*  had  enabled  him  to  demonstrate,  ahovi* 
that  this  middle  protuberance  arising  flrom  the  head  is  n  *: 
a  true  horn,  articulated  by  a  suture;  but  merely  a  thidur.- 
ing  of  the  os  frontis.    This  position  Mr.  Owen  is  enabled  tn 
lay  down  f^om  the  section  of  the  skull  of  a  male  (Northern  i 
Girafie,  and  from  the  examination  of  various  crania  of  Ihi'i. 
Nubian  and  Cape  (male  and  female)  old  and  young  Giraffe- 
There  appears  to  be  no  evidence  to  lead  to  the  eonelusiti* 
that  there  is  anything  at  any  time  in  this  part  of  the  atrur. 
ture  naturally,  that  can  be  considered  more  than  a  mere 
frontal  protuberance  occasioned  by  the  thickening  of  tlu* 
bone,  a  protuberance  which  will  not  separate  upon  mace  ra- 
tion, as  the  two  horns  will,  in  the  young  animal  at  lea^f 
The  lightness  of  the  cranium  is  owing  in  great  measuru  i.> 
the  sinuses,  which  are  minutely  described  by  Mr.  Owen  ir 
his  paper;  these  run  along  the  whole  upper  part  of  the  r.-j 
nium,  and  the  occiput  is  raised  by  their  extension.     >!r. 
Owen  ^owi  that  a  principal  object  of  these  sinuses  ia  to  in- 
crease  the  surface  of  the  attachment  of  the  ligament  !»::{>- 
porting  the  head,  and  draws  attention  to  the  remarks  biV 
vertical  extension  of  the  condyles  of  the  occiput,  a  struct un- 
which  enables  the  animal  to  tilt   its  head  back,   and 
gracefully  and  easily  to  raise  it  till  it  is  on  a  line  with  th^ 
neck.     The  reader  wQl   find   the   section  of   the   bead 
above  alluded  to  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons,  numbered  965  (Osteological  Series).  In  the  same 
museum  he  will  find  entire  crania  of  the  Cape  Giraffe  (male 
and  female),  with  other  detached  bony  parts,  and  the  m«>«»t 
perfect  and  beautiful  skeleton  of  the  Nubian  Giraffe  «c 
have  ever  seen,  though  it  is  that  of  a  comparatively  yot::.*^ 
an  imal.  The  position  and  appearance  of  the  elastic  car tila*:i^ 
on  the  posterior  edges  of  the  scapuls  are  here  exhibitol,  \ 
beautifal  provision  for  the  easy  springy  carriage  of  tlie  K»it. 
which  is  principally  suspended  horn  the  muscles  there  ax 
tached,  and  slung  as  it  were  between  these  points  and  tho 
sternal  and  lumbar  regions.    In  the  British  Museum  x:< 
two  crania  presented  by  Mr.  Burchell.    The  next  best  ^kl^ 
leton  of  a  Giraffe  known  to  ns  in  this  country  is  tint  u:  ti'< 
museuir  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  prepared  fn  la 
the  individual  which  was  in  the  possession  of  King  Geor|,*e 
lY.  at  Windsor. 

•  Two  BMlst  sad  rat  taMb :  sU  vltk  4Mid«Miis«k« 


GI  R  2 

death,  vu  injected  vith  minute  red  imMtion,  k  u  to  di«- 
lend  the  arteries  and  show  the  oourae  of  the  circulation  in 
Ihcro  to  the  greatest  advant^.  This  tongue  wu  after- 
vards  divided  longitudinal  It  in  a  perpendicular  direction, 
also  in  a  boriiontal  one,  to  show  the  miuclea  of  which  it  is 
composed,  as  well  as  the  other  pai'ts  that  it  contained.' 
From  this  examinatian,  the  structuraof  the  tongue  of  quad- 
rupedi  in  general  is  described  by  Sir  Everard  as  being 
longitudinally  divided  into  two  equal  portions  bj  a  middle 
line;  the  muscular  structure  occupies  the  whole  of  the  in- 
terior substance,  receiving  ^  la^e  supply  of  nerves  and 
blood-vaasels  ^in  a  lateral  nerve  and  arterjr  that  pass 
along  the  outer  edge;  these  are  imbedded  in  a  very  loose 
cellular  tissue,  the  texture  of  which  admits  of  the  blood- 
vessels being  distended  to  a  very  great  degree,  so  as  to  en- 
large the  volume  of  the  tongue;  ond  beyond  this  tissue, 
surrounding  and  forming  a  case  for  the  whole  of  the  upper 
and  lateral  part  of  the  organ,  is  a  strong  very  elastic  cover- 
ing of  some  thickness,  which  yields  when  the  muscles  and 
the  trunks  of  the  arteries  are  distended  with  blood,  so  as  to 
eive  both  extent  and  rigidily  to  the  organ,  and  admit  of  the 
different  actions  in  which  it  is  employed.  Sir  Everard  then 
adds,  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  structure  of  the 
Xariffa's  tongue  being  the  same;  its  actions  depending 
Upon  the  combined  powers  of  muscular  contraction  and 
elasticity ;  its  increase  and  diminution  of  size  arising  fhim 
the  blood-vessels  being  at  one  time  loaded  with  blood  and 
at  another  empty. 

The  chief  roodi&cation  in  the  muscles  of  the  tongue  is  in 
those  destined  lo  rotracl  it.  Mr.  Owen,  in  a  note  to  his  edi- 
tion of  'Hunter's  Animal  (Economy'  (Bvo.,  London,  1837), 
says,  'a  most  beautiful  and  forcible  example  of  the  use  of 
tendon  in  limiting  tlie  length  of  a  muscle  to  the  extent  of 
motion  reauired  to  bo  produced  in  the  part  to  be  moved  oc- 
curs in  tne  stemo-thyroidei  of  the  Giraffe.  Had  these 
muscles  been  continued  fleshy  as  usual  from  their  origin, 
through  the  whole  length  of  the  neck  to  their  insertic 
is  obvious  that  a  great  proportion  of  the  muscular  fl 
would  have  been  useless,  because  such  a  condition  of  the 
muscle  would  have  been  equal  to  have  drawn  down  the 
larynx  and  os  hyoides  more  than  one-third  of  the  extent  of 
the  neck,  which  is  neither  required  not  permitted  by  the  me- 
ehanical  altachments  of  the  parts.  'The  stemo-lbyroidei 
tberelbre  proceed  from  the  bead  of  the  sternum  blended  to- 
gether in  one  fieshy  fasciculus  for  about  nine  inches,  and' 
end  in  a  tendon  which  is  continued  for  six  inches ;  this  then 
divides,  and  the  muscles  proceed  again  fleshy  for  about  six- 
teen inches,  when  a  second  tendon  intervenes  in  each  be- 
tween the  preceding  and  the  next  fleshy  portion,  which  is 
Dually  inserted  into  the  thyroid  cartilage,  and,  by  a  continued 
^cia  into  the  os  hyoides :  thus  the  quantity  of  contractile 
fibre  is  proportioned  to  the  required  extent  of  motion  by 
intervening  tendons;  the  stemo-hyoidei  being  wanting,  or 
tbeir  place  supplied  by  the  stetno-thyroidei,  as  in  some 
other  ruminants.  The  analogue  of  the  omo-hyoideus  ts  in 
the  same  animal  adjusted  to  its  office  by  a  different  and 
more  simple  modification ;  its  origin  is  removed  from  the 
shoulder-blade  lo  the  nearest  point  (the  third  cervical  ver- 
tebra), from  which  it  could  act  with  the  requisite  force  and 
extent  upon  the  os  hyoides. 

Sir  Everard  Home  fancied  that  the  Giraffe  on  which  he 
made  bis  observations,  the  individual  belonging  to  GeorgelV., 
preferred  licking  the  hand  of  a  lady  to  that  of  a  man.  Mr. 
Davis,  who  saw  a  great  deal  of  the  animal,  never  observed 
this.  It  may  be  easily  believed  that  the  animal  distinguished 
the  fair  Itand  from  which  it  received  gifts  and  attention ; 
but  certainly  tlie  GimO'es  in  the  Zoological  Garden  at  the 
R^enl's  Park  exhibit  no  such  preference.  They  appear  to 
use  iheir  tongues  generally  as  organs  of  examination,  and  Ibe 
power  of  prohension  is  so  great  that  we  have  seen  the  tongue, 
when  extended  to  the  utmost,  grasp  an  ordinary  lump  of 
sugar,  of  which  the  animals  seem  very  fond,  and  convey  it 
into  the  mouth.  We  have  also  observed  the  Giraffes  retro- 
vert  ibe  tongue  for  Ihc  purpose  of  cleaning  the  nostrils,  an 
ulTice  which  its  flexibility  enables  it  to  perform  in  the  most 
perfect  manner.  The  utility  of  such  a  putrcr  of  prehension 
and  extension  to  an  animal  whose  principal  food  ronsists  of 
tlie  leaves  and  slender  twigs  of  trees  is  manifesL  Mr.  Uavis 
says  that  the  tongue  can  be  so  tapered  as  to  enter  the  ring 
of  a  very  small  key 

With  r^ard  to  the  stomach  and  digeative  organs  gene- 
rally, the  Giraffe,  it  is  true,  wants  the  receptacle  for  water 
which  the  camel  uid  dromedai;  posseas.    There  are  no 


wal«r«elU  belonging  to  the  mmen  u  then  tn  in  tb*  Ca- 
melidn;  and  this  part  of  the  structure  is,  as  llr.  Owm 
points  out,  ftubioned  according  to  the  horned  nunino.'  i 


t^-: 


mm^' 


llMiliroiutr  (Nnbiu) with Ih* MBf 


Head af  Glnltc  (pmlllr), ihomsc  ■)>■  fteala,  vraluberue*  —Jut-—— 

^e.  But  he  also  shows  that  the  reticulum  is  not,  fts  sutcil 
by  Sir  Everard  Home, 'destitute of  the  cellular  s[ru-'ti.ir 
met  with  in  other  ruminants,'*  but  that  it  has  cells,  ibuu  t 
very  shallow  ones,  as  in  the  rein-deer.  Mr.  0«en  furii»  : 
states  that  the  coils  of  the  colon  in  Ibe  Giraffe  arr  spiral,  ;  - 
are  in  the  deer  and  in  the  antelopes;  and  that  li». 
I  it  has  a  simple  citcum,  which  is  2  feet  2  incL<-i  . 
length.  The  Brsl  Girafl'e  (female)  dissected  by  Mr.Owvn  iv. ; 
adoubleKl^ll-bladder,  each  bladder  of  the  u-ual  size:  Ihu  » 
preserved  in  spirit  in  the  museum  of  the  Colkge.  Tbo  >.ii«.r 
two  Giraffes  (males)  were  without  a  truce  of  gall-blaJdrr. 
He  believcslherefure  that  absence  of  the  gall-bladder,  as  r. 
the  deer  (the  antelopes  have  it),  U  the  rule. 
Tlie  kidneys  in  the  Giraffes  examined  by  Mr.  Oweti  wm 
it  lobulated  as  in  the  ox,  but  simple,  as  in  the  deer  ".i 


6  I  R 


230 


G  I  R 


writings  of  ArtemidonUi  Strabo,  Oppian,  Heliodaroi,  and 
others,  till  the  great  blank  of  literature  intervenes. 

After  the  revival  of  letters,  we  find  in  Belon  a  good  de- 
scription upon  the  whole,  and  a  very  tolerable  figure.  In 
the  small  4to.  intituled  'Portraits  d*Oyseaux«  Animaux, 
Serpens,  Arbres,  Hommes  et  Femmes  d'Arabie  et  Bgypte, 
obscrvcz  par  P.  Belon  du  Mans,  le  tout  enrichy  de  Qba- 
trains,  pour  plus  facile  cognoissance  des  Oyseaux,  et  autres 
Portraits*  (1557X  the  figure  is  given  with  only  the  follow- 
ing notice  and  quatrain  above  and  below  it: — 'Portrait  de 
la  Giraffe,  nomm6e  en  Latin,  Camelopardalis :  les  Aiabes 
Tappellent  Zumapa.'    The  quatrain  is 

*  Belle*  lie  oorp*  1m  QiralTe*,  et  dooleef. 
Out  en  nuiiDtiea  da  Cbameau  la  naoiere. 
L^ura  pleda  wnt  hauita  detant  et  baa  derriera} 

Pott  blaoe  et  loox ;  eoioea  eoarlea  ei  moaaMt.* 

GUliua  states  that  he  saw  three  at  Cairo,  and  gives  a  de- 
scription of  the  animaL  Prosper  Alpinus  relates  that  he 
saw  a  Camelopardalit,  'ijuem  Arabes  Zumap,  et  nostri 
Giraffam  appellant^'  and  likens  it  to  a  very  elegant  small 
horse. 

Gesner,  who,  among  other  synonyms,  enumerates  Giraffa 
(alias  Gyrapha^  Girapha)  as  the  name  of  the  Cameioparda- 
liSt  or  Camehpardut,  or  Camelus  Indica,  gives  also  Zir<tfa,  as 
well  VA  Nobis  (^Ethiopian),  Gimaffa  (Persian),  and  Serapha 
(Arabian).  His  figure,  which,  he  says,  is  taken  from  an 
Italian  printed  booa,  by  an  anonymous  autiior,  is  evidently 
made  up  principally  tcom  the  descriptions  of  the  antients. 
It  hart  antelope-like  subrecurved  shai'p  horns,  and  a  short 
sharp- pointed  tail  with  something  of  an  upward  curve,  in 
which  may  be  traced  the  '  caudam  Dorcalidis,  id  est  Ca- 
prcoli,*  OS  the  text  has  it,  attributed  to  the  animal  by 
Oppian.  In  the  Additiones  (Icones,  &c.)  is  presented  a 
much  better  figure,  as  far  as  the  horns  are  concerned,  but 
with  a  neck,  and  of  a  height,  generally,  out  of  all  propor- 
tion. The  drawing  is  said  to  have  been  diligently  taken  at 
Constantinople,  where  the  animal  had  been  sent  as  a  pre- 
sent to  the  emperor  of  the  Turks,  and  transmitted  to  a 
ihend  in  Germany,  a.d.  1559.  The  figure  is  without  spots. 
AMrovandus  gives  a  figure  of  the  animal  with  its  elon- 
gated tongue  protruded  and  browsing  upon  a  tree,  which, 
awkward  though  it  be,  would  be  not  very  far  wrong,  were 
it  not  for  the  fiowing  mane  and  little  sharp  horns  with  a 
curve  forwards. 

Jonston  gives  no  less  than  five  figures,  three  with  and 
two  without  spots,  some  with  and  some  without  manes,  under 
the  names  of  Camelopardus,  Camelopctrdalig,  Gierafra,  and 
Cameli  Indici,  but  all  with  sharp  horns  of  various  degrees 
of  curvature,  besides  two  long-necked  hornless  spotted  qua- 
drupcds,  one  designated  as  Camelus  Indicus  versicolor,  the 
other  as  alius  Camelus. 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  some  of  the  figures  and 
descriptions  given  by  such  writers  as  the  author  last  quoted 
cast  a  doubt  upon  the  very  existence  of  the  animal,  and  it 
may  not  be  uninteresting,  before  we  proceed  to  the  later 
writers  on  the  natural  history  of  this  extraordinary  animal, 
to  note  some  of  the  other  evidences  preserved  in  old  or  un- 
common books.  In  the  '  Historia  del  Grand  Tamerlane,' 
(Madrid,  1782),  '  The  ambassadors  sent  by  the  king  of  Cas- 
tile, Henry  III.  (1403~2nd  embassy)  to  the  great  Tamer- 
lane, arrived  at  a  town  called  Hoy,  now  Khoy,  on  the  con- 
fines of  Armenia,  where  the  Persian  empire  commences. 
At  that  town  they  fell  in  with  an  ambassador  whom  the 
sultan  of  Babylon  had  sent  to  Tamerlane.  He  had  with 
him  as  many  as  twenty  horsemen  and  fifteen  camels,  laden 
with  presents  which  the  sultan  sent  to  Tamerlane.  Besides 
tlicse,  there  were  six  ostriches,  and  an  animal  called  jor- 
nnfa  (giraffe),  which  animal  was  formed  in  the  following 
manner : — In  body  it  was  of  the  size  of  a  horse,  with  the 
neck  very  lon^,  and  the  fore-legs  much  taller  tiian  the 
hinder  ones ;  the  hoof  was  cloven  like  that  of  the  ox.  From 
the  hoof  of  the  fore  leg  to  the  top  of  the  shoulder  it  was 
sixteen  hands  (palmos) ;  and  from  the  shoulders  to  the  head 
Hixteen  hands  more;  and  when  it  raised  its  neck  it  lifted 
its  head  so  high  as  to  bo  a  wonder  to  all.  The  neck  was 
thin  like  that  of  the  stag ;  and  so  great  was  the  dispropor- 
tion of  the  length  of  the  hinder  legs  to  that  of  the  fore-legs» 
that  one  who  was  not  acquainted  with  it  would  think  it  was 
Hitting,  although  it  was  standing.  It  had  the  haunches 
slunting  like  the  buffalo,  and  a  white  belly.  The  skin  was 
of  a  ^'oldcn  hue  and  marked  with  large  round  white  spots. 
I'l  the  li)^\or  part  of  the  face  it  resemblc<l  the  deer;  on  the 
Mui  it  had  a  high  and  poiakad  proouoMiM ;  very  laq^ 


and  round  eyes ;  ^and  the  ears  like  those  of  a  horse ;  near 
the  ears  two  small  round  horns,  the  greater  part  coven- 1 
with  hair,  resembling  the  horns  of  deer  on  their  first  a- - 
pearanoe.  Such  was  the  length  of  the  neck,  and  the  anim.l 
raised  its  head  so  high  when  he  chose,  that  he  oould  i..r 
with  fkcility  from  the  top  of  a  lofty  wall :  and  from  the  *•  • 
of  a  high  tree  it  oould  reach  to  eat  the  leaver  of  whu  h  * 
devoured  great  quantities.  So  that  altogether  it  «a%  s 
marvellous  sight  to  one  who  had  never  seen  such  an  anim. : 
before.** 

In  the  '  Principal  Occurrenta  in  John  Leo  (Leo  Af  . 
nus)  his  Ninth  Booke  of  the  Historie  of  Africa,'  (Purri     . 
lib.  vi.,  c.  1  sec.  9,)  we  find  among  the  tnimals  of  Eth><  • 
'  The  girafia,  so  savage  and  wild,  that  it  is  a  very  rare  lur- 
ter  to  see  any  of  them ;  for  they  hide  themselves  among  t  *  • 
deserts  and  woods  where  no  other  beasts  use  to  come  ;  &i  : 
•0  soon  as  one  of  them  espieth  a  man,  it  (iieth  forth u.t 
though  not  verv  swifllv.    It  is  headed  like  a  camclU  car^  : 
like  an  oxe,  ana  footed  like  a  t  ;  neither  are  aj .  • 

taken  by  hunters  but  when  they  are  very  young.'    In  ti  * 
index  of  the  same  book  we  find  *  Camelopardalis,  a  hu«>v 
wilde  beast;*  and  a  reference  to  page  1183,  where  we  fii.  i 
(Purchas,  lib.  vii.  c.  8,  s.  2)  in  the  same  paragraph,  wit-  ti- 
mention  is  made  of  the  Abassine  soil  (Abassia,  rrom  Ft-r- 
nandez),  this  sentence: — 'Hares,  goats,  harts,  bore».  rU- 
phants,  camels,  buffals,  lions,  panthers,  tigres,  rhinocvn>:t'« 
and  other  creatures,  are  there  seene,  and  one  so  hiij- 
that  a  man  sitting  on  horsebacke  may  pass  uprighte  uivi*  : 
his  belly  ;  his  shape  is  like  a  cameli,  but  his  nature  divf^.. 
feeding  on  leaves  which  he  reacheth  fh)m  the  tops  of  t;<  *  . 
with  his  neoke  stretched  forth.'    In  the  margin  is  print <    . 
'  This  seemeth  to  be  the  Camelopardalis  ;*  and  indeed  i . 
description  will  do  very  well  for  it,  with  the  excepCt«>u      r 
the  horse  and  his  rider  passing '  upright  under  his  belly  ' 

Again,  in  the  fifth  volume, '  The  sixt  booke,  chap.  L.  •  * 
Africa,  and  the  creatures  therein,'  and  s.  2, '  Of  the  bea.^* « 
wild  and  tame,'  is  mentioned  '  The  Giraffa^  or  Camefoj,!^ 
dalis,  a  beast  not  often  seene,  yet  verr  tame,  and  of  a 
strange  composition,  mixed  of  a  libaro,  hart,  bu&,  an : 
cameli,  and  by  reason  of  his  long  legs  before,  and  short*  r 
behinde,  not  able  to  graze  without  difificultle,  but  with  I  - 
high  head,  which  he  can  stretch  forth  halfe  a  pikers  len^-t^ 
in  height,  fiseds  on  the  leaves  and  boughs  of  trees.* 

In  a  noto  is  added,  '  P.  Bellon.,  lib.  u.»  a  49,  doth  Iarict*Iy 
describe  him.  (See  his  description  in  Moreson  and  Sam)  > « 
Also  Master  Sanderson  saw  one  at  Cairo,  and  hath  desrr  ^  *  . 
-  him  in  his '  Voyage,'  which  I  have  printed.*  (Tom.  i.  M . 
Upon  turning  to  the  passage  (lib.  tx.,  c.  16,  s.  2)  it  m{  j  • 
that  Sanderson  saw  the  animal  at  Constantinople.     *  J 
admirablest  and  fairest  beast  that  ever  I  saw  was  a  Jarr... 
as  tame  as  a  domesticall  deere,  and  of  a  reddish  deere  ca^I  •  - 
white  brested,  and  cloven- footed ;  he  was  of  a  %er>  £;• 
height,  his  fore-legges  longer  than  the  hinder,  a  vc*r>  . 
necke,  and  headed  like  a  cameli,  except  two  stunijH.'^ 
home  on  his  head.    Tiiis  fairest  animall  was  sent  out    - 
Etluopia  to  this  Great  Turke's  father  for  a  present;  t  -  . 
Turkes,  the  keepers  of  him,  would  make  him  kneele,  but  (.  : 
before  any  Christian  for  any  money.    An  elephant  tl.  : 
stood  where  this  faire  beast  was,  the  keepers  would  m^'-.' 
to  stand  with  all  his  four  legges,  his  feet  close  u»t{cr>. 
upon  a  round  atone*  and  alike  to  us  to  bend  Lu  !.  . 
legges. 't 

In  the  *  Museum  Tradescantianum'C  165G ),  at  the  end  of  t  b - 
second  section, '  Four-footed  beasts,  with  some  hides*  hi»rr.e<^. 
hoofes,'  we  find  '  divers  horns  answering  to  those  by  auihtirv. 
attributed  to  the  ibex,  gazella»  hippelaphua,  tragelaphu^. 
cervus  palmatus,  camelopardalis.  &c.' 

In  Ludolf's  'Ethiopia,'  of  whioh  there  is  a  curlvi :« 
translation  '  made  English  by  J.  P.  (vent '  ( 1 68S),  the  f  : 
lowing  paragraph  appears  in  the  chapter  *  of  four-fooitoi 
beasts.'  '  The  next  is  the  Camslo-pardalist  or  Panther- 
camel,  which  is  not'  (as  big)  *  and  bulkie  as  the  clephan*. 
but  &r  exoeeds  him  in  tallnesa.    For  this  beast  is  so  \erv 


Ui«  'Libniy  of  BaUttainteg  KaowMgii   Mwsw<i»    n**.  w 
]iiSa9,tai«U  SrOfLooduB. 

t  Here  th«i«  ii  a  word  m-nnUiig  Id  tbv  orfgiod. 
t  «  xvi. 
*  By  the  ptnnlMioD  of  AlaiighlW  God. 
'  Sandrie  tbeperioimll  voyscM  perfbnned  by  John  Sandrraon,  o^  L0* 
■MrehAnt.  becttli  in  Oetober.  158i,  endtd  In  Ortobvr.  I60t,  with  %n  ku«»>r 
dsMription  or  CoDitaatkaopla.*    TIm  ■tfcoad  viiya^  |o  Ctfttslftstlacalr  *  |-  f 
lo  hay  comi— fd  la  1191,  and  fUoderaon  amrtd  Uirrpcm  I'lUni^u.i 
*  vbaio,'  taya  be,  *  thou  I  remalaad  t!se  or  wvi>n  ywn*«.  la  »likh  itair  I 
aalnala.'' 


ofiaaavaBli 
MivtWve 


G  I  R 


232 


G  I  R 


I  migbt  possibly  have  entertained  doubts  in  resneet  to  the 
existence  of  so  extraordinary  a  quadruped.  Belon's  figure 
is  very  good.*  The  specimen  here  alluded  to  was  most  proba- 
bly that  mentioned  by  M.  Allamand  and  in  Captain  Car- 
teret's letter. 

The  traveb  of  Dr.  Spanrman  occupied  a  period  from  the 
year  1772  to  1776.  He  ^ves  Allamand's  aescription»  and 
adds  the  following :  *  This  animalt  when  it  goes  fiist,  does 
not  Ump»  as  some  have  imagined,  but  sometimes  paces  and 
sometimes  gallops.  Every  time  it  lifts  up  its  fore-feet  it  throws 
its  neck  back,  which  on  other  occasions  it  holds  erect;  not- 
withstanding this,  it  is  by  no  means  slow  when  pursued,  as 
M.  de  Buffi>n  supposes  it  to  be,  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  re- 
quires a  fleet  horse  to  hunt  it.  In  eating  the  grass  from 
off  the  sround  it  sometimes  bends  one  of  its  knees,  as  horses 
do ;  ana,  in  plucking  leaves  and  small  branches  from  high 
trees  it  brings  its  fore-feet  about  a  foot  and  a  half  nearer 
than  usual  to  the  hind  feet  A  camelopardalis  which  Ma- 
jor Gordon  wounded  in  the  leg,  so  that  it  could  not  raise 
itself  from  the  ground,  nevertheless  did  not  show  the  least 
signs  of  anger  or  resentment ;  but,  when  its  throat  was  cut, 
spurned  against  the  (ground  with  a  force  fiar  beyond  that  of 
any  other  animal,  llie  viscera  resembled  those  of  gazels, 
but  this  animal  had  no  porus  ceriferus.  The  flesh  of  the 
young  ones  is  very  good  eating,  but  sometimes  has  a  strong 
flavour  of  a  certain  shrub,  which  is  supposed  to  be  a  species 
of  mimosa.  The  Hottentots  are  particularly  fond  of  the 
marrow,  and  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  this  hunt  the  beast,  and 
kill  it  with  their  poisoned  arrows.  Of  the  skin  they  make 
vessels,  in  which  they  keep  water  and  other  liquors.* 

Le  Vaillant  did  not  meet  with  the  Giraffe  till  his  second 
journey  into  the  interior  of  Africa  from  the  Cape  during 
the  years  1783-84-85.  But  at  the  end  of  the  2nd  vo- 
lume of  his  first  journey,  which  commenced  in  1 780,  he 
gives  figures  of  a  male  and  female  Giraffe,  and  a  compen- 
dium of  his  observations,  remarking  that  it  is  a  kind  of  an- 
ticipation which  is  owing  in  some  measure  to  solicitations 
which  he  ought  to  consider  as  commands.  As  Le  Vaillant 
appears  to  be  the  first  well-informed  zoologist  of  modern 
times  who  saw  the  animal  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  as  be 
hunted  it  and  brought  it  down  with  his  own  fusil,  his 
account  is  worthy  of  particular  attention. 

'If,'  sa}s  Le  Vaillant, '  among  the  known  Quadrupeds 
precedency  be  allowed  to  height,  the  p^iraffe  without  doubt 
must  hold  the  first  rank.  A  male  which  I  have  in  my  col- 
lection, and  of  which  a  figure  is  given  in  the  8th  plate, 
measured,  after  I  killed  it,  16  feet  4  inches,  from  the  hoof 
to  the  extremity  of  its  horns.  I  use  this  expression  in 
order  to  be  understood ;  for  the  giraffe  has  no  real  horns, 
but  between  its  ears,  at  the  upper  extremity  of  the  head, 
arise,  in  a  perpendicular  and  parallel  direction,  two  excres- 
cences from  the  cranium,  which  without  aay  joint  stretch 
to  the  height  of  eight  or  nine  inches,  terminating  in  a  con- 
vex knob,  and  are  surrounded  by  a  row  of  strong  straight- 
hair,  which  overtops  them  by  several  lines.  The  female  is 
generally  lower  than  the  male.  That  represented  in  the 
following  pUte  was  only  1 3  feet  6  inches  in  height ;  and 
her  incisive  teeth,  which  were  almost  all  worn  away,  incon- 
testably  proved  that  she  had  attained  to  her  full  growth. 
In  consrauence  of  the  number  of  these  animals  which  I 
killed  and  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing,  I  may  establish  as 
a  certain  rule  that  the  males  are  generally  15  or  16  feet  in 
height,  and  the  females  from  13  to  14  feet.  Whoever  should 
judge  of  the  thickness  of  these  animals  from  the  above 
dimensions  would  be  greatly  deceived.  The  eye  indeed 
that  is  accustomed  to  the  long,  full  figures  of  Europe,  finds 
no  proportion  between  a  height  of  16  feet  and  a  length  of 
seven,  taken  from  the  tail  to  the  breast  Another  delhr- 
mity,  if  it  may  be  called  so,  makes  us  contrast  the  parts 
before  with  those  behind.  The  former  have  a  considerable 
thickness  towards  the  shoulders,  but  the  latter  are  so  thin 
and  meagre  that  they  do  not  seem  formed  the  one  for  the 
other.  Naturalists  and  travellers  who  speak  of  the  giraffe 
all  a;;ree  in  making  the  hind  legs  only  Wf  the  length  of 
those  before ;  but  did  those  who  assert  so  really  see  the 
animal,  or,  if  they  saw  it,  did  they  consider  it  attentively? 
An  Italian  author,  who  certainly  never  saw  it,  caused  a 
fiijure  of  it  to  be  engraved  at  Venice,  in  a  work,  entitled 
*  Deserisioni  degli  Animali,'  1771.  This  figure  is  formed 
exactly  from  the  descriptions  which  had  then  been  pub- 
liblied  of  the  animal;  but  this  exactness  renders  it  so 
ridiculous,  that  we  must  consider  it,  on  the  part  of  the 
Italian  author,  as  «  severe  criticiam  on  all  the  accounts 


which  had  appeared,  and  which  have  be«n  to  oArn 
repeated.'  Le  Vaillant  then  goes  on  to  remark  that  uf  a.l 
the  old  authors  who  have  treated  of  this  animal  Gilhuft  .» 
the  most  accurate,  who  expressly  says  that  the  giraffe  )..>^ 
its  four  legs  of  the  same  length ;  but  that  the  mre-tit  n^i.- 
are  so  bng  in  comparison  of  those  behind  that  the  batk  f 
the  animu  appears  inclined  like  the  roof  of  a  house.  *  U\' 
says  Le  Vaillant, '  by  the  £bre-thighs  Gillius  means  the  ou»^ 
plate,  or  shoulder-blade,  his  assertion  is  just,  and  I  perf«>cU> 
agree  with  him.'  In  a  note  it  is  added,  that  among  t)  c 
moderns  the  most  exact  engraving  is  without  doubt  thit 
which  was  executed  under  the  inspection  of  Dr.  AUajnon. 
from  drawings  furnished  by  Colonel  Gordon.  After  ob*erv  - 
ing  that  the  account  of  Heliodorus  is  far  from  being  cortvi*i« 
Le  Vaillant  continues  thus: — *  The  horns,  forming  part  *.( 
the  cranium,  as  I  have  already  said,  can  never  fidl  off.  TLc> 
are  not  solid  like  those  of  the  stag,  nor  composed  of  aii\ 
substance  analogous  to  those  of  the  ox ;  much  less  do  tlu- % 
consist  of  hair  united,  as  Buffon  supposes.  They  are  sim|ii  % 
of  a  bony  calcareous  substance,  divided  by  a  multitude  «  f 
small  pores  like  aU  bones,  and  are  covered  throughout  the u 
whole  length  with  short  coarse  hair,  which  has  no  rvsciik- 
blance  to  tiie  soft  down  that  covers  the  young  horns  of  n.t.  •  | 
bucks  or  stags.'  The  French  traveller  then  notice*  i .  «  , 
defective  figures  of  Buffon  and  Vosmaer,  observing  th  .i  i 
the  defects  disgrace  and  render  of  no  utility  to  science  su«  ' .  | 
false  representations,  which  people  very  improperly  confi^it* 
in  on  account  of  the  reputation  of  the  authors  who  pubh^U 
them.  He  states  that  the  giraffes,  both  male  and  fema.'i«.\ 
are  spotted  in  the  same  manner;  and  that,  without  pa)ini: 
attention  to  the  inequality  of  size,  they  may  oasily  be  d;^ 
tinguibhed  from  each  otlier,  even  at  a  distance,  llic  ni.«i* . 
on  a  greyish- white  ground,  has  large  spots  of  a  dark-bru'-  r. 
colour,  almost  approaching  to  black;  and  the  female,  ot.  • 
like  ground,  has  si)ots  oi  a  tawny  colour,  which  rcn«i«*  « 
them  less  striking.  The  young  males  are  at  first  of  tlio 
colour  of  their  mother,  but  in  proportion  as  they  adva^  • 
in  age  and  size  they  become  browner. 

We  must  here  interrupt  Le  Vaillant's  interesting  acr.unt 
to  remark  that,  as  yet,  no  difference  of  any  ooiisequei*  <> 
can  be  seen  in  the  colour  of  the  spots  of  the  male  ji.! 
female  giraffes  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Socjct%  is' 
London ;  they  are  tawny  in  both. 

To  return  to  Le  Vaillant :  he  says  that  these  quadru^^  - '« 
feed  upon  the  leaves  of  trees,  and  particularly  on  ihitHi*  ..; 
a  mimoHa  peculiar  to  the  canton  which  they  iohal  .: 
Meadow-grass  also  forms  part  of  their  aliment ;  but  tiic% 
are  not  under  the  necessity  of  kneeling  down  to  biv»«xe  •  r 
to  drink,  as  some  have  iroproperlv  believed.  They  often  .:< 
down  to  ruminate  or  to  sleep,  which  causes  a  conaide^al>^ 
callositY  on  the  sternum,  and  makes  their  knees  to  l*c 
covered  with  a  hard  skin.  '  Had  nature,'  says  our  auth.r 
in  conclusion,  '  endowed  the  giraffe  with  an  irascibW  de- 
position, it  certainly  would  have  had  cause  to  oomploi.'i. 
forjjthe  means  with  which  it  is  provided  either  for  attar  k  <c 
defence  are  very  trifling.  It  is  indeed  a  peace^  at  -. 
timid  animal;  it  shuns  danger,  and  flies  fit>m  it,  trott:-  z 
along  very  fast :  a  good  horse  can  with  difficulty  o\erc«  v 
it.  ft  is  said  that  it  has  not  strength  to  defend  itself;  but  1 
know,  beyond  a  doubt,  that  by  its  kicking  it  often  tires  oc*. 
discourages,  and  even  beats  off  the  lion.  Except  upon  u.." 
occasion  I  never  saw  it  make  use  of  its  horns:  they  ma*  U- 
considered  of  no  utility,  were  it  possible  to  doubt  the  wtsdv  n 
and  precautions  employed  by  nature,  whose  motives  w«  air 
not  always  able  to  comprehend.' 

Gmelin,  in  his  13ih  edition  of  the  '  Systema  Naturx*' 
(1789),  elevates  the  giraffe  to  a  genus  under  the  nanae  4  f 
Camelopardalis,  with  the  following  generic  character  r^ — 
Horns  very  simple,  covered  with  skin  (simplicissima  [teli** 
tecta),  terminated  by  a  fasciculus  of  black  hairs.    Low^ 
incisor  teeth  (dentes  primorss  inferiores)  eight,  spat ulsu% 
the  last  deeplv  bilobated  externally.    He  gives  one  spcrx-^ 
Cameloparaaiis  Girqffa,  and  says  that  it  inhabits  Sean&a-.. 
between  Upper  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  where  it  has  been  o.  « 
seen ;   that  it  is  rare  in  Abyssinia,  and  most  rare  in  m  •*-. 
Southern  Africa ;  that  its  haunts  are  leafV  woods  and  u  • . 
it  is  wild,  timid,  very  swift  (celerrima),  andf  elegant ;  that  .: 
reposes  prone  like  a  camel ;  that  it  feeds  on  Krass  by  di  t  :..r 
eating  tne  fore-legs,  but  that,  its  principal  food  consists    * 
the  leaves  of  trees. 

In  the  third  edition  of  Pennant  (1793),  severs!  addu^jc.^ 
are  made  to  the  description  of  the  giraffe,  but  he  doe*  r  : 
notice  Le  VaiUaut,  though  the  first  part  of  th«  tnrvU  .1 


G  I  R  i 

wiAt,  nrf  Aimiliar  viUi  the  inhabilnnt^  in  the  former  dty, 
living  on  iho  fruits  of  the  couiilry,  particularly  apples,  >nd 
■tretching  up  its  long  nsck  lo  the  first-floora  of  the  houses 
to  implore  b  maal.  Of  the  comparatively  lale  arrival! 
knother  w>s  at  Venice  in  1628.  and  a  fourth  was  sent  t 
Constantinople,  but  died  ibere.  These  animals,  according 
to  the  same  authority,  were  all  presents  ^m  the  Pasha  of 
Egypt  Tbs  GiraOs  eent  to  the  French  menagene  is 
(tiU  alive:  that  presented  at  the  aome  lime  to  George  IV. 
wu  the  shortest  and  weakest  (The  consuls  of  each  nation 
drew  lots  for  the  choice.)  She  was  nuver  in  good  health 
and  had  been  roughly  treated,  and  though  she  had  grown 
eighteen  inches  up  to  June,  1S29,  sho  sank  gradually  ' 
died  in  the  autumn  of  that  year. 

The  Zoological  Society  of  London  had  entered  into  a  < 
tract  fbr  the  purchase  of  Giraffes,  and  in  1836  fi>ur  of  these 
animals  (three  male*  and  one  female)  were  safely  brought 
fhim  the  south-west  of  Kordohn.  where  they  were  cap- 
lured,  to  the  gardens  of  tho  Society  at  the  Regent's  Park. 
One  of  these  (a  male)  was  never  so  strong  as  the  rest,  and 
having  fallen  from  weakness,  a  few  months  after  its  arrival, 
injured  its  head  so  severely  that  it  died.  The  other  three 
are  still  (February,  IS3B)  in  excellent  health  and  condition. 
Mr.  Cross,  the  enlerprising  proprietor  of  the  Surrey  Zoolo- 
g;ical  Gardens,  toun  after  imported  three  (two  males  and  ~  ~ 
female),  also  from  Northern  AOica,  hut  we  regret  to  w 
that  ihey  are  all  dead. 

We  now  return  to  tho  systematic  arrangement  Id  De- 
cember, 1836,  Mr.  Ogilby  divided  the  Rumlnaniia  into  the 
tollowing  famiUes:  — 1.  Camelidm.  2.  Cervidts.  3.  Mot- 
ehidce.  4.  Caprida.  5,  Sovida.  The  f^enus  Camelo- 
pardalit  is  placed  by  this  toulo^ist,  to  whom  we  are  in- 
debted for  much  and  valuable  information  c»ucerning  the 
Ruminants,  as  the  first  of  the  Cervida,  with  the  JuUowing 
characters- — fforru,  in  both  sexes,  p«rsistent  ({wronnia), 
simple,  covered  with  skin.  Shinana,  none.  Larhrymal 
tinutet,  none.'  Inttrdigitat  foua,  small.  Inguinal /nl- 
liculi,  none.  TeaU.  fciur; — and  two  species  are  recorded 
under  the  names  of  C  /Ethinpicu*  and  C.  Capemis.  The 
other  genera  admitted  by  Mr,  Ogilby  into  the  family  Cer- 
vidte  are  Tarandut,  Alctt,  Certmi,  Caprea,  and  /Vox. 

The  main  result  of  Mr.  Owen's  observations  (I63S)  is 
to  agree  with  Cuvler  In  placinj;  Camelupardslis  betweati 
Ctrvui  and  Anlihjie,  and.  be  thinks,  somewhat  nearer  the 
deer.  He  finds  that  the  Organ*  n/"  Reliiiwn»saiiiMoehi»tt,j 
modified  in  correspondence  with  the  peculiar  geographical 
position  and  habits  of  the  Giraffe,  the  Organ*  qf  NutrxHo 
differing  but  little  from  those  of  otiter  homed  Ruminants. 

We  have  now  endeavoured  to  give  a  sketch  of  the  o 
gsniiation  and  hislury  of  this  most  interesting  genua.  W 
would  particularly  reter  the  (reader,  in  addition  to  the  no- 
tices given,  lo  the  interesting  details  of  he  Vaillont  and 
Mr.  Burchell.  M.  Geoffrey's  memoir  in  the  eleventh  vol.  of 
the  '  Ann.  des  Sc.  Not.,'  the  account  of  the  joivmey  of  the 
French  Girafie  above  alluded  lo  in  the  '  Mem.  du  Mus.,'  and 
the  lively  narrative ofM.  Thibaul,  relating  lo  the  capture  of 
the  Giraffes  belonging  to  the  Zoological  Society  of  London. 
(Zoo/.  Prnc..  103G.)  We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Miller,  the 
superintendent  for  the  following  measurements  of  titese 
fine  healthy  animals,  which  rutlect  so  much  credit  on  the 
Socieiy.  and  on  those  under  whose  pectilior  care  they  are 
placed  Ci'Jth  January,  IS38):— 

ttliijUliXkriinicli.        WIDm  R^n.n. 

Phi.  lochri.        Fml  IndtH.         FiM.  lurhn. 

Guib  Allah  (male)     13         a  7       II  C       11 

S<!lim(male)  13         (I  7         Si  6         7 

Zaida  (female)  12       11  7         4  6         7 

Wlfii  tli^v  nrrlMMl  ni  tli.-  Gardcni  on  the  24th  of  Mav. 
lH3il,(iiiib  \lln!i  miild  n':..>h  i.nly  l<f  cloven  feel  six  inchtV. 
Ml  ihni  \w  liii-  iiiown  Riiic'f  lliat  timn  two  feel  two  inches. 
The  uilirr*  hav,'  j,-r"wn  in  |.i..ii..rlion.  The  k-nglh  of  the 
mane  m-inciif  tlidmalci  and  in  tho  female  is  two  inches  i  nd 
throe qniiTtcrs.  and  in  theiilher  male  two  inches  and  a  half. 
Tlioy  are  fe<l  prinriplly  on  the  beat  hay,  placed  in  hi[;h 
racks:  they  like  a  carrot,  and  are  very  fund  of  onions; 
lump  sugar  is  also  a  favourite  treat  lo  them. 

The  coronet  of  upright  hairs  which  surrounds  the  bare 
knoi  !i  seen  best  in  tho  female;  for  in  tho  two  males  the 
hairs  are  very  much  rubbed  off,  in  con<equpiicc  of  their 
bulling  against  each  other;  tbey  seem  to  do  this  mure  in 
friendly  contention  than  in  anger,  though  one  of  them  has 
1  Inrgfl  spoce  on  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  bared  of  hair  by 
us  butting.    The  coronet  of  hairs  it  not  very  stiff,  and  the 


4  O  I  R 

hairs  are  matted  together  at  the  mots.  The  kaepos  dctm 
■aw  them  kick  at  each  other ;  lometiaies  they  wiB  ctnk* 
out  with  their  fore-feet  In  moving  th«y  lift  two  lega  on 
the  same  side,  though  not  exactly  aimultaneoualj. 

Tbe  erroneous  statement  that  the  ftve-lagi  are  long«r 
than  the  liind-lefp  has  been  repeated  io  frequently  ami  vo 
lately  by  authorities  which  doscrviedly  han  weight,  that  it 
becomes  neeesurf  to  give  tba  reault  of  examination  of 
the  skeleton.  In  reality  the  hind  le^  taking  tbe  limtia 
only  fh>m  their  aetting  on.  are  bnger  than  the  (br«-le^  \n 
about  one  inch.  A  meaautement  taken  from  tho  hod  uf 
the  humerus  to  the  end  of  the  nngueal  phalaugca  in  the 
fore  foot  gives  an  inch  less  in  tengtb  than  a  measumnent 
taken  from  the  head  of  the  femur  to  the  end  of  the  ungue>d 
phalanges  in  the  hind  fix>L 


i 


Neither  Mr.  Swainson  nor  Mr.  Ogilby  giveaany  >per.C<' 

characicrs   for   the  two   species   named  by   then.      II.   a- 

Mr.  Owen's  observations  lend  to  show,  there  is  no   thb'i 

horn  in  llie  forehead  of  the  northern  male  Giraffes,  we  tie 

exactly  see  on  what  the  specific  character  is  to  r^t. 

dark  colour  of  the  adult  male  of  Southern  Afrin.  if  ii 

lid  prove  to  differ  from  that  of  the  northern  male.  WKui.l 

it  is  submitted,  sanction  more  Ihan  variety.     The  •,;«- 

cimens  presented  bv  Mr.  Burchell  to  the  British  Muviil- 

oarae   from   Kosi   Fountain,   and   the   dtflercoce   betwvi- 

the  dark  spots  of  the  male  and   the  tawny  spota  of  i' • 

female  is  strongly  marked.    The  apeiimen   ftoin  Ccntr. 

Africa  presented  by  Colonel  Denham  is  very  youns,  and  i    - 

spots  ore  bright  yellowish  lawny.  Mr.  Sleedman,  iofais  ■  Wi., 

deringsand  Adventures  in  tho  Interior  of  Sonlhem  Af.  i<r 

(1835),  says  that  the  Giraffes  are  found  on  the  open  pit.   - 

several  days'  journey  to  the  north  of  Litakou,   in  •.tr... 

troops  of  six  or  ten  individuals,  and  that  tbey  feed  \  tv 

pally  upon  the  various   dwarf  species  of  AoMU*  wL  ■  .. 


>  sir  Ermid  Hem  i 


.    UK  UIIUTF.         iM     VllJl^mt  ULJI  thlU  ■    Uif      Hit     &r      V     feH 


G  I  It 


236 


G  I  R 


the  Etanes  communicate  with  each  other  and  with  the 
Bassin,  which  is  shallow  and  studded  with  isleU,  and  opens 
into  the  sc4i.  The  greatest  length  of  the  department  from 
N.N.W.  to  S.S.E.  is  106  miles;  its  greatest  hreadth  at  right- 
angles  to  tlic  length,  80  miles.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  3770 
square  mil&i,  which  is  more  than  half  as  much  again  as  the 
average  extent  of  the  French  departments,  and  about  equal 
to  the  conjoint  oreas  of  the  English  counties  of  Kent,  Sur- 
rey, and  Sussex.  The  population  in  1836  was  555,809, 
\vhich  exceeds  the  average  population  of  the  French  de- 
partments by  more  than  a  third ;  the  relative  population  is 
147  to  a  square  mile,  which  is  below  the  average  of  France, 
and  less  than  half  the  relative  population  of  the  above- 
named  English  counties.  Bordeaux,  the  capital,  is  in  44^ 
50'  N.  lat.,  35'  W.  long. ;  307  miles  in  a  direct  line 
S.S.W.  of  Paris,  or  376  by  tho  road  through  Chartres,  Ven- 
dorae,  Tours,  Poitiers,  and  AngoulSme. 

Surface ;  Hydrography;  Communications. — ^The  general 
cliaracter  of  the  surface  is  level ;  there  are  some  hills  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  department,  which  may  be  considered  as 
remote  ramifications  of  the  highlands  of  central.France ;  the 
countr)'  west  of  the  Garonne  is  a  dead  flat.  The  Garonne 
enters  the  department  on  the  S.E.  side,  the  Dordogne  on  the 
E.,  and  these  rivers  gradually  converge  and  form  the  sstuary 
of  the  Gironde.  The  Isle,  a  feeder  of  the  Dordogne,  and 
its  tributary,  the  Dronne,  water  the  north-eastern  part  of 
the  department,  and  there  are  in  the  N.E.  and  E.  several 
small  streams  which  flow  immediately  or  remotely  into  the 
Dordogne.  The  feeders  of  the  Garonne  which  are  in  the 
department  are,  with  the  exception  of  the  Dropt,  all  small ; 
and  the  country  west  of  that  river  is  ill  provided  with  water 
except  just  along  the  valley  of  the  Garonne,  and  in  the  south 
part  of  the  department  where  the  Leyre  Hows  into  the 
Bassin  or  bay  of  Arcachon.  The  extent  of  water  navigation 
is  thus  given  in  the  official  returns : — 

Garonne  and  Gironde  •        •         •        •        110 

Feeders  qf  Garonne  : — 

Dropt 30 

Dordogne 68 

Feeder  qf  Dordogne  : — 

Isle 57 

Feeder  qf  Isle : — 

Dronne     •••••••  1 

266 

There  are  no  canals  for  navigation. 

There  are  in  the  department  six  Routes  Royales  (govern- 
ment roads),  having  an  aggregate  length  of  about  225  miles, 
of  which  about  90  miles  are  in  good  repair ;  tho  rest  is  either 
out  of  repair  or  unfinished.  There  are  1 9  Routes  Depart- 
mentales  (roads  at  the  charge  of  the  local  government), 
having  an  aggregate  length  of  about  370  miles,  for  the  most 
part  in  good  repair.  The  bye-roads  and  paths  may  be  esti- 
mated at  about  6600  miles.  There  is  one  Route  Roy  ale  of 
the  first  class,  the  road  from  Paris  into  Spain,  which  passes 
by  Bordeaux  along  the  valley  of  the  Garonne,  and  thence  by 
Buas  into  the  department  of  Landes.  The  other  Routes 
Royales  branch  off  from  this,  or  lead  from  Bordeaux  to 
Tarious  other  places. 

Geological  Character, — Nearly  the  whole  of  the  depart- 
ment is  occupied  by  the  various  strata  of  the  supercreta- 
ceous  groun ;  the  chalk  rises  to  the  surface  just  upon  the 
N.E.  bounaary  of  the  department  Good  building-stone  is 
quarried. 

'  Climate;  Soil;  Agricultural  and  other  Produce, ^TheeW" 
mate  is  temperate,  and,  except  in  the  Landes,  generally 
healthy ;  the  sea  breezes  and  tne  frequent  rains  temper  the 
heat,  which  would  otherwise  be  excessive.  The  Landes, 
or  sandy  heaths,  of  which  only  a  small  part  has  been  brought 
into  cultivation,  occupy  nearly  half  of  the  department,  ex- 
tending from  the  sea  to  the  valley  of  the  Garonne.  The 
sands  of  the  down  salong  the  sea-shore,  driven  inland  by  the 
winds,  gradually  overspread  a  considerable  tract  of  country, 
encroaching  yearly  from  70  to  80  feet  along  the  whole  extent 
of  the  coast.  In  the  district  of  M^doc,  N.W.  of  Bordeaux, 
many  houses  had  been  destroyed ;  near  the  canid  of  Fumes 
J  church  has  been  so  completely  buried  that  the  steeple 
alone  is  visible,  and  naked  boughs  rising  8  or  10  feet  above 
the  surface  are  all  that  can  be  seen  of  a  forest  near  the  bay 
of  Arcachon,  which  has  been  overwhelmed  in  like  manner. 
The  increasing  devastation  has  however  been  checked  by 
-^vmg  into  effocc  Ibo  »uggettioa  of  U.  Bremontier,  aa 


engineer,  of  fixing  the  sand  by  covering  it  with  a  voG;eta  \  •  n 
suited  to  tho  soil.    Whether  from  the  evils  of  ex^t'»•J^  • 
poverty,  or  from  any  noxious   property  in  the  air,    tlv 
average  duration  of  human  life  among  tho  inhabitants  of  t  \ 
Landes  is  barely  two-)^hirds  of  its  duration  in  the  oih  - 
parts  of  France.    Between  the  Garonne  and  the  Dord^k'ni . 
and  in  that  part  of  the  department  which  is  to  the  nor:  li  <  f 
the  latter  river,  the  soil  is  chiefly  calcareous  ;  it  is  muiL*'.-  - 
with  considerable  districts  of  sandy  and  someofgra>« ':« 
soil,  and  with  rich  loamy  tracts.    The  surface  of  the  d  - 
partment  is  calculated  at  2.408,249  acres;  it  is  thus  af»|ir-» 
priated: — arable  land,  563,979  acres;  grassland,  139,.'''**' 
vineyards,  342,858 ;  woods,  263,544 ;  orchards,  gardens  •>  *   ' 
nursery  grounds,    17,434;  osier  beds,   wilbw  plots.   ^^ 
16,458;  various  cultivation,  67,841 ;  heaths,  commons,  k.' 
806,150;  ponds,  pools,  and  ditches,  16,431 ;  rivers,  hnKik- 
and  SBstuaries,  45,782;    forests  and   unproductive   land^ 
10,333;  unascertained,  97,879:  total,  2,408,249.    Tito  pn   . 
chiefly  cultivated  is  wheat;  an  unusually  large  Quantity   r  • 
rye  is  grown,  as  well  as  of  maize  and  mdlet.    Toe  r>*c  an  I 
millet  are  raised  in  such  parts  of  the  Landes  as  ha%  «•  i'\ 
dint  of  manure  been  brought  into  cultivation.    £xrcllc:i't 
firuits  and  a  large  quantity  of  hemp  are  grown.    But  tin- 
staple  produce  of  the  department  is  wine.  The  finest  cUr« :? 
are  from  this  part  of  France,  as  the  growths  of  Lafitte,  l^t- 
tour,  Ch&teau-Margaux,  and  Haut-Brion:  also  Sauternr. 
Barsac,  and  the  Vins  de  Grave.  The  extensive  woods  whf  h 
skirt  the  sea-coast,  or  pervade  the  Landes,  consist  chic  ft  > 
of  the  pine  ipinus  marttima),  from  which  turpentine.  p)tr,i, 
and  charcoal  arc  procured,  as  well  as  timber  for  build i:  ^ 
and  masts  for  vessels.    The  cork-tree  is  abundant 

The  Landes  are  thinly  peopled;  the  inhabitants  mitkc 
charcoal,  or  tend  the  numerous  docks,  which  obtain  soaTtt\ 
food  amid  these  sandy  wilds.  The  shepherds,  clothed  i 
sheep-skins,  traverse  the  waste  on  high  stilts,  balancing  at. . 
supporting  themselves  by  the  aid  of  a  long  staff,  of  the  hroii 
head  of  which  they  occasionally  make  a  seat,  and  which  th-  > 
also  use  to  guide  their  flocks:  they  employ  their  leisure  i.i 
knitting  coarse  woollen  stockings  for  their  own  use  or  f«ir 
sale.  Ihey  travel  to  markets  and  fairs  on  these  stilts. 
Among  the  sheep  of  the  department  are  many  flock«  ff 
merinos,  and  the  proprietors  are  seeking  to  extend  the  lon^*- 
woolled  English  breeds. 

Divisions,  Towns,  ^.— This  department  consists  wh  \\\ 
of  portions  of  the  former  province  of  Guyenne,  or  Guieni:c 
It  comprehends  the  districts  of  Bordelois  proper,  MMor,  a. id 
Landes  dc  Bordeaux,  the  Captalat  de  Buch,  the  distrirt^*  sxf 
Benange,  Entre-deux-Mers  (between  the  Garonne  and  th; 
Dordogne),  Libourne,  Fronsadois,  Cubzagues,  Bourgi-^ 
Blayois,  and  Vitrezay ;  all  of  which  are  included  in  Guienr.t 
proper,  or  the  Bordelois.  It  comprehends  also  the  grcut*  r 
part  of  Bazadois  Septentrional,  and  a  portion  of  BaiaH  c» 
Meridional,  and  a  very  small  portion  of  Agenois.  It  is  «ul- 
divided  into  six  arrondissements,  as  follows : — 


CapitoL 

DordrftuXf 

Bkye. 

Ijetparrc, 

Libourae. 

Bazaa. 

UHeulr. 


PupalaUun  in        Sitiulion. 


1831. 

1309 
9.838 
4.2:16 


I 


1836. 

98.705 
3^)1 
1.404 
9.714 
4.446 

a»93i 


Central  k  W. 

>K. 

N. 

B. 

8. 

S.E. 


Area, 

sq.  inilet. 

16:i 
M3 
466-5 
497 
ftl6*5 
306 


Pup.ar  Atror  '•« 


1K3I. 
945,.14d 

36.918 

107314 
5J1I0S 

M;w7 


I 

Sk,' 

3- 

u 

5.' 
&3 


I 


•  > 


3770*0   ftM;tt»      &5h>-« 


The  department  contains  48  cantons  and  543  eommaDcs. 

In  the  arrondissement  of  Bordeaux,  beside  the  cafiual 
[Bordeaux),  there  are  Cadillac  Castres,  and  Riona,  on  the 
Garonne ;  La  Teste  (or  Tdte)  de  Buch  (population  26t«^ 
town,  2840  commune),  on  the  bay  of  Arcachon ;  Castel* 
nau  de  M6doc,  Macau,  and  St.  Alton,  between  the  Gmroasr 
and  the  ocean ;  St.  Loubes  and  Gr£on»  between  the  same 
river  and  the  Dordogne ;  and  St  Andr6  de  Cubzac»  north-ca<-t 
of  the  Dordogne.  These  are  all  places  of  httle  impartanct. 
Cadillac  has  old  embattled  walls  and  an  antient  castle,  h4»Ii 
by  one  of  the  dukes  of  Epemou.  The  fott  of  M^oe.  m 
conjunction  with  the  town  of  Blaye  and  the  fort  Pate  d-; 
Blaye,  guards  the  passage  of  the  Gitondo,  and  defends  B*x^ 
deaux  from  an  attack  by  sea. 

In  the  arrondissement  of  Blaye  tbera  are  onlr  the  ci|ittal 
[Blaye]  and  Bourg,  on  the  Gtironne.  rBouRo.j 

In  the  arrondissement  of  Lesparre,  there  are  the  capital, 
between  the  Landes  and  the  Gironde,  and  GastiUon  oq 
the  Gironde.    At  the  northern  extremity  of  this  ttrondns^ 

ment,  on  a  lock  at  tbo  entnnoe  of  tiM  CSioiidc^  ii  tbe  l9V« 


O  I  z 


238 


6  L  A 


%  variety  of  admirable  ttuoeoet  and  paintiii|;a  executed  bj 
himself  and  his  pupil^.  The  building  itself  indeed  is  rather 
plain  externally,  being  a  simple  square  of  about  190  feet, 
and  of  rather  low  proportions,  as  it  consists  of  only  a  single 
order  (Doric),  comprising  two  ranges  of  windows,  the  upper 
one  of  which  is  a  mezxanine.     The  whole  is  sufficiently 
sober,  for  the  windows  are  without  dressings;  neithet  is 
there  any  other  embellishment  besides  the  oraer  itself  and 
the  rusticated  surface  of  the  walls.    The  simplicity  which 
reigns  throughout  is  ftirther  increased  by  the  entablature 
being  carried  quite  unbroken  along  the  whole  extent  of 
front»  which  it  terminates,  there  being  neither  attic  nor 
balustrade  above  it.     Yet  it  in  respect  to  its  exterior  this 
edifice  does  not  offer  much  for  description*  it  would  require 
a  large  volume  to  enumerate  and  explain  all  the  various 
decorations  of  the  interior — ^the  profusion  of  stuccoes,  fiiezes, 
and  frescoes,  with  which  the  different   apartments  are 
adorned.    One  of  the  most  remarkable  is  that  named  the 
Sola  d^  Giganth  the  walls  being  entirely  covered  with 
figures  representing  the  defeat  of  the  Titans — a  subject 
treated  by  him  with  such  astonishing  energy  that  Giulio 
has  here  shown  himself  ec[ual  to  the  style  of  Michel 
Anffelo;   while   in  the  series  representing    the  history 
of  Psyche   he  hat  emulated   Ri^aelle.     unfortunately 
both  these  works  have  been  so  retouched  and  repaired,  that 
they  now  exhibit  verv  little  of  the  original  execution,  and 
therefore  show  only  their  design  and  composition,  and  the 
poetical  genius  of  their  author,  which,  according  to  Rey- 
nolds, he  possessed  in  a  much  higher  degree  than  any  other 
artist  before  or  since.  Even  the  embellishment  of  this  palace 
alone  would  appear  to  have  been  nearly  the  work  of  an 
entire  lifetime ;  and  such  indeed  it  must  have  proved  had 
not  Giulio  contented  himself  with  giving  his  designs  and 
cartoons  to  be  copied  by  his  pupils,  which  being  done,  it 
was  his  practice  to  go  over  the  whole  of  each  painting,  cor- 
recting it  and  finishing  it  up  until  he  had  stamped  it  with 
the  character  of  his  own  pencil. 

Besides  the  edifices  already  mentioned,  he  restored  or 
embellished  various  churches  at  Mantua,  and  especially  the 
cathedral,  which,  although  comparatively  seldom  spoken  o^ 
'lA  one  of  the  finest  buildings  of  its  kind  in  all  Italy.  Giulio 
however  did  not  Uve  to  see  it  finished,  but  it  was  completed 
after  his  death  by  his  pupil  Bertano.  This  last-mentioned 
event  took  place  m  1546,  as  he  was  (m  the  point  of  quitting 
Mantua;  for  notwithstanding  the  high  repute  and  favour 
he  enjoyed  there,  his  ambition  tempted  him  to  accept  the 
offer  of  succeeding  Sansovino  as  the  architect  of  St.  Peter's, 
although  he  had  previously  refused  the  pressing  instances 
of  Francis  I,  who  was  anxious  to  engage  nim  in  nis  service. 
Giulio  was  by  no  means  so  happy  in  colouring  as  in  design 
and  invention,  which,  if  occasionally  rather  forced  and  ex- 
travagant, were  for  the  most  part  highly  noble.  He  chiefly 
excelled  in  mythological  subjects,  nor  was  he  always  very 
scrupulous  in  treating  them,  many  being  exceptionable  on 
account  of  their  voluptuousness.  Indeed  it  is  said  that  his 
chief  inducement  at  first  for  removing  to  Mantua  was  to 
abscond  from  Rome,  where  he  was  implicated  in  an  affair 
that  will  ever  be  a  Uot  in  his  character,  it  being  reported 
that  he  had  lUmished  the  engraver  Marc  Antonio  Raimondi 
with  a  series  of  inikmously  obscene  drawings  for  as  many 
sonnets  of  Aretino.  Raimondi  was  thrown  into  prison ;  and 
had  he  remained  at  Rome  Giulio  would  in  all  probability 
have  shared  the  same  fate,  and  not  undeservedly. 

While  at  Mantua  he  formed  a  sort  of  school,  the  most 
eminent  of  which  were  Primaticdo  and  Rinaldo  Mantovano. 
GIVET.    [Charlxmont.] 
GIZEH,  or  JIZEH.    [Eoyft.I 
GIZZARD,  the  muscular  or  pylorio  division  of  the  sto- 
mach in  birds.    In  these  animals  the  stomach  it  divided 
into  two  parts.    The  lower  cesophagus  (the  canal  which  is 
continued  from  the  crop  to  the  stomach)  first  dilates  into  a 
cavity  called  the  '  proventriculus,'  or  glandular  division  of 
the  stomach;  this  has  a  very  vascular  lining  membrane, 
and  is  furnished  with  numerous  large  follicles,  or  glands, 
placed  between  the  mucous  and  muscular  coats,  which 
secrete  a  solvent  fluid  very  similar  to  tne  gastnc  juice  in 
mammalia.    This  first  division  of  the  stomach  mostly  ter- 
minates immediately  in  the  gizsard.  which  is  situated  below 
iho  liver,  on  the  leu  side  of  the  abdomen,  restmg  on  the 
intestines.  This  organ  has  more  or  less  a  lengthened  form, 
nd  is  furnished  at  its  upper  part  with  two  openings,  the 
rdiac  and  pyloric,  which  are  close  together ;  the  former 
mmunicatet  with  the '  proventrioulttSi^and  the  latter  with 


>» ' . 


•iir«  .f 


the  mtestinea.  Below  those  openings  the  raxxard  dilates  tnf  n 
a  pouch,  in  the  middle  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  sidr^  ■  '. 
which  is  a  tendon  to  which  muscular  fibres  are  att^t  in 
In  birds  of  prey,  whose  Ibod  is  easily  digested,  the  gix/ar  2 
a  mere  membranous  cavity ;  but  in  graminivorous  biM!- 
is  furnished  with  muscles  of  great  power,  which  ati* 
ranged  in  four  masses;  the  two  largest,  which  are  aitun  • 
anteriorly  and  posteriorly,  are  connected  with  the  central  u  u 
dons,  and  are  called  the  digastric  muscles;  between  tiii->« 
are  two  thinner  ones. 

The  lining  membrane  of  the  gizzard  is  very  hard  ar.  i 
thick,  and  opposite  to  the  digastric  muscles  two  ra!; 
spots  are  formed  by  the  pressure  and  friction*  The  n)u>**i 
take  up  so  much  room  in  the  stomach  of  graminiv^ 
birds  that  the  crop  is  a  necessary  appendage  to  the  fpzut-  i 
and  transmits  the  food,  little  by  little,  to  h^  digesred.  1*  • 
food  is  triturated  in  the  gizzard  by  the  immediate  agency  •  - 
hard  foreign  bodies,  as  sand  and  gravel,  which  the  t;>.I< 
swallow ;  tnese  bruise  the  erains  of  com  by  the  actiun 
the  muscles,  and  deprive  them  of  their  vitality,  when  t;.i. 

Satric  juice  acts  upon  and  dissolves  them.  The  pebLU » 
us  perform  the  vicarious  ofllce  of  teeth. 

Hunter  inferred  that  tlie  action  of  the  great  dica^tr^ 
muscles  of  the  stomach  in  birds  was  rotatory,  ana  sa>  •. 
'  Although  the  motion  of  the  gizzard  is  hardly  visible,  y  : 
we  may  be  made  very  sensible  of  its  action  by  putting  tt.- 
ear  to  the  side  of  a  fowl  while  it  is  grinding  its  ftxxU  « lur. 
the  stones  can  be  heard  moving  one  upon  another.'  1 1  * 
pyloric  or  intestinal  orifice  of  the  gizzard  is  fumislic: 
with  a  valve,  which  is  of  considerable  size  in  those  birli 
which  swallow  large  stones, as  the  ostrich;  it  prevents  tiu  t. 
from  passing  into  the  intestines,  and  it  also  keeps  the  f  :.<i 
in  the  stomach  until  it  has  undergone  a  sufficient  degrw  i.f 
trituration  or  mastication  to  fit  it  for  nutrition. 

GLACIERS,  a  French  wozd  received  into  our  langua^^v, 
and  which  must  not  be  confounded  with  glaeUre,  which  1:4  • 
a  different  signification. 

The  glaciers,  as  defined  by  Saussure,  are  those  etermJ 
masses  of  ice  which  are  formed  and  remain  in  the  open  air 
in  the  valleys  and  on  the  slopes  of  \otty  motmtaina. 

In  speaking  of  glaciers,  we  generally  refer  to  those  of  the 
Alps,  as  beingthe  best  known,  though  there  are  many  11 
other  places.  The  glaciers  of  the  Alps  have  been  frequently 
described  by  travellers,  geographers,  and  natuialists,  but 
by  none  in  so  much  detail  as  by  Saussure  and  Gruner. 

General  view  of  the  Glaciers  qf  the  AJpe.—lf^  savs  Saus- 
sure, a  spectator  could  be  placed  at  a  suflscient  height  abo%r 
the  Alps,  to  embrace  at  one  view  those  of  SwitxerUtiJ, 
Savoy,  and  Dauphin6,  he  would  see  a  mass  of  mountain* 
intersected  by  numerous  valleys,  and  composed  of  sereni 

Sarallel  chains,  the  highest  in  the  middle,  and  the  otla-ri 
ecreasing  graduallv  as  they  recede.  The  central  ar.i 
highest  chain  would  appear  to  him  bristled  with  crafi« 
rocks,  covered,  even  in  summer,  with  snow  and  ice  m^  •  1 
those  places  that  are  not  absolutely  vertical;  but  on  U^.h 
sides  of  the  chain  he  would  see  deep  and  verdant  vallc\>« 
well  watered  and  covered  with  villages.  Examinini;  »:i:; 
more  in  detail,  he  would  remark  that  the  central  raLU|^.•  •! 
composed  of  lofty  peaks  and  smaller  chains,  covered  «..li 
snow  on  their  tops,  but  having  all  their  slopes  that  ai«  r  .* 
very  much  inclined  covered  with  ice»  while  the  intemls  U- 
tween  them  form  elevated  valleys  filled  with  imm<.:i%.> 
masses  of  ice,  extending  down  into  the  deep  and  inhi- 
bited valleys  which  border  on  the  great  chain.  The  rhic 
nearest  to  the  centre  would  present  to  the  observer  the  sxmc 
phenomenon,  but  on  a  smaller  scale,  beyond  which  be  tk  .mli 
see  no  more  ice,  nor  even  snow,  save  here  and  there  on  y  »m« 
of  the  more  elevated  summits. 

0/  the  division  of  Glaciers  into  two  kinds,— From  what 
precedes,  continues  Saussure,  I  recognise  two  kinds  of  \i\t- 
ciers,  quite  distinct  from  each  other,  and  to  which  all  tlif  :r 
varieties  may  be  referred.  The  first  are  contained  in  t '  - 
valleys  more  or  less  deep,  and  which,  though  at  givat  • '.» • 
vattons,  are  still  commanaedon  all  sides  by  mountains  hi^U  r 
still;  while  the  second  are  not  contained  in  the  vallcjs.  i . 
are  spread  out  on  the  slopes  of  the  higher  peaks. 

The  distinguishing  features  of  the  two  kinds,  ar«^  t:  ■ 
greater  extent  and  depth  of  the  former,  and  the  ■^\..\  ' 
compactness  of  the  mass ;  but  as  these  circumstanrt-^  «>. . 
to  depend  on  the  situation  of  the  glacieza,  as  is  pru«  im 
the  insensible  passage  of  the  one  kind  into  the  uth^  r  . 
many  localities,  the  distinetion  of  Saussute  seems  Ut  have 
Uttle  foundation. 


G  L*i 


240 


6  L  A 


JFind  qf  tne  G^/oei^t.^This  phttnomenon.  which  the  | 
Germans  call  fletsehergeblaset  results  from  the  sudden 
escape  of  the  air  imprisoned  beneath  the  glaciers.  On  a 
change  of  temperature  this  escapes  through  the  crevices  in 
strong  currents  of  insupportably-cold  wind,  driving  like 
snow^lust  the  fine  icy  particles  with  which  it  is  loaded. 

Descent  qf  the  Glaciers, — ^All  the  Alpine  valleys  being 
inclined  plains,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  glaciers 
must  slip  down  by  their  own  weight,  whenever  any  circum- 
stance destroys  their  adhesion  to  the  sides  and  bottoms  of 
the  valleys.  This  adhesion  is  constantly  diminished,  even 
in  the  depth  of  winter,  by  the  natural  warmth  of  the  earth, 
which  thaws  the  under  surface  of  the  glacier ;  but  as  this 
Cakes  place  only  in  those  parts  where  the  great  thickness  of 
the  ice  protects  the  soil  from  the  effects  of  external  cold, 
the  mass  by  this  action  is  but  partially  disengaged,  and 
therefore  still  maintains  its  position.  But  when  the  warmth 
of  summer  heats  the  soil  all  around,  and  thaws  the  ice  at  its 
surface  and  edges,  the  liberation  of  the  glacier  goes  on  with 
rapidity,  aided  as  it  is  moreover  by  the  erosion  of  the 
undertlowing  currents,  and  the  abrasion  of  the  lumps  of  ice 
and  the  stones  which  thev  bear  along.  Then  it  is  that  the 
whole  mass,  obeying  the  impulse  of  gravity,  slips  down  and 
invades  the  fertile  valleys  below,  presenting  the  singular 
spectacle  of  an  ice  field  terminating  on  flowery  meadows 
and  contiguous  to  rich  harvests.  The  limits  which  the  de^ 
scending  glaciers  attain  are  subject  to  variation. 

Increase  and  Diminution  of  the  G/aciw.— Notwith- 
standing the  immense  accession  of  snow  and  ice  which  the 
§laciers  receive  ever^  winter,  and  which  is  much  greater 
lan  what  could  possibly  be  thawed  by  the  mere  effect  of  a 
short  summer  in  the  higher  Alpine  regions,  it  is  found  that 
they  have  not  sensibly  increased.    If  for  one  or  a  few  years 
m  succession  some  of  the  glaciers  are  observed  to  descend 
lower  than  usual,  they  are  found  in  the  following  years  to 
recede  proportionably ;  thus  they  are  confined  within  certain 
limits  by  a  compensating  process  of  nature.    The  evapora- 
tion fh)m  ice,  and  particularly  from  snow,  is  considerable 
even  in  winter,  and  goes  on  with  great  rapidity  in  a  drv  and 
rarefied  air ;  and  subterranean  heat,  as  we  have  already  ob- 
served, produces  throughout  the  year  a  certain  diminution  of 
the  glaciers  at  their  under  surface.     In  the  summer  the 
general  thawing  of  all  the  parts  exposed  to  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun,  to  the  warm  atmosphere,  and  to  the  heated  soil 
at  the  edges  of  the  glaciers,  tends  greatly  to  diminish  the 
quantity  of  ice ;    an  effect  increased  by  the  mechanical 
action  of  the  torrents  which  this  thawing  occasions.    But 
all  these  causes,  powerful  as  they  are,  would  be  insufficient 
to  prevent  a  constant  though  gradual  increase  of  the  ice, 
were  it  not  for  the  advance  of  the  glaciers  into  the  warm 
atmosphere  of  the  lower  valleys.    The  greater  the  increase 
of  the  preceding  winter,  the  greater  the  pressure  from  above, 
and  the  lower  the  glacier  slips  into  the  thawing  region. 
The  farther  it  slips,  the  greater  space  is  left  behind  to  be 
filled  up,  and  consequently  the  greater  time  must  elapse 
before  the  mass  can  again  be  urg^  forward.    During  this 
time,  the  lower  extremity,  subjected  to  the  heat  of  two  or 
tluee  summers,  recedes  as  much  as  or  more  than  it  bad 
before  advanced,  and  thus  an  admirable  compensation  is 
established,  by  which  the  cultivated  lands  or  the  lower 
valleys  are  secured  against  the  unlimited  encroachments 
of  the  glaciers. 

Extent  of  the  Glaciers. — ^The  number  and  extent  of  the 
Alpine  glaciers  is  v^  considerable.  From  Mont  Blanc  to 
the  borders  of  the  Tyrol  there  are  reckoned  about  400 
glaciers,  of  which  a  very  few  are  only  three  miles  in  length; 
the  greater  number  range  from  ten  to  fifteen  miles  long, 
and  from  one  to  two  miles  and  a  quarter  broad.  The 
thickness  of  some  of  the  glaciers  is  also  very  considerable, 
being  from  100  to  600  feet. 

It  is  calculated  that  the  glaciers  of  the  Tyrol,  Switzerland. 
Piedmont,  and  Savoy  form  together  a  superficial  extent  of 
1434  sauare  miles.  Such  are  the  great  reservoirs  whence 
some  or  the  principal  rivers  of  Europe  draw  their  inexbaust- 
able  supplies.  It  is  observable  that  there  are  but  few  glaciers 
in  the  airection  of  east  and  west# 

The  above  account  refers  cliiefly  to  the  glaciers  of  the 
Alps ;  but  as  all  glaciers,  wherever  they  may  be,  have  the 
same  origin,  it  is  presumable  they  are  also  subjected  to  like 
influences  and  present  similar  phienomeua. 

The  Pyrencan  chain,  as  also  the  Sierra  Nevada,  hnve 
glaciers,  though  they  are  almost  all  on  the  northern  si  ipcs, 
.u —  1^  ^{j^^  ^^^^  ^Q  ^Y^  southern  declivities»  except  in  such 


places  as  arc  sheltered  from  the  sun  and  south  wind  \ir 
other  and  more  advanced  mountains.  In  the  niouDtatQ%  f>f 
Norway  there  are  several  glaciers.  Spitzber^cn  b***  it& 
eminences  covered  with  snow  and  surrounded  bv  glaciers. 

In  Iceland  the  glaciers  are  both  numerous  and  extenia\t : 
they  generally  hang  on  the  rapid  slopes  of  the  mouDtai*.Sr 
and  sSmetimes  wholly  encase  tnem.  These  ioe>cUd  vlr-t  ^- 
tions  are  termed  Jokiils,  the  principal  of  which  is  tfa^: 
named  Klufa  Jokiil,  in  the  eastern  quarter  of  the  isUz>^ 
and  which,  according  to  Henderson,  forms,  with  little  or  rt? 
interruption,  a  vast  chain  of  ice  and  snow  mountains  i  .* 
less  than  3000  miles  square.  Another,  called  BUf^T  • 
Jokiil,  extends  fi-om  near  Tindafiall  100  miles  acrus*  \\* 
island  in  a  westerly  and  northerly  direction,  and,  ui-ar  i  L- 
Lake  Hvitdn^atn,  presents  the  most  magnificent  glar.*  -•. 
There  are  numerous  other  glaciers;  many  of  them,  be9»;'k> 
the  usual  plisnomena,  exhibiting  marks  of  the  extraacu  - 
nary  convulsions  occasioned  by  volcanic  action  and  *:.t 
emission  of  hot  water  from  the  sides  of  the  mountaiii». 

Greenland,  as  far  as  is  known,  contains  innuincmV 
glaciers,  many  of  great  thickness;  and  the  inhabitant*    • 
both  the  east  and  the  west  coast  are  persuaded  of  tlieir  c-*:  - 
tinual  increase.    It  is  remarkable  that  although  Graali.  <: 
his  account  of  Greenland,  describes  the  glaciers  as  forui". 
in  the  same  manner  with  those  of  the  Alps,  yet  he  and  • 
travellers  notice  the  beautiful  transparency  and  consc«|i:t-i; 
compactness  of  the  northern  glaciers,  and  of  the  iccb^^*.* 
which  have  been  detached  from  them ;   a  circutnstan<  • 
which  seems  to  denote  some  peculiar  modification  of  th 
process  of  their  formation. 

Along  the  south-west  coast  of  South  America  there  ar* 
extensive  glaciers,  as  also  in  the  strait  of  Magalhacns.  ai\i 
in  Tierra  del  Fuego.  They  are  described  by  Captain  P.  1' 
King,  and  laid  down  in  many  parts  of  the  chart  pul>li>>  t-l 
from  the  Survey  of  the  Adventure  and  Beagle.  iLortsi  * 
Gcog,  Journal^  vol.  i.) 

Dr.  Gebler,  m  the  summers  of  the  years  1833,  1834,  .i..  1 
1835,  paid  much  attention  to  the  formation  and  mo\cmtrri: 
of  the  glaciers  of  the  Altai  mountains;  and  it  is  worth%  r 
notice  that  his  observations  coincide  with  those  obtatued  :i 
the  Alps  by  Saussure  and  others. 

GLACIS,  an  elevation  of  earth  surrounding  a  fortr».-«« 
on  the  exterior  of  the  covered-way,  to  which  it  servvs  a-s  4 
parapet.    [S,  S,y?^.  1,  Bastion.] 

Its  crest  is  eight  feet  above  the  teneplein  of  the  ro^x^n  I- 
way,  and  its  supenor  surface,  which  descends  with  a  uciit 
slope  towards  the  country,  meets  the  natural  gruuii  \  &: 
about  fifty  yards  from  the  covered-way. 

The  glacis,  by  forming  an  inclined  plane  ascending  t to- 
wards the  fortress,  serves  to  expose  the  approaches  of  Ut 
besiegers,  when  they  arrive  near  the  place,  to  the  trv  *i 
artillery  from  the  bastions  or  ravelins;  and  a  baiiquot:<> 
or  step*  at  the  foot  of  its  interior  slope,  enables  the  defcudi  :> 
to  graze  its  superior  surface  by  a  fire  of  musketry. 

Any  elevation  of  earth  beyond  the  ditch  of  a  fortresft,  ^ui 
forming  an  inclined  plane  descending  towards  the  latter,  ^ 
called  a  reverse  or  counterslope  glacis. 

GLADIATORS  were  men  who  fought  with  s^vs.*:. 
'  gladii,'  and  other  weapons,  and  wounded  and  kiL\d 
another  in  the  circus,  the  amphitheatre,  and  other  pu' 
places,  for  the  entertainment  of  the  Roman  people.  T'  • 
were  either  slaves,  prisoners,  or  convicts,  and  as  such  obi  .-I 
to  fight ;  or  volunteers,  who  exhibited  for  money.  TU*  r: 
were  establishments  in  the  Roman  towns,  in  which  x'm 
gladiators  were  boarded  and  taught  their  art,  and  in  « I*  1. 
a  certain  number  of  those  who  had  been  train«4  «t:i 
always  kept  in  readiness  for  the  fight.  Their  master  a.  ' 
keeper  was  called  Lanista.  When  a  wealthy  man  wan'-l 
to  give  a  gladiators*  fight,  either  at  a  funeral  or  on  any  t^iL.r 
pubhc  or  private  occasion,  he  bargained  with  tlie  Lani^^rv 
for  a  certain  price  to  give  him  so  many  pairs  of  gladi;iUri. 
Out  of  each  pair  one  was  to  die,  if  so  required  by  the  s^it-- 
tators.  When  a  gladiator  was  severely  wounded*  ao  as  tk»  :- 
unable  to  fight  any  longer,  his  antagonist  stood  over  l\  *  > 
with  his  sword  ready  to  kill  him,  and  looked  up  to  t  .• 
assembly  for  its  fiat.  If  the  majority  tunied  their  thuxot't 
downwards,  that  was  the  signal  of  death.  The  on«:.n  . ' 
this  barbarous  custom  seems  to  have  been  derived  fr  i- 
the  practice  of  killing  a  certain  number  of  capti\-es  at  *;■ 
funeral  of  a  chieftain.  Homer  represents  Achilles  as  vi.-r 
ficmg  twelve  young  Trojans  at  the  funeral  of  bis  fi.<:.. 
Patroclus.  Afterwards,  instead  of  butchering  the  prix  ot^^ 
like  po  many  cattle,  it  was  thought  better  to  make  tlwa 


G  L  A 


242 


G  L  A 


Bhiro,  and  joins  the  Taafe  three  or  four  miles  below  the 
Cynon  on  the  right  bank.  The  Ely,  or  Elwy,  may  also  be 
considered  a  tributary  of  the  Taafe,  since  they  have  a  com- 
mon iDstuary ;  it  has  a  course  of  about  20  mUes,  all  in  61a« 
morganshire,  and  is  not  navigable. 

The  Daw,  or  Thaw,  rises  near  Cowbridge,  and  flows  10 
or  12  miles  past  that  town  into  the  sea.  Its  mouth  forms 
the  little  harbour  of  Aberthaw,  close  to  Breaksea  Point 

The  Ogmore  rises  in  the  central  mountain-group  of  the 
county,  and  flows  past  Bridgend,  about  18  miles,  into  the  sea 
between  Nash  Point  and  Sker  Point  It  receives  on  its 
right  bank  the  Garw,  and  the  Llynfi,  or  Uvnvi,  which  (low 
from  the  same  group  of  mountains,  and  nave  a  course  of 
7  and  9  miles  respectively ;  and  on  the  left  bank,  near  its 
mouth,  it  receives  the  Ewenny,  which  has  a  course  of  10 
or  12  miles. 

The  Avon  rises  on  the  north  side  of  Llangeinor  mountain, 
and  Hows  south-west  15  miles  into  Swansea  bay ;  it  receives 
the  Corrwg  and  the  Avon  Fechan,  or  Little  Avon,  both 
small.  It  is  navigable  a  mile  or  two  above  its  mouth  for 
vessels  of  small  burden,  employed  by  the  proprietors  of 
some  neighbouring  copper-works. 

The  Neath,  or  Nedd,  rises  in  Brecknockshire  and  flows 
south  to  the  border  of  Glamorganshire:  in  this  part  of  its 
course  it  receives  several  tributaries.  From  the  border  it 
flows  south-west,  15  miles,  through  Glamorganshire  into 
Swansea  Bay.  Its  whole  course  is  about  23  miles,  of  which 
it  is  navigable  for  vessels  ot  200  tons  for  about  two,  vis.  up 
to  Neath  bridge.  There  is  a  bar  at  the  mouth  with  several 
rocks.  It  receives  only  one  tributary  of  anv  importance 
in  Glamorganshire,  the  Dulais,  or  Dylais,  which  rises  in 
Brecknockshire  and  lias  a  course  of  14  or  15  milea,  join- 
ing the  Neath  about  two  or  three  miles  above  the  town  of 
Neath. 

The  Tawe  rises  in  Brecknockshire,  and  flows  south-west 
through  Brecknockshire  and  Glamorganshire  into  the  sea 
at  Swansea,  called  by  the  Welsh  Abort  awe,  the  harbour  of 
which  is  formed  by  the  mouth  of  this  river.  Its  course  is 
about  26  miles,  about  half  in  each  county.  It  has  several 
tributaries,  but  none  of  those  which  belong  to  Glamorgan- 
shire  are  large  enough  to  require  notice. 

The  Loughor  rather  beloni^  to  Caermarthenshire ;  it  has 
the  lower  part  of  its  course,  for  12  or  14  miles,  along  the 
border  of  this  county,  and  is  navigable  up  to  the  town  of 
Loughor.  Its  principal  Glamorganshire  tributaries  are,  the 
I^n,  or  Llan,  and  the  Leu,  or  Liu.  The  Bstuary  of  this 
river  is  eaUedthe  Hurry,  which  name  it  takes  from  a  stream* 
let  of  the  peninsula  of  Grower,  about  5  miles  long,  which 
flr  W8  jito  it.    There  are  several  canals  in  the  county. 

The  Glamorganshire  or  (as  it  is  sometimes  called)  the 
Cardiff  canal  commences  on  the  east  side  of  the  river  Taafe, 
near  iis  entrance  into  Pennarth  harbour,  about  a  mile  and 
a  half  below  Cardiff.  Its  course  is  first  north,  then  north* 
nortb-west  along  the  valley  of  the  Taafe,  on  the  east  side  of 
the  river,  passing  close  by  the  town  of  Cardiff  to  near  the 
juiictiun  of  the  Taafe  and  the  Cynon.  Here  it  is  carried 
over  the  river  by  an  aqueduct  bridge,  and  is  very  soon  after 
joiued  by  the  Aberdare  canal.  The  remainder  of  its  course 
is  on  the  west  side  of  the  river,  to  the  town  of  Merthyr 
Tydvil.  near  the  border  of  Glamorganshire  and  Brecknock- 
sliire.  Its  whole  length  is  about  25  miles,  with  a  total  rise 
uf  61 1  feet.  At  its  termination  in  the  tideway  of  the  river 
Taafe  there  is  a  sea-lock,  with  a  floating-dock  16  feet  deep, 
capable  of  receiving;  vessels  of  300  tons.  The  line  from 
Merthyr  to  Cardiff  was  opened  A..D.  1794.  This  canal 
is  destit^ned  chiefly  for  the  export  of  the  coal  and  iron 
of  the  country  through  which  it  passes.  There  are  several 
railroads  along  its  line,  connecting  it  with  the  mines  and 
coalpits;  the  Cardiff  and  Merthyr  Tydvil  railway  runs 
parallel  to  the  canal,  but  on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  from 
Merthyr  to  the  aqueduct  over  the  Taafe. 

The  Aberdare  canal  is  connected  with  the  Glamorgan- 
shire canal,  near  the  aqueduct  bridge  over  the  Taafe ;  and 
runs  along  the  valley  of  the  Cynon,  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  river,  and  nearly  parallel  to  it  to  within  a  mile  of  Aber- 
dare. Its  whole  length  is  6^  miles,  with  a  toUl  rise  of  40 
feet  It  is  designed,  like  the  Glamorganshire  canal,  for 
the  export  of  iron,  coal,  and  lime,  the  produce  of  the 
neighbouring  mines.  From  the  termination  of  the  canal 
near  Aberdare  is  a  railroad,  which  extends  two  miles 
ikrther  in  the  same  direction. 

The  Neath  canal  oomroencea  at  Abemant  on  the  north- 
west side  of  the  river  Neath,  or  Nedd,  and  moa  for  tome 


mttei  parallel  to  that  river,  whieh  it  erOMM  abentttidviif 
between  the  oommencement  of  the  canal  and  the  town  o» 
Neath ;  it  then  continues,  still  parallel  to  the  ceufse  of  tha 
river,  but  on  the  south-east  side,  jpast  the  town  of  Neath,  a 
mile  or  two  below  which  it  termmates  in  the  Neatb  nrcr. 
This  canal  was  nearly  oompleted  in  1798.  It  serv«s  for  ti.* 
export  of  coals,  copper,  iron,  limestone,  and  other  mioermlt 
The  Neath  canal  is  about  14  milea  long.  A  bimoch  cu: 
from  this  canal  on  the  south-east  side  of  the  Neath  is  carrufj 
across  that  river,  and  runs  on  the  north-west  side  of  ii  till  ii 
terminates  in  the  Britton  canal,  which  is  a  small  eanai.  .. 
little  more  than  four  miles  long;  cut  fit>m  the  river  NcaiL. 
opposite  to  where  ttie  main  line  of  the  Neath  canal  opent 
into  it,  nearly  parallel  to  the  ooaat  into  Swansea  barbQur 
The  Britton  canal  is  the  property  of  an  individual. 

The  Swansea  canal  commences  in  Swansea  harbour,  and 
runs  along  the  valley  of  the  Tawe,  on  the  west  aide  of  tlu: 
river,  into  Brecknockshire.  It  is  about  17  miles  lung,  with  4 
rise  of  373  feet :  it  was  opened  A.D.  1 798.  It  is  chidfly  UMri 
for  the  export  of  the  minmls  of  the  countryt  and  the  con- 
veyance of  copper  and  other  ores  to  the  extensive  Ibundrm 
about  Swansea.  There  are  several  railroads  connectmg  tt 
with  the  neighbouring  mines. 

The  Penclawdd  oa^  commences  at  the  village  of  Pen- 
clawdd,  on  the  nstuary  of  the  Burry,  and  has  a  crookiM 
course  eaatward  for  nearly  4  miles.  There  are  some  rail- 
roads connected  with  this  canal,  which  runs  through  a  part 
of  the  ooal-field  of  South  Wales, 

There  are  several  railroads  in  Glamorganshire.  The 
Cardiff  and  Merthyr  Tydvil  railway  has  been  already  no- 
ticed in  connection  with  the  Glamorganshire  canal. 

The  Duffryn  Llynvi  and  Perth  Cawl  railway  eommencef 
at  the  harbour  of  jPwU,  or  Forth  Cawl,  near  Sker  Point,  east 
of  Swansea  bay,  and  runs  eastward  inland  to  tlie  Talley  cf 
the  Llynvi,  a  feeder  of  the  Ogmore ;  it  then  follows  th« 
valley  of  this  river,  on  the  west  side  of  the  stream,  to  nev 
its  head,  where  it  crosses  it,  and  continues  its  course  fur  i 
mfle  or  two  forther.  Its  len^h  is  nearly  17  miles,  and  its 
total  rise  490  feet.  The  object  of  this  railwayt  aa  well  as 
of  tlie  Brideend  railway,  which  extends  from  this  to  the 
town  of  Bridgend,  is  to  flicilitate  the  oonveyanoe  of  good\ 
especially  of  the  freestone,  limestone^  coal,  and  iron  whk^h 
the  district  yields. 

The  Aberdulais  railway  oommenoei  at  the  branch  of  tlw 
Neath  canal,  near  the  function  of  the  rivers  Neath  and 
Dulais,  and  runs  along  the  valley  of  the  Dulais,  6rst  on  the 
west  and  then  on  the  east  side  of  that  river,  to  the  border 
of  Brecknocluhire.  It  is  between  8  and  9  milea  long, 
with  a  total  rise  of  426  feet 

The  Oystermouth  railway  commences  at  Oratemouth. 
near  the  western  extremitv  of  Swansea  Bay,  and  runs  alor. ; 
the  shore  of  the  bay  to  the  town  of  Swansea,  and  thenov 
northward  to  the  coal-pits  near  that  town,  sending  out  m- 
veral  branches.  It  is  designed  to  fru^ilitate  the  shipping  of 
the  mineral  productions  of  the  district 

The  railroads  which  connect  the  various  canals  with  th« 
mines  near  which  they  pass  have  been  noticed.  There  art 
others  connecting  the  little  harbour  of  Aberavim  with  the 
coal-pits  and  mines  of  the  vicinity. 

The  principal  coach -road  is  that  travelled  by  the  Pem- 
broke, Caermarthen,  and  Bristol  maiL  It  enters  the  ceunty 
from  the  east  by  Romney  bridge,  over  the  Romney. 
between  Newport  (Monmouthshire)  and  Cardiff^  and  ruat 
first  west,  then  north-west,  by  CardilC  Cowbridge,  and 
Neath  to  Swansea ;  from  Swansea  it  runs  north-west,  and 
quits  this  county  for  Caermarthenshire  at  the  bridge  o%tT 
the  Loughor  at  Pontarddylais.  From  Cardiff  the  road  leads 
to  Caerphilly,  and  thence  into  Monmouthshire;  another 
follows  the  valley  of  the  Taafe  to  Merthyr ;  and  another  ruD« 
north-west  to  Llantrissent  and  Bridgend.  A  road  runs  frum 
Cowbridge  to  Llantrissent,  Newbridge,  and  Merthvr.  A 
road  from  Neath  follows  the  valley  of  the  Neatn  int.-^ 
Brecknockshire,  with  a  branch  near  the  border  of  the  count t 
to  Merthyr.  A  road  from  Swansea  traverses  the  peninsula 
of  Gower  to  Roesilly;  and  several  roads  ftfsm  SwanMA 
communicate  with  Loughor  and  with  various  other  plar««. 

Geological  Character ;  Mineralogy. — ^The  uppermo5.t  < 
the  formations  which  are  found  in  this  county  is  the  h\L< 
lias,  which  occupies  the  most  southern  portion  of  the  count*. 
It  forms,  with  some  interruptions,  the  cliflb  which  are  fuuxui 
from  Lavernock  Point  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ogmore.  and 
occupies  the  lower  part  of  the  valley  of  the  Ogmons.  Tl^ 
lias  here  is  ohietfy  found  ilUing  up  the  vaUeya  and  depres- 


J 


G  LA 


243 


6  L  A 


tfons  in  fhe  laljaMiit  teraations.  Its  ttnta  are  nearly  i 
horixontal,  except  where  disturbed  hy  the  fkults  of  the 
lower  fbrmationft.  The  eliils  formed  by  this  rock  are  bold 
and  lofty,  and  samphire  grows  more  plentifully  on  them 
than  on  any  other.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  county  the 
newer  red  marl  or  red  sandstone  is  also  found,  especially 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Oarditf,  and  along  the  coast  from 
the  Roroney  to  Lavemock  Point.  The  conglomerates 
associated  with  this  rock  predominate  near  Llandaff  and  in 
the  rale  of  Ely.    Ctypsum  is  found  near  LaTemock  Point. 

The  newer  magnesian  or  conglomerate  limestone,  which 
is  the  lowest  rock  before  coming  to  the  coal-measures,  is 
fbund  in  several  places  in  the  southern  part  of  the  county ; 
its  thickness  varies  very  %  «ch,  from  thirty  foet  to  as  many 
inches*  almost  in  the  same  cliK 

The  rest  of  the  county  is  occupied  by  the  coal-measures 
and  the  associated  beds*  the  mountain  limestone,  and  the 
old  red  sandstone.  The  coal-measures  occupy  all  the 
northern  part  of  the  county ;  they  are  bounded  on  the  south 
by  a  line  drawn  across  Gower  peninsula  from  Whitford 
Burrows  to  Oystermouth  on  Swansea  Bay.  by  the  shore  of 
Swansea  Bay,  and  by  a  waving  line  drawn  eastward  fh)m 
Margam  on  that  bay  by  Llantnssent  and  Caerphilly  to  the 
river  Romney.  The  deepest  part  of  the  coal-field  of  South 
Wales,  to  which  the  district  Uius  limited  belongs,  is  near 
Neath.  The  miner  finds  coal  without  any  consi&rable  de- 
scent ;  for  the  whole  country  is  intersected  with  deep  valleys 
in  a  north  and  south  direction ;  and  the  miner,  taking  ad* 
vantage  of  this,  drives  levels  into  the  adjacent  hills  and  ob- 
tains ironstone  and  coal.  There  are  however  many  mines 
in  valleys  and  low  places.  The  lower  part  of  the  series  of 
the  coal-beds,  as  worked  near  MerthyrTydvil,  is  distinguished 
by  the  predominance  of  shale ;  the  upper,  by  the  predomi- 
nance of  a  coarse  grit  of  loose  texture,  abounding  with 
specks  ot  coaly  matter.  Near  Swansea  an  enormous  fault, 
many  fothoms  thick  and  filled  with  firagments  of  the  disrupted 
strata,  traveraes  the  field,  effecting  a  rise,  on  one  side  or  the 
fault,  of  240  feet  in  the  strata.  Near  Merthyr,  where  the 
coal-field  approaches  its  northern  limit,  and  at  the  head  of  the 
Neath  valley,  is  found  a  coarse  conglomerate  of  the  millstone 
grit  formation,  separating  the  coal-measures  from  the  sub- 
jacent carboniferous  limestone,  which  skirts  the  coal-field 
nearly  all  round.  A  belt  of  this  limestone  crosses  Glamor- 
Ranshire  south  of  the  coal-field ;  and  the  old  red  sandstone  is 
found  at  each  extremity  of  the  county,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Romney,  and  in  the  peninsula  of  Gower,  cropping  out  from 
beneath  the  carboniferous  limestone.  In  the  peninsula  is  a 
central  ridge  of  old  red  sandstone,  with  two  parallel  lime- 
stone belts  resting  one  on  each  side  of  the  sandstone  ridge. 
The  same  arrangement  would  probably  be  observed  in  the 
south-eastern  portion  of  the  county,  were  it  not  that  the 
ndge  of  sandstone  and  the  more  southerly  belt  of  limestone 
are  concealed  by  the  more  recent  horizontal  deposits  of  the 
lias,  newer  red  marl,  and  conglomerate  limestone,  enume* 
rated  in  the  first  part  of  this  notice. 

Coal-pita  are  numerous,  especially  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Tawe  and  the  Neath ;  about  the  head  of  the  Taafe  and  its 
tributary  the  C^non,  near  Merthyr  and  Aberdare ;  and  along 
the  southern  limit  of  the  coal  field  near  Bridgend,  liantris- 
sent  and  Caerphilly.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  valleys  of  the 
Tawe  and  Neath,  and  along  the  southern  limits  of  the  coal- 
field, the  coal  is  principally  of  a  bituminous  or  binding  Quality; 
the  pita  round  Mertoyr  and  Aberdare  yield  '  coaiing  or 
iron-makinflr  coal ;'  and  those  in  the  upper  valleys  of  the 
Tawe  and  Keath  vield  '  stone-coal,*  which  gives  out  little 
smoke,  and  is  useo,  the  large  coal  for  malting,  and  the  small 
coal,  or  culm,  for  burning  lime. 

Ironstone  is  found  in  Uie  valley  of  the  Neath,  but  most 
abundantly  in  Aberdare  and  near  Merthyr,  which  last  may 
be  considered  the  capital  of  the  iron  district  of  South  Wales. 
Tliere  are  some  lead  mines  in  the  district  occupied  by  the 
carboniferous  limestone,  near  Cowbridge  and  Liantrissent. 
Limestone  is  quarried  in  various  places.  (Greenough's 
Geoh/^,  Map,) 

Divmofu,  Towns,  ^. — ^The  county  of  Glamorgan  de- 
rives itj»  name  firom  Morgan,  a  chieftain,  said  to  Ins  a  de- 
scendant of  Caradoc  ap  Br^n,  the  Caractacusofthe  Roman 
historians,  who  possessed  this  territory  (previously  compre- 
hended in  a  large  district  called  Essyllwg  or  Gwent)  after 
the  departure  of  the  Romans.  Its  designation  was  Mor- 
ganwg  (Morgan*s  country)*  or  Gwlad  Morgan,  whence  by 
corruption  Glamorgan.    This  designation  extended  at  first 


to  Monnonthshire  (which  was  included  in  the  territories  of 
Morgan),  but  as  the  princes  who  held  the  district  in  after- 
times  were  gradually  dispostsessed  of  their  territories  by  the 
invasions  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  Anglo-Normans,  the 
limits  of  Morganwg  were  contracted.  Till  of  late  years 
(and  perhaps  even  now)  that  part  of  Monmouthshire  which 
is  west  of  the  Usk  was  popularly  considered  by  the  in- 
habitants of  the  eastern  part  to  be  in  Morganwg.  Down 
to  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  when  the  present  boun- 
daries of  the  Welsh  counties  were  fixed,  the  name  Mor- 
Sinwg  was  given  to  the  country  between  the  Usk  and  the 
eath,  or  perhaps  the  Tawe.  The  district  so  bounded  was 
divided  into  six  cantrevs,  and  subdivided  into  twent)-two 
cwmwds,  as  follows ; — I.  Cantrev  Gorvynydd  :  6  Cwinwds, 
vix.  Rhwne  Nedd  a  Thawy ;  Tir  yr  Hwndrwd ;  Rhwng 
Nedd  ac  Avyn ;  Y  Coetty ;  Tir  yr  Yarl :  Maenawr  Gly- 
nogwr.  II.  Cantrev  Peitvchen  :  4  Cwmwds,  viz.  Meisgyn ; 
Glyn  Rhoddni ;  Tal  y  Van  ;  Rhuthyn.  III.  Cantrev  Bebi- 
NiAWL :  2  Cwmwds,  viz.  Is  CSaeth ;  Uch  Caeth.  IV.  Can- 
trev GwAUNLLwo:  6  Cwmwds,  viz.  Cibwr  ;  Yr  Haidd  ;  Y 
dref  Bervedd ;  Edelygion ;  Eithav  ;  Y  Mynydd.  V.  Cantrev 
IscoBD  Gwsnt:  2  Cwmwds,  viz.  Iscoed;  Lie  Mynydd. 
VI.  CentrevGwBNT  Uch  Coed:  2  Cwmwds,  viz.  TtevGrug; 
Uch  Coed  The  peninsula  of  Grower,  and  probably  all  that 
part  of  the  county  which  is  west  of  the  Tawe»  belonged  at 
that  time  to  Caermarthenshire. 
The  modern  divisions  are  as  follows  - — 

SUu&Uon. 


PspvlatloB. 
E.  .  .   29,677 

S.  and  Central     6,942 
8.  and  S.S.     .     6,621 


Hundnd. 

Caerphilly,  or  Caerphili 
CSoworidge  •        •        • 

Dinas  Powis 
Kibbor,  or  Cibwr,  including 

Cardiff  ....  S.B.  •  •  8.796 
Llangevelach,orLlangyfeUch  N.W.  .  .  13,226 
Miskin  ,  ,  .  .  Central  and  N.  10,865 
Neath  ....  Central  and  N.  13,090 
NeweasUe  ....  8.W.  .  .  11.130 
Ogmore  •  •  •  •  Central  and  S.  3,S83 
Swansea,  including  borough  of\ 

Swansea  (except  hamlet   of  Ixjir  ««  aee 

St.  Thomas  in  the  hundredofi^-        •        •  ^^'^^^ 

Uangevelach)   •        .        .  ^ 

The  population  of  these  hundreds,  with  the  militia  under 
training  (429),  makes  the  total  population  of  126,612. 

Glamorganshire  contains  one  city,  Llandaff;  three  princi- 
pal parliamentary  boroughs,  Cardiff,  Swansea  [Swansea], 
and  Merthyr  Tydvil  [Merthyr  Tydvil];  (the  last  two 
received  the  franchise,  as  principal  boroughs,  by  the 
Reform  Act;  Swansea  was  previously  a  contributory 
borough  to  Cardiff:)  seven  contributory  boroughs,  viz. 
Cowbridge  and  Liantrissent,  contributary  to  Cardiff; 
Loughor,  Neath,  Aberavon,  and  Kenvig,  or  Kenfig,  to 
Swansea ;  and  Aberdare  to  Merthyr :  of  these  Aberdare 
was  enfranchised  by  the  Reform  Act ;  the  others  were  all 
previously  contributory  to  Cardiff.  Loughor,  Aberavon, 
jCenvi&  and  Aberdare  are  not  market-towns.  Besides  the 
boroughs  are  the  market-towns  of  Bridgend  and  Caer- 
philly. 

Cardiff,  the  capital  of  the  county,  is  in  the  hundred  of 
Kibboiv  on  the  east  bank  of  the  river  Taafe  or  Taff,  or  Tfif. 
about  a  mile  above  the  entrance  of  the  river  into  PennarCh 
Harbour.  It  is  166  miles  from  the  General  Postroffice, 
London,  by  Calne,  Chippenham,  Bristol,  and  Chepstow.  It 
is  known  to  the  Welsh  by  the  name  Caerdydd.  Cardiff 
seems  to  be  a  corruption  of  Caer  T&f,  the  fortress  on  the 
Tftf ;  Caerdydd  is  thought  to  be  derived  from  Caer  Didi, 
the  fortress  of  Didius,  from  a  post  which  it  is  assumed 
the  Roman  general  Aulus  Didius  erected  here.  The  town 
consists  of  the  principal  street  on  the  road  from  London  to 
Pembroke,  running  east  and  west,  a  second  main  street  at 
ri^ht  angles  to  tbi^  and  several  others.  The  town  has  nearly 
tripled  in  population  within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century ; 
the  streets  are  regular,  well  paved,  and  lighted  with  gas ;  the 
houses  are  good,  and  many  of  them  adapted  to  the  residence 
of  opulent  families,  especially  in  the  suburb  of  Crockerton. 
The  church  of  St  John  is  spacious  and  handsome,  in  the 
early  English  style  of  architecture,  with  a  lofty,  square, 
embattled  tower  in  a  later  and  more  ornate  style.  The  castle, 
now  in  possession  of  the  Marquis  of  Bute,  though  greatly 
altered  m  order  to  its  cpnversion  into  a  modern  mansion,  ia 
an  interesting  buildirtg.    This  qwtle  was  erected  by  Robert 

2  I  2 


G  L  A 


^44 


^  L  \ 


Fitxham^n,  the  Anglo-Nonnan  conaueror  of  Glamorgan- 
shire, in  the  room  of  a  smaller  whicn  stood  on  the  same 
site,  built  by  the  Welsh  princes  of  Morganwg.  The  unfor- 
tunate Robert,  duke  of  Normandie,  brother  of  William 
Rufus  and  Henry  I.,  died  in  the  castle,  having  been  a  pri- 
soner for  twenty-eight  years.  The  west  front  of  the  castle 
(which  is  modem),  flanked  by  a  massive  octagonal  tower, 
appears  to  great  advantage  on  entering  the  town  from  the 
west  The  ruins  of  the  antient  keep,  on  a  circular  mound, 
still  standing  within  the  castle  enclosure,  command  an 
extensive  prospect  over  the  level  amid  which  Cardiff  is 
situated.  The  moat  by  which  the  keep  was  surrounded 
has  been  filled  up,  the  acclivities  of  the  ramparts  planted, 
and  a  gravel  walk,  open  to  the  public  as  a  promenade, 
carried  round  the  whole  enclosure.  The  tower  in  which 
Duke  Robert  is  said  to  have  been  confined  is  yet  standing. 
In  the  interior  of  the  castle  are  some  fiimily  portraits  and 
other  paintings  by  Vandyke,  Kneller,  Romney,  and  other 
artists.  There  is  at  Cardiff  a  stone  bridge  over  the  Taafe, 
of  three  large  and  two  smaller  arches.  The  theatre  is  a  neat 
building  with  a  Grecian  portico.  There  is  a  county  gaol 
recently  erected  in  the  room  of  a  former  one  built  according 
to  the  plan  of  Mr.  Howard,  but  which  had  become  too 
small.  The  new  gaol  is  in  the  suburb  of  Crockerton ;  it  is 
calculated  to  hold  eighty  prisoners;  it  comprehends  the 
house  of  correction  for  the  eastern  part  of  the  county.  The 
guildhall,  a  respectable  modem  building,  stands  in  the  midst 
of  one  of  the  principal  thoroughfares.  The  assizes  are 
held  in  it. 

The  population  of  Cardiff,  which  at  the  commencement 
of  the  present  century  was  under  2000,  amounted  in  1831 
to  6187.  A  considerable  proportion  consists  of  poor  per- 
sons who  have,  through  the  depression  of  agriculture,  for- 
saken the  neighbouring  villages,  and  live  in  houses  of  the 
lowest  description,  built  by  speculators  for  their  accommo- 
dation. The  only  manufacture  carried  on  in  the  town  is  of 
iron,  and  this  but  to  a  small  extent.  The  prosperity  of  the 
place  depends  much  upon  its  trade  as  the  port  of  Merthyr 
and  the  iron  district  up  the  valley  of  the  Taafe.  It  com- 
municates with  Merthyr  by  a  canal  already  noticed.  The 
trade  of  the  town  has  been  on  the  increase  for  some  years 
past.  The  number  of  vessels  that  entered  the  port  was,  in 
1829,  1922,  with  131,977  aggregate  tonnage;  the  number 
of  ships  that  entered  the  port  in  1832  was  2482,  with  183,480 
aggregate  tonnage.  The  markets  are  on  Wednesday  and 
Saturday;  the  tbrmer  is  small;  the  Saturday  market  is 
abundantly  supplied  with  corn,  provisions,  and  various  arti- 
cles of  merchandise.  There  are  three  yearly  fairs,  all  for 
cattle^  and  well  attended.  The  county  assizes  and  the  Epi- 
phany quarter-sessions  are  held  here. 

Cardiff  is  a  corporate  town  of  antient  date.  The  earliest 
charter  possessed  by  the  corporation  is  dated  12  Edward  UI. 
(a.d.  1338) ;  but  the  governing  charters  were  of  42  Elizabeth 
(A.D.  1600)  and  6  James  1.  (a.d.  1608).  By  the  -Municipal 
Reform  Act  the  eorporatton  consists  of  six  aldermen  and 
eighteen  councillors.  The  town  was  by  the  same  Act 
divided  into  two  wards.  The  boundaries  of  the  parliamentary 
and  municipal  boroughs  are  coincident.  The  town,  with 
its  contributory  borouglis,  sent  one  member  to  parlia- 
ment by  the  sUtute  27  Henry  VIII.  The  right  of  elec- 
tion was  in  the  burgesses  at  large,  to  whom  the  Refbrm  Act 
has  added  the  1 0/.  householders ;  but  the  separation  of  some 
of  the  contributory  boroughs  to  form  the  Swansea  district 
has  rather  diminished  the  constituency.  Before  the  Reform 
Act  it  was  estimated  at  1000 ;  by  the  registry  of  1832  there 
were  in  Cardiff,  Cowbridge,  and  Llantrissent,  burgesses, 
454;  10/.  householders,  233:  total,  687. 

The  town  consists  of  two  parishes,  St.  John's  and  St. 
Mary's;  but  these  are,  for  ecclesistical  purposes,  united: 
St.  Mary's  church  stood  near  the  river,  at  the  south-west 
extremity  of  the  town,  and  was  carried  away  by  a  great 
flood  A.D.  1607.  Tbe  conjoint  livings  constitute  a  vicarage, 
of  the  yearly  value  of  260/.,  with  a  glebe-house,  in  the 
gift  of  the  dean  and  chapter  of  Gloucester.  There  are 
meeting-houses  for  English  and  Welsh  Baptists,  Presby- 
terians, Independents,  and  Wesleyan  Methodists. 

By  the  returns  of  1833  there  were,  one  infttnt-school, 
with  83  children ;  two  day-schools,  supported  by  subscrip- 
tion, with  164  children  (for  one  of  these,  a  national  school, 
large  school-rooms  have  been  erected  at  a  considerable 
expense);  eiffht  day  or  boarding  and  day  schools^  with  253 
•cholars;  and  two  Sunday-schools,  with  521  scholars*  to 


the  Sunday-schools  lending-libraries  are  attacbad.    Thmm 
are  several  charities  in  the  town. 

The  Marquis  of  Bute  has  obtamed  an  Act  fiir  forming  a 
new  line  of  street,  a  new  harbour,  new  wharfs  and  aluo«t 
a  new  town  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  and  the  ea.cava- 
tions  are  already  far  advanced. 

Uandaff  (lian  Tdf,  the  church  of  the  Tftf  )•  in  the  bon- 
dred  of  Kibbor,  though  of  episcopal  rank,  ia  now  only  a 
village,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Taafe,  about  two  mile«  from 
Cardiff.  The  parish  is  large  (containing  2386  acres)  and 
straggling,  divided  into  five  hamlets»  and  comprebeoding 
three  villages  (Ely,  Canton,  and  Fairwater)  besioiB  LUndalT. 
This  is  a  poor  place ;  it  contains  two  mansions^  and  one  or 
two  neat  and  respectable  small  dwelling-houses.  The  prin- 
cipal building  is  the  cathedral,  which  was  antientlv  more 
extensive  than  at  present;  the  limits  of  the  edifloo  baling 
been  contracted  in  the  repairs  of  1751,  by  building  a  q«w 
western  front  across  the  nave,  the  western  portion  of  which 
was  abandoned  to  decay.  This  western  portion  of  the  Bmv« 
is  a  fine  specimen  of  early  English  architecture,  with  aa 
enriched  Norman  door  on  the  south  side,  and  a  plainer  dooc 
(aJso  Norman)  on  the  north  side.  The  original  west  frout 
has  a  series  of  delicately  executed  lancet  windows,  of  ranons 
sixes,  and  has  at  its  northern  an^le  a  fine  tower  in  tbe  ijer- 
pendicular  style ;  two  sides  of  this  tower  rest  on  the  walU  of 
the  church,  the  other  two  are  raised  on  two  light  arches  wbirh 
spring  from  a  single  pillar  within  the  nave.  The  pinnacles 
of  this  tower  were  damaged  and  a  corresponding  tower  at  the 
southern  angle  of  the  west  front  was  thrown  down  by  a  great 
storm  in  the  year  1703.  The  present  cathedral  ootnpre- 
bends  the  transepts,  the  choir,  and  part  of  the  na^ie  of  t:«c 
former  building :  the  new  west  front,  with  singular  incon- 
gruity,  is  of  Grecian  architecture;  even  the  altar  was  rn- 
dosed  with  a  Grecian  portico,  but  this  deformity  has  bc«o 
removed.  The  entire  length  of  the  body  of  the  church  \i 
300  feet,  the  breadth  80  feet  At  the  eastern  end  of  ch« 
choir  is  the  lady  chapel,  which,  with  part  of  the  choir,  is  of 
decorated  English  architecture.  In  tuis  chapel  divine  ser- 
vice is  sometimes  performed  in  Welsh.  The  chapter-house; 
on  the  south  side  of  the  church,  is  a  square  building  with  a 
central  nillar,  from  which  spring  the  arches  that  sopmrt 
the  roor ;  it  is  in  the  decorated  English  stvle,  with  plajs 
but  elegant  groining ;  it  is  now  disused.  Many  persons  cY 
eminence  have  been  buried  at  Llandaff,  but  tbe  monumeott 
in  the  cathedral  are  mostly  dilapidated,  and  have  been  n* 
moved  from  their  original  positions.  Near  the  rmthedril 
are  the  rums  of  the  episcopal  palace,  consisting  of  a  laif^r 
gateway  and  part  of  the  external  wall.  The  destruction  of 
this  building,  together  with  that  of  the  principal  portion  uf 
the  church,  is  attributed  to  Owen  Glendwr. 

The  population  of  the  whole  parish  in  1831  wms  onh 
1299.  lliere  are  yearly  two  considerable  cattle  fiurs  at  LUa- 
daff.  The  cathedral  is  used  as  the  parish  church ;  and  iht 
service  is  the  usual  parochial  (not  cathedral)  service  Tb« 
duty  is  performed  alternately  by  two  priests-vicaza.  Tbe 
chapter  of  the  cathedral  receive  the  great  tithes  of  the 
parish  of  Llandaff,  and  of  the  adjoining  pariah  of  Whit- 
church united  with  it.  The  priests-vicars  receive  a  stipcoi 
in  lieu  of  the  small  tithes.  Of  the  diocese  of  Llandan  «c 
shall  speak  below. 

There  are  two  national  schools,  with  118  children,  besides 
any  others  who  like  to  attend  on  Sundays. 

Cowbridge  is  in  the  hundred  of  Cowbridge,  on  the  l:tid» 
river  Daw,  or  Thaw,  on  the  road  between  Cardiff  and  Swaz 
sea,  12  miles  firom  Cardiff,  and  178  from  London.  It  is  s 
neat  cheerful  town,  consisting  mainly  of  one  wide  stnet 
Cowbridge  was  antiently  walled,  and  had  three  gates,  one 
at  each  end  of  the  main  street,  and  another,  yet  stand 
ing.  on  the  south  side  of  the  town.  The  old  town-hall 
and  market-house,  which  were  in  the  centre  of  the  m:^i 
street,  have  been  lately  removed.  The  borou|;b  limoi 
comprehend  little  more  than  33  acres ;  the  borough  furms 
a  cbapelrv  to  the  parish  of  Llanblethian.  The  pecu- 
lation of  the  borough  in  1831  was  1097;  of  the  rest  of  t*-* 
parish  670.  Of  the  population  of  the  borough  scar  eel  \  sl? 
part  is  agricultuml ;  there  is  little  trade,  and  the  plsce 
maintains  its  standing  chiefly  by  means  of  one  or  t«o 
schools  of  g^ood  repute.  The  market  is  on  Tuesday,  but  there 
is  also  one  on  Saturday  lor  butcher's  meat  and  provisions . 
and  there  are  five  yearly  fairs. 

The  corporation  is  antient,  though  the  ffoveming  chan^r 
it  of  33  Charles  11.    The  vicarage  of  LUnblethuimiiih  10 


6  L  A 


246 


6  LA 


ftgriooltimL  The  corporation  is  veiy  antient:  of  Ihree 
charters  now  in  existence  (neither  of  which  is  however  re- 
garded  in  practice),  the  oldest  is  of  9  Henry  I.  The  borough 
was  formerly  contributory  to  CardiiT,  it  is  now  to  Swansea : 
the  number  of  electors  on  the  reflistar  in  1632  was  177,  all 
freemen.  The  living  of  Lower  Kenfig  is  a  curacy,  united 
with  the  yicarage  of  Pyle ;  their  joint  annual  value  is  95/., 
and  they  are  in  the  gin  of  the  lord  chancellor.  There  was 
in  the  parish,  in  1833,  one  inihnt-sehool,  with  16  children. 

Aberdare  is  in  the  hundred  of  Miskin,  in  the  north-east 
part  of  the  county.  The  parish  is  very  extensive  and  is  divided 
into  fbnr  hamlets.  The  town  or  village  of  Aberdare  is  in  the 
centre  of  the  parish,  on  the  rieht  bank  of  the  Cynon»  about 
three  miles  from  Merthyr  lydvil.  Hie  church  is  a  simple 
rustic  edifice  without  a  tower,  and  there  are  several  dis- 
senting meetingj-houses.  The  importance  of  Aberdare  has 
arisen  from  the  increase  of  the  iron-works:  the  population, 
by  the  census  of  181 1,  was  1338 ;  in  1831  it  was  3961 .  There 
is  no  regular  market,  but  there  are  three  yearly  fairs.  The 
Aberdare  Canal  terminates  within  a  mile  of  the  town ;  it 
communicates  with  the  Glamor^nshire  Canal.  Aberdare 
was  enfranchised  by  the  Reform  Bill,  and  the  parliamentary 
boundaries  include  the  whole  parish :  it  is  contributory  to 
Merth3rr  l^dvil,  or  rather  forms  a  part  of  that  borough,  to 
which  it  is  adjacent 

The  living  is  a  petpetual  curacy,  of  the  yearlv  value  of 
108/.,  in  the  gift  of  the  vicar  of  Llantrissent.  Tnere  were, 
in  1833,  one  endowed  day-school,  with  22  children;  five 
other  day-schools,  with  171  children;  and  five  Sunday- 
schools,  containing  about  600  children. 

Bridgend  is  in  the  hundred  of  Newcastle,  and  in  the 
parishes  of  Newcastle  and  Coyty,  about  7  miles  west  of 
Cowbrid^e.  A  new  line  of  roaa  carries  the  Pembroke  mail 
through  it.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts,  Oldcastle  on  the  left, 
and  Newcastle  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ogmore,  over  which 
are  two  stone  bridges.  It  is  well  built,  with  many  good 
houses,  and  in  a  pleasant  neighbourhood.  The  two  divisions 
of  the  town  take  their  name  from  two  fortresses,  of  different 
dates,  the  Old  Castle  and  the  New  Castle.  Of  the  latter 
there  are  some  remains.  There  is  a  chapel-of-ease  to  Coyty 
in  Oldcastle,  and  in  Newcastle  is  the  church  of  the  parisn 
of  Newcastle.  The  population  of  the  two  parishes  in  1831 
was  2532,  about  one-third  agricultural.  There  is  a  consider- 
able market  for  corn  and  provisions  on  Saturday,  and  two 
yearly  fairs,  chiefly  for  the  sale  of  cattle  and  cheese.  Stone 
is  quarried  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  member  for  the 
county  was  formerly  elected  at  Bridgend,  but  Cardiff  is  now 
the  chief  place  of  county  election. 

The  living  of  Coyty,  or  Coity,  is  a  rectory,  with  the 
chapel ry  of  Nolton  annexed,  of  the  clear  yearly  value  of 
416/.:  that  of  Newcastle  is  a  vicarage,  with  the  annexed 
chapelries  of  Bettws,  Laleston,  and  Tythe^ton,  of  the  clear 
yearly  value  of  197/.,  with  a  glebe-house,  in  the  gift  of  the 
lerd  chancellor. 

There  wer^  in  the  two  parishes,  in  1 833,  one  infant-school, 
with  53  scholars ;  one  national  school,  with  254  scholars ; 
eight  day-schools,  with  133  scholars;  and  five  Sunday- 
schools,  with  fh)m  420  to  460  scholars. 

Caerohilly,  in  Caerphilly  Hundred,  near  the  river  Romney, 
which  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  county,  is  a  small 
straggUngplace,  but  consists  for  the  most  part  of  well-built 
houses.  Tne  most  striking  object  in  the  town  is  the  an- 
tient castle,  the  ruins  of  which  are  superior  to  most  in  the 
kingdom.  They  occupy  a  moderate  elevation  near  the 
miacile  of  a  level  tract ;  and  consist  of  walls  and  lowers  with 
various  apartments.  Of  the  great  hall  of  the  castle,  a 
magnificent  apartment  70  feet  long  b}r  30  wide  and  17  high, 
there  are  considerable  remains :  there  is  in  it  an  ornamented 
fire-place  with  two  ogee-headed  windows  on  each  side.  But 
the  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  castle  is  the  leaning 
tower,  a  vast  firagment  of  a  tower  which  has  been  thrown 
considerably  out  of  the  perpendicular  without  falling.  The 
origin  of  the  castle  is  not  clearly  ascertained.  In  the  civil 
dissensions  of  the  reign  of  Edward  II.,  it  was  seized  by  the 
king's  minion,  the  younger  Despencer,  who  was  besieged  here 
by  the  troops  of  Mortimer,  to  whom  the  castle  had  be- 
longed, aided  by  succours  fVom  the  Queen  Isabella  of 
France.  After  a  long  siege  the  castle  was  taken,  partly 
by  storm  and  partlv  by  capitulation. 

The  population  of  Caerphilly  is  small.  It  is  in  the  parish 
of  Eglwsilan,  which  contains  altogether  1281 8  or  2820  in- 
habitants :  but  of  these  the  hamlet  of  Ener-Glynn,  which 
comprehends  the  town*  contains  only  884.    There  are  some 


woollen  manufkctnres.    The  market  is  on  Thwaday.  and 
there  are  six  yearly  fkirs. 

The  living  of  Eglwsilan  is  a  vicarage  united  with  that  cf 
IJanilan  Vabon,  of  the  clear  yearly  value  of  140/.,  with  a 
p:lebe*hoose,  in  the  gift  of  the  Chapter  of  Llandaft  Thcsv 
IS  at  Caerphilly  a  cnapel  dedicated  to  8t.  Martin,  lately 
rebuilt.  To  this  there  is  a  perpetual  curaov  attached,  Jf 
the  clear  yearly  value  of  120/.,  in  the  gift  of  tne  Chapter  r>f 
Llandaff.  There  are  several  places  of  worship  fbr  disaent«n 
in  the  parish. 

There  were  in  the  parish  of  Eglwsilan,  in  1833,  two  eti- 
dowed  day-schools*  with  93  girls;  five  other  day-achooK 
with  160  children;  and  three  Sunday-schools,  with  263 
scholars. 

DivUi<mi  for  EecUtiaafiocd  and  Lfgal  t>urp09e9,~-V^t 
have  no  official  statement  of  the  number  of  oenefloes  in  tl^ 
county:  the  population  returns  for  1831  enumerate  t«* 
parishes  or  parochial  chapelries,  besides  which  there  are 
several  district  chapelries.  The  parishes  are  for  the  most  p&it 
in  the  diocese  and  archdeaconry  of  liandafl^  but  22  of  tho^  i:i 
the  western  and  north-western  parts  of  the  county  are  in  the 
deanery  of  Gower,  the  archdeaconry  of  Caermarthen,  and  t  ho 
diocese  of  St  David's.  The  128  parishes  or  chapelries  <f>f 
which  three,  viz.  Bedwas,  Machen,  and  Michaelstone  Fedvr, 
are  partly  in  Monmouthshire)  are  thus  classified  accordir^ 
to  the  nature  of  the  benefice :  56  rectorie^  39  viearagea,  l  ^ 
perpetual  curacies,  nine  chapelries,  and  one  donative.  The 
benefices  are  commonly  small.  Of  one  our  authorities  d) 
not  give  the  value,  and  24  are  permanently  annexed  tii 
other  benefices :  of  the  remaining  103,  32  are  under  lOc' 
clear  yearly  value ;  39  between  100/^  and  200/. ;  16  betwiry-n 
200/.  and  300/. ;  7  between  300/.  and  400/. ;  6  between  4<)0/. 
and  500/. ;  and  3  upwards  of  500/. 

The  origin  and  early  history  of  the  see  of  Llandaff  are  in  - 
volved  in  considerable  obscurity.  The  first  bishop  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  St.  Dubritius,  who  is  said  to  have  becr« 
consecrated  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century  by  St. 
Germanus  and  St.  Lupus,  bishops  of  AuxerreandTroye^  m 
France,  who  had  come  over  to  Britain  in  order  to  check  iht 
doctrines  of  Pelagius.  About  ninety  bishops  have  sucoe^ 
sively  occupied  this  see,  firom  its  commencement  to  the 
present  time. 

The  diocese  of  Llandaff  includes  all  Glamorganshire  wrl 
the  exceptions  above-mentioned;  and  all  Monmouthshire, 
except  seven  parishes,  of  which  four  are  in  the  diocecc  i>f 
Hereford  and  three  in  that  of  St  David*a  It  oontaini 
only  one  archdeaconry,  that  of  Llandaff.  At  an  early  pen  >i 
there  were  two  archdeaconries,  Monmouth  and  Glamorga:;. 
The  bishopric  is  the  poorest  in  the  Anglican  Church ;  tl-.i 
net  yearly  revenue  having  been  reported  to  the  Ecdesiai 
tical  Commissioners  as  only  924/.  including  the  prefer- 
ments. The  treasurership  of  the  cathedral  is  coromin^) 
annexed  to  the  bishopric;  and  the  deanery  of  St  Paur% 
London,  and  the  rectory  of  Bedwas,  are  commonly  held  :a 
commendam.  This  patronage  is  comparatively  very  smal!. 
The  Chapter  of  the  cathedral  consists  of  13  persons. 

The  countv  is  included  in  the  South  Wales  circuit  Tit* 
assizes  are  held  at  Cardiff;  also  the  Epiphany  quarter • 
sessions ;  the  other  quarter-sessions  are  held,  the  Easter  v 
Cowbridge,  the  Midsummer  at  Neath,  and  the  Michaeim\* 
at  Swansea.  The  county  gaol  b  at  CardifiT.  and  there  ars 
houses  of  correction  at  Cardiff  and  Swansea. 

Five  members  of  parliament  have,  since  the  nassing  v' 
the  Reform  Act,  been  returned  from  Olamoreansnirv,  t  •! , 
two  for  the  county,  and  one  for  each  of  the  wee  di5tru'« 
of  boroughs.  Tlie  place  of  election  for  the  county  :» 
Cai-diif ;  and  the  polling  stations  arc  Cardiff^  Bridgend. 
Merthyr  Tydvil,  Neath,  and  Swansea.  The  borough  riuvu 
bers  are  elected  at  Cardiff,  Swansea,  and  Merthyr  X\<\\ 
respectively.  Before  the  Reform  Bill  only  two  memUr^ 
were  sent,  viz.,  one  for  the  county,  who  was  elected  a. 
Bridgend,  and  one  for  the  Cardiff  district  of  boroughs 

History,  Antiquities,  ^. — Glamor^nshire  was  ori:rini!!\ 
included  in  the  territory  of  the  Silures.  [BkitChmi* 
Under  the  Roman  dominion  it  was  included  in  Bniacm  a 
Secunda.  A  Roman  road,  the  Julia  Strata,  tiaverb«il  ihr 
county,  in  nearly  its  greatest  extent,  east  and  west ;  and  t«- 
veral  Roman  stations  are  supposed  to  have  been  establikbtrf 
within  its  boundaries.  The  river  Taff  was  probably  kntj^u 
under  the  two  names  of  Rhatostath)bius  CParvdraf^i.^-: 
Ptolemy),  and  Tibia  (Richard  of  Cirencester).  Ii  hu 
been  supposed  that  there  was  a  station  on  its  banks ;  and 
the  name  of  Cardiff  (the  first  syllable  of  which,  'Caer,'  n. 


G  L  A 


248 


G  L  A 


iHtkB  yearly  rerenue  of  the  oommunity.at  its  tupDraMion/viis 
186/.  14i.  gross,  or  181/.  7#.  A(L  dear.  Dr.  Thomas  Rees 
(in  the  'Beauties  of  England  and  Wales*)  contends,  but  we 
think  unsuooessfblly,  that  it  was  founded  by  Morgan,  a 
Welsh  lord,  contemporary  with  Earl  Robert.  The  existing 
remains  convey  but  an  inadequate  idea  of  the  former  extent 
of  the  building.  Of  the  Chapter-house,  a  beautiful  polygon 
of  about  50  feet  diameter,  the  walls  remain.  Part  of  the 
abbey-church,  which  is  of  Norman  architecture,  with  semi- 
circular arches,  has  been  kept  in  repair,  and  is  used  as  the 
parish-church.  The  other  ruins  of  the  abbey  buildings  con- 
sist of  some  fra^euts  of  walls  and  traces  of  foundations. 
These  ruins  are  m  Margam  Park.  In  the  neighbourhood 
is  a  farm-house  called  Eglwys  Nynydd,  or  the  nun's  church, 
probably  a  nunnery  dependent  oh  Margam  Abbey.  Of  the 
Benedictine  priory  of  Ewcnny,  at  the  village  of  that  name 
near  Bridgend,  the  church,  an  edifice  in  the  Norman  style, 
has  been  kept  in  repair,  and  is  used  as  a  parish-church. 
Some  towers  and  gateways,  mantled  with  ivy,  constituting 
part  of  the  conventual  buildings,  still  remain.  There  sre 
some  remains  of  a  religious  edifice  near  Marcross  castle, 
perliaps  a  dependency  on  the  important  college  or  seminary* 
of  Lantwit  Major,  of  which  St.  Illtyd  was  the  first  head. 
There  are  some  remains  of  the  college-house  of  Lantwit, 
and  several  antiquities  in  the  church  and  churchyard 
at  Lantwit    Neath  Abbey  has  been  noticed  already. 

In  the  great  civil  war  between  Charles  I.  and  the  Parlia- 
ment a  severe  battle  was  fought  in  this  county.  In  the  at- 
tempt of  the  royalists  to  renew  the  war  in  1647,  about  8000 
men  assembled  under  Colonels  Poyer  and  Powel,  and  Ma- 
jor-Generals  Stradling  and  Laugharne,  who  had  deserted 


the  parliamentaiv  aide.  Hearing  that  CramiraU  was  on  \xm 
march  toward  tnem,  they  attacaed  Colonel  Horton,  who 
with  a  small  force  of  parliamentarians  had  been  sent  fur- 
ward  to  intimidate  the  insurgents.  The  battle  took  pUee  •: 
St.  Pagan's,  near  Llandaff,  and  was  obstinately  eontess«i 
for  two  hours,  when  the  royalists  were  defeated  with  grvti 
slaughter,  and  their  leaders,  with  what  forces  reffiajoed  :-, 
them,  compelled  to  retreat  westward  inioCaermartlMQafauft 
and  Pembrokeshire. 

Statistics. 

Population. — Glamorganshire  is  situated  in  the  gTt.a: 
mining  district  of  South  Wales,  and  its  inhabitants  a: 
principally  engaged  in  occupations  connected  with  the  trx>n 
works  and  coal-mines.    At  the  north-cast  comer  uf  tL« 
county,  in  the  parish  of  MerthjT  Tyd\il,  the  populatiun  r 
creased  from  7700  to  22,000  between  the  years  ISOl    li  . 
1831,  in  consequence  of  increasing  activity  in  workinjc  t 
almost  inexhaustible  Quantity  of  iron-ore  and  of  coals  vkh.  . 
that  part  supplies.    The  population  of  this  county,  at  cs..! 
of  the  four  periods  of  enumeration,  was  as  follows : — 


MalM. 


Fenalet. 


1801 
ISU 
1821 
1831 


ToUl.   I 

71,525 

85,067 
101,737 
126,612 


U%1 


18-93 
19-59 


50,427         51,310 
63,284         63,328 

showing  an  increase  between  the  first  and  last  periods    ' 
55,087,  being  rather  more  than  77  per  cent,  which  is  20  }'« 
cent  above  the  whole  rate  of  increase  throughout  £nslai.i 
The  following  table  contains  a  summary  of  th«  poju 
latiun,  &c.,  taken  in  1831  - — 


HOUSES. 

OCCUPATIONS. 

PERSONSw 

Familiei 

1 

HUNDREDS  AND  TOWNS. 

Unfa- 

Pamiliri 
chiefly 

chh-fly 
emp  oyotl 

All  other 

familiea 

not  eom- 

M»)n 

r&babtttd. 

FAmlliM. 

Buflding. 

habited. 

•nployixl 

in  ogri- 

culture. 

miiuurar- 
turee. 

priMd  in 
the  two 

MalM. 

F«B«ln. 

To4aL 

t«*bt> 
y«mr*ar 

aufl  bui- 

prceedinif 

•«•■- 

dictsfL 

clasMi. 

Caerphilly 

5,816 

5,978 

44 

365 

533 

2431 

3,014 

15,720 

13,857 

29.577 

8,63 » 

Cowbridge       • 

1,166 

1,230 

7 

39 

677 

329 

224 

3,029 

2,913 

5,942 

1.4  r.j 

Dinas-Powis  • 

1,089 

1,172 

1 

32 

833 

205 

134 

2,773 

2.848 

5,621 

U-ioi 

Kibhor  . 

484 

534 

2 

14 

329 

95 

110 

1,258 

1.351 

2,609 

€33 

Llan^evclach 

2,489 

2,532 

30 

81 

«    676 

1353 

503 

6,320 

6,467 

12,787 

3.0-24 

Miskm  • 

2,137 

2,272 

31 

238 

644 

545 

1,083 

5,625 

5,230 

10,855 

2,8:-. 

Neath    . 

2,604 

2.748 

28 

129 

529 

852 

1,367 

6,425 

6.665 

13,090 

3»137 

Newcastle 

1,258 

2,228 

35 

55 

924 

539 

765 

5,586 

5,544 

11,130 

2,^r4 

Ogmore 

786 

619 

2 

34 

600 

155 

64 

2,019 

1,963 

3,982 

97tf 

Swansea 

2,162 

2,252 

31 

104 

971 

4G5 

816 

5.067 

5.642 

10,709 

2.4Si 

Cardiff  (Town) 

1,191 

1.391 

36 

69 

65 

671 

655 

2,938 

3,249 

6.187 

K4'J 

Swansea  (Town) 

2,C61 

2,955 

2G 

138 

33 

1289 

1,633 

6,095 

7,599 

13.694 

2,tJj 

Militia  under  Training     . 

— - 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

429 

— 

429 

— 

Total    . 

•         • 

23,843 

26.111 

273 

1298 

6814 

8929 

10,368  63,284 

63.328 

126,612 

31.624 

County  Expenses,  Crims,  <J«.-— The  sums  expended  for 
the  relief  of  the  poor  at  the  three  dates  of— 

1811  were  £33.287,  heing  7s.  9d.  for  each  inhabitant. 
1821     „        36,179        „       7      1 
1831     „        38,751        ,,       6      I 


n 


If 


The  sum  expended  for  the  same  purpose  in  the  year  end- 
ing March,  1837,  was  30,096/.;  and  if  it  be  assumed  that 
the  population  has  increased  since  1831  in  the  same  propor- 
tion as  in  the  ten  preceding  years,  the  above  sum  gives  an 
a/erage  of  about  4s.  3d.  to  each  inhabitant.  These  averages 
are  all  below  those  for  the  whole  of  England  and  Wales. 

The  sum  raised  in  Glamorganshire  for  poor  rale,  county 
rate,  and  other  local  purposes,  in  the  year  endins;  the  25th 
of  March.  1833,  was  55,172/.  16#.,  and  was  levied  upon  the 
various  descriptions  of  property  as  under : — 


On  land     . 
Dwelling-houses 
Mills,  factories,  &c. 


£37,084 
9,833 
1,818 


6 

15 
18 


Manorial  profits,  navigation,  &c.       6,435  17 
Tilt  amottot  expended 


For  the  relief  of  the  poor     .  •  £43,309     *« 

In  suits  of  law,  removal  of  paupers,  8cc.  l.bOO  1 7 

For  other  purposes  •  .  .  10,29b  i: 

55,40S  i: 

The  descriptions  of  property  are  not  specified  in  ti  5 
returns  made  up  for  subsequent  vears.    The  sums  rah^l  .« 
the  years  1834.  1835,  1836,  and  1837,  were  respcrtivr'x 
51,957/.  15«.,  46,953/.  18«.,   43,363/.  1  Of.,  and  37,493/^  ;;l  i 
the  expenditure  of  each  year  was  as  follows  :— 


For  the  reltefor  the  poor     . 

In  MiitB  or  law,  removala.  fte. 

Pnymeut  tovardt  the  county. )     q  g^    . 

For  all  other  purpoeu      •  — 


1834.  183S. 

£4035  19    £».W  17 
1.939    7        


1.836  U 
4jB(tt  15 
4.n8  12 


18X. 

9411  17 
4JMC  S 
a.64l    s 


isr 


1.. 
1-' 


Total  money  expeadea         £52.091    ?       47j0tt  15        4aj»40  S       JT  J  J 

The  saving  efiected  in  the  whole  sum  expended  in  li^r. 
as  compared  with  that  in  1834,  was  therefore  about  29  r«r 
cent. ;  and  the  saving  effected  on  the  sum  expended  f  r 
the  relief  of  the  poor,  in  a  comparison  of  the  two  y«a:>. 
gives  about  25  per  cent. 


G  L  A 


250 


G  L  A 


any  other  religiouB  denomination ;  such  exclusions  being 
di^laimed  in  almost  every  instance,  especially  in  schools 
establiikhed  by  dissenters,  with  whom  are  here  included 
We^leyan  Methodists. 

Lending-libraries  of  books  are  attached  to  five  schools  in 
this  county. 

GLAND.  Under  this  term  are  included  a  considerable 
number  of  organs  in  the  animal  body,  which,  resembling 
each  other  only  in  a  general  roundness  of  form  and  a  firm 
fleshy  substance,  possess  the  most  varied  internal  structure, 
and  perform  very  different  functions.  They  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes. 

1.  Absorbent  Glands. — These  form  part  of  the  absorbent 
system.  [Absorbents.]  They  are  masses  of  various  size, 
of  a  roundish  form,  consisting  of  a  congeries  of  ramified 
absorbent  vessels,  frequently  communicating  with  each 
other,  connected  by  fine  dense  cellular  tissue  in  which 
blood- ves>el8  are  freely  distributed,  and  at  intervals  dilated 
so  as  to  give  an  appearance,  when  divided,  as  if  a  collection 
of  small  cells  had  been  cut  into.  Their  precise  use  is 
unknown.  They  occur  in  considerable  number  in  the 
course  of  the  absorbents  in  man  and  mammalia,  are  far 
less  numerous  in  birds,  and  are  entirely  wanting  in  fish 
and  amphibia,  being  replaied  bv  simple  plexuses  of  ab- 
sorbents, which  are  not  collected  mto  solid  masses. 

2.  Secernent  Glcmdg.— These  are  organs  of  various  forms 
and  sizes,  whose  office  it  is  to  separate  the  various  secretory 
and  excretory  fluids  from  the  blood.  The  simplest  form 
of  secernent  gland  is  that  called  a  crypt,  consisting  merely 
of  a  pit  or  depression  in  the  surface  of  some  secreting  mem- 
brane, as  the  mucous  lining  of  the  intestines  or  the  skin. 
When  this  depression  is  deeper,  and  assumes  a  cylindrical 
form,  it  is  called  a  tubule ;  and  when  its  closed  extremity 
is  dilated  so  as  to  give  it  the  form  of  a  flask,  a  follicle.  In 
various  forms  and  sizes  these  simple  structures  are  found 
in  great  numbers  in  all  animals,  as  in  the  sebaceous  follicles 
by  which  the  oily  matter  is  secreted  to  lubricate  the  skin, 
in  the  gastric  glands,  &c.  In  larger  size  they  occur  around 
the  pylorus  of  many  fish,  forming  worm-shaped  appendages, 
and  in  different  parts  of  the  intestines  of  insects.  Some- 
times a  number  of  little  follicles  are  congregated  together 
into  one  mass,  opening  on  the  surface  each  by  a  separate 
orifice,  or  by  one  common  duct,  around  which  they  are 
arranged :  the  former  structure  is  found  in  the  tonsils,  &c. ; 
the  latter  in  the  Meibomian  glands  in  the  eye-lids. 

Far  more  complicated  forms  are  produced  when  each 
duct  divides  into  numerous  ramifications,  each  of  which 
terminates  in  a  cul-de-sac,  or  bears  little  follicles  at  its  ex- 
tremity and  along  its  branches.  Each  of  these  more 
compound  glands  may  be  formed  of  the  ramifications  of  a 
single  secreting  duct,  with  its  accompanying  vessels  and 
nerves,  or  of  a  congeries  of  ramified  ducts,  each  opening  by 
a  separate  orifice :  the  former  occurs  in  the  kidney  and 
liver,  the  latter  in  the  mammary  and  prostate  glana,  &c. 
The  structure  of  each  gland  however  must  be  referred  to 
the  separate  description  of  each;  but  the  general  laws 
governing  their  most  varied  conformation  may  be  here 
stated : — they  all  consist  of  simple  or  ramified  ducts,  com- 
municating at  one  extxemity  by  open  orifices  with  the 
external  air,  directly  on  the  surface  of  the  skin,  or  indirectly 
on  the  surfiice  of  one  of  the  open  cavities  of  the  body,  as 
the  lungs,  intestines,  &c.,  and  terminated  at  the  other  by 
a  blind  pouch,  or  cul-de-sac.  On  the  walls  of  these  ducts, 
arteries,  veins,  and  absorbents  ramify,  forming  minute 
capillary  net- works  in  immediate  contact  with  their  lining 
membrane,  through  which  secretion  takes  place  probably 
by  transudation,  as  no  direct  communications  can  be  dis- 
covered between  the  ducts  and  any  other  vessels.  A  general 
end  served  by  this  structure  is  the  obtaining  a  large 
secreting  surface  in  the  smallest  space ;  the  lining  mem- 
brane of  the  ducts  of  one  gland,  whose  external  surface  does 
not  measure  more  than  three  inches,  would,  if  it  could  be 
spread  out,  present  a  surface  of  more  than  three  square  feet. 

The  development  of  each  of  the  more  compound  glands 
in  the  embryo  presents  an  epitome  of  the  general  series  of 
forms  which  the  class  presents :  each  is  at  first  seen  as  a 
mere  depression  in  the  mucous  membrane ;  then  it  elongates 
and  appears  as  a  tubule  or  follicle;  then  ramifies,  and 
continues  dividing  and  subdividing  till  it  attains  its  perfect 
form,  efflorescing,  as  it  were,  on  the  original  secreting 
surface.  The  blood-vessels  send  off  twigs  which  accompany 
each  branch  to  its  minutest  divisions,  connecting  them 
all  together,  and,  with  the  fibrous  envelope  which  covers 


every  gland,  forming  the  separate  dnets  iots  oiw  soLd 
mass. 

3.  Vatcular  GZoftdf.— These  are  masses  ooDsisttnir  of  a 
congeries  of  arteries  and  veins,  but  without  any  duct  opcx- 
ing  externally.  Their  office  is  quite  unknown,  and  tluc.r 
minute  struoture  uncertain.  They  include  the  DlaeentA. 
renal  capsules,  spleen,  and  the  thymus  and  thynia  glands 

GLAND,  in  Botany,  is  any  superficial  callosity,  wfaetLcr 
of  a  secreting  nature  or  not.   Glands  are  in  all  esses  forat'  i 
of  cellular  tissue,  and  are  very  analogous  to  hairs,  fn#r. 
which  they  differ  principally  in  their  more  compound  strc'  • 
ture,  and  in  having  their  tissue  always  filled  with  secret  i  - 
of  some  kind.    They  occur  in  abundance  on  the  stemji  ax 
leaves  of  many  plants,  and  are  also  met  with  on  the  tuU  x 
corolla,  stamens,  and  some  ovaries.    Their  most  comu^ 
form  is  that  of  a  small  round  tubercle,  either  seated  cL-- 
upon  the  surface,  as  on  the  petioles  of  a  peaeh-ti«9«f,  %: 
the  base  of  the  leaves  of  many  Kuphorbiaoeoua   plan*-*, 
or  on  the  apex  of  the  filament  of  some  Rutaoese,  or  v^- 
elevated  on  the  end  of  a  common  hair;  sometimee   tt^^ 
are  sessile,  with  a  hair  growing  from  them,  ss  in  the  nir.! 
mon  nettle.    In  general  glandS  are  solid;  sometime*  ch'> 
are  cup-shaped,  and  filled  with  a  secretion  which  gradua- 
drops  from  them.    Among  the  most  unusual  forma  are  ;1 
round  depressed  glands  which  cover  the  upper  aurfacc   . 
the  leaves  of  Dionsda,  and  close  up  the  apertures  of  u. 
stomates  and  the  hard  kernel-like  glands-  in  the  pitcher  . 
Nepenthes,  lying  below  the  cuticle,  which  is  pierced  aU  .r 
them.    These  organs  evidently  are  adapted  to  purpo«e%  / 
secretion,  and  have  lately  been  the  special  aubject  cf  : 
learned  treatise  by  Professor  Meyer  of  Berlin,  hom  which  il 
following  sketches  are  borrowed. 


1.  common  hain  of  tUe  stem  of  BryonU  alba,  becomiaf  cluBdolar  a*  •  • 
bane  or  apex :  8, 3.  a  mi&turt*  of  hain  (8)  autl  f(Uod«  {JS)  from  ib^  ttasi  ■  r  I  .> 
tamnua;  4.  double  glands  at  Ut«  point  of  th«  hain  oT  Lsrcimaehta  v»«>  • 
5,  a  hair  glandular  at  the  MWii.  fvvBi  Primula  Sioausis:  6,gtaad  ••  Uw  •!- 
tbe  hairs  of  Sisymbrium  S«>phia;  7.  one  of  the  yellow  gUada  fiiaad  «•  ta 
head  of  the  hairs  of  Scrophularia  nodosa. 

Lenticular  glands  are  verv  improperly  so  called,  as  ihr] 
do  not  appear  to  have  any  function  connected  with  »ocr( 
tion.    They  are  the  small  tubercles  peeping  through  C 
cuticle  of  the  stem  of  the  common  willow  and  other  sim.Ii: 
plants,  and  appear  to  be  in  reality  nothing  more  than  *b 
rudiments  of  roots,  unable  to  develop  in  tne  dry  air  t::j: 
surrounds  the  stem. 
GLANDULl'N  A.    [FoRAMimrBRA.  vol.  x,  p.  347-1 
GLANVILE.  a  name  by  which  one  of  the  most  axi:i«' 
treatises  on  the  laws  and  customs  of  the  realm  of  Rni:^ 
is  known.    It  classes  with  Britton,  Bracton,  and  Flctx  * 
antient  text^writers  of  the  law,  and  is  believed  to  be  xn 
antient  than  they.    It  is  generally  supposed  to  be  the  «i«% 
of  Ranulf  de  Glanvile,  who  was  the  cnief  justiciary  in  t^  - 
rei^n  of  king  Henry  II. ;  but  the  titles  to  some  of  ibr  t'^. 
manuscripts  only  set  forth  that  it  was  written  in  his  i.*  i 
Earlier  than  his  time  it  cannot  be,  for  among  the  exccBi    • 
fications  of  law  processes  are  some  which  took  place  in  cv4«r; 
before  this  Ranult 


G  L  A 


252 


G  L  A 


Scotland  in  point  of  wealth.  Before  tbe  Reformation,  in 
1560,  the  inhabitants  are  aaid  to  have  been  in  a  deplorable 
state  of  ignoi*ance  and  superstition,  attributable  mainly  to 
the  ea:le^iai(tical  government  to  which  they  had  hitherto 
been  subjected ;  and  even  for  a  considerable  time  aAer  that 
peiiod  tbe  people  retained  their  fierce  and  sanguinary  dis- 
poiiition,  which  was  strikingly  characterized  by  their  being 
constantly  armed.  In  161 1  a  charter  was  granted  by  James 
VI.,  not  solely  to  the  archbishop  and  his  successors,  but  to 
the  magistrates,  council,  and  community:  and  in  1636, 
Cimrles  I.,  by  royal  grant,  incorporated  them  into  one  free 
burgh  of  regality,  by  which  the  city  mav  be  said  to  have 
been  placed  tor  the  first  time  in  the  rank  of  a  royal  burgh 
holden  of  the  crown.  These  charters  relate  to  what  is  now 
called  the  antient  royalty.  To  the  westward  the  royalty 
was  bounded  by  the  old  city  wall  (long  since  destroyed), 
and  to  t,he  southward  it  is  bounded  by  the  Clyde.  The  last 
charter  granted  to  the  city  is  that  of  William  and  Mary, 
dated  4th  January,  1690,  and  confirmed  by  parliament 
the  14th  June  following.  By  this  charter,  which  has 
continued  to  the  present  day,  the  citizens  are  empowered  to 
elect  their  own  ma;^strates,  provost,  baillies,  and  other 
otficers,  as  freely  as  the  city  of  Edmburgh,  or  any  other 
royal  burgh  in  the  kingdom.  The  corporation  consists  of  a 
provost,  five  baillics,  and  twenty-three  councillors ;  and  by 
3  and  4  William  IV.  cap.  76,  the  town-council  are  elected 
by  the  parliamentary  constituencv,  one-third  retiiing  from 
otlice  annually.  The  provost,  who,  from  courtesy,  is  still 
called  lord  provost,  is  justice  of  the  peace  for  both  the 
burgh  and  tne  county.  He  holds  his  otfice  during  thiee 
years,  and  is  still  re-eligible.  The  baillies  exercise  a  juris- 
die. ion  in  case  of  crimes  and  misdemeanors  committed 
within  the  burgh  nut  touching  the  life  i^f  tbe  offender,  and 
one  of  them  sits  daily  in  the  council-chttmber  for  the  pre- 
servation of  peace  and  ihe  determination  of  petty  t-auses  and 
differences.  The  propertv  of  the  corporation  was  estimated 
in  1829  at  212,146/.,  and'its  debU  at  78,308/.  In  1833  the 
revenue  was  slated  to  be  15.340/.,  and  expenditure  15,117/. 
Previous  to  1833,  Glasgow,  in  un  on  with  the  burghs  of 
Rutherglen,  Renfrew,  and  Dumbarton,  returned  only  one 
member  to  parliament ;  but  since  the  passing  of  the  Reform 
Act  the  above  constituency  hai  returned  two  members. 
The  arms  of  the  city  a.e  an  oak  tree,  a  biid,  a  bell,  and  a 
salmon  fish  with  a  ring  in  its  mouth;  motto, '  Let  Glasgow 
flourish.'  For  their  origin,  see  an  anecdote  related  by 
Bishop  Spotiswood  in  his  History  of  the  Church  tif  Scotland. 
The  southern  part  of  the  city,  adjoin  in.;  the  Clyde,  is 
situated  on  a  tract  of  low  land  which  becomes  more  elevated 
towards  the  north.  It  is  regulf*rly  built;  the  greater  part 
of  the  stieets  are  sixty  feet  wide,  and  inter&ect  each  other 
at  right  angles;  the  houses,  which  are  of  stone,  covered 
with  slate,  have  an  elegant  appearance;  and  the  squares, 
of  which  there  are  four,  are  tastefully  planted  with  a  variety 
of  shrubs.  The  cathedral,  or  hi^h  church,  dedicated  to  St. 
Kentigern,  stands  on  the  highest  part  of  the  city,  and  is 
considered  the  most  perfect  specimen  of  Gothic  ecclesiastical 
architecture  remaining  in  Scotland.  It  was  commenced  in 
1 1 23,  by  John  Achaiiis,  bishop  of  Glasgow ;  rebuilt  in  1 197, 
and  complete  1  in  1223-1260.  Beneath  it  is  a  cemetery, 
used  fbr  some  time  after  the  Reformation  as  a  subterraneous 
church,  called  the  Barony  Kirk,  but  now  restored  to  its 
orieinal  use.  Tbe  churches  of  St.  Enoch,  St.  Andrew, 
ana  St.  David,  are  also  fine  buildings.  There  are  eleven 
benefices,  nine  of  which  have  an  income  of  425/.  per 
annum  each,  and  are  in  the  patronage  of  the  town-cuuncil ; 
the  other  two  are  in  the  patrona^je  of  the  crown,  with  an 
annual  income  of  30/.  eacn.  The  other  public  buildings 
which  merit  particular  mention  are  the  Royal  Exchange, 
Royal  Infirmary,  Lunatic  Asylum,  the  University,  and 
the  Hunterian  Museum,  which  last,  founded  by  the  cele- 
brated William  Huntc%  is  built  in  the  Doric  style,  and 
contains  a  splendid  collection  of  books,  coins,  i^aintin^ 
and  anatomical  preparations,  valued  at  65,000/.  The 
market-places  for  butchers'  meat,  fish,  &c.,  are  said  to 
have  been  much  neglected ;  but  that  for  live  cattle  is  an 
exception,  as  it  occupies  more  than  six  acres,  is  paved,  and 
enclosed  with  stone  walls.  The  Green  of  Glasgow,  which 
Camden  calls '  a  public  wash-house,*  is  now  a  fine  park, 
Btretching  along  the  north  bank  of  the  river,  and  comprising 
upwards  of  130  acres.  Within  tbe  last  twenty  years  more 
than  10,006/.  have  been  expended  in  its  improvement,  and 
at  the  present  time  it  is  iustly  esteemed  by  the  inhabitants 
£br  ju  great  beauty  ana  many  important  usest    The  prin- 


cipal  burying-ground  is  in  imitation  of  Ftrt  la  Chaise  at 
Paris.  Tne  gaols  are  four  in  n amber,  and  the  Bridewell  is 
said  to  combine  the  important  advantages  of  security  and 
seclusion  with  strict  classification.  The  oan king  estmbli^h- 
ments  are  numerous,  and  include  a  savirigs'-bank,  estab- 
lished in  1815.  The  total  rental  of  the  citv  and  suburbs  m 
1830-31  was  536,965/. ;  the  assessed  taxes  levied  during  tbe 
same  period  amounted  to  40,804/. ;  and  the  revenue  of  the 
post-office  to  36,642/.  The  poor  are  provided  fbr  by  sn 
annual  assessment,  and  by  voluntary  donations.  In  l»W 
the.e  were  5006  pauper»  in  the  city,  the  cost  of  vliose  main- 
tenance  amounted  to  17,280/.  i^vious  to  tbe  year  ICito. 
the  duties  of  watching  and  warding  were  performed  by  thr 
citizens  themselves.  The  town  is  now  protected  by  a  fo««i 
police,  the  disbursements  on  account  of  which,  in  1  ?K 
exceeded  1 5,000/.  The  town  was  first  lighted  with  gu  m 
1818.  The  charge  for  a  single  jet  is  6f.  6d.  per  annon; 
and  the  amount  of  rates  paid  by  consumers  in  1835  wiss 
30,000/.  There  are  two  companies  which  supply  the  city 
with  water  filtered  from  the  Clyde.  These  companies  were 
established  in  1 80b- 1 808,  before  which  dates  the  mhmbitancs 
were  but  indifferently  supplied  ftt)m  public  and  private 
wells.  The  average  price  of  coal  in  1 83 1  was  6#.  3d.  per  ton ; 
and  in  that  year  there  were  561.049  tons  brought  mio  th« 
town,  of  which  about  124,000  tons  were  exported,  tbe  n- 
mainder  being  for  the  use  of  private  fiuniUea  and  pubb: 
works  in  the  city  and  suburbs.  Till  1775  the  Clyde  v« 
only  navigable  by  vessels  of  very  small  burthen ;  but  since 
that  time  large  sums  have  been  expended  in  its  improTe- 
ment;  the  banks  have  been  widened,  the  bed  deepened, 
and  the  numerous  sand-banks  and  other  obstruct iona  to 
the  navigation  have  been  removed.  In  1 780  only  veft&«If 
not  exceeding  40  tons  could  come  to  the  city;  now,  ships 
of  nearly  400  tons  have  been  loaded  and  discharged.  Pur- 
merly,  only  lighters  from  Greenock  came  up  to  Glasgow; 
now,  ships  from  America,  India,  and  China  come  up  with 
ease  and  safety.  The  spring-tides  flow  about  four  miles 
above  the  town,  and  the  ordinary  tides  as  for  as  Dalmartiock, 
which  is  two  miles  above  the  town.  In  1834  the  number  cf 
vessels  which  passed  Renfrew  Ferry  was  2700.  Tbe  revenue 
derived  from  the  hat  hour  and  river-dues,  exceeding  3I,004'/. 
per  annum,  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  trustees,  who  are  nkem- 
bers  of  the  corporation.  The  river  is  crossed  by  five  bridire*, 
three  of  which  are  of  stone:  the  oldest  was  built  by  Bi^li^p 
Rae  in  1350.  There  are  three  lighthouses,  situated  at  Cum- 
braes,  Clocb,  and  Toward.  The  air,  though  very  healtbj,  u 
moist  when  compared  with  the  east  coast  of  England  m:.  I 
Scjtland,  though  the  mean  annual  Quantity  of  rain  whirh 
falls  (22*4  inches)  is  very  little  more  than  the  annual  fkll  st 
London,  which  is  between  21*5  and  22  inches.  The  meiii 
temperature  of  Glasgow,  as  determined  by  Professor  Tbom- 
son,  is  47*75^ 

The  situation  of  Gla^igow,  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  c(«] 
and  mineral  district,  is  more  particularly  adapted  to  a 
manufacturing  than  to  a  commercial  city.  It  is  connected 
with  the  Atlantic  by  the  river  Clyde,  and  communiraies 
with  the  North  Sea  and  German  Ocean  by  means  of  the 
Forth  and  Clyde  canal.  Prior  to  the  union  in  1 707  its  com- 
merce was  limited  to  France  and  Holland,  and  eonsbtcd 
principally  in  the  curing  and  exportation  of  salmon,  but 
after  that  it  entered  so  extensively  into  the  trade  with  \t> 
ginia  and  Maryland,  that  before  the  commenoenient  of  tbe 
American  war  in  1776,  which  suspended  the  tobacoo  trade, 
the  annual  imports  exceeded  50.000  hogsheads.  At  the 
present  time  the  trade  with  the  United  States  and  the  W»t 
Indies,  and  the  timber  trade  wiih  North  America*  are  car- 
ried on  upon  a  very  large  scale.  The  net  recetpis  of  tht 
custom-house  in- the  years  1833  and  1834  were  I59.91ii 
and  263,945/.  But  Glasgow  is  fisr  more  a  raanu&eturing 
than  a  commercial  town.  According  to  a  report  made  ti 
parliament  in  1834,  it  appears  that,  with  tfaeexcepuon  of 
some  large  establiahments  at  Aberdeen,  the  entiie  eotioo 
manufacture  of  Scotland  is  con6ned  to  Glasgow  and  tlit 
country  surrounding  it  to  the  extent  of  twenty-fl\e  milca. 
The  manufecture  of  linens,  cambrics,  &c  was  first  intrc^ 
duced  into  Glasgow  about  1725,  the  power-loom  in  \7^x 
and  at  the  present  time  the  numerous  eslabltsbment%  fj: 
weaving  and  spinning  are  on  the  moat  splendid  stj.*" 
But  although  the  cotton  manufactures  have  hitherto  coik: 
tuted  the  staple  trade  of  Glasgow,  those  of  iron  become  an- 
nually of  greater  extent,  and  ftom  the  peculiarly  advantage 
ous  poution  of  the  town,  in  a  mineialogieal  point  of  vittv. 
there  is  reason  to  expeot  that  the  latter  wiU»  at  no  dAstani 


OLA 


254 


6  LA 


that  it  nay  wi(h  tbe  utmost  ftieility  be  moulded  into  any 
fonn.  It  is  so  ductile  while  heated,  that  it  may  be  spun 
into  filaments  of  the  greatest  conceivable  fineness,  and  these 
when  cold  are  pliant  and  elastic  in  a  high  degree.  The 
time  at  which  glass  was  invented  is  very  uncertain.  The 
popular  opinion  upon  this  subject  refers  the  discovery  to 
accident.  It  is  said  (Plin.,  Nat,  Hut^  lib.  xxxvi.,  c.  26), 
'  that  some  mariners,  who  had  a  cargo  of  m'trum  (salt, 
or,  as  some  have  supposed,  soda)  on  board,  having  landed 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  Belus,  a  small  stream  at  the  base 
of  Mount  Carmel  in  Palestine,  and  finding  no  stones  to  rest 
their  pots  on,  placed  under  them  some  masses  of  nitrum, 
which,  being  fused  by  the  heat  with  the  sand  of  the  river, 
produced  a  liquid  and  transparent  stream :  such  was  the 
origin  of  glass.'  The  antient  Egyptians  were  certainly 
acquainted  with  the  art  of  glass-making.  This  subject  is 
very  fully  discussed  in  a  memoir  by  M.  Boudet,  in  the 

•  Description  de  T Egypt,'  vol.  ix.,  Antiq.  M^moires.  The 
earthenware  beads  found  in  some  mummies  have  an  exter- 
nal coat  of  glass,  coloured  with  a  metallic  oxide ;  and  among 
the  ruins  of  Thebes  pieces  of  blue  glass  have  been  discovered. 
Tno  manufacture  of  glass  was  long  carried  on  at  Alexandria, 
from  which  city  the  Romans  were  supplied  with  that  ma- 
terial ;  but  before  the  time  of  Pliny  the  manufacture  had 
been  introduced  into  Italy,  France,  and  Spain  (xxxvi.,  c.  26). 
Glass  utensils  have  been  found  among  the  ruins  of  Hercu- 
laneum. 

The  application  of  glass  to  the  glazing  of  windows  is  of 
comparatively  modern  introduction,  at  least  in  northern  and 
western  Europe.  In  674  artists  were  brought  to  England 
from  abroad  to  glaze  the  church  windows  at  'Weremouth 
in  Durham ;  and  even  in  the  year  1567  this  mode  of  exclud- 
ing cold  from  dwellings  was  confined  to  large  establish- 
ments, and  by  no  means  universal  even  in  them.  An  ontr}* 
then  made  in  the  minutes  of  a  survey  of  Alnwick  Castle, 
the  residence  of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland,  informs  us 
that  the  glass  casements  were  taken  down  during  the 
absence  of  the  family,  to  preserve  them  from  accident.  A 
century  after  that  time  tne  use  of  window-glass  was  so 
small  in  Scotland  that  only  the  upper  rooms  in  the  royal 
palaces  were  furnished  with  it,  the  lower  part  havmg 
wooden  shutters  to  admit  or  exclude  the  air. 

The  earliest  manufacture  of  flint-glass  in  England  was 
begun  in  1557,  and  the  progress  made  in  perfecting  it  was 
so  slow,  that  it  was  not  until  near  the  close  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  that  this  country  was  independent  of  fo- 
reigners for  the  supply  of  the  common  article  of  drinking- 
glasses.  In  1673  some  plate-glass  was  made  at  Lambetli, 
in  works  supported  by  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  but  which 
were  soon  abandoned.  It  was  exactly  one  century  later  that 
the  first  establishment  of  magnitude  for  the  production  of 
plate-glass  was  formed  in  this  country,  under  the  title  of 

*  The  Governor  and  Company  of  British  Cast  Plate-glass 
Manufacturers.'  The  members  of  this  company  subscribed 
an  ample  capital,  and  works  upon  a  large  scale  were  erected  at 
Ravenhead,  near  Prescot  in  Lancashire,  which  have  been 
in  constant  and  successful  operation  firom  that  time  to  the 
present  day. 

At  an  early  period  of  its  history  in  this  country  the  glass 
manufacture  became  an  object  of  taxation,  and  duties  were 
imposed  by  the  6  and  7  William  and  Mary,  which  acted 
so  injuriously,  that  in  the  second  year  after  the  act  was 
passe>l  one  half  of  the  duties  were  taken  off,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  the  whole  was  repealed.  In  1746,  when  the 
manufacture  had  ti&ken  firmer  root,  an  excise  duty  was 
again  imposed,  at  the  rate  of  one  penny  per  pound  on  the 
materials  used  for  making  crown,  plate,  and  flint-glass,  and 
of  one  farthing  per  pound  on  those  used  for  making  bottles. 
In  1778  the^e  rates  were  increased  50  percent,  upon  crown 
and  bottle-glass,  and  were  doubled  on  flint  and  plate  glass. 
These  rates  were  further  advanced  from  time  to  time  in 
common  with  the  duties  upon  most  other  objects  of  taxa- 
tion, and  in  1806  stood  as  follows : — on  plate  and  flint-glass, 
49s.  per  cwt. ;  on  crown  and  German  sheet-glass,  36«.  dd. 
pcrcwt.;  on  broad  glass,  12«.  3^.,  and  on  common  bottle- 
glass,  4s,  }d.  per  cwt.  In  1813  those  rates  were  doubled, 
and  with  the  exception  of  a  modification  in  1819  in  favour 
of  plate-glass,  then  reduced  to  3/.  per  cwt,  were  continued 
at  that  hieh  rate  until  1825.  In  that  year  a  change  was 
made  in  the  mode  of  taking  the  duty  on  flint-glass,  by 
charging  it  on  the  weight  of  tuo  fluxed  materials  instead  of 
on  the  articles  when  made,  a  regulation  which  did  not  aflfect 
the  rate  of  charge.  In  1830  the  rate  on  bottles  was  reduoc4 


from  Bi.  2d,  to  7#.  per  cwt  The  only  fhrther 
hitherto  made  in  these  duties  oecurrea  in  1835»  when,  iO 
consequence  of  the  recommendation  contained  in  the  thir- 
teenth Report  of  the  Commissioners  of  Excise  Inquiry,  the 
rate  upon  flint-glass  was  reduced  two-thirds,  leavmg  it  at 
2d.  per  pound,  a  measure  which  was  rendered  neeessary  by 
the  encouragement  given  under  the  high  duty  to  the  ilUc  a 
manufacture,  which  was  earned  on  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
oblige  several  regular  manufacturers  to  relinquish  the  prt- 
secution  of  their  business.  The  number  of  estahlisbmcou 
for  the  manufacture  of  glass  in  the  United  Kingdum*  in 
1833,  was  126,  of  which  106  were  in  England,  10  in  Scot- 
land, and  10  in  Ireland.  The  principal  seat  of  the  manu- 
facture in  England  is  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  and  tr^ 
neighbouring  town  of  Shields;  next  in  importance  stai.'U 
Stourbridge;  then  the  works  in  and  near  Liverpool,  incl lad- 
ing the  Plate-glass  Company's  establishment  at  Ra^c- 
head ;  next  follow  Bristol,  Warrington,  Birmingham,  ar. . 
Leeds ;  in  London  there  were  only  three  glass-houses  ywA- 
ing  to  the  revenue  about  2  per  cent  of  the  whole  amount  ^ 
duty  collected  upon  this  material.  In  Scotland  five  nut  •  -' 
the  ten  houses  are  in  and  near  Gla.sgow,  two  are  in  L<*- 
the  remaining  three  are  at  Cartsdike,  JPortobello,  and  All  ■ 
In  Ireland  four  manufactures  are  in  Dublin,  two  each  i 
Cork  and  Belfast,  and  one  each  in  Waterford  and  Ne»r> 

There  are  five  distinct  kinds  of  glass,  which  differ  0  •::• 
each  other  in  re^rd  to  some  of  the  ingredients  of  which  \Uf « 
are  made,  and  in  the  processes  of  manufacture.  Tb«- 
kinds  are,  flint-glass,  or  crystal;  crown-glass,  or  GermA*. 
sheet-glass;  broad-glass,  or  common  window-glais ;  butt««*. 
or  common  peen  glass ;  and  plate-glass. 

The  principal  ingredients  used  for  the  production  of  ea- ^ 
of  these  kinds  of  glass  are  silex,  or  flint,  and  an  alkalL  1  r  v 
differences  in  the  various  kinds  result  firom  the  descripti  -^ 
of  alkali  employed,  and  from  the  addition  of  certain  arf>  v. 
sary  materials,  usually  metallic  oxides.  The  form  in  wbi' '.« 
silex  is  now  universally  used  in  this  country  for  gla^^- 
making  is  that  of  sea-sand,  and  care  is  required  to  stlcr: 
those  kinds  which  are  free  from  foreign  matters  and  imi<u- 
rities.  The  port  of  Lynn  in  Norfolk,  and  Alum  Bay  m  t: " 
Isle  of  Wight,  have  long  furnished  the  greater  part  of  ti.t 
silex  used  in  cur  glass-houses.  Flint-glass  derives  its  namf 
from  the  practice  in  former  times  of  using  flints  calciri<-«i 
and  ground  in  the  manner  now  employed  for  maku:? 
porcelain,  but  this  has  long  been  discontinued.  Of  la^c 
there  has  been  some  apprehension  of  a  scarcity  of  sand  suit- 
able to  the  manufacture,  and  a  good  idea  may  be  fonne<l  ..s 
to  the  importance  attached  to  the  purity  of  this  chief  inirro- 
dient  from  the  fact  that  sand  has  been  imported  for  thr 
purpose  from  New  South  Wales.  The  alkali  employed  i*  r 
making  fine  flint-glass  is  pearl-ash,  purified  by  solution  a(.<! 
subsidence,  in  which  process  impurities  to  the  extent  •« 
one-third  of  the  weight  are  removed.  Barilla,  kelp,  ana 
wood  ashes,  combined  with  many  impurities,  are  used  ;  r 
making  inferior  kinds  of  glass :  the  impurities  even  a>^.>t 
towards  fusing  the  silex.  Coarse  alkaline  substance*  i 
contain  iron  in  some  degree,  and  it  is  to  the  presence  of  t:..> 
metal  that  the  ffreen  colour  of  common  glass  is  owing. 

l*Iint  Glass,  known  in  other  countries  under  the  name  •  f 
crystal,  is  the  most  generally  useful,  the  most  brilliant  ar»'i 
the  heaviest  description  of  glass.    This  last  ouslity  it  o«o 
to  the  large  quantity  of  oxide  of  lead  which  it  ronta  r  \ 
and  which  is  used  sometimes  in  the  form  of  minium.  I'^t 
more  frequently  in  that  of  litharge.     This  metallic  o\ulc 
acts  as  a  flux,  and  promotes  the  fusion  of  the  other  ma'.«- 
rials  at  a  comparatively  low  temperature.    The  greater  (k-n- 
sity  which  it  imparts  to  glass  gives  to  it  a  greater  power  <'. 
refracting  the  rays  of  light,  and  it  is  this  quality  ahvK 
renders  flint-glass  of  so  much  importance  for  optical  pur- 
poses.     Nitre  in  a  small  proportion  is  used  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  any  carbonaceous  matter  in  the  other  ingrcflient^ 
The  oxygen  which  it  gives  out  in  the  fbmace  further  scm-? 
to  maintain  at  their  highest  degree  of  oxygenation  the  me- 
tallic oxides  that  are  present.    Black  oxide  of  mangniu'-.. 
in  minute  proportion  is  also  used  to  remove  any  foul  ct*K*  r 
that  might  otherwise  remain  through  the  impurity  of  :i  * 
alkali  used    its  cleansing  property  occasioned  this  oxidt*  t  • 
be  known  formerly  under  the  name  of  glas&-$oap.    At} 
undue  proportion  of  manganese  would  impart  a  pur|  •^■ 
hue  to  the  mass,  and  if  any  considerable  quantity  be  um  ; 
that  colour  will  be  deepened  almost  to  black.     Wbt.> 
through  inadvertence  the  glass  has  been  made  purpW,  tl.i* 
oolour  will  be  almost  instantly  discharged  by  Uirustmg  a 


6  L  A 


256 


G  L  A 


ployed  for  the  production  of  the  same  piece.    The  lime 

acts  as  a  flux,  and  is  used  in  proportions  varying  from  I  •24th 

to  1-1 6th  of  the  whole  materials  employed.    Besides  thoM 

ingredients  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  large  proportion  of 

broken  plate-glass,  or  cullet.    The  following  proportions  are 

given  by  Parkes: — 

Lynn  sand,  well  washed  and  dried        .  720  parts. 

Alkaline  salt,  containing  40  per  cent,  of  soda    450 

Lime,  slaked  and  sifted  •  •  80 

Nitre  .  .  .  •  •  25 

Broken  plate-glass        •  •  •  425 


ff» 


f» 


1700  parts. 

It  requires  40  hours*  exposure  to  the  ftill  heat  of  the  fur- 
nace to  reduce  the  materials  to  the  proper  state  of  fusion 
and  vitrification.  When  this  is  aceomplished,  the  glass  is 
transferred  from  the  melting-pot,  by  means  of  copper  ladles, 
to  a  large  vessel  called  a  cuvette^  previously  heated  to  a  very 
high  degree ;  when  filled,  it  remains  some  hours  in  the  fur- 
nace, to  disperse  the  air  that  may  have  been  introduced  into 
the  mass  by  the  operation  of  ladling.  When  this  effect  has 
been  produced,  the  cuvette  is  withdrawn  fit>m  the  furnace 
and  taken  to  the  casting-table,  over  the  upper  end  of  which 
it  is  raised  and  suspended  by  means  of  a  crane.  It  is  then 
thrown  into  an  inclined  position,  and  the  contents  are 
allowed  to  flow  out  upon  tne  table,  and  are  distributed  by 
means  of  a  roller  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  table,  bars  of 
metal  being  placed  at  each  side  along  its  entire  length,  and 
across  the  bottom,  in  order  to  prevent  the  glass  from  run- 
ning upon  the  floor.  The  casting  of  large  plates  of  glass  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  processes  in  the  arts :  the  large 
mass  of  melted  glass,  renaered  in  a  high  degree  luminous 
by  heat,  which  is  poured  forth,  exhibiting  changing  colours 
in  the  sheet  after  the  roller  has  been  passed  over  it. 

In  the  manufactory  at  Ravenheao,  where  ihe  workmen 
are  well  trained  and  experienced,  this  operation  is  con- 
ducted with  celerity  and  m  silence,  each  of  the  twenty  men 
engaged  knowingwell  the  part  in  the  operation  which  he 
has  to  perform.  Previous  to  the  casting,  the  table  is  placed 
with  one  end  against  the  mouth  of  an  annealing  oven,  and 
as  soon  as  the  plate  is  set,  it  is  carefully  slipped  from  the 
surface  of  the  table  to  the  floor  of  the  annealing  oven,  and 
when  the  oven  has  received  as  many  plates  as  it  will  contain 
upon  its  floor,  the  door  is  closed  and  its  crevices  are  stopped 
with  mortar  or  clay,  to  insure  the  gradual  cooling  of  the 
plates.  They  remun  in  the  oven  during  a  fortnight,  after 
which  the  ovens  are  opened  and  their  contents  are  with- 
drawn. The  plates  are  then  squared  by  means  of  a  glazier's 
diamond,  then  gp*ound  and  polished,  and  when  intended 
for  mirrors  they  are  silvered.  In  order  to  their  being 
ground  they  are  imbedded  in  plaster  of  Paris,  and  first 
powdered  flint  is  rubbed  steadily  and  evenly  over  the  sur- 
ihce  by  machinery  worked  by  steam  m>wer,  both  sides  of  the 
plate  being  eround  in  succession.  Emery  powder  is  then 
substituted  for  ground  flint,  coarse  at  first,  but  finer  after- 
wards as  the  rougher  inequalities  of  the  surfaces  are  re- 
moved :  that  part  of  the  operation  in  which  emery  powder 
is  tised  is  called  smoothing.  The  polishing  is  also  performed 
by  steam-machinery.  The  plates  are  firmlv  fixed  upon  large 
tables,  and  the  polishing  instruments,  which  are  of  wood 
covered  with  many  folds  of  woollen  cloth,  having  carded 
wool  between  each  fold,  are  passed  to  and  fW)  over  the  sur- 
face. The  polishing  substance  used  is  colcothal,  an  oxide 
of  iron  which  remains  in  the  retorts  after  the  distillation  of 
acid  from  sulphate  of  iron :  the  two  surfaces  are  policed  in 
succession.  For  silvering  glasses  an  amalgam  of  mercury 
and  tin-foil  is  used,  and  this  by  means  of  considerable  and 
long-continued  pressure  is  made  to  adhere  to  one  of  the 
surfaces  of  the  plate. 

The  processes  here  described  are  those  used  for  the  manu- 
fiielure  of  cast  plate-glass.  Plates  which  are  blown  are 
made  in  the  manner  described  for  making  broad-glass ;  the 
after  processes*  of  squaring,  grinding,  smoothing,  polishing, 
and  silvering,  are  the  same  whether  the  plates  are  cast  or 
blown. 

Pagte. — Artificial  gems,  fiimiliarly  known  under  the  name 
of  paste,  are  glass  into  the  composition  of  which  a  large  prt>- 
poriion  of  metallic  oxide  enters,  such  proportion  being  in 
almost  all  cases  greater  than  that  of  the  silex  with  which 
It  ts  combined.  The  production  of  these  mock  jewels  was 
fuimerly  considered  of  much  greater  importance  than  at 
peiient,  and  a  large  part  of  every  old  treatise  upon  glass- 
making  is  made  up  of  instructions  for  producing  the  best 


imitations  of  different  precious  stones.  The 
commended  are  in  general  tedious,  and  the  direct  ions  iri^co 
are  very  minute,  several  preliminary  operations  being  «ir- 
scribed  for  purifying  the  ingredients  usea.  The  proprtet>  «jf 
adopting  different  mixtures,  independently  of  the  ooloun:kj 
ingredients,  which  must  of  course  be  difllerent  for  the  int.- 
tation  of  different  gems,  is  enforced  by  the  foct  that  \  he 
different  refractive  and  dispersive  powers  of  those  gems  de- 
pend upon  their  specific  gravity,  and  that  in  order  to  iiut- 
tate  each  successfully  the  glass  or  paste  employed  should 
be  of  the  same  specific  gravity  as  the  stones  to  be  imitated. 
The  softness  of  all  these  compounds,  when  compared  w  lU 
that  of  the  real  gems,  makes  it  impossible  that  any  person 
resorting  to  such  a  test  can  be  deceived  with  ngard  to  the;r 
genuineness. 

The  foregoing  description  is  confined  to  the  explanation 
of  those  branches  of  the  glass  manufocture  which,  fVom  the  r 
magnitude,  are  of  the  most  importance.  It  would  require  s 
long  treatise  to  explain  minutely  all  the  oonditiona  necev- 
sary  to  be  attended  to  in  the  processes,  and  to  describe  th» 
variations  which  must  be  maae  in  these  conditions  for  p r»- 
ducing  the  peculiar  qualities  of  ^ass  that  are  best  adaptr- 
for  other  numerous  purposes  to  which  the  material  is  apil»!<d 

The  effect  of  high  duties  upon  the  consumptbn  of  artirleA 
of  convenience  is  strikingly  exemplified  in  the  history  of  tS: 
duty  upon  glass  in  this  country.  In  1793,  the  year  in  whiri. 
the  war  of  the  French  revolution  was  begun,  and  wbc. 
taxation  was  comparatively  low,  the  quantity  of  all  kimi>  r: 
glass  made  and  retained  foAse  in  the  kingdom  was  40 7.'Jt': 
cwt.,  and  the  amount  of  revenue  obtained  from  it  177,40&i. 
The  average  rate  of  duty  was  therefore  8#.  SkL  per  cm 
upon  the  whole  quantity.  In  1834,  the  rate  of  duty  wms  b. 
progressive  additions  fourfold  what  it  was  in  1793,  xhs 
average  being  35«.  7id,  per  cwt  upon  the  aggregate  quan- 
tity used;  and  although  the  population  had  in  the  meu- 
time  increased  more  than  60  per  cent,  the  quantity  of  gisss 
which  was  taken  for  use  was  only  374,351  ewt^  or  one- 
twelfth  less  than  was  so  taken  in  1793.  If  tbequ&ntjt} 
used  in  proportion  to  the  population  had  continued  the 
same,  that  quantity  would  in  1834  have  amotmtad  t> 
663,740  cwt.,  and  a  revenue  equal  to  what  was  lealixo; 
would  have  resulted  from  an  average  rate  of  20t«  instead  of 
35#.  7id. 

The  precise  rates  of  duty  charged  upon  each  kind  of  gias4 
at  the  two  periods  were  as  follows  :— 


Crown-glass 
Plate- glass 
Flint-glass 
Broad-glass 
Bottle-glass 


1793.  1S34 

16f.  1  id.  per  cwt  73«.  Bd,  per  cwt. 

21    5i        „  60    0         » 

21    51        .,  56     0         », 

8    Oi         „  30     0 
4    Oi        „  7     0         » 

In  1835  the  dutv  upon  flint-glass  was  reduced  frooi  ^. 
to  2d.  per.  lb.,  as  already  mentioned :  the  ultimate  x«sul' 
to  the  revenue  from  this  partial  reduction  cannot  yet  U* 
fairly  estimated ;  but  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  i: 
can  ever  be  judicious  to  extract  revenue  from  an  articie  of 
domestic  manufiicture,  the  ingredients  for  which  are  to 
cheap  and  so  abundant  as  those  from  which  glass  can  be 
made,  and  where  the  processes  of  manufiicture  aie  »*> 
simple  in  themselves  that  any  person  of  ordinary  talent^ 
may  produce  it  illicitly,  as  it  is  well  known  many  do  la  tbu 
country,  in  an  attic  or  cellar.  The  Quantity  of  each  descrip- 
tion of  glass  brought  to  charge  by  tne  excise,  in  each  of  the 
three  years  from  1834  to  1836,  was  as  follows  :«> 


Crown 

Flint 

Plate 

Broad 

Bottle 


1834. 
CVl. 

136,708 

83,323 

18,922 

6,766 

344,014 


183S^ 
Cwt 

155,328 

81,674 

21,652 

5.847 

379,321' 


1896L 

CvL 

163,928 

102,653 

2^169 

7,629 

448,769 


The  real  value  of  glaav-ware  exported  from  the  United 
Kingdom,  in  each  year  from  1827  to  1836,  was:— 


1827 
1828 
1829 
1830 
1831 


•  • 


•  • 


£534,549 
500,356 
474,965 
401,543 
429,624 


1832 
1833 
1634 
1835 
1836 


•  • 


£402,757 
445.845 
496,872 
64M10 
553,384 


The  greater  part  of  these  exports  was  made  to  India  and 
America.  In  1836  the  value  of  the  shipments  to  vanouft 
quarters  of  the  world  was  as  followi:— 


'  Ttn  Jlitriin  inmni  tn  eoiuiit  id  chronic  influnm&tion  of' 
Ihe  dMp-tMled  jnta  of  the  era.  ThoM  of  a  gouty  ooiuti- 
lution.  and  e«pMi«l)f  thoae  wno  have  lived  freely,  and  have 
~ «  mMdlB  period  of  life,  a»  wellaapei * 


]  Ter;  delicate 


panedthe ^_ . 

mlotu  oonatitiition,orvho  are  employed 
work,  are  the  mo>t  frequent  subiecu  of  it. 
ftequent  in  wm*  countnM  and  claues  than  others.  Scarpa 
never  met  with  a  case  of  fluidity  of  the  vitreous  humour 
during  hi«  long  practice  at  Pavia ;  while  in  England  such 
a  ooniition  ii  by  no  means  rare  in  old  penona.  Benedict 
Bayi  that  he  found  glaucoma  very  prevalent  among  the 
Jews  in  Breslau. 

On  examination  of  the  eyes  thus  affected,  the  choroid 
membrane  is  bund  to  have  lost  its  black  colour  from  the 
absence  of  pigmentum  nigrum ;  it  is  become  dull-brownisb, 
and  its  vessels  are  often  varicose ;  the  Wtreous  humour  is 
generally  quite  fluid  without  a  trace  of  hyaloid  membrane, 
of  a  yellowish  hue.  or  with  small  brownbh-green  or  greon 
spots  scattered  through  it ;  the  retina  is  often  darker  than 
natural,  or  marked  with  reddish  or  black  points ;  the  lens 
in  part  of  a  yellowish  or  deep  amber  colour,  Brm  and  tranti- 
parent,  sometimes  pushed  forward,  eo  that  the  iris  is  in  con- 
tact  with  the  cornea. 

The  only  diseases  with  which  glaucoma  can  easily  be  eon- 
founded  ate  cataract  and  gutla  serena;  it  may  be  distin- 
guished by  its  history  ;  by  the  greenish  colour  of  the  pupil, 
which  evidently  arises  from  changes  of  structure  in  the 
parts  behind  it,  and  which  is  not  visible  when  vieved  late- 
tally ;  by  the  defect  of  vision  beine  disproportionate  to  the 
change  of  colour  of  the  pupil ;  and  by  the  sight  being  best 
in  a  stroni^  light 

Early  treatment  is  necessary,  and  it  should  be  actively 
antiphloeislic ;  blood  should  be  drawji  from  the  temples, 
and  purgatives,  mercury,  and  abstemiousness  be  ordered. 
These,  if  they  do  not  put  a  stop  to  the  disease,  will  retard 
its  progress,  and  relieve  many  of  its  sympioms,  as  the  head- 
ache. &c-  If  however  the  pupil  becomes  auite  greeu  and 
Ihe  iris  motionless,  the  case  may  be  regarued  as  hopeless; 
for  there  are  no  means  known  by  which  the  changes  on 
which  theso  symptoms  depend  can  be  removed. 

(Beer.  Lehre  von  den  Aueftkranhheitm ;  Lawrence  On 
tke  Diteiue*  of  the  Eye  ;  Macken»ie  On  the  Diteaset  of 
the  Eye.) 

GLAUCONIE.  a  French  term  used  principally  by  M. 
Brongniart,  to  signify  some  stnitiQed  deposits  associated 
with  the  clialk,  whicn  correspond  to  llie  green  sands  of 
English  geologists.  The  Glauconie  Crayeuse  is  considered 
by  H.  Brongniart  to  be  the  equivalent  of  the  upper  green 
sand,  and  the  Glauconie  Sableuse  of  the  lower  green  sand. 
The  same  author  uses  the  term  Glauconie  Grossiire  &r  a 
deposit  above  the  chalk. 

GLAUCaNOME,  a  freshwater  genus  of  oonchifera  of 
the  family  Venrridit,  established  by  Mr.  Gray  in  his  Sfiid- 
Itgia  Zonlogica.    [Venbiudx.] 

GLAUCONOMB  (Glauconomc,  NereidU  filia),  is  also 

used  to  denote  a  genus  established  by  Goldfuss,  for  species 

ofcelluliferous  Poly paria  found  in  the  chalk  of  Westpnalia. 

GLAUCO'PIS,  a  genus  of  birds  established  by  Forster 

iCalatu  of  Bechstein  and  Vieilloi). 

Generic  Character.— Sill  moderate,  strong,  robust  thick, 
with  the  base  enlarged  towards  the  commissure;  upper 
mandible  convex,  vaulted,  curved  towards  the  end  and  with- 
out any  notch ;  lower  mandible  (Allowing  the  curvature  oj 
the  upper,  straight  below,  bidden  in  part  by  I  lie  sides  of 
the  upper  msudible.  Nostrile  basal,  lateral,  round,  p«r- 
tially  closed  by  a  lari^e  membrane,  and  entirely  hidden  by 
the  curled  and  velvetty  feathers  vhich  advance  from  Ihe 
fbrehead.  Feet  Mroag,Tobu»t;  tarsi  longer  than  the  mid- 
dle toe ;  toes  nearly  all  of  a  length,  Ibe  external  toe  united  to 
tbe  middle  one,  and  the  internal  toe  soldered  ('suudf')  at  the 
base.  Wings  short;  the  first  quill  short,  the  three  fullow- 
■ng  graduutt^d,  and  the  flflh  longest.  7*11)/  lone,  graduated. 
(Temminrk.)  The  above  character  is  adopted  in  Lesson' 
'Manuel,'  and  the  following  three  species  are  there  ai 
ranged  under  the  genus,  viz.  Glaucopii  cinerea,  Gl.  Uucop- 
tera,  and  Gl.  Temiiura. 

M.  Temminck  describes  the  bird  figured  above  as  one- 
third   larger   than    GlaueopiM    Temia   {C'oniu*  varianM  of 
authors),  or  the  Pie  Temia  of  Le  Vaillant's  birds  of  Africa. 
He  observes   that  the  sinking   cliaraclcr  in   Gl.  Temnura 
nsiaia  in  a  very  graduated  ud  ("  queue  tris6lag*e'),  all  the 
.hers  of  which  are  truncated  and   cut,  as  it  were,  trans- 
wly  at  their  cxuemiiy.    The  whole  of  the  plumage  is 


black,  a  little  lustrous  on  thowingitndtaiL  RIliBdhvt 
black.  Total  length  12  inche*.  Locality,  CoduB  CbuM. 
M.  Lesson  observes  that  this  speclts  will  fcnn  »  n«w  gaiiaft. 


QkMsplaTiBasn.    (T*bb.) 

InMr.  9wainson's  ■  ClaniflcatioD  of  Birds'  (1837),  toI.  :  , 

tiort  4,  Gl.  Temnura  is  referred  to  Cryptiriaa,  and  tba  fl- 
awing generic  character  is  given  by  turn :  some  of  the  cha 
racters,  not  inserted  in  his  own  notes,  rest  on  the  authoniy 
of  the  '  Manuel  d'Ornithologie.' 

Glaueopi*  (Furster).  Bill  short,  strong,  lobiut ;  tbe  cut- 
men  elevated  and  curved  from  the  haae;  uppar  mandjbl* 
destitute  of  a  notch;  under  mandible  «traighl<ontb«nnisL 
the  margin  covered  by  that  of  the  upper,  and  fVimi^ied  j! 
the  base  with  two  fleshy  wattles.  Nostrils  baiol,  latere], 
partly  closed  by  a  large  membrane.  Feat  Ycry  strong, 
formed  for  walking.  The  tarsus  longer  than  the  midiU* 
toe:  lat«ral  toes  short,  of  equal  length,  and  divided  to  tbeit 
base;  hind  toe  strong.armed  with  loDgcurvedciaw.  Wiup 
short  Tail  rather  lengthened,  rounded  ;  the  fealb«*eiid. 
ing  in  setBc«oiu  points. — Pacific  Islands.    G.  Cinerea. 

In  the  third  part  of  the  '  ClaniuBcation  of  Buds,'  in  tht 
same  vol.,  Mr.  Swainson  slates  that  the  Glaueopimr,  or  cv 
sorial  crows,  form  iha  only  division  of  lb«  hmily  which  b« 
had  then  analysed  with  a  view  to  determino  its  chief  ^tess- 
ric  types.  Asa  whole  he  thinks  that  theyarvdistinguiibal 
from  all  other  birds  by  their  short  flnoh-like  bill,  the  n>u- 
missura  of  which  is  always  arched,  and  aometintw  sinaaKd 
like  that  of  a  FHngiUa.  The  genua  OlamMpie,  which  b* 
considers  the  pre-eminent  type,  shows  this  airuetur^  in  hii 
opinion,  in  great  perfection,  '  added  ta  anottwr  which  n 
equally  indicative  of  the  rasoriol  structure,  that  is,  ttrcr.j 
walking  legs.  Following  this  we  have  the  Senegal  /^u;  r; 
formingour  genu* /Vi^iiMnif. intimately  related,  aoconl.n; 
to  H.  Temminck,  with  his  Corvus  Gynmoctphabu'  [l-.s'- 
viDX,  lol.  viiL,  pp.  69,  70.1  '  Upon  this  auinority  we  cnii- 
jecture  the  last- mentioned  bird  may  prove  the  graJUiorul 
type.  The  singular  genus  BrachyiUmut,  from  New  Il4>l- 
land,  long  since  noticed  by  us  as  connecliDg  this  bird  ai:!! 
the  jays,  leads  at  once  to  the  finch  crows  of  India,  all  of 
which,  in  our  opinion,  are  merely  variations  of  that  itpe 
named  Cryptirina  by  M.  VieilloL  Some  of  these,  from  ib>"j 
close  resemblance  to  Glau/Mpii.harn  actually  been  placed  id 
that  genus  bv  M.  Temminck,  who  seems  to  have  ov«rlu>iLe< 
the  entirely  different  structure  of  their  legs.  Tb"  nirU  lb 
thus  closed,  and  we  find  that  these  five  types  repraaeni  :l>* 
primary  divisions  of  the  whole  class.' 
A*  Mr.  Swainson  baa  made  some  ■ 


G  L  A 


260 


G  L  B 


Kamben  of  the  same  species  were  taken  by  the  same 
loologist  towards  the  end  of  the  same  month  in'  lat  2^  26' 
N^  lon^.  19*  51'  W.,  light  airs,  nearly  calm.  Often,  when  at 
rest,  the  animal  would  drop  one  or  more  of  the  fins,  but  on 
touching  them  they  would  be  immediately  raised  to  their 
former  position,  and  the  fin  was  turned  back  as  if  to  throw 
off  the  offending  object  Oar  limits  will  not  permit  us  to 
follow  Mr.  Beoneti  through  his  detailed  but  interesting 
narrative  of  the  habits  of  these  beautiful  creatures ;  but  in 
addition  to  what  we  have  given,  the  results  of  his  observa- 
tions appear  to  have  been  that  the  Glaud  actually  feed  upon 
ParpiUe,  and  probably  upon  Veleike  and  JanMnee  ;  that  the 
animal  shows  more  sensitiveness  on  the  back  than  it  does 
when  touched  elsewhere ;  that  it  does  not  seem  to  be  dis- 
turbed by  the  contact  of  another  Glaucui ;  that  the  fins 
have  an  undulating  and  a  twisting  movement ;  and  that  a 
circulating  fluid  could  be  perceived,  by  means  of  a  glass, 
through  the  semitransparent  membrane  of  the  back,  close 
to  the  surface,  flowing  in  two  directions— one  taking  a  course 
downwards  and  the  other  upwards.  It  appears  moreover, 
from  the  testimony  of  Mr.  Bennett  and  others,  that  no  means 
have  yet  been  discovered  for  preserving  these  evanescent 
creatures,  which  lose  their  beauty  and  form  even  when 
taken  alive  out  of  the  water  and  laid  upon  the  hand.  '  The 
digitations  of  the  fins  fell  off,  the  least  movement  destroyed 
the  beauty  of  the  animal,  it  speedily  lost  all  the  deep  purple 
and  silvery  enamelled  tints,  and  became  a  loathsome  mass.* 
{2^ool.  Proc.  1 836.)  Spirit,  it  is  to  be  feared,  would  never 
preserve  them  in  a  state  available  for  examination.  We 
mention  this  to  induce  those  observers  who  may  have  the 
opportunity,  to  follow  out  their  researches  on  the  animal's 
organization  by  watching  it .  i^arrowly  with  good  glasses 
whilst  it  is  alive. 


^--. 


cn«iciit.  a.  eooiiDoii  tnber«1«  of  the  ornnt  of  feneration;  ft.  rentt  e.one 
of  lb«  diicitAttoni  raagniflcd.  (De  BlatnvlUe.)  a  would  nprceent  the  eous, 
according  to  Mr.  Bennett. 

GLAZING,  the  art  of  fixing  glass  in  the  frames  of  win- 
dows, &c.  The  more  comtaon  kinds  of  glazing  hardly  require 
any  nolice.  Putty,  with  which  the  glass  is  usually  fixed, 
consists  of  whitening  and  linseed  oil.  As  to  the  mode  of 
cutting  the  glass,  see  Diamond. 

The  defective  state  of  most  skylights,  hothouse  roofs,  &c., 
shows  that  the  art  of  glazing  them  is  very  imperfectly  un- 
derstood by  those  who  practise  it.  When  a  skylight  is  glazed 
in  the  ordinary  manner,  the  laps  or  horizontal  joinings  fill 
with  water  by  capillary  attraction  whenever  it  rains,  and  the 
wind  drives  the  water  into  the  house.  This  process  goes  on 
as  long  as  the  shower  lasts.  Sometimes  vegetable  fibres  hang 
down  from  the  laps,  and,  acting  as  siphons,  draw  off  the  water 
taken  up  by  them,  which  then  falls  into  the  house,  and  by 
Its  dropping  injures  tender  plants,  &c.  The  retained  water 
also  expands  in  fireezing,  and  fractures  the  glass. 

The  following  remarks  are  the  result  of  long  practical 
experience  and  careful  observation.  The  edges  of  the  glass 
which  are  to  form  the  laps  should  not  be  cut  straight,  but 
circular :  this  will  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  work,  and  cause 
the  water  to  run  down  the  centre  of  the  openings,  and  not 
act  so  much  on  the  bars.  The  cutting  of  glass  in  this 
manner  for  domes  and  other  ornamental  roofs,  where  the 
■paces  between  the  bars  are  not  parallel,  has  hitherto  been 
difficult  and  expensive  on  account  of  the  waste  of  glass ; 
but  by  a  contrivance  recently  invented,  this  may  now  be 
accomplished  with  ease,  expedition,  and  economy.  The  laps 
•houla  be  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide,  and  wholly 
filled  with  a  cement  composed  of  putty,  with  a  good  proper* 
tion  of  lamp  black,  which  will  remain  tougher  and  be  more 
waterproof  than  white  lead,  carbon  being  much  less  soluble 
^Han  carbonate  of  lead.    Some  glaziers  cement  the  laps  at 

1  tinia  when  thev  are  glazed,  and  leave  a  space  in  the 


centre  to  allow,  as  they  say,  the  water  that  forms  inside  to 
run  out    The  spaces  thus  left  are  large  enough  to  allow  of 
the  formation  of  sufficient  ice  to  break  the  glass.  Ceroentir.jr 
is  of  little  use,  if  done  when  the  work  is  first  glazed.    Af. . 
the  glazier  has  left  his  work  as  finished,  the  glass,  whirK  « 
very  elastic*  springs  up  enough  to  leave  the  included  cvnu*:<! 
loose  and  inefficient    The  elasticity  of  the  glass  may  \ 
taken  advantage  of  after  the  side  putty  is  set  firm.     If  t*.^ 
cement  is  then  pressed  into  the  laps  and  care  is  taken  that 
they  are  dry,  the  action  opens  the  laps,  and  the  reacti<iri  c' 
the  glass  closes  them,  and  holds  the  cement  fast  and  firm 
GLAZING.    [Earthenware,  Porcelain.  &r.] 
GLEBE    LAND,  the  portion  of  land  belonging  t^  : 
parish  church  over  and  above  the  tithes.    If  there  l>j  b  (h 
a  rector  and  a  vicar,  the  glebe  land  in  the  occupation  i  f 
either  does  not  pay  tithes,  though  if  in  the  occupation « f 
a  tenant  it  does.     The  representatives  of  a  deceased  ir.- 
cumbeut  are  entitled  to  the  corn  sown  by  him  upon  t!.'* 
glebe.     Various  statutes  have  from  time  to  time  Ki<« 
passed  to  facilitate  the  exchange  of  glebe  lands,  which  iri. 
often  scattered  in  small  parcels  in  different  parts  of  t'-.e 
parish.    It  is  doubtful  whether  a  parson  may  open  mirn-^ 
upon  his  glebe,  though  he  may  work  any  that  are  open. 

GLEE,  in  music,  a  vocal  composition  in  three  or  naor^ 
parts,  any  instrumental  addition  to  which  is  absolutely  tl'- 
gitimate,  because  pernicious  in  effect;  except  in  the  ca^e    * 
unsteady  performers,  when  the  use  of  a  piano-forte,  gerv* 
touched,  is  advisable,  as  an  e\'il  of  less  magnitude  than  fl.-. 
intonation  and  broken  time.    The  word  is  derived  from  t   ^ 
Anglo-Saxon  jhs;  (gl^gg)*  which  signifies    mutfc    pen* 
rally ;  hence  the  term  Serious  Glee  may  possibly  not  Ik-  :- 

gross  a  solecism  as  is  commonly  suppo»ea;  though  tt  mc-: 
e  also  admitted  that  the  word  usually  imphed  cheer:'..*, 
ness ;  and  we  are  told  by  War  ton  that  gleeman  {%h^xsLMt.  • 
answers  to  the  LaHii  jocukttor. 

The  glee  is  of  English  growth,  though  the  madrio;al  tec: . 
to  have  been  its  parent    The  term  is  confined  e3Lclus»rt 
to  this  country,  and  does  not  appear  to  have  been  empV>} 
till  towards  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  ;  t>.. 
Dowland,  Ford,  Ravenscroft,  and  others,  published  nearly 
hundred  years  before  compositions  having  all  the  chamctt 
of  that  which  subsequently  took  the  name  of  G/^a  frc- 

Suently  calling  them  part-songs,  and  occasionally  apply:*:: 
le  term  madrigal  to  them,  notwithstanding  their  defines^  > 
in  what  chiefly  characterises  the  latter. 

Glees  are  called  serioui  or  cheerful,  %txa^sQg  totb- 
sentiment  of  the  poetry.  The  most  distinguished  aut'r  r> 
of  this  delightful  species  of  music  are— (mentioning  ^^r^\^ 
those  who  now  are  personally  beyond  the  influence  ofjrr .  o 
or  censure) — Ame,Baildon,  Oillcott,  Cooke,  Danby,  Ha>i-^ 
Mornington,  Nares,  Paxton,  Spofforth,  Stafford  Sroirh. 
Stevens,  and  Webbe.  And  we  gladly  seize  the  pnpi^cr.: 
opiK>rt unity  to  express  our  regret  that  through  inad«  c  - 
tancy,  one  of  these  names  does  not  appear  where  it  ou  jnt 
to  have  been  placed  in  a  former  volume  of  our  «u.  i 
We  offer  this  as  some  atonement  to  the  memory  of  Jvh" 
Wall  Callcott  Mus.  Doc.,  a  man  of  superior  genius^  .' 
many  acquirements,  one  of  the  finest  of  our  glee*wnf«rs 
and,  in  every  sense  of  the  phrase,  a  most  valuable  mcciU: 
of  society.  He  was  born  in  1766,  and  at  first  educated  as  i 
surgeon,  but  soon  adopted  music  as  his  profession.  In  h  < 
nineteenth  year  he  gained  three  out  of  the  four  j-n.v- 
medals  given  by  the  Catch  Club,  and  seventeen  more  f^*  \\ 
that  period  to  the  year  1793.  In  17B5  he  graduated  ji 
Oxford  as  Mus.  Baa,  and  as  Mus.  Doc  in  1800.  He  4»o: 
in  1 800.    {Btographical  Index  to  Mus,  Lib.) 

GLEICHENIA'CEiB,  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  ^V: 
natural  order  of  Filices,  or  Ferns.  It  was  intended  to  ar.-- 
an  account  of  the  whole  race  of  Ferns  in  this  place,  1*-  : 
there  appears  so  much  probability  of  all  that  relates  to  X'-r-, 
subject  being  put  into  a  more  satisfactory  and  intellisr ..  t' 
condition  in  the  course  of  a  year  or  two,  that  the  doct:^- 
tion  of  the  order  is  referred  to  PoLYPOotACSJK. 
GLEIM.  [Germany.  Language  and  Literature.] 
GLENDWR,  OWEN,  was  born  in  Merionethshire  aH  .: 
1349.  He  was  maternally  descended  from  Llewd^'n.  \\  • 
last  prince  of  Wales,  whose  grandnlaughter  Elena  man:i  . 
Gryffydd  Vychan,  of  which  marriage  Glend^vr  was  the  i  ff- 
spring.  He  appears  to  have  had  a  liberal  educattun.  «^^ 
entered  at  the  inns  of  court  in  London,  and  became  a  bir 
rister.  It  is  probable  that  he  soon  quitted  the  profession  : 
the  law,  for  we  find  that  he  was  appointed  souire  of  tt,  > 
body  to  Richard  IL,  whose  fortunes  he  ibllowea  to  the  Ix^s 


GL£ 


262 


G  L  I 


Tient ;  tbe  difttrict  westward  of  the  Severn  was  apportioned 
to  Glendwr.  It  was  at  this  juncture  that  Glendwr  revived 
the  antient  prophecy,  that  Henry  IV.  should  fall  under  the 
name  of  *  Moldwarp/  or  « the^cursed  of  God's  mouth ;'  and 
styling  himself '  the  Dragon/  assumed  a  hadge  representing 
that  monster  with  a  star  above,  in  imitation  of  Utner,  whose 
victories  over  the  Saxons  were  foretold  by  the  appearance 
of  a  star  wiUi  a  dragon  threatening  beneath,  rercy  was 
denoted  *  the  Lion/  fn>m  the  crest  of  his  fiimily ;  and  on  Sir 
Edmund  Mortimer  they  bestowed  the  title  of  'the  Wolf.' 
Owen,  who  was  now  at  the  zenith  of  his  glory,  called  toge- 
ther the  estates  of  Wales  at  Machynlleth,  and  there  was 
formally  crowned  and  acknowledged  Prince  of  Wales.  Some 
of  his  enemies  however  as  well  as  his  allies  assembled  at 
this  meeting,  and  he  narrowly  escaped  assassination. 

In  1403  Glendwr  and  Mortimer  marched  towards  Shrews- 
bury, in  order  to  join  their  troops  to  the  army  of  Percy, 
which  was  encamped  near  that  town.  It  reouired  all  the 
vigilance  of  Henry  to  prevent  this  union ;  put  by  forced 
marches  he  succeeded  m  reaching  their  position  when  only 
a  small  portion  of  Owen's  army  had  arrived.  An  engage- 
ment took  place  at  Battle  Field,  three  miles  from  the  town, 
in  which  Percy  fell.  Little  was  done  durins  the  rest  oi 
this  ](ear  beyond  the  king's  securing  the  Welsh  castles,  and 
intrusting  tnem  to  persons  of  tried  fidelity.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  (1404)  Owen  Glendwr  entered  into  a  treaty, 
onensive  and  defensive,  with  Cliarles  VI.,  king  of  France, 
which  was  concluded  at  Paris  on  the  14th  of  June.  He 
then  opened  the  campaign  with  fresh  vigour,  ravaged  the 
enemy  s  country,  took  the  castles  of  Harlech  and  Aber- 
ystwyth, and  several  others,  of  which  many  were  dismantled 
and  some  garrisoned.  In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1 405 
Glendwr  made  an  attempt  to  liberate  the  young  earl  of 
March,  with  the  intention  of  making  him  contest  the  crown 
with  Henry.  He  persuaded  Constance,  widow  of  Lord 
Spencer  and  sister  to  the  duke  of  York,  to  assist  in  setting 
him  free :  by  means  of  false  keys  she  effected  his  escape, 
and  was  in  the  act  of  conducting  him  to  Wales  when  thev 
were  seized  and  brought  back.  Constance  was  imprisoned, 
but  the  smith  who  had  forged  the  keys  met  with  a  still 
severer  fate,  for  both  his  hands  were  chopped  off. 

About  this  period  (J^arch,  1405)  Owens  fbrttines  began 
to  decUne;  he  was  attacked  at  Grosmont  Castle,  about 
twelve  miles  f^om  Monmouth*  and  driven  back  by  Henry, 
the  youne  prince  of  Wales,  then  only  seventeen  years  of 
age^  to  whom  the  king  had  intrusted  the  conduct  of  the 
war.  Eight  hundred  men  remained  dead  upon  the  field, 
■a  the  English  gave  no  quarter.  During  the  same  month 
he  suffered  a  second  defeat  at  Mynydd  pwl  Melyn,  in  Breck- 
nockshire :  in  this  engaffement  tnere  were  killed  or  made 
prisoners  1500  of  Oweirs  followers;  one  of  his  sons  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  his  brother  Tudor  fell  in  the  action. 
After  these  reverses,  all  Glamorganshire  submitted  to  the 
king,  and  Glendwr  was  compelled  to  wander  over  the 
country  with  a  few  faithful  friends,  concealing  himself  in 
remote  and  unfrequented  places.  There  is  a  cave  in  the 
county  of  Merioneth,  known  by  the  name  of  Ogof  Owain 
(Owen's  Cave),  in  which  he  was  secretly  maintained  by  an 
old  and  trusty  adherent.  He  is  supposed  to  have  instigated 
the  conspiracy  that  was  hraded  by  Northumberland,  but 
which,  being  speedily  detected,  was  followed  by  the  exe- 
cution of  several  of  the  abettors :  Northumberland  found  it 
neoessarv  to  fly  to  Scotland  for  protection.  After  quelling 
this  revolt,  the  king  marched  upon  Wales  with  an  army  of 
37,000  men,  but  stormy  weather  and  other  contingencies 
foroe^  him  to  retreat  to  Worcester. 

It  was  fortunate  for  the  declining  power  of  Glendwr  that 
the  Firench  now  determined  upon  executing  the  scheme 
whioh  had  long  been  feared  by  the  English  and  hoped  for 
by  the  Welsh.  A  fleet  of  1 40  ships,  commanded  by  Renaud 
de  Trie,  admiral  of  France,  disembarked  12,000  men  at 
Milford  Haven.  Caermarthen  capitulated:  Haverford- 
west was  successfully  defended  by  Lord  Arundel.  At 
Tenby,  Glendwr  joined  them  with  10,000  men.  and  f^om 
thence  the  whole  army  marched  through  Glamorganshire 
to  Worcester,  laying  waste  the  country  up  to  the  very 
suburbs  of  the  town.  Henry  now  agam  took  up  arms,  and 
mode  use  of  every  means  in  his  power  to  counteract  the 
measures  of  so  formidable  an  enemy.  Lord  Berkeley  re- 
ceived  orders  to  burn  flAeen  of  the  French  ships  that  were 
lying  at  anchor  in  Milford  Haven,  and  to  intercept  some 
others  which  were  conveying  stores  and  ammunition  to  the 
iavaders.   Huguorille^  the  commander  of  tbe  French  orosa- 


bowmen,and  Owen, chose  a  strong  position:  the  former  en- 
camped on  a  high  hill,  three  miles  from  Worcester,  a  wi/le 
valley  lying  between  him  and  the  English ;  Glendwr  posi«il 
himself  nine  milM  fh>m  the  town,  on  Woodbnry  HtU,  which 
was  surrounded  bj  a  fosse.  The  armies  were  nmxM 
before  each  other  m  order  of  battle  for  three  sueoessrve 
days  and  nights,  and  repeated  skirmishes  took  place,  u 
which  the  loss  that  both  sides  sustained  was  computed  sc 
200  men,  besides  the  wounded :  at  the  end  of  this  time  the 
French  and  their  allies  retired  into  Wales,  having  been 
harassed  incessantly  by  the  watchfulness  of  Henry's  tmom, 
who  had  cut  off  all  their  supplies.  Shortly  after  thii 
attempt  the  French  quitted  the  kingdom  in  vewets  tbsx 
Glendwr  furnished  for  their  use.  The  castle  of  Llenbedr, 
in  the  counW  of  Cardigan,  surrendered  the  same  year,  oa 
certain  conditions,  to  Henry,  prince  of  Wales:  that  of 
Coitie,  on  the  river  Ogmore,  was  besieged  by  Glendwr,  and 
a  loan  was  raised  in  both  houses  of  parliament  for  tbe 
purpose  of  effecting  the  rescue  of  its  owner. 

Notwithstanding  occasional  assistance  fh>m  his  Ibreign 
allies,  Owen*s  strength  continued  to  decline :  io  many  ^f 
his  adherents  deserted  him,  that  he  chiefly  confined  htmsiplf 
to  the  mountains,  and  rarely  descended  from  them,  exrer^i 
on  predatory  excursions.    Two  vears  afterwards,  Glendw  r 
again  began  to  make  head  against  the  English  by  de%  as- 
tating  the  Marches  and  seising  the  property  of  thoae  who 
refused  to  join  him ;  but  Lord  Powys,  who  was  commanded 
by  the  king  to  take  active  steps  against  the  renewed  incur- 
sions of  the  rebels,  fortified  several  castles,  and  would  not  p*-r- 
mit  his  estates  to  be  left  unprotected,  and  subsequently  to»k 
prisoners  Rhys  Ddu  and  Fnilip  Scudamore,  two  of  Owen** 
best  officers,  who  were  carried  to   London,  where  tbrf 
were  executed  as  traitors.    Another  similar  effort  proved 
unavailing,  and  Glendwr  concluded  a  treaty  with  soa»f 
of  the  lords-marchers,  but  it  was  disclaimed  and  rescinded 
by  the  king  as  illegal.    Compelled  to  abandon  this  pn>jeci, 
he  retired  into  comparative  obscurity.    On  Henry*s  death 
Glendwr,  though  stul  inaccessible,  was  so  closely  watrb^i 
as  no  longer  to  be  formidable.     Still  he  carried  on  a  pet  rr 
and  annoying  warfare,  which  Henry  V.  at  first  endearourej 
to  put  an  end  to  by  conciliation ;  but  finding  this  meth  -d 
unsuccessful,  he  afterwards  enacted  several  severe  laws  to 
restrain  them.    At  the  expiration  of  two  yeara*  Che  kin^: 
deputed  Sir  Gilbert  Talbot  to  negotiate  a  treacy  with 
Glendwr,  offering  him  and  his  followers  a  fine  pardon 
should  they  entreat  it.  The  result  of  these  proceedings  doe» 
not  appear :  it  is  probable  that  they  were  interrupted  bv 
the  aecease  of  Glendwr.     On  the  eve  of  St.  Matthev' 
September  20th,  1415,  after  a  life  of  risk  and  danger,  tiii 
turbulent  chief  died  a  natural  death,  at  the  house  of  one  <:f 
his  daughters.    There  is  a  tombstone  in  the  churchyard  «>f 
Monnin^on-on-Wye,  which  is  believed  to  mark  his  gra^e, 
but  no  inscription  or  memorial  whatsoever  exists  to  c>.r- 
roborate  the  tradition. 

Tlie  Welsh  pass  an  unjust  censure  upon  Owen  for  hu 
conduct  at  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury ;  and  not  only  blatne 
him  for  omitting  to  join  Percy's  division  before  the  engage- 
roent  took  place  (which  it  appears  he  could  not  iia^i 
effected),  but  also  accuse  him  of  want  of  promptitude  ar.! 
decision  in  not  attacking  Henry  immedmtely  after  ;he 
action.  Glendwr  possessed  many  qualities  which  emi- 
nently fitted  him  for  a  warrior ;  he  was  active,  eoterprum^. 
and  courageous,  and,  when  opposed  to  a  superior  force,  butb 
yi^ant  and  cautious.  He  was  rapacious,  and  careless  if 
injuring  others,  but  bitterly  revengeful  of  any  iigury  cuu:- 
mitted  against*  himself.  Cfruel  by  nature  as  well  as  poUrt, 
he  was  the  scourge  rather  than  the  protector  of  his  country 

GLENOTREMITES  (yXiyvi?,  articular  cavi^,  r^i|/ca«  \ 
perforationX  a  genus  of  Echinoderraata,  with  onlv  ont 
opening  in  the  crust ;  established  by  Goldfuss,  and  by  h:a 
compared  to  Cidarites ;  found  in  the  chalk  of  Westphaltu 
(Petrifiicta  GermaniflB.) 

GURES,  the  fourth  order  of  Marmnalia  in  the  S^sinr^j 
Naiurtc  of  Linnsus,  who  thus  characterizes  it: — Inci:»^ri 
(dentes  primores  incisores)  two  above  and  below ;  Canioft 
(laniarii)  none.  Feet  un^i^uiculate ;  progression  salient  t'u-^ 
su  Mlientes).  Food  obtained  by  gnawing  Uie  bark  of  trv^ 
roots,  vegetables,  &c.  This  is  the  character  given  in  tbr 
Synopsis  of  the  Mammalia,  In  the  counw  of  the  work  tbe 
dentsi  formula  is  thus  stated:— Incisors  (dentes  primorr»  • 
two  (bini)  above  and  below,  approximatOb  remote  fiom  the 
molars ;  no  laniarii.  The  genera  placed  bf  Linuaus  under 
this  order  in  his  last  edition  are,  Hysins  (PoxcupiacsX 


G  LQ 


264 


G  L  Q 


6L0MMEN.    [NoiiWAT.l 

GLORIO'SA,  a  genus  of  the  nataral  fkmfly  of  Liliaoe», 
tribe  Tulipacen,  so  named  from  the  SDlendid  appear- 
ance of  its  flowers.  One  species,  G.  ntperoot  is  indigenous 
in  most  parts  of  India,  with  a  species  or  variety,  G.  simplex, 
at  moderate  elevations  on  the  Himalayas,  while  G,  vireseeru 
is  a  native  of  Senegambia.  The  root  is  tleshy,  the  stem 
climbing,  the  leaves  lanceolate,  undulated,  and  terminating 
in  a  tendril  serving  to  support  the  plant.  The  six  petals 
are  undulated  and  reflexM,  but  pendent  before  flowering. 
The  nearly  horizontal  stamens  and  declinate  and  oblique 
style  give  the  flowers  a  very  peculiar  appearance,  while  their 
large  size  and  the  red  and  yellow  colour  of  those  of  G.  superba 
make  it  worthy  of  cultivation.  This  is  successfully  effected 
in  hothouses.  The  fleshy  root  has  a  bitter  and  acrid 
disagreeable  taste,  and  by  some  is  said  to  be  poisonous,  but 
probably  without  sufficient  foundation. 

GLOSKOWSKI,  a  Polish  poet  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, is  the  author  of  a  religious  poem  entitled  the '  Watch  of 
the  Passion  of  our  Lord,*  which,  notwithstanding  its  rather 
odd  title,  is  written  in  beautiful  verse.  It  derives  its  name 
from  bein^  divided  into  twenty-four  parts,  called  hours.  It 
has  gone  through  several  editions,  and  is  still  much  es- 
teemed among  tne  Protestants  of  Poland.  He  wrote  also  a 
poem  in  Latin  entitled  '  Geometria  Peregrinans.* 

GLOSS,  GLOSSARY.    [Dictionary] 

GLOSSOPETRA  {yXSKjva,  a  tongue^  and  irir/>a,  rock), 
the  name  by  which  many  early  inquirers  into  the  history  of 
organic  remains  designated  ajgreat  number  of  fossil  teeth 
of  fishes  allied  to  the  shark,  which  are  found  abundantly  in 
t.ie  upper  secondary  and  tertiary  strata  of  England,  France, 
Germany,  Italy,  &c.  They  were  also  called  Lamiodontes, 
OdontopetroB,  &c. 

Amidst  the  difficulties  which  embarrassed  the  naturalists 
of  the  sixteenth  century  in  their  attempts  to  establish  the 
true  nature  and  origin  of  the  organic  remains  of  plants  and 
animals  found  in  the  earth  [Gxolooy],  the  obvious  resem- 
blance between  the  fossil  and  recent  teeth  of  fishes  was  a 
valuable  and  powerful  argument  Fabio  Colonna  {De  Gloi- 
90p€tri»  Diii.,  1627)  and  Agostino  Scilla  {Lavana  Specu- 
larionet^  4^.,  1^70)  pointed  out  the  close  agreement,  in 
several  cases,  between  the  fossil  teeth  of  Malta,  Calabria, 
&c.,  and  the  teeth  of  living  sharks ;  and  the  argument 
from  similarity  of  form  was  made  complete  by  considerations 
of  the  peculiar  polish,  hardness,  chemical  quality,  and  even 
colour  of  the  fossil  specimens.  Scilla's  figures  are  excellent. 
Ray,  in  a  letter  to  Dr.  Robinson  (1684),  makes  the  same 
use  of  the  Glossopetrro. 

*  Some  other  bodies  besides  shells,  comiponly  esteemed 
stones,  there  are  found  in  the  earth,  resembling  the  teeth 
and  other  bones  of  fishes,  which  are  so  manifestly  the  very 
things  they  are  thought  only  to  resemble,  that  it  seems  to 
me  great  weakness  in  any  man  to  deny  it.  Such  are  the 
Glossopetm  dug  up  in  Malta  in  such  quantities  that  you 
may  buy  them  by  measure  and  not  bv  tale ;  and  also  the 
vertebres  of  thombacks  or  other  cartilaginous  fishes  there 
found,  and  sold  for  stones,  among  the  Glossopetrae,  which 
have  no  greater  dissimilitude  to  the  teeth  of  a  living  shark, 
or  the  vertebres  of  a  quick  thornback,  than  lying  so  long  in 
the  earth,  as  they  must  needs  have  done,  will  necessarily 
induce.  Now  in  this  same  Isle  of  Malta  we  found  also 
many  shelMike  stones,  which  why  we  should  not  esteem  to 
have  been  originally  the  shells  of  fishes  I  see  no  reason ; 
for  if  in  one  and  the  same  place  we  find  many  teeth  and 
bones  of  fishes  entire  and  unpetrified,  and  likewise  stones 
exactly  imitating  the  shells  of  other  fishes,  a  great  pre- 
sumption to  me  it  is  that  these  were  originally  the  things 
whose  shape  only  they  now  seem  to  bear.  Neither  are  these 
Glossopetrso  found  only  in  Malta,  but  also  in  many  places  of 
Germany,  far  remote  from  the  sea ;  in  a  hill  near  Aken,  in 
so  great  plenty,  that  Goropius  makes  it  an  argument  they 
could  not  be  the  teeth  of  sharks.  "  In  collo  iUo  (saith  he) 
qui  Aquis-grano  imminet,  tantum  id  genus  fuisse  piscium 

3uis  crederet  quantum  de  Glossopetrarum  copifi  conjectari 
eberet?"* 

Llw}'d  (1698),  whose  opinions  on  the  real  nature  and 
origin  of  organic  fossils  were  turned  into  a  wrong  channel 
by  the  apparent  impossibility  of  understanding  how  the  va- 
rious animal  and  vegetable  exuvia>  could  be  placed  in  their 
subterranean  repositories  by  the  Noachian  flood,  a  proposi- 
tion which  his  judgment  rejected,  describes  a  considerable 
aumber  of  fish  teeth  according  to  the  following  method : — 

lohthyodontes  cuspidati  (considered  to  ba  incisor  teeth 


of  fishes).    Such  of  these  as  am  triangular  in  figure 

(sagittati),  flat,  with  keen  and  often  seRated  edg**,  are 

called  Glo88opetrtB, 
Others  which  are  more  nearly  round,  elongated  and 

pointed,  he  calls  PleeironiUe    (rX^rrpoi',    a    cock*f 

spur). 
Ichthyodontes  scutellati  (supposed  to  be  molar  teeth  of 

fishes).    Of  these  such  as  were  round,  umboaatc,  or 

scaphoid,  were  termed  Bt^oniia. 
The  angular  ones  were  called  RhomhiKu** 
The  flattened  pod-shaped  teeth  were  caUed  SHiquoM- 

tra. 
In  Helwing  8  curious  work, '  Lithograph ia  Angetburg-.^^a,' 
(1717),  the  state  of  knowledge  on  the  subject  in  Germany 
appears  little  advanced,  since  he  takes  the  trouUe  t- 
reject  the  supposition  that  the  GlossopetriB  were  serpenti' 
tongues.  He  describes  several  species  of  sharks*  leviL 
under  the  titles  of  Glossopetra  and  Odontopetra. 

Until  a  very  recent  period  there  was  little  progress  made 
in  the  studv  of  the  parts  of  fossil  fishes  beyond  the  viev« 
of  Llwyd.  Neither  the  Glossopetrse  nor  the  Bulbnites  w  :^ 
at  all  better  understood  in  England,  till  the  suocesaful  n* 
searches  of  Mantell  in  Sussex  re-awakened  the  xeml  -f 
collectors ;  and  Cuvier,  besides  renovating  the  whole  subject 
of  recent  ichthyology,  announced  his  intention  of  oomp'>«- 
ing  a  systematic  history  of  ibssil  fishes.  The  drawings  w  hirb 
that  great  man  had  collected  for  the  purpose  were  put  ir.\'> 
the  hands  of  M.  Agassiz,  whose  extraordinary  zeal  and  suc- 
cess have  made  a  new  sera  in  fossil  ichthyology.  AcoorvLnr 
to  the  views  of  this  distinguished  naturalist,  all  or  near); 
all  the  fish  teeth  known  to  the  early  collectors  as  Glosses 
petrsB  belong  to  the  family  of  sharks,  which  must  fonserl^ 
nave  been  more  numerous  and  included  more  various  stru? 
tures  than  the  living  races.  The  Siliquastra  and  othrr  ct 
the  scutellate  ichthyodontes  of  Llwyd  are  likewise  teeth  d 
sharks. 

The  following  short  synopsis  may  be  convenient  to  c(4- 

lectors  (see  also  Dr.  Buckland's  '  Bridgewater  IVeatise*)  :— 

Family  of  sharks. — Group  1.  Cestracionts.  (Siiiquaitrc 

Bhombiscus,  &c.  of  Llwyd.)    Teeth  having  a  brwi 

grinding  surface. 

2.  Hybodonts.    {Plecifxmitm  and    Gioitopeirop  of 
Llwyd.)    Teeth  pointed,  striated  on  both  sidesL 

3.  True  sharks.  {GlossopetriB  of  Scilla,  Llwyd,  &c.i 
Teeth  triangular,  striated  on  one  side  only. 

Manyof  the  Bufonitee  of  old  writers  belong  to  the  ext  nrt 
genera  rycnodus  and  Gyrodus  of  Agassiz ;  though  they  hm«c 
often  been  compared  to  the  teeth  of  anarrhicas  lupu»^  frva 
which*  according  to  Cuvier,  they  differ  essentially  in  struc- 
ture {Regne  Animal), 

The  geological  distribution  of  these  fish  teeth  is  concn^ 
Uwyd  mentions  that  scutellate  ichthyodontes  had  not  cc* 
curred  to  him  in  the  maritime  regions  of  England,  but 
were  found  not  less  plentifully  than  the  cuspidate  kinds  in 
the  interior  counties,  as  Oxford,  Northampton,  Gloucester. 
Berks,  Bucks,  &c.  This  is  in  agreement  ynih  conelosioni 
of  later  date,  for  M.  Agassis  has  found  that  the  whol» 
group  of  Cestracionts  is  confined  to  strata  of  the  transicf'a 
and  secondary  series ;  while  only  one  of  the  race  (CestracK>a 
Phillippi,  or  Port  Jackson  shark),  is  now  living. 

Dr.  Buckland  ingeniously  remarks,  that  '  the  greitrr 
strength  and  flattened  condition  of  the  teeth  of  thefami!u'» 
of  sharks  that  prevailed  in  the  formations  beneath  tii» 
chalk  had  relation,  most  probably,  to  their  office  of  cn;«h- 
ing  the  hard  coverings  of  the  Crustacea,  and  of  the  ^  *iv 
enamelled  scales  of  the  fishes  which  formed  their  fixMi.' 
(Bridgewater  Treatise,) 

GLOSSO'PHAGA.    [Chbiroptxra.  voL  viL,  p.  23.] 

GLOSSCyPTERIS,  a  genus  of  fossil  ferns,  propose*!  U 
M.  Adolphe  Brongniart  to  include  species  whose  elongntei 
leaves  or  fronds  are  covered  by  fine  arched  dicbotomou^ 
often  anastomosing  nervures.    Examples  occur  in  the  car 
boniferous  and  ooUtic  systems  of  strata. 

GLOTTIS.    [Larynx] 

GLOUCESTER,  ROBERT  OF,  a  metrical  historun, 
whose  *  Chronicle'  was  ably  edited  by  Heame,  at  Oxford,  ui 
1 724.  He  is  presumed  to  ha%'e  been  a  monk  in  Gloucester 
Abbey.  His  surname  is  unknown ;  and  as  several  of  his  r  ^l- 
temporaries,  especially  among  the  clergy,  call  thetoM^Nc^ 
Roberts  of  Gloucester,  no  facts  of  his  real  history  can  1-? 
discovered.  He  is  considered  as  tlie  most  antient  of  ot.r 
English  TOets,  and  appears  to  have  died  some  time  in  t>v 
reign  of  Edward  L    Ihe  prose  continuation  of  his  hitUtr, 


G  L  O 


266 


G  LO 


counties  is  extremely  irregular.  On  tbe  east  it  is  bounded 
by  Oxfordshire,  on  the  north  by  Warwickshire  and  Wor- 
cestershire, on  the  west  by  Herefordshire  and  Monmouth- 
shire, and  on  the  south  by  Somersetshire  and  Wiltshire.  A 
small  detached  piece  surrounded  by  Wiltshire  is  situated 
about  five  miles  norUi*east  of  Malmesbury ;  and  two  other 
isolated  parts  are  contained  in  the  neighbouring  counties  of 
Warwickshire  and  Oxfordshire,  not  far  apart  from  each 
other,  about  thirteen  miles  south-east  of  Stratford-upon- 
Avon.  A  detached  piece  of  Wiltshire  is  situated  in  the 
south  of  this  county,  near  Wotton-under-Edge,  and  there 
are  some  detached  parts  of  Worcestershire  in  the  north- 
east corner.  The  gieatest  length  of  the  county  firom  north- 
east to  south-west  is  sixty  miles,  and  its  breadth  from 
east  to  west  is  forty-three  miles.  The  area  is  about  1256 
square  miles,  or  803,640  acres,  of  which  750,000  are  under 
cultivation,  6000  uncultivated,  and  47,840  unprofitable.  The 
population  of  the  whole  county  was  387,019  when  last  the 
census  was  taken  in  1831. 

Surface^  Hydrography^  and  Commumeaiions*  —  The 
county  is  natuirally  divided  into  three  distinct  districts,  of 
very  different  character,  which  may  respectively  be  termed 
the  Hill,  the  Vale,  and  the  Forest  districts.  The  Hill  dis- 
trict is  formed  by  a  range  of  high  land  running  entirely 
through  the  county  firom  north-east  to  the  south  and  south- 
west Its  course  is  nearly  parallel  to  the  Avon  and  Severn, 
at  a  distance  varying  from  six  to  ten  miles,  and  running 
in  a  line  ttom  Chipping  Camden  to  Broadway  Beacon  (1086 
feet  highX  Winohcombe,  and  Cleve  station  (1134  feet),  on 
to  Cheltenham,  which  lies  in  a  beautiful  vidley  formed  into 
a  kind  of  amphitheatre  by  the  western  side  of  the  hills. 
This  range  is  called  the  Cotswold  hills.*  From  Cheltenham 
the  high  ground  runs  south-west  to  Painswick,  where  it 
turns  more  to  the  south,  and  passes  Wotton-under-Edge 
and  Chipping  Sodbury,  and  passes  out  of  the  county  into 
Wiltshire  and  Somersetshire,  forming  the  high  ground 
around  Bath.  The  Cotswold  range  of  bills  divides  the  basin 
of  the  Severn  from  the  basin  of  the  Thames. 

Between  Cheltenham  and  Dursley,  near  Stroud,  there  is 
a  depression  in  the  range,  where  it  sinks  to  about  250  feet ; 
but  near  Wotton-under-Edge  it  rises  to  800  feet.  Between 
Dursley  and  Wotton-under-Edge,  this  high  ground  spreads 
out,  and  a  tract  of  lower  elevation  branches  from  it  in  a 
south-west  direction,  and  enters  Somersetshire  a  little  to  tbe 
west  of  Bristol.  The  extensive  vale  which  lies  between  the 
Hills  and  the  Severn  is  divided  into  the  upper  and  lower, 
or  the  Vales  of  Gloucester  and  Berkeley.  The  former  ex- 
tends from  the  north  of  the  county  to  Gloucester,  and  is  about 
fifteen  miles  in  length  from  north  to  south,  and  from  east 
to  west  seven  or  eight.  The  boundarv-line  of  the  Vale  of 
Berkeley  is  nearly  a  segment  of  a  circle,  the  curved  part  of 
which  is  formed  on  the  south  and  east  by  the  hills  which 
terminate  on  the  north  in  the  Painswick  and  Matson  hills, 
and  on  the  west  the  Severn  forms  the  irregular  chord-line ; 
the  extent  of  this  vale  flrom  the  foot  of  Matson  Hill  on  the 
north  to  Aust  Cliff  on  the  south  is  twenty-five  miles,  and 
its  medium  breadth  is  not  ouite  four  miles.  On  the  west 
of  the  Severn,  and  entirely  aivided  by  it  from  the  rest  of 
the  oonnty,  is  the  Forest  district,  which  has  an  irregular 
surface,  and  is  chiefly  occupied  by  the  Forest  of  Dean,  great 

J>art  of  which  is  still  crown  property.  The  centro  of  the 
breat  is  five  miles  south-west  by  west  from  Newnham.  It 
is  limited  according  to  the  perambulations  made  in  the  1 2th 
of  Henry  UL  and  1 0th  of  Ed  want  I.  Since  that  time  many 
encroachments  or  grants  of  freehold  property  have  been 
made  on  it,  but  the  quantity  of  ground  still  retained  by  the 
crown  is  above  20,000  acres.  The  fine  trees  of  this  forest 
suffered  much  by  an  improvident  grant  made  by  Charles  I. 
to  Sir  John  Wyntour,  of  all  the  king's  coppices  and  waste 
soil  of  the  forest,  except  the  Lea  Bailey,  with  aH  the  mines 
and  quarries,  in  consideration  of  10,000/.  and  a  fee-farm 
rent  of  1950/.  I2s.  Sd,  for  ever.  At  that  time  105,557  trees 
were  growing  within  the  limits  of  the  area  so  assigned. 
These  trees  were  estimated  to  contain  61,928  tons  of  timber, 
besides  153,209  cords  of  wood.  The  civil  commotions  ren- 
dered the  patent  null ;  the  inclosures  which  had  been  made 
were  thrown  down,  and  the  whole  re-afforested.  A  com- 
mission was  issued  at  the  Restoration  to  inquire  into  the 
state  of  the  forest,  and  it  was  found  then  to  contain  25,929 
oaks  and  4204  beeches,  which  would  supply  11,335  tons  of 
ship-timber  and  121,572  cords  of  wood.    A  re-grant  was 

*  From  uhmftotm,  ud  wolid%  «  kUU^  Ibmirly  ealM  woldM- C«aidt]i*f 
BnUnnU.' 


then  made  to  Sir  John  Wyntour  of  all  the  trees  except 
those  which  would  furnish  timber  for  the  navy.   Numor.*  - 
fellers  of  wood  were  immediately  emplojred  by  him,  and  \\ 
destruction  of  the  wood  became  so  rapid  and  foarAil  th-: 
parliament  interfered  to  prevent  further  mischief  by  iij»n.. 
ducing  a  bill  restraining  him  in  this  work  of  devastat:  *. 
Before  the  bill  could  be  passed  however  the  parliament  *».  t% 
prorogued,  and  Sir  John  was  left  to  hew  down  the  tree>  ..: 
his  pleasure.    On  a  new  survey  being  made  in  1667,  it  t*  -. 
found  that  only  200  of  the  oak  and  beech  trees  were  <t 
standing,  and  a  deficiency  appeared  of  between  7000  o-  . 
8000  tons  of  the  timber  which  should  have  been  rcscrt  >- 1 
for  the  navy.  Eleven  thousand  acres  were  then  im media*    , 
inclosed,  planted,  and  caref\illy  watched,  in  order  in  --.! 
measure  to   replace  the  valuable  timber  thus  dcstn»\*': 
From  the  plantations  then  made  the  supply  for  the  d».< '-. 
yards  has  been  for  some  time  principally  obtained. 

The  government  of  the  forest  is  vested  in  a  lord  war*!.  • 
who  is  constable  of  the  castle  of  St.  Briavel's,  six  di'f  ■  : 
wardens,  four  verderers  chosen  by  the  freeholders,  a  < 
servator,  seven  woodwards,  a  chief  forester  in  fee,  and  ti  .* 
bearer,  eight  foresters  in  fee,  a  gaveller,  and  a  stcwarrl 
the  swanimote.    The  forest  is  divided  into  six  walks  ;   : 
these  officers  are  empowered  to  hold  a  court  of  atta<  hm 
every  forty  days,  a  court  of  swanimote  three  times  in  i 
year,  and  another  court,  called  the  Justice  Seat,  otir.- 
three  years.    These  courts  are  held  at  the  King*s  I^  'L* 
Speech  House,  situated  nearly  in  the  centre  or  the  !•.• 
Tne  whole  forest  is  extra-parochial,  and  its  inhabitant^.  ..- 
exempted  from  rates  and  taxes,  have  free  liberty  of  pa*  ? 
age,  tne  privilege  of  sinking  mines,  and  access  to  the  m  >  • 
and  timber  for  tneir  works.  One-sixth  of  the  produce  »»i'  t 
mines  is  due  to  the  king.    The  extra- parochial  inhab:t:  <  • 
in  the  forest  in  1831  were  7014  ;  of  these  more  than    - 
males,  twenty  years  and  upwards,  were  employed  in  ni 
quarries,  and  coal-pits.     Little  more  than  a  hundre  1  « •     * 
back  the  six  lodges  erected  for  the  keepers  were  the 
houses  in  the  forest,  and  in  1831  the  number  amounti-l  ' 
1212.    The  general  appearance  of  the  Forest  of  Der. 
picturesque,  and  abounds  with  apple-orohards,  from  \s\.. 
veiy  fine  cider  is  made. 

The  principal  rivers  in  Gloucestershire  are  the  Sev<  *  . 
the  Wye,  the  Lower  and  the  Upper  Avon,  the  Fmrnt-,  » : 
Isis  or  Thames,  the  Calne,  the  Windrush,  and  the  I^ci Me 
The  Severn  enters  the  county  from  the  north  a  liitJe  to  tl.> 
west  of  Tewkesbury,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Upper  A\  n:. 
and  the  united  stream  takes  a  winding  south-bouth-«<  <*. 
course  to  Gloucester.    Near  Gloucester,  commencing    .' 
Maiscmore,  this  river  divides  into  two  branches,  which  n 
unite  a  little  below  the  city,  inclosing  a  small  tract  of  Ian 
called  Alney  Island,  comprehending  many  acres  of  fine  j'.*- 
tura^e.    From  Gloucester  the  Severn  continues  its  ct<urMr 
which  though  very  winding  still  takes  the  same  general  «'  - 
rection  to  Newnham,  below  which  it  widens  constdenh'v 
passes    near  Berkeley,  and  at  length  becomes  a  H'  . : 
SBstuary,  into  which  the  Wye  and  the  Lower  Avon  I-.' 
Fh)m  its  entrance  into  the  county  to  the  mouth  of  the  \\^'. 
the  Severn,  following  all  its  windings,  is  sixty  miles  long,    i 
the  sstuary  of  this  river   opposite  the  mouth  of  the  I^i*^' 
Avon,  the  tide  rises  forty-two  feet.    The  Severn  com.  •  • 
roach,  dace,  bleak,  flounders,  eels,  elvers,  chub,  carp,  tr  •> 
and  perch.      Salmon,   lampreys,    shad,    shrimps,    plr 
soles,  cohger-eels,  cod,  and  sturgeon  belong  to  the  sia.  :  '. 
are  taken  within  the  limits  of  the  county ;  the  four  la>t  ir^ 
seldom  found  higher  than  Berkeley  hill.    Tbe  Seveni  »*-* 
men  has  for  some  years  become  a  scarce  fish. 

The  Lower  Wye  forms  the  boundary  between  ibis  o>ut ' . 
and  Monmouthshire  and  a  small  part  of  Herefordsii*r>. 
bounding  the  south-east  of  the  latter  county  for  cle%-  . 
miles  and  the  east  of  the  former  for  twenty-one  tniU"> 
its  course.  At  Chepstow,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Wye.  .1- 
tide  sometimes  rises  sixty  and  seventv  feet 

Tlie  Lower  Avon  forms  the  bounaar}'  on  the  south- v."*: 
for  about  eighteen  miles  between  this  county  and  Somcr^  * 
shire,  passes  through  Bristol,  and  faUs  into  the  Bsto.in 
the  Severn  after  a  course  of  about  seven  miles  north-«>-: 
from  that  city. 

Tlie  Upper  Avon  only  divides  a  very  small  part  of  t.  « 
county  from  Warwickshire  on  the  north-east,  and  alter  . 
winding  course  through  a  small  part  of  Warwickshire  a 
Worcestershire  it  flows  in  this  county  for  five  miles*  til. 
falls  into  the  Severn  near  Tewkesbuiv.  Roach,  dace^  hU^k* 
carp,  bream,  and  eels,  are  caught  in  the  Upper  Afotu 


G  L  O 


268 


6  LO 


north-west,  at  an  angle  of  60  feet  vith  the  plane  of  the 
liorizon.  In  this  are  embedded  lead- ore,  spathous  iron- 
ore,  and  barytes.  By  the  side  of  the  road  nearer  to  Bristol* 
under  the  surface  of  the  red  soil,  there  are  sometimes 
found  nodules  containing  beautiful  quartz  crystals,  with 
calcareous  dog-tooth  spar.  A  very  superior  limestone  is 
obtained  in  great  abundance  a  few  miles  north  of  Bristol ; 
and  the  limestone  rocks  of  Clifton  are  capable  of  re- 
ceiving a  good  polish.  Pellucid  quartz  crystals,  hexagonal 
and  terminated  by  detached  pyramids,  are  found  in  the 
crevices  of  the  strata  at  Clifton ;  these  crystals  were  for- 
merly in  considerable  request  under  the  name  of  Bristol 
diamonds.  A  good  compact  limestone  is  found  in  the 
Forest  of  Dean.  Freestone  of  excellent  quality  is  quarried 
on  the  hills,  more  particularly  at  Painswick.  Blue  clay 
stone  for  building  is  found  at  Aust  Cliff,  which  is  composed 
of  two  strata  of  clay,  the  upper  of  a  blue,  the  lower  of  a  red 
tinge  resting  upon  a  grey  limestone  rock ;  embedded  in  the 
lower  stratum  is  a  bed  of  gypsum  which  furnishes  a  plenti- 
ful supply  for  stuccoing,  kc,  to  the  masons  of  Bristol  and 
Bath.  Paving-stones  and  grits  are  obtained  in  the  Forest. 
At  Dursley  a  stratum  of  tophus  occurs. 

Agriculture. — ^Tho  climate  of  Gloucestershire  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  elevation  of  the  land.  In  the  valleys,  espe- 
cially those  which  are  sheltered  on  the  north  and  east,  the 
temperature  is  mild.  On  the  Cotswold  hills,  the  air  is 
sharp  and  bracing,  and  as  the  progress  of  tillage  has  brought 
higher  lands  into  cultivation,  farm-houses  have  been  built 
in  situations  which  require  a  hardy  race  to  bear  the  keen- 
ness of  the  air.  The  children  who  can  be  reared  there  are 
strong  and  healthy,  but  those  who  are  born  with  delicate 
frames  have  little  chance  of  life  if  not  removed  to  a  milder  air. 

The  Vale  of  Gloucestershire  is  noted  for  the  early  maturity 
of  every  kind  of  agricultural  produce,  owing  partly  to  tho 
nature  of  the  soil,  but  chiefly  to  the  shelter  afforded  by  the 
hills  on  the  north  and  east.  It  is  however  subject  to  violent 
storms  from  the  Atlantic,  which  sometimes  sweep  with 
great  fury  along  the  course  of  the  valley. 

In  an  agricultural  point  of  view,  Gloucestershire  mav  be 
divided  into  the  Cotswold,  or  hilly  portion,  the  Yale, 
and  the  Forest  including  the  Ryelands.  The  first  district 
traverses  the  whole  county  from  Chipping  Campden  to  Bath, 
and  is  divided  into  the  upper  and  lower  Cotswold  hills. 

The  vale  runs  from  Stratford-upon-Avon  to  Bristol,  and 
is  divided  into  the  vales  of  Evesham,  Gloucester,  and 
Berkeley.  The  Avon  runs  along  the  upper  part  of  the 
vale,  and  the  Severn  in  the  lower.  The  Forest  of  Dean 
lies  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Severn,  extending  to  the 
river  Wve,  which  bounds  the  county  on  that  side.  The 
Ryelands  are  a  sandy  district  of  the  Forest,  bordering  on 
Worcestershire  and  Herefordshire.  The  soil  on  the  Cots- 
wolds  is  chiefly  a  calcareous  sand,  a  few  inches  deep,  resting 
on  oolite,  a  calcareous  freestone  commonly  called  stonebrash. 
The  poorest  is  only  fit  for  sheep-pasture ;  but  the  feed  is  very 
sweet,  and  the  sheep  thrive  well  on  it.  Where  it  has  been 
improved  by  cultivation,  and  by  the  repeated  folding  of 
sheep,  it  bears  tolerable  crops  of  oats  and  barley,  and  where 
there  is  an  admixture  of  clay  in  the  loam,  even  of  wheat. 
The  lower  parts  of  the  hills,  and  the  valleys  which  are 
between  them,  contain  a  better  and  deeper  soil,  evidently 
made  by  the  washing  down  of  the  soil  from  the  hills. 
Where  tine  subsoil  is  impervious,  the  water  is  apt  to  accu- 
mulate; but  by  judicious  draining  some  excellent  arable 
and  grass-land  is  produced.  Tho  dairies  in  these  situations 
are  productive ;  and  the  cheese  made  there  is  similar  to 
the  North  Wiltshire.  Some  parts  of  the  Vale  contain  a 
very  deep  and  rich  soil,  as  at  Wei  ford  and  its  immediate 
neighbourhood.  The  soil  there  is  a  fine  black  loam;  to 
the  south  the  soil  is  heavier,  but  still  rich,  and  produces 
great  crops  of  wheat  and  beans.  There  is  also  a  red  loam 
of  a  very  rich  quality,  evidently  the  deposit  left  by  the 
overflowings  of  the  rivers.  At  a  greater  distance  from  the 
rivers  up  to  the  foot  of  the  hills,  the  soil  is  chiefly  of  a 
tenacious  nature,  which  produces  abundantly,  when  well 
drained  and  cultivated.  Silicious  sand  and  gravel  are 
found  in  a  few  spots,  but  not  in  sufficient  quantity  to  foim 
any  considerable  portion  of  the  soil  of  the  county,  except  in 
the  Forest,  where  the  soil  is  chiefly  a  decomposed  red  sand- 
atone,  very  barren,  and  scarcely  fitted  for  the  growth  of 
anything  but  woods  and  coppice. 

The  cultivation  of  the  soil  varies  according  to  its  nature 
•nd  fertility;  and  although  very  considerable  improve- 
]B0nt»  have  been  introduced  of  late  years,  the  system  gene- 


rally adopted  is  that  which  haa  been  prevalent  ibrougboat 
the  interior  of  England  for  nearly  a  century  past.    The 
Bath  and  West  of  England  Society,  and  the  exertion*  cf 
several   public-spirited  proprietors,  have    introduced   im- 
proved methods  and  instruments ;  but  they  have  only  bvcu 
slowly  and  very  partially  adopted.    Two  or  three  crops  aiil 
a  fallow  are  still  the  prevalent  rotations  on  all  the  Li-av.i:: 
lands.    Turnips  have  been  long  the  substitute  for  fallu^t 
on  the  lighter  soils;  and  the  advantage  of  this  useful  n^»t, 
as  food  for  sheep  in  winter,  is  fully  appreciated  where  mat;  i 
flocks  are  kept  on  the  hills  in  summer.    On  the  best  tn^ 
naged  light-land    farms,   the  rotation  is — 1,  turnips;  L 
barley;  3,  clover  and  grass  mown;  4,  the  same  fed   vrb 
sheep  and  cattle ;  5,  wheat ;  6,  oats,  vetches,  or  peas.     11. 
oats  are  sometimes  succeeded  bysaintfoin,  the  seed  of  «h .  -:i 
has  been  sown  amongst  them.  This  saintfoin  remains  ye\^u 
years  before  it  is  broken  up. 

In  the  rich  heavy  lancis  the  rotation  is  &llow,  wLt-:»t. 
beans,  wheat— On  good  light  loam,  1,  turnips ;  2,  barley  :  .1, 
^rass  mown ;  4,  ditto  fed ;  5,  wheat  In  most  soils  the  is  lu^: 
IS  not  so  good  nor  so  free  from  weeds  when  the  grouiitl  i 
broken  up  from  a  second  year's  grass,  as  it  is  after  the  fi.^t 
year ;  but  the  advantage  of  a  fresh  pasture,  without  adflit  i«  m.  .J 
expense  of  tillage,  induces  the  farmer  to  let  his  clo%tT  •  '. 
grasses  remain  two  years  on  the  ground.  Exuerience  !  ^ 
shown  that  except  in  very  rich  soils,  this  is  not  tiie  nio^t  p  • 
fitable  course. 

In  the  thin  light  soils  of  the  Cotswolds,  wheat  is  not  « t   . 
productive;  but  the  value  of  this  grain  induces  the  f.^. *:  • 
to  sow  it  where  oats  would  often  be  more  prufiiablc.  f 
the  greater  certainty  of  the  crop.    The  Cotswold  land  i^ 
jured  by  too  much  stirring  ;  it  is  thcrefoic  ploughed  wvi. 
very  shallow  furrow,  or  only  Hbblcd,  which  is  done  by  1' 
ing  a  solid  portion  between  every  two  furrows.     Tiic  I  i 
is  afterwards  scuffled,  or  torn  to  ])icccs  by  an  in<>truiu' 
with  many  teeth  like  a  scarifier,  which  destroys  the  \%t\' 
and  gives  a  sufficient  tillage  for  sowing  the  wheat,     ft 
sheep,  which  have  been  folded  on  the  land  before  the  &«>- 
was  sown,  are  repeatedly  driven  over  the  fields  after  the  %^  I.<  i 
is  up,  that  their  tread  may  give  firmness  to  the  irr«)uil, 
and  prevent  the  wheat  from  being  tluown  out  by  tlie  fr^>!. 

The  broad-cast  mode  of  sowing  is  almost  univerbal.     T^; 
few  proprietors  and  farmers  who  use  drills  form  au  c\<    \ 
tion  to  the  general  practice.    Very  few  have  tried  tlie  -•  :• 
ting  or  dibbling  of  wheat  which  is  so  common  in  K>-  *. 
Suffolk,  and  Norfolk.    The  only  crop  which  is  dibl>k- J  •  r 
sdt  is  beans.    They  are  planted  in  rows  ten  inches  or  a  f  •  t 
apart  in  a  direction  across  the  ridges,  which  makes  the  |>: 
cess  of  hoeing  more  effective.    In  order  to  keep  the  t 
straight  and  at  equal  distances,  the  dibblers  strvK^b  '-. 
lines,  which  are  moved  as  soon  os  the  beans  ha\c  1»    -i 
planted  along  them;  a  bush-haiTow  drawn  over  tlie  I.    \ 
fills  the  holes  made  by  the  dibble,  and  covers  the  v^-i 
They  are  generally  hoed  twice  :  the  first  time,  as  soon  x*^  :\ 
beans  are  fairly  out  of  the  ground  and  show  four  lca\oi ;  *.* ' 
second,  when  they  are  about  a  foot  high;  a  practiix?  wl .  .. 
greatly  assists  the  growth.    The  hoeing  is  all  done  by  h  ^  i. !. 
the  horse-hoe  not  being  much  known  in  this  country.  Waj 
winter  and  spring  vetches  are  sown  in  considerable  quar.n- 
ties  for  sheep  food;  among  the  first  some  rye  is  i.^u:'^'» 
sown,  and  oats  among  the  latter;  these  tend  to  supiKirt  *: 
stalk  of  the  vetches,  and  keep  tbem  from  the  grouml.    T'  . 
crop  is  not  only  very  usefVil  by  supplying  food  for  caiiK*  1.1 . 
sheep  at  a  time  when  green  food  is  scarce,  but  by  the  f ' 
ness  of  its  growth  cleans  the  land  effectually,  cbokt:.^ 
the  annual  weeds  which  may  have  come  up. 

Turnips  are  usually  sown  broad-cast,  and  hoed  twice   Tl  •  ■ 
are  fed  off  by  sheep  folded  on  them.    A  ton  of  hay  p4^r  j  - 
is  given  to  the  sheep  while  they  feed  on  turutps ;  a  \  • 
excellent  practice  wnere  hay  is  not  too  >'aluable,  by  v  :.  • 
the  ewes  are  kept  in  good  condition  for  yeaning,  ;»n:l  : 
lambs  are  strong  and  healthy  when  they  fklL 

In  the  rye-lands,  which  are  pecuharly  adapted  ti  r 
growth  of  turnips,  an  early  quick-growing  sort  is  frx^j' 
sown  in  July,  and  taken  off  in  time  for  sowing  when:  :.■ 
it;  this  is  exactly  the  Flemish  practice,  by  which  a  l 
crop  of  tmrnips  may  be  raised  between  the  Wapin^  v:  . 
r}'e  and  the  sowing  of  the  wheat    In  the  r>c-land'^  th  «  :- 
not  exactly  the  case,  for  the  turnips  are  usually  sov.  n    •     r 
fallow,  but  in  some  places  the  clover,  after  ha\ing  1'      .  !    • 
off  the  second  year  till  Midsummer,  is  ploughed  un 
quick-growing  turnips  are  sown  imn^ediatelv.    Th^  lur 
come  off  in  September!  and  leave  tho  land  in  good  t. 


,w  ..    li' 


G  L  O 


210 


GL  O 


meats  have  been  made  of  late  yean,  there  is  still  ample 
room  for  more,  and  the  soil  of  this  county  mi&;ht  be  made 
to  produce  a  greater  supply  of  food*  both  animal  and  vege- 
table, than  it  does  at  present 

The  principal  fairs  in  Gloucestershire  are:— at  Barton 
Regis,  a((ioining  Gloucester,  September  28 ;  Berkeley,  May 
14  ;  Bisley,  May  4,  November  12;  Blakeney,  May  12,  No- 
vember 12 ;  Campden,  Ash-Wednesday,  April  25,  August  5, 
December  1 1 ;  Cirencester,  Easter  Tuesday,  July  18,  Novem- 
ber 8;  Cheltenham,  second  Thursday  in  April,  Holy- 
Thursday,  August  5.  second  Thursday  in  September,  third 
Thursday  in  December ;  Coleford,  June  20,  last  Friday  in 
August,  December  5 ;  Dursley.  May  6,  December  4 ;  Fair- 
ford.  May  11,  November  12;  Frampton-upou- Severn,  last 
Tuesday  in  June ;  Gloucester,  April  5,  July  5,  September 
28,  November  28  ;  Hampton,  Trinity-Monday,  October  29 ; 
Lechlade,  August  6,  21,  September  9;  Lidney,  May  4, 
November  8 ;  MarshQeld,  May  24,  October  24 ;  Mitchel- 
Dean,  Easter-Monday,  October  11;  Newnham,  June  11, 
October  18;  Newent,  Wednesday  before  Easter,  Wednes- 
day before  Whit-Sunday,  August  13,  Friday  after  Septem- 
ber 18 ;  North  Leach,  Wednesday  before  May  4,  last  Wed- 
nesday in  May,  first  Wednesday  in  September,  Wednesday 
before  October  11;  Painswick,  Whit-Tuesday,  September 
19;  Stonehouse.  May  1,  October  11,  November  10;  Stow 
on  the  Wold,  May  12;  Stroud,  May  12.  Auj?ust  21 ;  Tet- 
bury,  Ash-Wednesday,  Wednesday  before  and  after  April 
6,  July  22;  Tewkesbury,  March  11,  May  14,  June  22, 
September  4,  October  11  ;  Thornbury,  Easter-Monday, 
August  15;  Wick  war,  April  5,  July  2;  Wmchcomb,  last 
Saturday  in  March,  May  6,  July  28 ;  Wotton-under-Edge, 
September  25. 

Divisions,  Towns,  <f«.— Gloucestershire  is  divided  into 
twenty-eight  hundreds,  containing  351  parishes,  one  city, 
and  part  of  another,  and  twenty-eij?ht  market-towns.  The 
hundreds  are  as  follow:— Berkeley.  Bisley,  BUde«loe,  Botloe, 
Bradley,  Briavers,  St,  Brightwells-Barrow,  Cheltenham, 
Cleeve,  Crowthome  and  Minety,  Deerhurst,  Dudstone  and 
King's  Barton,  Grumbald's  Ash,  Henbury,  Kiftsgate,  Lan- 
caster, Langley  and  Swinehead,  Longtree,  Puckle  Church, 
Rapsgate,  Slaughter,  Tewkesbury,  Thornbury,  Tibaldstone, 
Westbury,  Westminster,  Whitstone,  Bristol,  with  Barton 
Regis,  Gloucester  (city  and  county). 

The  market-towns,  excluding  Gloucester,  are — Berkeley, 
Bisley,  Chipping  Campden,  Cheltenham,  Cirencester,  Cole- 
ford,  Dursley,  Fairford,  Lechlade,  Marshfield.  Minchin- 
hampton.  Mitcheldean,  Moreton-in-the-Marsh,  Newent, 
Newnham,  Northleach,  Painswick,  Sadbury,  Stanley  St. 
Leonard,  Stow-on-the-Wold,  Stroud,  Tetbury,  Tewkesbury, 
Thornbury,  Wickwar,  Winchcomb,  and  Wotton-under- 
Edge.  Those  of  sufficient  consequence  are  noticed  under 
their  respective  heads.  [Berkblby  ;  Bristol  ;  Chelten- 
ham ;  Cirbncbstbr;  Gloucester;  Stroud;  Tetbury; 
and  Tewkesbury.]  A  short  account  is  subjoined  of  the 
less  important  towns. 

Minchinhampton,  12  miles  south-south-east  of  Gloucester, 
is  an  irregularly  buflt  market-town,  pleasantly  situated  on 
a  gentle  declivity.  It  consists  of  four  streets,  lying  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  and  contained,  in  1831,  1116  houses. 
There  are  three  market-houses,  two  of  which  were  erected  in 
1700,  by  Mr.  P.  Sheppard,  with  the  design  of  establishing 
a  wool-market,  but  the  attempt  was  unsuccessful.  The  cloth 
manufacture  is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent  along 
the  banks  of  the  numerous  brooks  and  rivulets  in  the  vici- 
nity. This  town  is  in  the  Stroud  or  great  clothing  district, 
about  four  miles  south-east  of  the  tovtn  of  Stroud.  The 
church,  founded  about  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  by  the  nuns 
of  Caen,  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  with  side  aisles,  &o. 
The  south  transept  was  rebuilt  in  1382,  by  Sir  John  de  la 
Mere.  There  are  numerous  monuments  in  the  interior  of 
the  church. 

Minchinhampton  contains  a  tolerably  well  endowed  free- 
school,  and  two  other  charitable  schools.  Amberley,  a  large 
tract  of  common  land  on  the  west  side  of  the  town,  con- 
taining about  1000  acres,  was  ^iven  for  the  use  of  the  poor 
resident  inhabitants  of  the  parish  by  dame  Alice  Hampton, 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VUI.  This  common  is  the  site  of  a 
remarkable  encampment,  supposed  to  have  been  made  by 
the  D^nes  during  their  occupation  of  Cirencester  in  879. 
Commencing  at  Littleworth,  the  traces  of  the  encampment 
extend  nearly  three  miles  to  Woeful  Dane  Bottom,  a  name 
no  doubt  given  to  the  spot  in  commemoration  of  some  dis- 
aatnma  dotel  of  thoDaneBybut  sootlm  leoord  of  the  evont 


ia  left.  A  tmtller  eneampnent,  tkirting^  tlio  hnm  of  NmiW 
worth  HiU,  meets  this  at  its  eastern  extremity.  The  pu^ni- 
lation  of  the  parish  of  Minchinhampton  in  1631   was 

7255. 

Painswick  is  in  the  same  distriot,  about  three  milea  nurili 
of  Stroud,  and  five  miles  and  a  half  8outh-«ooth'-ea»i  nl  J 
Gloucester.  It  is  small  and  irregularly  built  on  the  iiout  hr  r^  1 
acclivity  of  Sponebed  HUl.  The  church  is  an  aniient  buiVd 
ing,  with  a  tower  and  spire  riamg  to  the  height  of  174  fc«r'. 
The  population  of  the  parish  in  1831  was  4099;  mo«t  •>' 
the  inhabitants  are  employed  in  the  clothing  manufactur  .- 
On  the  summit  of  Sponebed  Hill  is  an  antient  fortiftcmt*  -. 
called  Kinsbury  Castle.  Roman  coins  and  other  antique ir^ 
have  been  found  here;  and  it  is  lupposed  to  have   W- :. 
once  a  place  of  great  strength. 

Bisley  is  another  small  town  in  the  same  district,  aYKr.: 
three  miles  east  of  Stroud.    The  church,  which  is  antH  ta 
contains  numerous  monuments.    A  common,  oontAti<i..£ 
1200  acres,  was  given  to  the  poor  of  Bisley,  by  Roser  XI'  • 
timer,  earl  of  March,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.;  »il 
that  period  this  space  has  been  much  lessened  by  enclo^uri 
The  cloth  manufacture  is  extensively^  carried  on  in   tii 
parish,  which  in  1831  contained  5896  mhabitants. 

Dursley,  14  miles  south-south-west  of  Gloucester,  i>  t 
small  irregularly  built  town,  consisting  of  two  streets  tnu  '- 
sectingeach  other,  and  is  situated  at  the  base  of  a  st**- , 
hill,  covered  with  a  fine  hanging  wood  of  beech.  Sonic  i 
the  houses  are  of  considerable  antiquity ;  on  the  exterior  ' 
one  of  them  is  the  date  of  1520.  The  church  is  a  Ur«' 
handsome  building ;  near  the  centre  of  the  town  is  a  n-  ii 
market-house  of  freestone,  erected  in  1738.  The  divth.  : 
business  seems  to  have  been  carried  on  here  for  a  very  !*•  . 
time,  for  Leland  calls  Dursley  '  a  praty  clotbinge  ia«n« 
There  are  now  six  clothing-mills  in  the  vicinity.  The  •«- 
pulation  of  the  parish  in  1831  was  3226.  In  the  nc*^:* 
bourhood  there  occurs  a  stratum  of  tophus,  or  oufT-st.  *  - 
which  when  first  cut  is  so  soft  as  to  be  worked  with  i-»- 
greatest  facility,  but  after  exposure  to  the  air  it  beeome*  •  «• 
tremely  hard  and  durable.  The  walls  of  Berkeley  Ca»t.- 
are  composed  of  this  stone,  and,  thongh  built  more  thsr 
700  vears  back,  are  still  in  a  good  state  of  proBerration. 

Wotton-under^Edge,  18  miles  south  by  west  of  Gl*- 
cester,  is  a  respectable  old  town,  situated  near  the  ba^^e  i  f  * 
ridge  of  wooded  hills,  whence  it  derives  its  name.    Tbe  * ' 
town  was  burnt  down  in  the  reign  of  king  John ;  a  pi. 
called  the  Brands  is  supposed  to  mark  its  original  site.  1 
present  town  is  well  built,  and  contains  a  haodaomo  • 
church,    in  which  there  are  many  cnrious  moounir:< 
There  is  a  well-endowed  free-school,  and  three  bo%T):^> 
with  other  charities.    Wotton  also  is  one  of  the  cl«>ti:    . 
towns,  and  has  many  clothing-mills.    Its  trade  is  at  p. 
sent   in  a  flourishing  state.    Its  population  in  1H31  >  • 
5482,  and  the  parish  then  contained  1166  houses     1 
Berkeley  Avon,  a  small  river  which  falls  into  the  So%« 
near  Berkeley,  runs  by  this  town.    Wotton  and  Dur^ 
are  polling-places  for  the  county. 

At  Kingswood,  one  mile  south  of  Wotton,  there  are  <>  ^ 
clothing-mills,  one  of  which  is  among  the  largest  in  '. 
county.    This  place  is  situated  in  the  small  detarhc-d  ^ 
of  Wiltshire  which  is  in  Gloucestershire.     Here  art*  * 
remains  of  an  abbey  of  Cistercian  monks,  fi>unded  in  : 
by  William  de  Berkeley. 

Tliornbury,  a  borough  and  market-town  about  two  tt. ' 
from  the  Severn,  and  21)  miles  south -south- west  of  ii* 
cester,  principally  consists  of  three  streets,  dispoeed  itt  ; 
form  of  the  letter  Y,  'having  first  one  longe  strete.'  ksw 
Leland,  *and  two  homes  goync  out  of  it.'    Tbebuildtn.. 
are  in  general  old ;  the  church  is  a  large  handsomo  m-«  « 
ture,  surmounted  by  a  lofty  tower  ornamented  with  n  - 
open-worked  battlements  and  eight  pinnacles. 

The  town  has  two  free-schools  and  several  charitiav    \ 
the  end  of  the  town  are  the  ruins  of  the  unfinished  pala*. 
castle  of  Thornbur>',  begun  by  Edward  Staflbrd,  duVv 
Buckingham,  but  left  incomplete  when  he  was  beheadni  • 
1522.    Even  in  its  present  dilapidated  state  it  show*  •: 
magnificence  of  its  design,  and  is  a  good  speeJaaea  of  t:* 
last  gradation  of  Grothic  architecture,  in  the  appliraciir  ( 
that  style  to  castellated  houses.    The  whole,  whi»n  c  'i 
pleted,  was  to  have  formed  a  quadrangle  indoein^  an  «r  . 
of  two  acres  and  a  half.    Leland  describes  it  as  hat  in^: 
principal  front  towards  the  west  nearly  finished,  antl  .<-  *  - 
ther  towards  the  south  completely  sa    ^rora  a  siuxvy  m  i 
in  U82,  it  appears  that  the  wbolo  of  tins  latlar  M^ 


.»■ 


'•• 


GL  O 


272 


G  LO 


plaee  in  1831  was  2038,  the  number  of  bouses  was  419. 
Campden  is  one  of  the  polling  places  for  the  eastern  division 
of  the  county. 

Newent,  eight  miles  north-west  of  Gloucester,  is  a  small 
irregularly-built  market-town,  situated  in  the  Forest  of  Dean. 
It  was  formerly  of  more  consequence  than  at  present.  The 
court-house  was  built  on  the  site  of  an  alien  priory,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  founded  soon  after  the  Norman  inva- 
sion ;  an  antient  gateway  and  some  smaller  fragments  of 
monastic  buildings  yet  remain.  The  church  is  an  antient 
building  of  various  architecture^  apparently  having  been 
three  times  partially  rebuilt.  Goal  abounds  in  the  vicinity, 
and  several  pits  have  been  sunk  here.  The  Hereford  canal 
passes  by  this  town.  In  1831  the  population  was  2859,  and 
the  number  of  houses  518. 

Newent  is  a  polling-place  for  the  western  division  of  the 
county. 

Mitcheldean,  a  small  market-town,  situated  in  a  deep  dell 
m  the  Forest  of  Dean,  1 0  miles  west  of  Gloucester,  has  a 
church  of  some  antiquity,  with  a  roof  of  oak  timber  finely 
carved.  A  subterraneous  passage,  concerning  which  many 
curious  stories  are  told,  leads  from  the  church  to  a  wood 
upon  a  hill  about  half  a  mile  from  the  town.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  parish  in  1831  was  601  ;  the  number  of  houses 
150. 

Newnham,  9^  miles  south-west  of  Gloucester,  stands  on 
an  eminence  rising  from  the  western  banks  of  the  Severn, 
which  is  here  nearly  a  mile  across  at  high-water.  Thei-e  is 
a  ferry  established  at  this  place.  Newnham  is  of  great 
antiquity.  In  the  Norman  times  it  appears  to  have  been  a 
fortified  town  designed  to  repress  the  incursions  of  the 
Welsh ;  and  in  antient  records  mention  is  often  made  of  the 
castle  here.  The  former  consequence  of  the  town  may  be 
inferred  from  many  names  of  lanes  and  streets  which  appear 
in  antient  grants;  but  the  situations  of  which  are  now  for- 
gotten. The  houses  are  now  principally  ranged  in  one  long 
street,  and  the  church  stands  on  a  cliff  near  the  river.  In 
the  middle  of  the  last  century  a  (juay  for  vessels  of  150 
tons  burthen  was  built  here  by  one  of  the  Pyrke  family ;  and 
some  trade  is  now  carried  on  with  Bristol  and  London,  and 
other  parts.  The  population  of  the  town  in  1831  was  1074 ; 
the  number  of  houses  1 84. 

Coleford,  1 4}  miles  west-by-south  of  Gloucester,  and  in  the 
parish  of  Newland,  is  a  small  market-town,  consisting 
principally  of  one  street :  the  houses  are  in  general  well 
built.  This  town  suffered  much  in  the  civil  wars.  The 
chapel,  which  was  then  destroyed,  was  rebuilt  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne.  The  number  of  inhabitants  in  1831  was 
:2193;  the  number  of  houses  422. 

St  Briavers,  1 9  miles  south-west  of  Gloucester,  was  once 
a  borough  and  market-town,  the  inhabitants  of  which  had 
maity  rights  and  exemptions,  one  of  which  was  freedom 
from  all  toll  throughout  the  kingdom.  The  town  is  now 
become  a  small  village,  and  its  privileges  are  obsolete ;  the 
parochial  inhabitants  have  however  still  the  right  of  common 
m  a  wood  called  Hudnclls,  which  includes  a  tract  of  land  on 
the  banks  of  the  Wye,  about  six  miles  long  and  one  mile 
broad.  They  have  also  the  privilege  of  cutting  wood,  but 
not  timber,  in  other  parts  of  the  forest.  These  claims  were 
set  aside  by  Cromwell,  but  were  contested  and  allowed  after 
the  Restoration.  St  Briavers  castle  was  erected  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  I.  by  Milo  Fitz-Walter,  earl  of  Hereford,  to 
curb  the  incursions  of  the  Welsh ;  it  was  afterwards  for- 
feited to  the  crown,  by  whom  its  constables  have  ever  since 
been  appointed.  Tlie  site  of  the  castle  is  surrounded  by  a 
moat,  including  an  area  of  considerable  extent  The  north- 
west front  is  nearly  all  that  remains  entire.  It  is  composed 
of  two  circular  towers  three  stories  high,  separated 'by  a 
narrow  elliptical  gateway;  within  the  towers  are  several 
hexagonal  apartments,  the  walls  of  which  are  ei^ht  feet 
thick.  One  of  these  towers  is  used  as  a  prisf)n  for  the  hun- 
dred. In  the  interior  there  are  two  gateways  similar  to  the 
former.  Ou  the  right  are  the  remains  of  an  apartment,  40 
feet  by  20,  with  large  pointed  windows ;  and  on  the  left  are 
the  remains  of  a  large  hall.  In  the  centre  is  a  low  building, 
which  serves  as  an  antechamber  to  the  room  in  which  the 
officers  of  the  hundred  hold  their  court.  The  constable  of 
the  castle  is  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  is  also  the  lord- 
warden  of  the  forest 

Ecclesiastical  and  Legal  Jurisdiction. — ^Tlie  whole  county, 
with  the  exceptions  of  the  chapel  ries  of  I  comb  and  Cow- 
pony-horse,  is  included  within  the  diocese  of  Gloucester 
and  Bristol,  which  comprehends  one  archdeaconry  and  ten 


deaneries.    Gloucestershire  is  inelttdad  ia  the  Oxfijnl  c-.r- 

cuit 

Till  very  lately,  Gloucester  and  Bristol  were  two  sepAri;r 
dioceses ;  they  are  now  formed  into  one.  Before  this  unio:. 
38  parishes  in  this  county  were  included  in  the  diocese  •  f 
Bristol,  and  the  remamder  were  in  the  diocese  of  GIoucm- 
ter. 

Gloucestershure,  before  the  Reform  Act,  was  rroreacnu 
by  two  members  in  parliament    It  is  now  formea  into  t« 
divisions,  eastern  and  western,  each  of  which  sends  t« 
members  to  parliament    The  western  division  oomprehri^>J- 
all  that  part  of  the  countv  west  of  the  Severn,  except  i 
small  piece  of  Deerhurst  Hundred  above  Glouoeeter.  ai» 
that  nart  on  the  east  of  the  Severn  below  Frampton  :  i'* 
bounaary  Une  extends  from  that  place  to  the  eastern  Itu..' 
of  the  countv  about  2i  miles  nearly  west  of  Malmcsbun 
including  12  hundreds  in  this  division ;  the  remainini^  h*.. 
dreds  belong  to  the  eastern  division. 

The  boroughs  of  Gloucester,  Stroud,  Cirencester,  a^.! 
Tewkesbury,  each  return  two  members  to  parliament,  n* 
the  borough  of  Cheltenham  one  member.    The  places 
election  for  the  western  and  eastern  divisions  respect  t\<  . 
are  Dursley  and  Gloucester. 

Manijactures. — ^These    are    numerous  and    import  art 
The  cloth  manufacture  is  extensively  carried  on  at  Wot*  - 
under-Edge.  Stroud,  Minchinhampton,  Bislejr,  Ulcy.  N«-.- 
ley.  Cam,  Painswick,  Rodborough,  and  King's  Stsi.Ic 
At  Frampton-Cotterell,  Winterbourn,  Bitten,  and  \Vc*  » 
leigh,  there  arc  considerable  hat  and  felt  manufactories,  • 
some  persons  are  also  engaged  in  stocking-making.     1'- 
last-mentioned    manufacture    is    extensively    pur»urcl 
Tewkesbury,  where  frame-making  likewise  gives  emp^ '. 
ment  to  some  of  the  inhabitants;  some  of  them  atv   l.» 
wise  engaged  in  lace-making.     In  Gloucester  and  in  '. 
suburbs  of  Bristol  there  are  pin  manufactories.     At   |s«^ 
land  and  English  Bicknor  tin-plates  are  made.    Edge-t 
are  made  at  Cooley;  and  glass-bottles  in  the  auburl>« 
Bristol.    At  Moreton  and  a  few  other  places  cheese -rl'  :  i 
and  other  articles  of  linen  are  made.    The  large  roiDciM? 
cial  city  of  Bristol  has  also  several  manufactories,  and  u  v.  k* 
in  brass,  iron,  floorcloths,  lace,  hats,  soap,  vinegar,  &r. 

Civil  Hiitory  and  Antiquities. — The  inhabitants  uf  tii 
most  part  of  Gloucestei-shire  and  of  Oxfordshire  were,  at  i. 
time  of  the  Roman  invasion,  distinguished  by  the  nanic  • : 
Dobuni.    [Britannia.] 

It  appears  that  the  Dobuni  were  subject  to  their  tiv:\«..i 
boiu's  the  Catteuchlani  before  they  were  conquered  b\   i< 
Romans,  about  a.d.  45,  when  Uiey  submitted  to  \u\  • 
Plautius,  the  Proprsetor,  who  placed  garrisons  among  tl:<-!.^ 
and  it  is  supposed  that  soon  after  that  time  the  diibiri«*t  t    * 
called  Gloucestershire  was  made  a  barrier  country,  an  i  t'.r 
fended  against  the  incursions  of  the  Silures  by  a  chain    ' 
forts.    On  the  division  of  the  island  into  Britannia  I*r>:. 
and  Secunda,  that  part  of  Gloucestershire  which  lie>  «ou.. 
east  of  the  Severn  was  included  in  the  former  pn>%  tn  - 
the  other  part  in  the  latter.    AAer  the  subsequent  di\:%    • 
made  under  Constantine,  the  county,  or  the  greater  pa*^: 
it,  was  included  in  the  province  named  FlaviaCa>sarir..-  ^ 
From  the  ruins  which  have  been  at  different  times  disrc\  t  p 
in  various  parts  of  the  county,  it  was  evidently  much  occuv»  • 
by  the  Romans.     Cirencester  was  the  great  metrc>)> 
while  Gloucester  and  the  hills  about  the  Severn  wrt^*  i 
great  military  positions.    Gloucestershire  formed  part  i>i  : 
Mercian  kingdom  under  the  Saxon  dynasty,  and  Wu... 
comb  and  King-Stanley  are  mentioned  as  residences  of  t 
Anglo-Saxon  monarchs.    On  the  division  of  MerciA  u  . 
five  bishoprics,  after  the  conversion  of  the  Saxouis     .- 
greatest  part  of  this  countv  was  included  under  that  nan.. . 
Wiccia,  a  word  of  doubtful  etymology. 

It  is  not  known  when  the  county  obtained  its  prc»«i : 
name,  but  it  appears  that  Wiccia  and  Glewaneestcr-^'  - 
were  both  used  alx)ut  the  same  period.    Under  the  Sa.i.  ■ 
kings  it  was  much  harassed  by  the  Danes,  and  durtu«;  ^ 
civil  wars  between  Queen  Maude  and  Stephen,  it  aUo  gr%  a'  .> 
suffered.    The  Welsh  disturbed  the  peieice  of  the  coun  • 
with  many  incursions  during  the  reign  of  Henry  II. ;  & . 
in  the  Barons'  War  the  inhabitants  took  the  siile  uf  t:** 
barons.    In  the  contests  between  the  houses  of  York  lt'. 
Lancaster  it  likewise  became  the  scone  of  warfare  i  the  r^ 
suit  of  the  battle ofTewkesbury,  fought  at  that  time,  i»  «  :. 
known.    In  the  civil  wars  of  a  later  period,  between  ti, 
parliament  and  the  crown,  Gloucestershire  is  also  Cit* 
spicuous  in  the  history  of  our  country :  many  strusgUs  U- 


6LO 


274 


GLO 


ties,  iiave  been  found  on  the  gpot  Highnam  Coart»  well 
iituated  about  two  miles  west-north-we&t  of  Gloucester,  wu 
built  in  the  time  of  Cromwell ;  it  stands  in  an  extensive 
park,  and  contains  a  large  collection  of  familv  portraits. 
Misenden  Park,  the  property  of  the  Sandys  family,  is  seven 
miles  in  circumference,  clothed  with  fine  beech-wood,  and 
of  uneven  surface ;  it  aiTords  most  picturesque  and  beau- 
tiful scenery.  In  the  midst  of  a  deep  valley  is  a  circular 
mound,  surrounded  by  a  moat,  which  is  the  site  of  a  castle 
built  in  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  pre- 
sent mansion  is  situated  on  an  eminence  in  the  park,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  built  with  the  materials  of  the  old  castle, 
but  the  period  is  not  known  when  the  one  was  destroyed, 
and  the  other  rose  from  its  ruins ;  the  present  building  has 
an  appearance  of  antiquity ;  during  the  civil  wars  it  was 
for  a  short  time  ^rrisoned  for  the  parliament  . 

At  a  short  distance  west  of  Cirencester  stands  Oakley 
Grove,  the  seat  of  Earl  Bathurst  The  mansion  was  built 
early  in  the  last  century ;  it  is  spacious,  built  on  the  French 
plan,  with  a  large  hall  in  the  centre,  and  rooms  en  adte. 
The  rooms  are  embellished  with  many  line  portraits  and 
other  naintings.  The  park  and  grounds  are  highly  orna- 
mental. 

At  Southam,  two  miles  and  a  half  north-east  of  Chelten- 
ham, stands  Boutham  House,  mentioned  by  Leland  as 
having  been  recently  built  by  Sir  John  Huddlestone,  at 
the  time  when  he  made  his  survey  by  command  of  Henry 
YIII.  It  is  a  venerable  structure,  and  retains  more  of  its 
original  form  than  perhaps  any  other  domestic  building  in 
England  of  that  ssra.  It  is  constructed  with  two  stories 
only,  without  a  paiupet;  the  three  principal  aDartnents 
appear  to  have  been  finished  at  first  as  th^  atili  remain ; 
one  of  the  halls  is  partly  paved  with  glaxed  or  painted 
tiles  brought  from  Hayles  Abbey. 

(Fosbrooke*s  HiMory  of  Gloucestershire  ;  B.udge's  Tour; 
History  qfFctir/ord  Cnurch;  Lysons'  Qhueestershire,  An- 
tiquities; Dugdale's  British  Traveler;  Beauties  t^  Eng- 


land and  WaUs ;  Conybeaxe  and  Philip*f  OutUmt  </  1^ 
Geology  ^f  England.) 

STATisnct. 

PopiiAiltofi.— Gloucestershire  is  partly  an  agricuUioal 
and  partly  a  manufacturing  county.  It  ranks  &e  thirt}- 
third  on  the  list  of  agricultural  counties,  and  in  this  respect 
retains  nearly  the  same  position  as  it  did  in  181],  vhcti  i; 
was  the  thirty-fourth  on  the  list«  Of  94,234  males,  St 
years  and  upwards,  living  in  this  county  in  1B31,  there 
were  25,448  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits;  18,322  de- 
ployed as  labourers  in  labour  not  agricultural;  and  b,*iii 
occupied  in  manufacture,  or  in  making  manufacturing  nu- 
cbinery.  Of  this  last  number  4,500  were  employed  &< 
clothiers,  of  whom  between  four  and  five  hundred  were  k 
Wotton-under-Edge,  nearly  as  many  at  Stroud,  and  a!v^ ;: 
Minchinhampton ;  between  three  and  four  hundred  ^ 
Bisley,  also  at  Ulley ;  between  two  and  three  hundred  v. 
Norsely,  at  Cam,  at  Painswick,  at  Rodborough,  aii*!  i: 
Kin^*s-Stanley.  Upwards  of  600  men  are  employed  : 
makm^  hats  or  felt  at  Frampton-Cotterell,  ^intefbuurz 
and  Bitton,  and  at  Westerleigh,  with  which  stock. itj^- 
making  is  somewhat  intermixea ;  but  at  Tewkesbury  oci.:!* 
300  men  may  be  distinctly  ascribed  to  the  last-nairt: 
pianuiacture  and  frame-making  ;  44  to  lace-maku; 
Nearly  150  men  are  employed  in  making  pins«  chicfl)  i 
the  city  of  Gloucester,  and  in  the  suburbs  of  Bristol,  &l: 
several  at  Sistou ;  upwards  of  70  nien  in  making  tan-plaif 
at  Newland  and  English  Bicknor;  50  in  making  <-d«.> 
tools,  cbietiy  at  Cooley ;  as  many  in  makinsr  glass  botUo* .: 
the  suburbs  of  Bristol;  at  Moreton  and  a  few  other  pl&«.»^ 
cheese-cloths  and  other  articles  of  linen  are  made  :  aoJ  :  ■ 
aU  these  the  workers  in  brass  and  iron,  makers  of  floorrl. :[.-. 
lace,  hats,  soap,  vinegar,  &c.,  in  the  large  commercial  c. . 
of  Bristol.  ,  ' 

The  foilowmg  table  is  a  summary  of  the  population,  &: 
of  every  hundred,  as  taken  in  1831 : — 


Summary  qfthe  County  qf  Gloucester 


HUNDREDS,  CITIES,  or  B0E0UGH6. 


Berkeley,  Hundred       .  li  . 
Bisley         .... 

Blidesloe     •         .         •  • 
Botloe     '  ^  ,        •         • 

Bradley    "  ,        .         •  • 

Briavers,  St         .         .  . 
Bri^htwells-Barrow      • 

Cheltenham         •         •  • 

Cleeve         .         .         •  • 

Crowthorne  and  Minety  . 
Deerhurst 

Dudstone  and  King*s-Barton 

Gn^mbalds-Ash            •  . 

Henbury     .         •        •  • 

Kiftsgate    •         .         •  • 

Lancaster    .         .         ,  , 

Langley  and  Swinehead  • 

Longtree     .         t         •  • 

Puckle  Church    .        •  , 

Rapsgate    •        •        •  • 

Slaughter   .         •        •  • 

Tewkesbury         •        .  . 

Thombury           •        •  • 

Tibaldstone          •         •  • 
Westbury    .... 
Westminster,  Hundred 
Whitstone,  Hundred     . 
Bristol,  City,  with  Barton-Regis, 

Hundred 
Gloucester,  City  . 

Cirencester,  Borough    • 
TewkcFbtiry,  Borough 

ToUif 


HOUSES. 


InUbitod. 


5,196 
4,098 

541 
1,269 

999 
3,236 
1,506 
4,691 

346 
1,219 

764 
2,218 
1,849 
1,316 
3,092 

440 
3,369 
3,822 

908 

793 
J.795 

964 
1,492 

162 
1,158 

830 
2,709 

16,145 
2,069 
1,079 
1,246 


Famffiet. 


Bnild 
ing. 


n,254 


5,618 
4,278 

594 
1,427 
1,098 
3,370 
1,576 
5,488 

367 
1,327 

815 
2,444 
2,084 
1,448 
3,342 

600 
3,534 
3,953 

953 

842 
1,895 
1,000 
1,568 

177 
1,228 

881 
S,907 

23,616 
2,546 
1,136 
1,434 


83,446 


36 
37 
1 
9 
2 
32 
9 
104 
1 
5 
2 
6 
10 
15 
24 
3 
40 
25 
5 
2 
7 
13 
19 

6 

2 

18 


332 

22 

3 

10 


XJiAn- 


794 


496 

410 
16 
44 
31 

173 
33 

274 
9 
41 
21 
86 
95 
51 

111 
10 

117 

469 
19 
28 

97 
17 

54 
6 

36 

23 
179 

1100 

94 

22 

101 


OCCUPATIOICS, 


foigri- 
evltoiv. 


FumillM 

chiefly 

in  trwie, 
mantt&e- 

tures, 
and  han- 
dicraft. 


1,565 

819 
223 
815 
693 
789 
929 
264 
242 
946 
511 

1,366 

1,607 
553 

2,154 
340 

1,021 
704 
258 


4263 


.  651 
1,107 
688 
860 
121 
665 
631 
792 

338 

116 

151 

64 


2,719 
2,154 
184 
335 
238 
M77 
387 
2,142 
70 
211 
163 
664 
554 
477 
702 
91 
1,235 
2,181 
217 
181 
558 
195 
406 
28 
256 
23ii 
1,358 

11,032 

1,357 

560 

1,222 


K\\  uth«r 
Families 
not  eom- 
priwd  in 

Ul0tWO 

preced- 
ing 
dasaaa. 


PERSONS. 


1,334 

1,305 
187 
277 
167 

1,504 
260 

3,082 
55 
168 
141 
414 
523 
418 
486 
69 

1,278 

1,068 
478 
llO 
830 
117 
302 
34 

307 
120 
756 


12,246 

1.073 

425 

148 


Malea. 


21,185  33,179  |29,082 


13,160 
9,497 
1,461 
3,398 
2,778 
8,178 
3,582 
11,793 
848 
2,899 
2,005 
6,022 
4,837 
3,603 
7,658 
1>221 
8,713 
8,757 
4,348 
1,967 
4,419 
2,314 
3,932 
425 
2,969 
2,102 
6,813 

46,535 
5,646 
2,508 
2,730 


Fciaaiea. 


T«tal«r 


186,118 


13.688 
10.279 
'  1,484 
3,224 
2,538 
7,914 
3,577 
14,781 
794 
2,867 
2,040 
6,309 
4.899 
4,006 
7,429 
1,135 
8,715 
9,556 
2,276 
1,891 1 
4,229 
2,223 
3,941 
399 
3,033 
2,038 
7,037 

57.351 

6.2^7 
2.9!2 
3,050 


26,848  ' 
19,776  ! 
2,945 
6.622 
5,316  I 
16,092 
7,159 
26.574 
i.642 
5.766  I 
4.04^ 
12.33J 
9,736  . 
7,609  . 
15,087 
2,356  ! 
17,423  ; 
I8,3li  ' 
4,624 
3.85S 
8,648 
4.537 
7.873  I 

824 
6,002  I 
4A40  , 

13,8:10 

I 

103,886    *2 
11,933 
5.420  ' 
5,7b0 


6.':' 

4,--.- 

I.. " 

6.  :. 

♦■ 

3.t 
t « 
1.4 


1.-  • 
I..- 
3,  . 


I 


201,901  |387,019  |9V«^^ 


276 


QJL  O 

SebooU)  Sebolan.    TotiL 

Brought  forward       46  2,357 

Daily  schools 991 

Number  of  children  at  such  schools ; 
ages  from  4  to  1 4  years  :— 

Males      .     •     •  13.677 

Females  ...  10,:)  73 

Sex  not  specified  5.267 

29.917 

Schools  .     1,037  

Total  of  children  under  daily  instruction    32.274 

Sunday  schools 519 

Number  of  children  at  such  schools ; 
ages  from  4  to  15  years : — 

Males      .     .     .  17.605 

Females  .     .     .  17,712 

Sex  not  specified  5,6 1 4 

40.931 

If  we  assume  that  the  population  between  the  ages  of  2 
and  15  has  incieased,  since  1831.  in  the  same  proportion  as 
the  whole  population  has  increased  during  the  10  years 
preceding  that  period,  we  find  that  the  number  of  children 
between  the  ages  of  2  and  15  residing  in  Gloucestershire, 
in  1834,  was  134.812.  Forty-eight  Sunday-schools  are 
returned  from  places  where  no  othier  school  exists,  and  the 
children  (1674  in  number)  who  are  instructed  therein  can- 
not be  supposed  to  attend  any  other  school ;  at  all  other 
places  Sunday-school  children  have  opportunity  of  resort- 
ing to  other  schools  also ;  but  in  what  number  or  in  what 
proportion  duplicate  entry  of  the  same  children  is  thus  pro- 
duced must  remain  uncertain.  Sixty-one  schools  (contain- 
ing 4906  children  which  are  both  daily  and  Sunday-schools 
are  returned  from  yarious  places,  and  duplicate  entry  is 
therefore  known  to  be  thus  far  created.  Making  allowance 
for  this  cause  it  may  perhaps  approximate  to  the  truth  to 
state,  that  not  so  much  as  half  the  children  between  the 
ages  of  2  and  15  were  receiving  instruction  in  this  county  at 
the  period  this  return  was  made. 

Two  schools  returned  in  the  parish  of  St  John  the 
Baptist,  in  the  city  of  Gloucester,  are  said  to  have  been  the 
first  Sunday-schools  established  in  the  kingdom. 

Maintenance  qf  Schoids, 


G  L  O 


DeMnrii»tiea  of 

Scbool*. 

By  cndowniaBt. 

By  Mbacriptim. 

BfpaTmeaU  igu^scrip.  aad  paj- 
fram  Kholara.  jmeatfimmMhelars, 

8cbb. 

Scho. 
Un. 

tSchlB. 

Scho- 
lars. 

SchU. 

Saho- 
Un. 

Sehls. 

Scho- 
lar*. 

Infant  Schools 
Dailv  Schools 
Sunuay  Schools 

•  • 

143 
45 

5.»9 
3.097 

8 
101 
459 

619 

6.118 

36.519 

93 

661 

1 

365 

13.473 
19 

16 
86 
14 

1.473 
6.997 
1.310 

Total 

188 

8.496 

ft68 

49.14^ 

684 

13.850 

116 

8.710 

Seholara. 

125 

1.147 

17,465 


In  England  the  etymologr  of  the  word  iliows  their  rtrf 
early  use.  With  kings,  nobles,  and  nralatfls  in  the  Middle 
Ages  they  were  a  costly  article  of  ami.  and  riehly  dero- 
rated*  beine  sometimes,  particularly  those  of  btahopsi. 
adorned  witn  precious  stones.  (Warton'a  HiH.  qf  En^l 
B)et.,  4th  edit,  i^  p.  182,  from  Rot.  pip.  52  Hen.  IIL  ajx 
1267.) 

While  the  spirit  of  chivahy  htfted,  the  glove  of  a  ladr. 
worn  in  the  hcdmet  as  &  fkvour,  waa  a  very  bonourab!r 
token ;  and  much  of  the  wearer^s  success  was  supposed  t 
be  derived  ftom  the  virtue  of  the  lady:  whence  tne  follow- 
ing boast  of  Henry  of  Monmouth,  which  hit  Ikther  re- 
marks is  as  dissolute  as  despeimte  (/h'cA.  //..  act  v, 
sc.  3)  :— 


The  schools  established  by  dissenters,  included  in  the 
above  statement,  are  :— 

s  Sebooli. 

Infant  schools  •  •  3 

Daily  schools  «  •  24 

Suiiday-schools        •  •        151 

The  schools  established  since  1818  are : — 

SchoUn. 

Infant  and  other  daily  schools        514,  containing  19.046 
Sunday-schools  .  .         281,         „  26.224 

One  hundred  and  fifteen  boarding-schools'are  included  in 
the  number  of  daily  schools  given  above.  No  schools  in  this 
county  appear  to  be  confined  to  the  children  of  narents  of 
the  Established  Church  or  of  any  other  religious  denomina- 
tion, such  exclusion  being  disclaimed  in  almost  every  in- 
stance, especially  in  schools  established  by  dissenters,  with 
whom  are  here  included  Wesleyan  Methodists,  together 
with  schools  for  children  of  Roman  Catholic  parents. 

There  are  lending-libraries  of  books  attached  to  77 
schools  in  this  county. 

GLOVE  (firom  the  Anglo-Saxon  glqf)t  a  cover  fbr  the 
hand.  If  one  did  not  see  the  rude  Tartars  and  Samoiedes. 
says  Gough  (SeptUchr.  Mon,t  i..  p.  185),  covering  their  hands 
with  something  like  gloves,  not  divided  into  fingers,  one 
would  bo  led  to  think  Uiat  they  were  first  introduced  into 
Europe  by  the  Christian  bishops  and  emperors.  Casaubon 
asserts,  with  respect  to  a  passage  in  Athennus  (xii.  2).  that 
the  antient  Greeks  and  Romans  knew  of  no  such  covering 
for  the  hands ;  though  he  shows  that  they  were  in  use 
amonflT  the  Romans  in*  the  time  of  Pliny  the  younger. 
The  Persians  used  glovef^  in  cold  weather,  a  circumstance 
charged  against  them  as  a  proof  of  their  luxurious  habits. 
sXQQopbont  CffTop.,  viii.  8, 17.) 


'  Hb  uitimr  wu.  tewoold  sato  t!i« 
Aod  ftom  th«  coaaoaMi  oralOM  timtk  • 
And  WMT  Um  a  Ikvoar:  m4  wtth  tW 
Hff  would  OBhoiM  tlM  IvUmI  e1uU«ogOT.' 

The  practice  of  wearing  a  p;love  as  a  ikvour  is  ment»oiw4 
by  Hall  in  his  '  Chronicle,'  m  the  reign  of  Heniy  IV.,  an<: 
frequently  among  our  old  dramatic  writers.  (Naies's  GIo^ 
iarv,  in  voce.) 

Queen  Elizabeth's  fondness  fbr  perftimed  gloves  is  fre- 
quently mentioned  by  the  writers  on  her  leira  :  and  eep«- 
cially  those  which  were  presented  to  her  by  Sdwsird  Vcrc, 
earl  of  Oxford,  when  he  came  fit>m  Italy. 

At  the  sale  of  the  earl  of  Arran's  goods,  in  the  month  i/f 
April.  1 759,  the  eloves  given  by  Henry  VIII.  to  Sir  Anihooy 
Denny  were  sold  for  3SL  X7t. ;  those  given  by  Jamea  I.  to 
his  son  Edward  Denny,  for  22/.  4t. ;  and  the  mittena  giy<t^ 
bv  Queen  Elizabeth  to  Sir  Edward  Denny's  lady,  for  26/.  41 
Grough  (Sepulchre  Mon.,  ^  185)  says,  '  Aese  may  be  au^ 
posed  some  of  the  oldest  gloves  extant.' 

To  throw  the  glove  bv  way  of  challenge  to  duel  is  men* 
tioned  in  Matthew  Paris's  History,  under  the  year  )  245.  H« 
calls  it  mos  Francorum, 

GLOVER.  RICHARD,  author  of  'Leonidas,*  was  bora 
in  the  city  of  London,  in  1 7 12.  His  father  was  a  Hatnbari; 
merchant;  and  being  intended  for  the  same  employment. 
the  son  received,  it  appears,  only  a  common  school  educ».tioi(. 
He  possessed  however  a  natural  love  of  letters.  At  sixtern, 
he  wrote  a  poem  on  the  memory  of  Newton;  and  at  an  earl* 
age  commenced  his  '  Leonidas,'  an  epic  poem  on  the  Peruaii 
War.  published  in  1737.  in  nine  books,  and  afterwards  en- 
larged, in  1770,  to  twelve.  Being  supposed  to  have  a  poli- 
tical tendency,  it  was  warmlv  |>raisea  by  Laid  Lyttleton. 
Fielding,  and  the  court  of  the  iPrince  of  Wale^and  in  a  fow 
years  ran  through  six  or  seven  editions;  but  its  reputau<*a. 
like  that  of  most  things  which  are  unduly  elevated  by  ex- 
ternal circumstances,  has  sunk  to.  perhaps  below,  ita  propt  r 
level.  It  is  not  deficient  in  feeling  or  dignity,  and  i^s  rr^- 
ditable  to  the  abilities  of  the  author;  but  much  more  thd^ 
good  abilities,  a  cidtivated  mind,  and  a  musical  ear  are  n^ 
quired  to  establish  the  fame  of  an  epic  poem.  A  aort  vf 
continuation  of  the  history  of  the  Persian  war,  called  th« 
'  Athenais,'  in  thirty  &ooAf.  was  published  posthnmoualr  m 
1787.  'London,  or  the  Progress  of  Commeioe»*  aad'ihe 
song  caAed  '  Hosier*s  Ghost,' heginning 

were  written  to  rouse  the  nation  to  a  Spanish  war.  Thr 
latter  is  a  fine  effective  ballad,  and  possesses  the  best  pru^  f 
of  merit — it  answered  its  end.  It  will  probably  be  reaa  a:;  i 
remembered  long  after  '  Leonidas'  is  forgotten. 

Mr.  Glover  took  an  active  part  in  city  politics  as  an  o;*. 
ponent  of  Walpole.  In  1760  he  became  M.P.  for  Wt-t 
mouth,  and  proved  himself  a  good  speaker  and  a  Taluab!t* 
man  of  business  in  commereial  affaire.  For  an  account . : 
his  other  works  and  personal  history,  see  Johnson  nn  i 
Chalmers's  *  English  PoeU.'  or  Chalmers's  Biog,  Diet,  Tr. 
Gent.  Mag,  for  November,  1785,  the  month  of  his  death, 
contains  a  character  of  him,  said  to  be  by  Dr.  Bracklesbv 
couched  in  warm  terms  of  praise  as  to  morals  and  talent*.* 

GLOVES,  COMMERCE  IN.  The  great  seata  of  tbr 
leather  glove  manu&eture  in  England  are  Worcester. 
Woodstock,  Yeovil,  Leominster,  Ludlow,  and  London. 
The  number  made  every  year  in  the  town  and  immedistf 
neighbourhood  of  Worcester  has  been  estimated  to  excved 
six  millions  of  pairs.  At  Yeovil  about  two-thirds  of  tba! 
quantity  are  supposed  to  be  produced,  and  the  number  •/ 
persons,  including  men,  women,  and  children,  engaged  ir, 
the  manu&cture  at  these  two  places,  is  stated  to  be  coot  - 
nually  increasing.  This  result  is  sltogether  contrary  k> 
the  predictions  of  penoivi  engag^  in  thq  msnufkfttmw,  whg 


G  L  V  2 

marltaMe  for  their  appropnMenea  u  for  tbeir  ridineM,  the 

period  at  which  thej'  wore  written  being  considered.  Gluck 
vaa,  in  a  word,  an  intellectual  composer,  of  which  Act  bi« 
works  afford  incontestable  proofs. 

GLUCKSTADT.    [Holstb:ii,] 

GLUE,  ft  well-known  substance  employed  to  effect  the 
adhesion  of  different  portions  of  wood  in  ciipentry,  &e.  It 
B  prepared  from  the  clippings  of  bides,  hoofs,  be.,  obtained 
at  tlie  lan-fsrd.  The  flrst  operation  is  to  wash  them  in 
lijne-water,  and  aflerwardi  Ut  boil  them  in  water,  and  skim 
the  solulion,  which  is  rendered  clear  by  being  strained 
through  basketa.  and  is  then  evaporated  by  a  i^ntle  heat  to 
a  proper  degree  of  thii-kness.  It  is  Anally  cooled  in  wooden 
vetseU,  cut  into  tbin  portions,  and  dried  upon  coane  net- 
work. When  properly  prepared,  glue  is  of  a  deep  brown 
oobur,  transluceni,  and  free  from  spots  and  clouds.  When 
requiredforu«e,  it  is  broken  into  pieces,  andsteepedfbr  about 
twenly'rmir  hours  in  cold  water,  by  which  it  swells  and 
softens.  When  gently  heated  in  a  water-bath,  such  as  the 
common  gluepol  is,  it  is  applied  by  means  of  a  brush  to 
the  various  kinda  of  work  for  which  it  is  used.  The  ad- 
hesion depends  upon  the  evaporation  of  the  water 

Another  variety  of  glue,  which  is  much  softer  and  called 
size,  is  obtained  fVom  parchment  cuttings  and  several  ani- 
mal membranes.  It  is  used  by  paper-hangers,  white-washers, 
&c.  Glue  and  site  consist  principally  of  what  is  chemi- 
cally termed  gelatin,  of  which  isinglass,  prorured  principally 
from  the  sturgeon  in  Russia,  is  the  purest  kind. 

GLUMACEOUS  PLANTS  are  what  are  more  com- 
monly called  GraminaceEe  and  CypcraccB,  to  which  Jun- 
cacetD  and  a  few  other  orders  are  occasionally  added.  They 
derive  tbeir  name  from  the  Howera'  coniitting  of  glumes 
only. 

GLUTEN.    [Food,  vol.  %.,  p.  343.1 

GLUTTON  (Zoology),  the  vemiicular  name  for  theWol- 
\wene.     [Gulo.] 

GLYCERIN.    rSoAP.l 

GLYCV'MERIS.    (ZToology.)    [PnoHiDiAj 

GLYCYRHl'ZA  is  a  genus  of  pea-flowereJ  Eiogons. 
consistmg  of  herbaceous  plants  with  pinnated  leaves,  small 
""" —  ■"  axillary  spikes,  and  roots  running  very  much  in 
which  they  grow.  The  technical  character  of 
given  by  De  Candolle  thus  :  'Calvx  naked, 
the     two    npper  lobes    grow 


flowers 

the  gen 
tubular, 
together 
straight 
Stamens 
oblong, 


9-cleft.    bilabiate, 

beyond   the   others.      Standard  ovate-lanceolate, 
keel  two-headed,  or  2-petalled,  straight,  acute. 
diadelphous.     Style  filiform.     Legume   ovate  or 
^     Dmpresaed,  1-celled,  1-4-seeded.' 

One  of  the  species,  Glvcyrhiia  glabra,  a  plant  growing 
wild  all  over  the  south  of  ICurope  from  Spain  to  the  Crimea, 
produces  the  comuioQ  liquorice  roots  of  the  shops,  from 
which  the  well-known  block  extract  of  the  tame  name  is 
obtained.  It  is  a  perennial,  of  a  pale  green  colour,  growing 
two  or  three  feet  high  ;  and  has  ovate  bluutish  leaflets, 
glutinous  on  the  underside,  pale  blue  flowers  in  spikes 
■horler  than  the  leaves,  and  short  smooth  pods,  each  con- 
taining from  two  to  three  seeds. 

Other  species  of  Glyeyrhiia,  especially  G.  echinata,  have 
also  sweet  roots,  but  they  are  inferior  to  the  officinal  spe- 
cies. 

This  plant  is  cultivated  in  many  parts  of  England,  espe- 
cially about  Pontefract,  whence  the  name  of  PomfVet  cakes, 
applied  to  a  fine  preparation  of  liquorice.  Though  com- 
monly grown  in  the  field,  it  requires  very  superior  culture 
in  order  lo  produce  fine  roots  for  sale  in  the  market  The 
soil  in  which  it  delights  to  grow  is  rich  black  mould,  but 
where  this  cannot  be  procured  a  fresh  loam  will  answer  the 
purpose,  provided  there  is  not  much  wet  day  in  itscomposi- 
lion.  It  must  be  at  least  three  feet  deep  to  allow  a  free 
passa;^  fur  the  roots,  as  they  are  generally  expected  to  be  a 
yard  in  length,  and  as  the  straight  ones  are  more  highly 
prixed  than  those  which  are  crooked.  On  this  account  the 
spade  is  more  useful  than  the  plough  in  cultivating  the 
ground,  and  though  it  may  at  first  be  expensive,  yet  the 
husbandman  will  in  the  end  be  well  repaid  fbr  his  trouble. 

After  the  ground  is  fixed  upon,  it  must  be  well  covered 
with  good  rotten  dung,  trenched  three  feet  in  depth,  and 
»fl  ID  this  state  during  the  winter,  to  be  mellowed  by  ftxwt. 
About  March,  if  the  weather  is  fine,  the  planUtion  should 
he  fbrmed.  Plants  are  either  raised  from  seeds,  or,  as  is 
mora  commonly  the  ease,  from  a  division  of  the  old  roots, 
•-'■■-'■  are  cut  mto  pieces  eight  or  ten  inches  long.  Qioice 
b0  Bads  M  tboM  whicb,  m  plantcn  term  it,  hav* 


«  G  LY 

good  eyes,  that  is,  tadi,  and  whlsh  are  mora  GMf  to  pcnb 
and  grow  strong. 

A  garden  line  mult  then  be  set  f<»  the  tnt  row,  and 
holed  made  with  the  setting-stick  about  a  fbot  and  a  faalf 
apart;  into  which  the  sets  must  be  drappMi  and  ecntrri 
about  two  inches  with  soil.  The  rows  muit  be  at  leut  ifarw 
feel  aniTt,  and  the  plants  In  one  row  should  b»  altemati 
with  those  of  the  other ;  this  will  not  only  ^e  tbera  moir 
room,  but  will  have  a  neat  appearance,  fbrmingre^lvrovi 
bora  whatever  part  the  field  is  viewed. 

'  For  the  first  year,'  says  Abercrombr,  '  yon  may  pult^ 
vate  a  light  crop  of  lettuce  or  onions  between  tbe  rovi 
During  summer,  keep  the  ground  free  from  weeda,  ai^ 
when  the  subordinate  crop  comes  off,  hoe  and  dreu  i.^f 
ground.  At  tbe  close  of  autumn,  or  as  a  winter  drukuni 
fork  or  dig  between  the  rows  to  stir  and  refresh  tbe  surfari 
and  cut  down  the  decayed  stems.  After  three  or  Ibur  vca'i 
growth,  the  main  root*  will  be  of  a  mature  siie,  and  fit  I  : 
consumption  or  the  market.  It  is  an  excellent  plan  ■ 
cover  the  crowns  of  the  plants  in  winter  with  good  r-f'  r 
dung,  as  it  nut  only  preserves  them  from  severe  frusl*.  >■  : 
is  washed  down  by  the  rain,  and  becomes  valuable  nour..-. 
ment  to  the  roots. 


'  aijeplma  giibn. 

GLYCYRHl'ZA  GLABRA,  liquorice,  of  which  6* 
root,  or  rather  the  rhizomo,  and  a  watery  extract  are  offirio*:- 
It  is  a  native  of  Germany,  but  cultivated  cxlensix-elv  li> 
some  parts  of  Britain ;  the  cilrnct  is  however  cfaiedi  'pre- 
pared in  Spain,  and  imported  under  the  name  of  Spaniih 

<  or  liquorice.     The  rhiioma  ia  generally  allowed  c< 

1  tbe  age  of  three  years,  and  is  then  taken  up.  It  n 
ofien  several  feet  in  length,  and  about  half  an  inch  thi.l 
The  odour  is  faint,  the  taste  swcel  but  mawkish ;  ai,d  u' 
the  bark  be  chewed,  it  is  at  lost  rather  acrid,  which  is  ovi  iiv 
to  the  presence  of  a  soft  resin. 

Robiqucl  found  it  to  contain  a  peculiar  sugar,  wh.fb  i 

icrystalluable,  called  gli/cion  or  glycyrhisin,  and  vthtr 

matters. 

Infused  in  warm  or  macerated  in  cold  water,  it  affbnl-;.  s 

ucilaginous  fluid,  which  is  bland  and  dcmulceoL     T_i 

powder  is  much  used  to  involve  receullv  made  pill*,  in  etJi, 

lo  prevent  them  from  adhering  to  each  other. 

The  extract  is  formed  into  rolls  from  six  to  eight  inrbc-. 
long,  which  are  dried,  and  surrounded  with  bay  leavei,  to 
prevent  them  from  udhering,  as  in  worm  weather  they  har*  a 
tendency  to  melt,  notwithitnading  lh«  addition  to  then  cf 


G  N  E 


280 


G  N  O 


GNATHODON,  a  genua  of  conchifers  with  the  liga- 
ment inclosed  in  the  cartilage  pit,  established  by  Mr.  Gray, 
who  exhibited  (October.  1836)  this  peculiarity  of  structure 
in  the  part  in  some  mactraceous  shellst  at  a  meeting  of  the 
Zoological  Society,  observing  that  it  was  also  found  in  a 
new  genus  that  he  had  named  at  the  British  Museum 
Mulinia,  of  which  he  had  described  five  species ;  he  also 
stated  the  necessity  for  forming  a  new  eenus,  of  which 
Mactra  spengleri  may  be  regarded  as  the  type.  {ZooL 
Proe^  1836.) 

GNATHOPHYLLUM.  (Zoology.)    [Palemonidjb.] 

GNATHO'STOMA  (yvaOoc.  a  jaw,  and  vrSfia,  the 
mouth),  a  genus  of  nematoid  Entozoa  [Entozoa],  lately 
discovered  by  Mr.  Owen  in  the  stomach  of  the  tiger.  These 
worms,  the  largest  of  which  are  about  an  inch  in  length 
and  a  line  in  diameter,  were  found  in  the  substance  of 
several  small  cellular  tumours,  situated  immediately  be- 
neath the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach,  and  appa- 
rently formed  by  the  condensation  and  thickening  of  the 
submucous  cellular  tissue,  which  was  probably  owing  to 
the  irritation  of  the  Entozoa.  Only  a  pair  of  these  animals 
was  found  in  each  tumour,  and  they  always  consisted  of 
male  and  female,  the  former  of  which  was  about  one-fourth 
smaller  than  the  latter. 

In  both  sexes  the  body  is  round,  clastic,  and  attenuated 
at  both  extremities ;  the  tail  is  more  obtuse  and  bent  in  the 
male ;  the  head  is  obtuse  and  truncated  in  both  of  them. 
The  hiteguments  are  transparent,  and,  fVom  the  intestinal 
and  genital  tubes  showing  through  the  surface  t)f  the  body, 
appear  to  be  striated  transversely.  The  anterior  two-thirds 
of  the  body  are  covered  with  a  circular  series  of  minute  re- 
flected spines,  each  ftimished  with  three  points.  The  mouth 
is  surrounded  by  a  tumid  circular  lip,  and  armed  with 
seveml  rows  of  spinous  processes  of  a  smiilar  structure  to 
thoso  on  the  body.  The  orifice  of  the  mouth  itself  is 
bounded  on  each  side  by  a  jaw-like  process  (whence  the 
name  of  the  genus),  the  anterior  margin  of  which  is  formed 
into  three  straight  horny  points,  or  processes,  directed  for- 
wards. The  male  organ  of  generation  consists  of  a  slightly 
cur\'ed  slender  spiculum,  not  furnished  with  a  sheath  as  in 
the  tiTOngylus  (tlie  genus  of  previously  described  nematoid 
worms,  to  which  the  gnathoitoma  bear  the  closest  resem- 
blance), and  surrounded  by  eight  distinct  pointed  papilla). 

The  most  interesting  noint  in  the  internal  structure  of 
this  ontozoon,  and  which  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
hitherto  detected  in  any  other  animal  of  this  class,  is  the 
existence  of  a  distinct  salivary  apparatus,  similar  to  what  is 
found  in  the  Holothuria,  and  other  Echinodermata.  'This 
apparatus,'  says  Mr.  Owen,  'consists  of  four  elongated 
straight  blind  tubes,  each  about  two  lines  in  length,  which 
are  placed  at  equal  distances  around  the  commencement  of 
the  alimentary  canal,  having  their  smaller  extremities 
directed  forwards,  and  opening  into  the  mouth,  and  their 
closed  obtuse  ends  passing  backwards  into  the  abdominal 
cavity.  When  examined  with  a  lens  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
focus,  the  parietes  of  these  salivary  tubes  present  very  dis- 
tinct oblique  or  spiral  decussating  fibres  ;  their  contents  are 
semipellucid  in  the  recent  worm,  but  become  opaque  in 
spirit  of  wine.'  The  existence  of  this  salivary  apparatus 
along  with  the  more  perfect  organs  of  mastication,  as  the 
jaws,  in  this  entosoon  is  highly  interesting,  as  it  shows  an 
approximation  to  the  structure  of  the  digestive  organs  in 
the  higher  classes  of  animals. 

Mr.  Owen  has  since  found  the  Gnathostoma  in  the 
stomach  of  other  animals  of  the  cat  kind,  as  the  leopard. 

Beautiful  preparations  of  both  the  male  and  female  worms 
dissected,  are  presened  in  the  museum  of  the  College  of 
Surgeons  in  London  (Zoological  series.  Gallery). 

GNEISS,  a  Grerman  term  for  the  lowest  series  of  strati- 
fied primary  rocks,  the  introduction  of  which  marks  the  obli- 
gations which  British  geologists  owe  to  the  school  of 
Werner;  while  such  terms  as  lias,  cornbrash,  golt,  &c., 
record  the  original  discoveries  of  Smith  and  other  English 
writers.  As  there  are  no  organic  remains  in  the  gneiss 
strata,  and  the  variations  of  its  composition  and  structure 
appear  independent  of  the  relative  antiquity  of  the  deposits^ 
it  is  impossible,  except  by  the  help  of  the  included  lime- 
stones, quartz  rocks,  clay  slates,  &c.,  even  to  attempt  the 
division  into  formations  of  the  vast  thickness  of  the  gneiss 
strata  which  appears  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  the 
mountains  of  Scandinavia,  &c. 

ComponHon. — Gneiss  is  generally  a  compound  of  the 
aamo  three  minerals  as  granite,  viz.  quartz,  felspar,  and  mica. 


In  the  tame'  manner  as  granite  vanei  in  the  proportion 

of  its  ingredients,  the  magnitude  of  the  component  crystal*, 
the  absence  of  mica,  or  the  substitution  of  other  nunen'.* 
for  it,  so  gneiss  exhibits  corresponding  variations. 

Dr.  MacGulloch,  whose  examination  of  the  gneiss  tnct>  -i! 
ScoUand  was  very  complete,  presents  an  extended  synof  «.i 
of  the  varieties  of  gneu^  which  he  had  observed.  Uis  ta'jl. 
includes  indeed  a  great  number  of  mineral  compound>  tlj 
ferent  from  the  general  character  of  gneiss*  but  is  never  iij  < 
less  valuable  to  the  geologist.  He  considen  gneiss  in  thr« . 
divisions :  first,  of  regular  composition,  containing  at  U.vi 
three  of  the  four  minerals,  quartz,  felspar,  mica,  and  h  •:.. 
blende ;  secondly,  of  irregular  composition,  containing  rf!L 
pact  felspar;  and  thirdly,  of  irregular  composition  in  v;l.>. 
respects.    (Treatiie  on  Rocki,) 

We  shall  content  ourselves  with  extracting  the  s>ii'^{'«.- 
of  the  first  division. 

Granitic  gneiss.    This  is  always  large  grained. 

a.  Composed  of  quartz,  felspar,  and  mice. 

b.  „  quartz,  felspar,  and  hornblende. 

c.  „  quartz,  felspar,  mica,  and  hornblen  ■  • . 
Schistose  gneiss :  the  structure  is  foliated  like  mica*  »<- !:.>:. 

or  granular  like  quartz  rock. 

a.  (Composed  of  white  felspar  and  quartz  in  rair.*/! 

grains,  with  rare   scales  of  mica   (rvM^^n^l 
quartz  rock). 

b.  (Composed  of  felspar  and  quartz  as  above,  but  «  ' 

abundance  of  mica  (so  as  to  resemble   n-  « 
schist). 

c.  In  this  the  mica  is   extremely  abundant,  t»j  .• 

to  form  continuous  lamina). 

d.  In  this  the  mica  is  predominant,  and  thcrv:- 

large  interspersed  crystals  of  felspar. 

e.  Comoosed  of  large  grains  of  quartz  and  (clv;«  - 

witn  little  mica. 
Laminar  gneiss:   each  substance  occupying  a  di*t. 
lamina. 

a.  Composed  of  quartz  and  felspar. 

b.  „  quartz,  felspar,  and  mica. 

c.  „  Quartz,  felspar,  and  hornblende. 

d.  „  lelspar  and  hornblende. 

e         „  quartz,  mica,  and  hornblende. 

All  the  varieties  of  rock  comprised  under  the  title 
gneiss  are  stratified,  the  beds  vaiying  much  in  thickr.fv 
and  being  most  remarkably  subject  to  contortions  U.»tU 
a  large  and  small  scale,  especiidly  where  g^ranite  vein^  ctu- 
thelaminoD.    [Gbolooy;  Rocks;  Strati fic\tion.'\ 

GNOMIC  POBTS  OF  GREECE.    Under  lh»  tale  t: 
included  those  moral  and  philosophical  poets  whoK.-  r* 
mains  consist  chiefly  of  short  sententious  precepts  or  ret).  - 
tions.    Such  are  tne  Gnomo  of  Theognis,  which,  tb  . . 
numbered  consecutively  as  a  connected  poem  to  1 200  1  r    . 
form  in  fact  a  collection  of  unconnected  members,  voq    * 
from  two  to  thirty  lines  in  length.    Such  also  wert*  :. 
sentences  inscribed   by  Hipparchus   on    the   Herms 
the  streets  of  Athens.      These   metrical  precepts  «>•- 
valuable  before  writing  became  common ;  being,  like  ;  r  *> 
verbs,  serviceable  and  easily-remembered  rules  of  comh  '. 
This  notion  of  a  pithy  saying,  or  apophthegm^  is  one  of  t  -*  - 
meanings  of  yvbtfifi  (gn6me),  whence  comes  the  adjcr'  \ 
yvufuKoQ  (gnomikos),  relating  to  gn6me.  Wintcrton's  *'^r*r 
Minores  Grseci '  (Cambridge,  1677,  and  later  Aition^^)  <  - 
tain  a  collection  of  the  Gnomic  poets.     They  haw  .  • 
been  edited  by  Brunck  (Gnomici  Poet€t  Grapci^  Argr: 
1784. 4to.).   The  principal  authors  contained  in  this  e«).'.  -  I 
are  Theognis,  Tyrtosus,  Solon,  Siraonides,  with  man>  o'l  r\ 
some  to  the  extent  only  of  a  few  lines.    Tyrts^us  and  s>  • 
nides  however,  though  the  authors  of  Gnome,  hanlly  t^  . 
under  the  definition  above  given,  or  under  any  other  dc^  * 
tion  which  accurately  characterizes  Theognis  and  oth.-* 
Brunck*s  edition  contains  also  a  collection  of  OoOnu^  fr  :. 
the  comic  writers. 

The  Gnomic  writers  are  sometimes  all  classed  undrr  t^i 
general  name  of  Elegiac  poets.    [Elegy.] 

GNO'MON  (the  Greek  yvta^^v),  or  style  Of  a  dial  ts  *  v 
plate  which  projects  from  tne  surface  of  the  dial-pUte.  '*  ■ 
edge  of  its  shade  determining  the  hour-line.  The  plaits  t-  ▼' 
ill  use  being  flat,  the  gnomon  is  in  the  plane  of  Uio  xc- '  -* 
dian,  and  its  sloping  edge  forms  an  angle  with  the  huv .-  ^ 
equal  to  the  latitude  of  the  place,  luid  is  eonacqurr : 
parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  earth.    No  sensible  error  is  ins 
by  confounding  the  edge  of  the  gnomon  with  the  rani 
axis ;  but  in  lunar  dials  a  sensible  error  would  arts«,eoL*cfi 


N 


u  u  A  a 

from  which  it  ii  derived.  One  of  the  latett  writers  on  the 
tubject,  who  ia  veW  known  (br  his  industry,  as  well  «s  his 
acut«ness  and  accuracT,  writes  thus(l837) :— 'Tha  nuinions 
of  naturnlista  have  been  much  divided  respecting  the  ori- 
ginal slock  oF  our  domestic  goat ;  some  referring  it  to  the 
Mgagrtti,  and  others  lo  the  Ibex.  Buffiin  appears  to  have 
adopted  the  latter  opinion  ;  but  most  modem  zoologists 
who  have  paid  much  attention  to  the  auestion,  and  who 
have  brought  to  the  consideration  of  it  all  the  helps  which 
recent  dltiuoveries  in  philosophical  zoology  have  furnished, 
have  leaned  to  the  belief  that  the  jEgaef^u,  or  wild  goat  of 
the  mountains  of  Caucasus  and  of  Persia,  is  the  true  original 
stock.  The  xooli^ieal  chaniclen  of  this  animal  certainly 
bear  a  closer  resemblance  to  those  of  the  domestic  breeds ; 
and  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  horns  of  the  Persian 
domestic  ftont,  though  smaller,  are  similar  in  form  to  those 
of  the  Pa»img,  or  Mgagrtu.  The  arguments  which  have 
been  urged  fVom  the  intermixture  of  the  Ibex  with  the 
oomman  goat  are  at  present  of  little  value,  as  the  ftcts 
recorded  are  very  deficient  The  lai^  goats  which  are 
reported  to  have  been  brought  (h>m  the  Alps  and  the 
Pyrenees  to  the  Garden  of  Plants  in  Paris,  and  which 
were  4|ta1ed  to  have  been  wild,  were  probably  the  progeny 
of  the /6ex  with  the  common  ^at,  as  there  is  no  proof  of 
the  existence  of  the  true  Agagrut  in  Europe.  These 
were  found  to  be  capable  of  producing  otTspring.  and  the 
details  aro  eiven  by  M.  Fred.  Cuvier  with  great  clearness: 
but  the  old  bult  slill  remains;  the  question  is  not  set  at 
rest  by  these  observations;  for  we  are  only  informed  that 
they  produce  offspring,  without  any  slalemcnl  whether  they 
wai  breed  inter  se,  or  only  with  the  common  coat.     The 

Erogeny  however  were  either  prematurely  brought  forth,  or 
ved  only  a  short  timo  in  a  sick  or  Innguishint;  condition. 
Surrounded  by  tlicse  doubts,  and  without  the  power  of 
satisfactorily  solving  (hem,  it  is  better  perhaps  to  leave  the 
question  to  be  decided  by  future  experiments,  should  the 
opportunily  ever  occur  of  delermining  the  results  of  inCer- 
breoding  between  the  Ibex,  the  jEgagrut,  and  the  common 
Goat,  pari icularlv  with  reference  to  the  mutual  fertility  of 
tlie  offspring.'" 

BulTon's  opinion  is  not  very  clearly  stated,  nor  is  it  cer- 
tain thai  he  had  a  very  distinct  idea  on  the  subject.  Sun- 
nini,  in  hjs '  Travels  in  Greece  anil  Turkey,'  after  gpcakini; 
of -(be  wild  sotiludes  that  surround  the  Convent  of  Sl  Johi) 
at  Cape  Malacca,  in  Candia,  says,  '  tJovies  of  red  partridges 
deliglit  in  these  inaccessible  mountains,  and  Ihore  they  live 
in  safety.  There  also  are  to  be  seen  wild  goats,  which  leap 
from  ruck  to  rock  with  admirable  address  and  agility. 
These  wild  goats,  which  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  Isle  of 
Candia,  and  several  other  islands  of  the  same  sea,  arc  of  the 
Bnuquetin  (Copra  Ibex,  Linn.X  or  mountain-goat  species. 
The  modern  Greeks,  as  has  been  done  by  their  ancestors, 
confound  the  Bouquetin  and  tbe  Chamoii  under  the  same 
denomination  of  Wild  Goat.  The  French,  habituated  to 
the  Levant,  also  knew  them  by  no  other  denomination  than 
that  of  Ckivre  sauvage.  It  is  to  be  presumed,  in  fact,  that 
BulTon  himself  imagined  that  these  two  animals  ore  not  of 
a  species  difforent  from  that  of  the  domestic  goat.' 

Pennant,  in  his  '  Synopsis  of  Quadrupeds,'  (Chester, 
177U,  considers  the  Bnuc  ettain,  ot  Bmuptetin  (Cay.ra Ibex 
of  Linnnus),  to  be  '  the  stock  whence  the  tame  species 
sprung.'  In  the  third  edition  (London,  1773),  in  his 
account  of  the  Mgapnu,  or  Caucasian  goat,  he  snys, 
'  Rmce  the  discovery  of  Ibis  species  of  goat,  to  it  must  be 
given  the  origin  of  the  name,  as  there  is  the  greatest  con- 
tiirmily  between  its  horns  and  those  of  the  domestic  kinds ; 
unless  we  can  suppose  that  the  latter,  from  their  way  of 
lit>'.  hove  lost  the  knots,  the  great  character  of  the  Ibex, 
which  I  once  supposed  to  be  their  only  stock.  I  cannot 
lielp  thinking,  with  Dr.Pallas,  that  Ihey  may  be  derived  from 
buih,  especially  as  we  arc  assured  that  an  union  between 
the  Ih"T  and  she  goals  will  produce  a  fruitful  offspring ;  yet 
Mr.  Ouldcnsioedt  says  that  the  mountamecrs  of  Caucasus 
never  have  observed  them  to  mix  or  couple  with  tbe  com- 
mon coats.'  Kiempfer  is  the  authonty  quoted  by  Pennant 
for  the  allegnlion  that  the  Iter,  ond  she-goats  will  produce 
a  fruiiful  offspring.  !n  the  margin,  opposite  to  the  com- 
mencfment  of  the  paragraph  above  quolcd.  are  the  words, 
>  This  one  stock  of  the  tame  goals.'  In  his  '  BriLiEh  Zoo- 
logy,' Pennant  concludes  the  natural  history  of  the  goat 
''is  seutence: — 'The  origin  of  the  domestic  goat  tuay 

iMn  of  BrtOili  Qwinriit;  bj  T.  Ball,  F.KJi.  kc. ;  Lcudoo, 


GO  A 

be  derived  from  the  5fmiAoe,76ftr,or  wild  goat,  now  fttanA 
only  in  the  Alps  and  in  Crete,  and  also  from  the  Caocasua 
goat,  which  inhabits  the  lofllest  and  most  rude  points  nf 
Caucasus,  the  inhospitable  hills  of  Laar  and  Khoiwzan.  id 
Persia,  and,  according  to  Monardus,is  also  found  in  Afiirt; 
it  may  likewise  have  formoriy  been  a  native  of  the  Alpi 
and  of  Crete.'     This  remains  in  the  last  edition  (I8II>.* 

Linnieus,  in  his  'Systema  Natuno,' (lltb  edition)  piim 
the  goat  ( Ct^a  Hircut)  an  Oriental  origin ;  but  se«mk  (■> 
consider  it  as  a  distinct  species.  He  says  of  it,  *  Habitat  m 
Oriente  in  monlosis  Hircus  et  Capia  cum  Hosdo,  victitut 
ramulis  variis  fyondibusque  arborum,  lichenibua;  ho>p.- 
tatur  in  Europa.'  He  does  not  mention  the  jSgagrtu,  but 
pvoilho  Ibex{CapraJbeT)  osaspecies.t 


V- 


Gmelin  (Sy»(.  Nat.,  ed.  13)  givas  jBgagnu'  u  the  b- 
species  of  tho  genus  Copra,  and  it  ia  followed  br /fir;*' 
Cuvier.  in  both  uditions,  considers  tha  PaaeaglC.  Agagrv 
lo  be  the  panmt-atock  of  all  the  varietjea  of  tbe  duiikv.K 
goat.  He  adverts  to  the  Paaeng  at  inhabiting  the  m-m'. 
laini  of  Persia  in  troops,  and  lo  the  Oriental  boou  «■>  . 
cuncrction  found  in  its  intestines.  [Bkioab*.  iuL  i^ 
Fi>>clier  speaks  of  the  Mgagrut  as  being,  ailhoul  du^  - 
Ihe  parent  of  our  domeatit  goat.   Whibt  upon  tU*  iiM|u.i! 

•  Pnminl  dim  IlITHl 
^U[-  H'xofR  ■MUoa*  dpi*  £t«int  la  kU  utilifi  tt  sw  a.. 


GO  A 


284 


OOA 


that  wliich  new  on  the  haunches,  where  it  is  longest  and 
thickest  In  Pennant's  time  a  good  skin,  well  haired,  was 
sold  for  a  guinea,  though  a  skin  of  bad  hue,  and  so  yellow 
as  to  baffle  the  barber^s  skill  to  bleach,  did  not  fetch  above 
eighteen  pence  or  two  shillings.  Goats*  hair  is  at  present 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  wigs  for  the  dignitaries  of  the 
ehureh  and  the  members  of  the  bar  and  tne  bench.  The 
skin,  particularly  that  of  the  kid,  is  of  high  importance  to 
the  glove  manufacturer ;  it  is  also  said  to  take  a  dve  better 
than  most  others.  The  horns  are  usefiil  ibr  knife-handles ; 
and  the  suet,  it  is  alleged,  makes  candles  far  superior  in 
whiteness  and  goodness  to  those  made  from  that  of  the  sheep 
or  the  ox,  and,  according  to  Pennant,  brings  a  much  greater 
price  in  the  market  The  flesh  of  the  kid  is  good.  '  The 
haunches  of  the  goat,'  writes  the  author  last  quoted,  '  are 
frequently  salted  and  dried,  and  supply  all  the  uses  of  bacon ; 
this  by  the  natives  is  called  CSch  yr  toden,  or  hung  venison. 
The  meat  of  a  castrated  goat  of  six  or  seven  years  old  (which 
is  called  Hyfr)  is  reckoned  the  best ;  being  generally  very 
sweet  and  fat  This  makes  an  excellent  past^,  goes  under 
the  name  of  rock-venison,  and  is  little  inferior  to  that  of 
the  deer.'  The  medical  properties  of  goats*  milk  and  whey 
have  been  highly  extolled,  and  the  cheese  is  much  valued 
in  some  mountainous  countries. 

Habits,  Food,  Reproduction^  4^. — The  odour  of  the 
goat,  strong  at  all  times,  becomes  insufferably  powerful  in 
the  rutting  season  (from  the  beginning  of  September  to 
November),  but  this  pungent  scent  is  not  supposed  to  be 
unwholesome;  and  horses  are  said  to  be  refreshed  by  it, 
whence  the  animal  is  frequently  to  be  seen  about  stables. 
The  female  brings  forth  from  the  latter  end  of  February  to 
the  latter  end  of  April,  after  a  gestation  of  four  months 
and  a  half,  generally  two,  but  sometimes  three,  and  oven 
four  young.  The  activity  with  which  these  animals  will 
securely  bound  firom  rock  to  rock,  and  the  unshaken  firm- 
ness with  which  they  will  fix  themselves  on  the  edge  of 
the  highest  precipices,  are  wonderAil.  Pennant  says  that 
when  two  are  yoked  together,  as  was  frequently  prac- 
tised, they  will,  as  if  by  consent,  take  large  and  hazanlous 
leaps,  and  yet  so  time  their  mutual  efforts  as  rarely  to 
miscarry  in  the  attempt  Nicholas  Hasselgren,  in  his 
'  Swedish  Pan'  (Amosn.  Acad.),  states  that  goats  eat 
449  plants,  and  refuse  126.  The  same  author  states, 
that  though  they  will  eat  greedily  and  safely  long-leaved 
water-hemlock,  monkshood  kills  them.  Their  favourite 
food  consists  of  the  topsi  tendrils,  and  flowers  of  mountain 
shrubs,  and  of  aromatic  herbs;  to  this  delicate  diet  was 
supposed  to  be  owing  the  salubrity  of  the  milk.  The  blood 
was  supposed  to  have  its  healing  properties  also :  that  of  a 
he-goat  dried  is  mentioned  by  Pennant  as  a  great  recipe  in 
some  families  for  the  pleurisy  and  inflammatory  disorders, 
and  is  noticed  in  Dr.  Mead's  *Monita  Medica.'  As  an 
enemy  to  the  vine,  it  was  sacrificed  to  Bacchus ;  and  the 
subject  is  prettily  touched  in  many  epigrams  and  verses, 
both  Greek  and  Latin.  The  ele^nt  lines  of  Ovid  begin- 
ning *  Rode  caper  vitem'  are  familiar  to  scholars.  In  that 
dark  and  melancholy  time  when  modern  witchcraft  was 
supposed  to  be  rife,  and  when  the  very  absurdity  of  the  al- 
leged facts  seems  to  have  sharpened  the  belief  of  the  credu- 
lous and  increased  their  eagerness  to  shed  innocent  blood, 
the  goat  figures  not  only  as  the  conveyance  on  which  the 
witches  flew  through  the  air  to  their  diabolical  festivals,  but 
as  the  shape  in  which  Satan  himself  often  exhibited  his  per- 
son to  his  votaries. 

Before  we  proceed  to  consider  the  place  which  has  been 
assigned  to  the  goat  in  the  mammiferous  series,  it  should  be 
noticed,  that  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  domestic  goat  will 
breed  with  the  sheep.  M.  F.  Cuvier  states,  that  tne  mule 
which  is  the  result  of  the  connexion  participates  in  the 
nature  of  its  parents,  and  is  fruitful,  but  reproduces  with 
difficulty.  '  I  have  had,*  says  this  zoologist,  '  a  similar 
female  mule,  which  in  its  form  inclined  to  tne  sheep,  while 
it  leant  to  the  she-goat  in  its  gait  and  in  its  hair  ('  par  ses 
formes  tenoit  du  mouton,  et  de  la  chdvre  par  ses  allures  et 
ses  poils) ;  it  did  not  couple  till  the  third  year  with  a  goat, 
and  was  fruitful.*  Upon  this  Mr.  Bell  remarks,  that  there 
is  the  same  deficiency  in  the  experiment  as  that  which  ren- 
dered the  intermixture  of  the  Ibex  with  the  common  goat 
above  alluded  to  by  him  unsatisfactory. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Ogilby  fbr  the 
following  interesting  information  on  the  intermixture  of  the 
Cashmere  ^oat  with  the  sheep.  During  a  visit  to  Rhenish 
Genaany,  in  the  autumn  of  1837»  that  gentleman,  whose 


attention  has  been  particularly  direetod*  as  ihe  toolofieal 
reader  will  have  perceived,  to  the  Ruminantia,  learned  frota 
Professor  Cretxschmar,  the  well-known  editor  of  the  maa- 
malogical  part  of  Dr.  Riippell's  first  *  Atlas,'  the  wuettm  «i 
an  experiment  which  the  professor  had  been  carrying  on 
for  some  years  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Frankfort  oo  tbe 
Main,  to  ascertain  the  possibility  of  procuring  a  cross  bt* 
tween  the  Cashmere  goat  and  the  saxon  Mermo  ahety 
With  this  intention  Professor  CMisehmar  had*  two  ie 
three  years  ago,  procured  a  large  Cashmere  buck,  whkh 
was  put  into  a  stable  with  twelve  Merino  ewes.  For  two 
seasons  however  his  hopes  were  disappointed,  and  it  was 
not  till  the  season  of  1836  that  the  desired  onion  took  ptarr 
During  the  spring  of  that  year*  the  sheep  very  freely  tool 
the  buck,  and  produced  fine  healthy  lambs,  whieh  wrrr, 
when  Mr.  Ogilby  obtained  his  information,  rather  becte* 
than  a  year  old:  an  examination  of  these  ProfifSMr 
Cretzschmar  undertook  to  procure  for  Mr.  OgiH>y,  who 
conceiving  that  the  experiment  might  have  a  Dra«tk«l 
interest  l^yond  that  which  would  attach  to  it  in  the  mere 
physiological  or  scientific  point  of  view  taken  of  it  b j  ^^ 
feasor  Cretzschmar,  and  that  the  wool  of  the  hybrids  tnieht 
pouibly  be  found  to  possess  such  improved  qualities  ts 
would  make  it  commercially  important  and  an  oojeet  of  in- 
terest to  the  manufacturer,  embraced  the  profeseor^s  ofltr : 
but  being  then  on  the  point  of  starting  ibr  a  distant  part  *•/ 
the  country,  he  was  obliged  to  defer  the  examination  till  hi> 
return  to  Wiesbaden,  upon  which  however  he  lost  no  time 
in  repairing  to  Frankfort  for  that  purpose.  He  there 
found  that  the  animals  in  question  nad  been  bred  on  a 
farm  belonging  to  Messrs.  Bethmann,  the  well-knovri 
bankers,  about  a  mile  from  the  city,  on  the  SaxenJiAuskn 
side  of  the  river,  and  within  the  territories  of  the  free  state 
of  Frankfort.  Thejr  were  kept  in  a  large  stable  with  a 
number  of  pure  Merinos,  whicn  is  the  usual  mode  of  treat- 
ing these  valuable  animals  in  that  part  of  Germany,  wbert 
the  land  is  all  under  the  plough,  ana  there  are  neitber  shevp 
nor  grasing  farms ;  and  so  closely  did  they  resemble  tbt 

Sure  Saxon  breed,  that  it  was  impossible  to  perceive  ani 
ifferenee  in  their  external  characters.  Even  the  owner,  aii 
intelligent  and  highly  respectable  gentleman  fiurmer.  though 
accustomed  to  see  and  handle  them  daily,  oould  only  dj»* 
tinguish  between  the  pure  and  spurious  breeds  by  examm* 
ing  the  private  marks  on  their  ean ;  and  had  it  noC  been 
for  the  notoriety  of  the  ciroumstanoe,  and  the  unquestion- 
able respectability  of  the  parties  connected  with  the  exper 
ment,  Mr.  Ogilby  confesses  that  he  should  have  heaital«ki 
to  believe  it.  The  experiment  however  had  been  camn) 
on,  throughout  its  whole  duration,  under  the  immedimTc 
supenntendence  of  Dr.  Cretzschmar,  who  vouched  fur  thf 
facts  here  related.  The  most  minute  charactera  of  tfannr 
female  parents,  the  Merinos,  were  reproduced  in  tbe»? 
voung  animals ;  the  spiral  horns,  long  tails,  and  aminou* 
lachrymal  sinus,  or  pit  under  the  eye,  were  exactly  tnose  U 
the  sheep,  the  pile  of  the  wool,  and  even  tluit  peculur 
quality  which  manufacturen  call  the  '  yolk,'  were  m  ^ 
respects  those  of  the  Merinos :  the  pelt  was  without  anj  in- 
termixture of  long  hairs,  nor  could  Mr.  Ogilby  by  tbe  ino*! 
minute  examination  discover  tbe  remotest  approximation  *• 
any  other  character  of  the  male  parent  Mr.  Ogilby  pr^ 
cured  specimens  of  the  first  dip,  and  of  that  growing  o£ 
the  backs  of  the  hybrids,  as  well  as  of  the  pure  Mcn.'ot 
brought  up  with  them  in  the  same  stable,  with  a  view  o: 
submitting  them  to  the  judgment  of  skilfid  wool-atanlos  tx. 
this  country,  but  has  not  yet  had  an  opportunity  or  doing 
so.  Physiologically  speakinf|;,  this  experiment  at  present 
leaves  the  question  of  the  fruitfhlnesa  of  the  hybrid  pitj^wn^ 
where  it  was :  but  we  hope  that  the  learned  experimentaluc 
will  be  induced  to  piursue  the  inquiry  and  ascertain  whether 
these  hybrids  will  be  fruitfhl  upon  a  connexion  mier  0e  -  .t 
is  a  curious  fftct  that  they  should  be  so  entirely  free  lh»m  a^y 
marks  of  the  male  parent  and  to  completely  sinJlar  to  tl» 
mother. 

Having  called  the  attention  of  the  reader  to  these  ^ttK 
we  would  also  refer  him  for  the  present  to  th«  papers  of 
Bojanus*  and  Tillesiust:  the  first  on  the  oompariaon  of  &• 
skulls  of  the  AreaU,  and  of  the  domeatie  shaep  aal  goat . 
the  second  on  ue  Argalit  considered  at  tlia  parent  of  cbe 

*  *  Cnaloram  ArgaUdis,  (hk  ct  CtMtm 
Lndovlco  Bofano.  A.  C.  N.  C  AddiUs  TabaUt 

f  '  D«  A^rowraUlArfalMt  l*iaiadl,ovii  ' 
Ooltolmi  ThMphUl  TIUmU.  Dr.  A.  C.  N.  C. 
Aeu  Phyiloo-Mfldka  Amdnda  Cmum 
iloMCw,   TnB.xU.,9uii.,B(aaiHi«4. 


GOB 


286 


GOB 


genus  Antilope  into  iomethmg  more  nearly  approaching  to 
natural  groups  (a  reform  but  partial  in  its  operation,  and 
leaving  the  root  of  the  evil  untouched),  makes  Cajjridee, 
u'hich  ne  places  between  MoschidUt  and  BovicUp,  the  fourth 
family  of  the  order  Ruminantia.  The  following  is  Mr. 
Ogilby's  character  of  the  family  CapridUe : — Feet  biaulcated ; 
Horns  hollow,  persistent ;  Rhinaria  none  ;  Incisors  (den- 
tcs  primores)  none  above,  eight  below :  and  he  divides  the 
family  into  seven  genera,  viz. :  1.  Mazama  (Type,  M.furci^ 
fer — Antilope  furcifer\  [Antelope,  vol.  ii.,  p.  71.]  2. 
Madoqua  (Type,  M.  Saltiana — Ant,  Saltiana  et  Hemprichii). 
[Antelope,  vol,  ii.,  p.  74.]  3.  Antilope  (Type,  A.  Cervica- 
pra),  [Antelope,  vol.  ii.,  p.  72.]  4,  Guzella  (Tj^pe,  Ga- 
zella  Dorcas— Ant,  Dorcas),  [Antelope,  vol.  ii.,  p.  83.] 
5.  Ovis  (Type,  Oris  Aries).  6.  Copra  (Type,  Capra  Hir- 
cus),    7,  Ovibos  (Type,  Ovibos  moschatus). 

The  genus  Capra  is  characterized  as  follows: — Horns 
in  both  sexes ;  Lachn/mal  sinuses  none ;  Interdigital  Fhs- 
see  small ;  Inguinal  Follicles  none ;  Teats  two ;  and  Mr. 
Ogilby  adds,  that  Ovis  Tragelaphus*  BXid  Antilope  kinigera, 
or  Americana  of  authors,  belong  to  this  genus. 

'  I  have,*  writes  Mr.  Ogilby  in  conclusion, '  here  confined 
myself  strictly  to  generic  characters  ;  the  synonyma  and 
discrimination  of  species  will  form  the  subject  of  a  future 
monogmph :  in  the  mean  time,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
article  Antelope,  in  the  •*  Penny  Cj'clopflBdia,"  or,  with 
the  proper  corrections,  of  Colonel  Smitb*s  Treatise  on  the 
Ruminants  in  the  fourth  volume  of  Griffith's  translation 
of  the  "  Rdgne  Animal,"  the  student  will  have  no  difficulty 
in  referring  any  particular  species  to  its  appropriate  genus. 
He  will  thus  be  enabled  to  judge  of  the  correctness  or  in- 
correctness  of  the  affinities  here  indicated,  and  consequently 
to  form  a  tolerable  estimate  of  the  value  of  the  characters 
by  which  I  propose  to  distinguish  the  genera  of  ruminating 
animals ;  and  indeed  it  is  principally  from  the  wish  to  ex« 
cite  the  attention  of  zoologists  to  more  extensive  observation 
than  I  myself  possess,  that  I  have  been  induced  to  publish 
the  present  analysis  of  my  own  investigations  in  this  depart- 
ment of  mammalogy. 

FosfliL  Goats.  (?) 

Colonel  Hamilton  Smith  some  time  since  observed  t  that 
it  is  a  fact  of  a  singular  nature,  that  as  far  as  geological 
observations  have  extended  no  portions  of  the  Caprine  and 
Ovine  races  have  been  detected  among  the  numerous  fossil 
remains  which  have  attracted  the  notice  of  comparative 
anatomists,  notwithstanding  the  present  wide  geographical 
distribution  of  these  ruminants.  To  this  day  we  are  not 
aware  that  any  authenticated  fossil  remains  of  goats  or  sheep 
have  been  recorded.  Of  course  it  will  be  understood  that 
such  remains  as  those  of  the  sheep  found  in  Goat*s  Hole  at 
Paviland,  Glamorgan,  were  so  associated  and  bore  such 
marks  as  clearly  to  lead  to  the  inference  that  they  belonged 
to  animals  introduced  for  food,  and  that  therefore  they 
cannot  be  considered  as  fossil  remains  in  the  ordinary  ac- 
ceptation of  the  term.  Dr.  Buckland  {Reliquiee  Diluviame) 
thinks  that  the  date  of  the  human  female  skeleton  found 
in  the  same  place  belonged  to  the  time  of  the  military  oc- 
cupation of  tne  ad;«cent  summits,  anterior  to  or  coeval  with 
the  Roman  invasion  of  this  country. 

As  far  then  as  our  inquiries  up  to  the  present  time 
have  extended,  we  can  find  no  evidence  that  true  fossil 
bones  of  these  animals  have  been  found ;  but  it  should  be 
remembered  that  negative  evidence  is  inconclusive  and 
dangerous. 

GOATSUCKERS.    [Night  Jars.] 

GOBELIN.  GILLES  and  JEAN,  brothers,  who  intro- 
duced from  Venice  into  France,  in  the  reign  of  Francis  I., 
the  art  of  dyeing  scarlet,  and  established  extensive  work- 
shops for  the  purpose  upon  the  small  river  Bidvres,  in  the 
Faubourg  St.  Marcel  of  raris,  at  Gentilly.  Here  the  brook 
takes  the  name  Gobelins  from  the  manufactory. 

The  nroject  was  considered  at  that  time  by  the  'rival 
dyers  of  the  metropolis  to  be  so  hazardous,  that  it  was 
culled  Folie  Gobelin  ;  but  by  the  brilliancy  and  solidity  of 
the  colours  produced,  the  Parisians  soon  became  asto- 
nished to  such  a  degree  that  they  said  Gobelin  had  made  a 
compact  with  the  devil. 

In  the  year  1677  Colbert  purchased  the  dye-houses  from 
the  Gubehn  family,  in  virtue  of  an  edict  of  Louis  XIV., 

•  The  MnftnoD  it  plncM  by  the  Prince  of  Miuignaiio  In  the  g mu  or  tub* 

vtit  Caora, 

*■  Orllfah's  CttTier. 


Styled  it  the  HStel  Royal  des  Gobelins,  and  established  •  b 
the  ground  a  great  manufactory  of  tapestry,  simOar  to  !h*s 
of  Flanders.  The  celebrated  painter  Le  Brun  vas  i;  • 
pointed  director-in-chief  of  the  weaving  and  dyeing  pi- 
terns.  Under  his  administration  were  prodciced  niar.« 
magnificent  pieces  of  tapestry,  which  have  ever  since  brt '". 
the  admiration  of  the  world ;  such  as  Alexander's  battle* 
the  four  seasons,  the  four  elements,  and  the  history  of  tht 
principal  events  in  the  rei|;n  of  Louis  XIV. 

There  is  an  academy  within  the  Gobelins  fbr  the  inst mo- 
tion of  youth  in  the  various  branches  of  the  fine  ^rt\ 
in  physical  science,  and  mechanics,  subservient  to  the  in:- 
provement  of  the  manufacture. 

GOBI,  for  which  formerly  the  less  correct  «xptvfi«4  : 
Gobi  was  used,  is  a  Mongolian  term  signifying  'drMT*/ 
and  employed  to  indicate  the  immense  tract  of  desert  cdLr,- 
try  which  occupies  nearly  the  middle  of  the  hisb  table-la:  ! 
of  eastern  Asia,  and  extends  ftom  the  neighbour houd     f 
Yarkand  and  Khotan,  or  from  about  80*  E.  long,  on  rh« 
west,  to  the  Kingkhan  Oola,  or  about  120^  E.  long,  on  t;  f 
east.    But  a  portion  of  this  desert  extends  east  of  fh* 
Kingkhan  Oola  to  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Chineiwe  rr 
vince  of  Leao-tong,  more  than  five  degrees  farther  east,    ipj* 
Gobi  lies  between  35*  and  45^  N.  lat,  on  the  west  being  ne-in 
to  35**,  and  on  the  east  nearer  to  45*.  Its  mean  width  roav  ^ 
between  350  and  400  miles,  and  its  length  perhaps  not  !i  i 
than  1 800  miles. 

That  portion  of  the  desert  which  is  partly  included  in  th 
Chinese  province  of  Kan-si  seems  to  contain  the  least  stcr 
part  of  it ;  and  between  the  towns  of  Hami  and  Shat-»h»*  / 
(sand-town)  the  desert  probably  is  not  much  more  than  J  * 
miles  across.  That  portion  of  the  Gobi  which  extends  wev:  c : 
the  province  of  Kan-si,  and  is  called  Shashin  or  Kan- 1  i.. 
is  considered  the  worst  part;  its  surfkce  consists  of  )i>^  ■ 
sand,  which  is  sometimes  raised  by  the  winds  into  the  2  - 
and  moves  along  the  ground  like  a  body  of  wafer.    Tli  ^ 
country  is  drained  by  the  river  Yarkand,  which  runs  neat'.; 
1000  miles  and  falls  into  the  lake  of  Lop,  which  is  of  rt  v 
siderable  extent,  but  does  not  communicate  with  the  m?  > 
On  the  north  side  of  the  river  are  some  more  fertile  incu 
but  on  the  south  nothing  but  a  sandy  desert.    Tliat  por't-  - 
of  the  Gobi  which  extends  east  of  the  province  of  Kan-^;  .« 
called  Ta-Gobi  (the  Great  Gobi),  and  is  somewhat  bet*  r 
known  than  the  Western  Gobi.    The  central  part  of  it  1.-  1 
valley  of  an  uneven  surface,  extending  east  and  we»t,  a-  ! 
from  150  to  250  miles  across.    Its  lowest  part  is  from  *J»~i'<- 
to  3000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  is  covered  with  gri\   ' 
and  small  stones ;  whence  it  has  received  ttom  the  Chii  -  * 
the  name  of  Shamo  (sea  of  sand).    In  this  \'alley  only  d  *'  • 
tracts  of  moderate  extent  are  covered  with  a  scanty  vc  ^c  - 
tion.    The  soil  is  mostly  impregnated  with  different  k.:. 
of  salt,  and  the  lakes,  which  are  numerous,  are  salt,  or  r 
least  brackish.    To  the  north  and  south  of  this  \a!le>  :  - 
mountainous  tracts  of  country,  which  on  an  average' ir.i* 
be  from  100  to  150  miles  across.    They  are  partly  wovie  \ 
and  contain  in  many  places  excellent  pasture-ground.     I-  . 
those  districts  which  border  on  the  plain  of  northern  C:..: 
agriculture  has  been  introduced,  but  it  is  mostly  limits.*  *  1 
the  cultivation  of  millet ;  little  wheat  and  barley  is  gr«.'\ 
The    northern   mountain-district    contains  the    K«rlf  .1, 
which,  after  a  course  of  more  than  500  miles,  falls  into  r'  •• 
lake  Dalai  Noor,  but  issues  again  from  it  under  the  n:.!  > 
of  Argun,  forming  the  boundary  between  the  Russian  y  - 
vince  of  Nertshinsk    and  Mantchuria*  until  it  empti«« 
itself  into  the  Amur. 

The  climate  of  the  Grobi  is  extremely  cold.    The  wintc- 
lasts  more  than  nine  months;  and  even  in  July  and  .\- 
gust  snow  falls,  and  it  freouently  freezes  in  the  night      I: 
is  however  observed  that  tne  frost  does  not  stop  the  gr^'W  * 
of  plants.    The  Eastern  Gobi  is  occupied  by  different  tril>.  * 
of  the   Mongolian    race,  who  have  numerous  herds    .t 
camels  (but  only  the  Bactrian),  horses,  and  sheep:  in  tt. 
more  mountainous  districts  there  are  also  black  cattle.  I  ..1 
they  are  not  numerous.    In  the  Western  Gobi  are  y^r,-^ 
nomadic  tribes  of  the  Turkish-Tartar  race.    (Du  HUO.% 
History  0/ China ;  Timkowski's  TraveUJ) 

GO'BIO,  a  genus  of  fishes  belonging  to  the  section  M%- 
lacopterygii  Aodominales  and  family  Cypriuidss,  Tb* 
species  of  this  eenus  differ  chiefly  horn  the  true  Osrps  :^. 
having  the  anal  and  dorsal  fins  short  and  destitute  of  h^»u\ 
rays.  The  Common  Gudgeon  (Go6t'o.;6imali7i#,  Ray)  ft£>r^ 
an  example  of  this  genus. 

The  Tenches  (genus  Tincat  Guv.)  may  be  here  iiotiC*^!. 


GOD 


2BS 


GOD 


for  the  chief  power  commenced  hetween  him  and  Harley, 
which  was  put  a  stop  to  for  a  time  hy  the  queen's  re- 
luctant dismissal  of  the  latter,  on  the  mstinct  declaration 
of  Godolphin  and  Marlhorough  that  they  would  leave  her 
service  unless  that  step  were  taken,  hut  the  contest  was 
not  terminated  hy  that  ejection  of  one  of  the  two  rivab 
from  the  cahinet  Harley  did  not  rest  till,  taking  advantage 
of  the  ferment  excited  in  the  public  mind  in  the  summer  of 
1710,  hy  the  conduct  of  the  ministry  in  the  case  of  Sache- 
veret,  he  succeeded  in  emboldening  the  queen  to  venture 
upon  the  measure  for  which  his  intrigues  had  long  given 
her  a  vehement  inclination.  The  premier  Godolphin  was 
suddenlv  and  rudely  dismissed  on  the  8th  of  August:  it  is 
affirmed  that  the  letter  intimating  the  queen's  commands 
iK-as  sent  to  him  by  the  hands  of  a  livery  servant.  He  sur- 
vived his  loss  of  power  about  two  years,  having  died  on  the 
1 5th  of  September,  1712.  Iiord  Godolphin  left  an  only  son, 
Francis,  on  whose  death,  without  any  surviving  male  issue,  in 
1 766,  the  titles  became  extinct.  A  new  barony  however  of 
Godolphin  of  Helston,  which  had  been  granted  to  this 
Francis  in  1 735,  was  inherited  by  Francis  Godolphin,  the 
son  of  his  uncle  Henry ;  but  on  his  death  in  1 785  it  also 
became  extinct 

The  administration  of  Lord  Godolphin  was  made  glorious 
by  the  victories  of  Marlborough,  and  he  is  also  entitled  to 
enduring  gratitude  and  honour  for  several  wise  measures  of 
domestic  policy,  especially  the  Union  with  Scotland,  which 
was  accomplished  chiefly  through  his  sealous  exertions. 
'  Opposite  opinions,'  observes  Tindal,  *  have  been  delivered 
of  his  merit  and  character.  Great  abilities  and  integrity 
have  been  ascribed  to  him  by  some ;  while  others  have 
freely  censured  him  for  notorious  defects  in  the  latter,  and 
allowed  him  to  have  been  great  only  by  the  chance  of  place 
and  distinction.  He  had  concurred  with  the  worst  of  king 
Charles  II. 's  ministers,  and  adhered  to  the  last  to  king 
James.  In  these  two  reigns  he  gave  no  opposition ;  but  the 
same  active  and  passive  obedience  was  not  practised  by  him 
under  king  William.    This  was  ascribed  to  his  retaining 

Erinciples  very  inconsistent  with  an  entire  approbation  of 
is  government ;  to  which  has  been  added  a  passionate  ad- 
miration of  and  attachment  to  king  James's  queen.  The 
higher  esteem  therefore  seems  due  to  his  memory  when  we 
review  his  conduct  in  the  fulness  of  his  power.  Alliances 
and  the  force  of  recommendations  imposed  upon  him  in 
some  instances ;  but  his  great  concern  was  to  employ  men 
of  capacity  and  integrity,  and  such  were  sure  of  his  kindest 
regards.  Unbecoming  instances  of  behaviour  may  be 
produced  in  the  lives  of  great  men  of  all  ages  and  all  em- 
ployments. Had  this  been  duly  considered,  such  severe 
reproaches  had  not  been  cast  upon  this  minister  for  his 
love  of  play  and  horse-races ;  by  which  indeed  he  became 
too  much  and  too  frequently  engaged  with  the  most  worth- 
less of  men,  gamesters  and  jockeys.  But  after  all,  when 
this  objection  is  thoroughly  examined,  nothing  will  appear 
but  a  faulty  choice  of  improper  amusements;  and  tnere 
were  no  imputations  upon  him  of  any  fraudulent  practices, 
though  such  were  then  not  unfamiliar  to  persons  of  his 
rank.  Nor  did  his  love  for  these  diversions  ever  draw  him 
off  from  the  duties  of  his  high  station.'  Elsewhere  the 
same  writer  says, '  He  was  the  most  silent  and  modest  man 
that  was  perhaps  ever  bred  in  a  court  He  had  a  clear 
apprehension,  and  despatched  business  with  great  method, 
and  with  so  much  temper  that  he  had  no  personal  enemies. 
He  loved  gaming  beyond  what  men  of  business  usually  do, 
and  gave  one  reason  for  it — because  it  delivered  him  from 
much  talking.  He  had  true  principles  of  religion  and 
virtue,  and  was  free  ftom  all  vanity,  and  never  heaped  up 
wealth.'  This  character,  with  its  strongly  contrasted  tints, 
taken  along  with  its  general  tone  of  moderation  and  sobriety, 
is  altogether  not  a  little  curious,  and  difficult  to  be  con- 
ceived at  the  present  day.  But  business  and  pleasure  were 
not  such  distinct  walks  in  the  beginning  of  the  last  cen- 
tury as  they  now  are. 

GODOONOFF,  BORIS,  txar  of  Moscow,  was  bom  in 
1 552,  of  a  noble  family  of  Tartar  descent  Having  married 
the  daughter  of  Maloota  Skooratofi;  a  favorite  of  the  tyrent 
of  Moscow,  Uar  Ivan  Vasailevich  the  Terrible,  he  was  at- 
tached to  the  court  of  the  tzar  at  the  age  of  22,  where  he 
soon  distinguished  himself  by  such  prudent  conduct  that 
although  in  favour  with  the  tyrant  he  avoided  taking  the 
•east  part  in  the  cruelties  which  disgraced  that  reign,  and 
of  which  his  own  father-in-law  was  the  principal  agent. 
The  marriage  of  his  sister  Irene  with  the  heir  of  tne  throne. 


Frinoa  Fedor,  tn  1580,  mcieased  his  infloanea,  wd.  in 
1 582,  he  was  nominated  by  Ivan  V a«ilflvieh  ooa  af  ihm  §v 
members  of  the  supreme  couneQ  of  state,  and  hofam^  tbe 
first  fiivorita  of  Ivan's  successor,  Fedor,  who  throw  all  the 
burthen  of  the  government  u«m  him.  He  rseeired  the 
highest  titles  that  a  suhjeel  oomd  attain,  and  snehenomaai 
estates  that  his  fortune  amonntad  to  150,000^  a  year. 

Fedor  had  no  children^  and  his  wretched  state  of  baalib 
gave  no  prospects  of  his  havins  any :  but  he  had  a  brother 
called  Demetrius,  sprung  fWnn  Ivan  Vasailevieh,  by  a  aevenia 
marriage,  who  was,  at  Uie  time  of  his  Other's  death,  tve 
years  old.  This  inftnt  prince  was  sent  with  his  molbcr  to 
the  town  of  Uglich,  where  they  lived  in  a  kind  of  hoooaf  • 
able  exile. 

Godoonoff  ruled  the  empire  in  the  name  of  Fedor  wHa 
an  absolute  sway.  The  country  was  satisfied  with  the  wit- 
dom  of  his  administration,  and  he  conciliated  the  linoi»d- 
ship  of  foreign  powers.  The  court  as  well  as  the  fir«t 
officers  of  the  empire  were  filled  with  his  crealuraa,  and 
all  attempts  to  overthrow  him  were  repiessed  and  setrrri? 
punished.  Yet  this  grandeur  was  held  by  a  very  prr- 
carious  tenure,  the  lifb  of  a  monarch  weak  in  mind  and 
body.  Godoonoff  could  expect  nothing  but  an  ignomi- 
nious death  on  the  accession  of  Demetrius,  whose  moiher 
and  relations  were  his  sworn  enemies;  but  he  leeolv^i; 
to  oerpetrate  a  crime  which  released  him  horn  all  danger. 
and  paved  the  way  to  the  throne«  Assassins,  hired  by 
Godoonoff,  murdered  the  young  prince  in  1591 ;  but  the 
inhabitants  of  Uglich,  where  tne  prince  resided,  rose 
against  the  assassins  and  massacred  them.  Godoonoff  sent 
a  commission  composed  of  his  own  creatures  to  investigate 
this  affair,  who,  after  a  mock  examination,  declared  that  the 
young  prince  committed  suicide  in  a  fitofmadneas,  and  that 
the  individuals  who  were  masiaoed  hy  the  inhabitnntA  of 
Uglich  as  the  murderers  of  the  prince  were  innocent.  The 
weak-minded  Fedor,  who  blindly  confided  in  his  fkvountc, 
was  satisfied  with  this  report  and  the  public  voice,  which 
imputed  this  crime  to  Godoonoff,  was  silenced  by  the  terror 
which  he  inspired,and  which  was  increased  by  the  punisbmer  t 
inflicted  on  those  inhabitants  of  Uglich  who  haa  massacred 
his  assassins.  About  two  hundred  of  them  were  put  to  death. 
many  had  their  tongues  cut  out,  many  were  imprisoued, 
and  the  greatest  number  transported  to  Siberia,  where  the 
new  town  of  Peleem  was  peopled  with  them.  The  anti#tnt 
city  of  Uelich,  which  had  contained  30,000  iDhabtfanta.  be- 
came a  deserted  ruin.  All  those  who  had  incurred  any 
suspiciou  of  having  accused  GodooDoff  were  punished  in  the 
most  barbarous  manner. 

Godoonoff,  however,  was  no  less  anxious  to  reward  bis 
adherents  and  to  gain  new  ones,  than  to  ovenwe  his  ene- 
mies. Whoever  applied  to  him  was  sure  of  protection 
Manv  who  had  deserved  punishment  were  pardoned,  ami 
the  documents  which  certified  these  acts  of  grace  alw»\9 
declared  that  they  were  due  to  the  intercession  of  GudLK>- 
noff :  but  his  name  never  appeared  in  the  decrees  of  con- 
demnation, where  it  was  always  declared,  that  'the  punuh- 
ment  was  ordered  by  the  boyards — ,*  naming  partieiUar  per- 
sons. His  ambitious  views  were  on  Uie  point  of  being  fru»> 
trated  by  the  pregnancy  of  the  tsarina,  who  bore  a  daughter 
in  1592,  but  tne  infant  princess  died  the  fbllowins^  year. 

Fedor  died  in  the  beginning;  of  1 598,  and  with  htm  endc-l 
the  dynasty  of  Ruric  in  the  direct  line,  although  there  ^ 
collateral  branches  which  had  become  private  fkmilief* 

The  tzar,  by  his  last  will,  bequeathed  the  throne  to  

widow  Irene,  who  was  immediately  proclaimed  sovewigTx. 
but  after  a  few  days  she  retired  to  a  convent,  and  declared 
her  firm  resolution  to  take  the  veil.  When  all  entreaties 
that  she  would  retract  this  resolution  were  fhiitless,  m  vn«- 
versal  acclamation  proclaimed  her  brother  Godoonoff  as  th; 
onlv  man  capable  of  filling  the  vacant  throne  ot  Mosi>ow. 

This  movement  was  prepared  by  the  adherents  of  GckIj«>- 
noff,  who  laboured  to  produce  that  effect  among  the  h»}  - 
ards,  the  clergy,  and  the  people,  while  their  chief  remained 
with  the  widowed  tzarina.  A  deputation,  headed  by  the 
patriarch,  proceeded  to  Godoonoff  to  aniMunce  his  elevatioc 
to  the  throne,  but  he  decidedly  refused  it,  and  reosained 
unmoved  b^  all  their  entreaties. 

Upon  this  a  general  assembly  of  the  states^  eompoeed  of 
the  principal  persons  among  the  nobility  and  clergy,  ms  wvC 
as  of  the  dieputies  from  several  towns,  was  convoked  at  M^*!^ 
cow  six  weeks  after  the  death  of  Fedor,  in  order  to  elect  a 
new  monareh.  The  affairs  of  the  state  were  in  the  meantime 
conducted  by  a  council  of  boyarda  in  the  name  ot  the  Uar> 


GOD 


290 


GOD 


tion  of  this  eatalogae  in  1615.  with' great  additionft;  but 
partly  in  conaequence  of  the  erron  of  the  press  which  it 
contained,  and  partly  to  please  the  king,  he  put  it  into  a 
Latin  dress  in  the  following  year,  dedicating  it  to  the  kin|, 
who  in  return  gave  him  the  bishopric  of  Hereford,  to  which 
he  was  translated  in  1617.  The  Latin  Catalogue  was  re- 
printed, with  a  continuation  to  the  time  of  publication,  by 
Dr.  William  Richardson,  foU  Cambr.  1743. 

In  1616  Bishop  Godwin  published  a  folio  volume,  entitled 
•  Renim  Anglicarum  Henrico  Vlll.,  Edwardo  VI.,  et  Maria 
Regnantibus  Annales,'  which  his  son  Morgan  Godwin  trans- 
lated and  published  in  English.  foU  1630.  Other  editions 
of  the  Latm  were  4to.,  Lond.  1628,  and  12mo.,  Hag.  1653. 

In  1630  he  published  a  small  treatise,  entitled  '  A  Com- 

?utation  of  tbe  value  of  the  Roman  Sesterce  and  Attic 
*alent.'    This  was  the  latest  of  his  productions.    He  died 
in  the  month  of  April,  1633. 

Exclusive  of  the  aWe-mentioned  works  he  wrote  two 
pieces  of  a  different  kind,  one  of  which,  in  Latin,  partook 
of  a  scientific  character,  entitled  'Nuncius  Inanimatus  in 
Utopia,'  8vo.,  1629,  the  design  of  which  was  to  communicate 
various  methods  of  conveying  intelligence  secretly,  speedily, 
and  safely.  It  is  supposed  to  have  ^^iven  rise  to  Bishop 
Wilkins's  '  Mercury,  or  Secret  and  Swift  Messenger.'  The 
other  was  a  posthumous  work  of  imagination,  written  while 
he  was  a  student  of  Christ  Church,  celebrated  in  its  day, 
and  even  not  yet  forgotten,  entitled  *  The  Man  in  the  Moon, 
or  a  Discourse  of  a  Voyage  thither  by  Domingo  Gronsales,' 
8vo,  1638.  To  a  later  edition  of  this  work,  in  1657,  a 
translation  of  the  '  Nuncius  Inanimatus*  was  appended  by 
Dr.  Thomas  Smith,  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford. 

{Biogr.  Briton,;  Chalmers's  Biogr.  Diet,  vol.  xvL,  p. 
58-61 ;  Bliss's  edit,  of  Wood's  Athence,  ii.  557,  558.) 

GODWIN,  WILLIAM,  was  bom  on  the  3rd  of  March, 
1 756,  at  Wisbeach  in  Cambridgeshire,  where  his  father  had 
then  the  chai^  of  a  dissentmg  congregation.  He  was 
placed  when  eleven  years  old  with  a  private  tutor  at  Nor- 
wich ;  and  when  seventeen  was  sent  to  a  dissenters*  col- 
lege at  Uoxton,  with  a  view  to  being  educated  for  the  minis- 
ti7.  In  1778  he  became  minister  to  a  congregation  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  London,  and  continued  to  officiate  in  that 
capacity  fbr  five  years.  At  the  end  of  this  period  he  re- 
moved to  the  metropolis,  and  henceforth  sought  subsistence 
by  authorship. 

The  first  work  which  Godwin  published  with  his  name 
was  the  well  known  treatise  on  '  Political  Justice.'  It  ap- 
peared in  the  beginning  of  179:?,  but  sixteen  months,  as  he 
states  in  his  preface,  a^er  its  composition  was  commenced. 
It  appeared  at  a  time  when  a  panic  had  seized  men's  minds, 
and  when  the  government,  scared  by  the  progress  of  events 
in  France,  were  carrying  on  prosecutions  against  such  as, 
by  speech  or  writing,  showed,  or  were  thought  to  show,  a 
disposition  to  sympathize  with  the  FVench  revolutionary 
principles.  The  fh9shnessof  tone  pervading  the  treatise  on 
'  Political  Justice,'  and  the  novelty  and  extravagance  of 
many  of  its  views,  rendered  it  likely,  under  these  circum- 
stances, that  the  author  would  be  exposed  to  danger ;  and 
in  a  characteristic  passage  of  remarkable  dignity,  he  thus 
commits  his  work  to  the  public : — *  It  is  now  to  be  tried 
whether,  in  addition  to  these  alarming  encroachments  upon 
our  liberty,  a  book  is  to  fall  under  the  arm  of  the  civil 
power,  which,  beside  the  advantage  of  having  for  one  of  its 
express  objects  the  dissuading  from  tumult  and  violence,  is 
by  its  very  nature  an  appeal  to  men  of  study  and  reflection. 
It  is  to  be  tried  whether  an  attempt  shall  be  made  to  sup- 
press the  activity  of  mind,  and  put  an  end  to  the  disquisi- 
tions of  science.  Respecting  the  event  in  a  personal  view, 
the  author  has  ibrmea  his  resolution.  Whatever  conduct 
his  countrymen  may  pursue,  they  will  not  be  able  to  shake 
his  tranquillity.  The  duty  he  conceives  himself  most  bound 
to  discharge  is  the  assisting  the  progress  of  truth;  and  if  be 
suffer  in  any  respect  for  such  a  proceeding,  there  is  certainly 
no  vicissitude  that  can  befal  him  that  can  ever  bring  along 
with  it  a  more  satisfactory  consolation.'    {Prtface,  p.  xi.) 

The  'Political  Justice*  entailed  no  prosecution  upon  its 
author,  but  it  brought  much  obloquy.  Obloquy,  displeasing 
in  itself,  is  however  a  sure  path  to  notoriety,  which,  what- 
ever may  be  its  origin  or  character,  is  pleasing.  The  '  Po- 
litical Justice '  imparted  to  Godwin  a  ^reat  notoriety  ;  and 
he  now  rose,  as  he  himself  expresses  it, '  like  a  star  upon 
his  contemporaries.'  ( T^ou^hts  an  Man,  p.  338.)  In  the 
year  foUowmg  its  publication,  he  published  his  novel  of 
Caleb  Wflliams^'  toe  ultimate  object  ot  which  was  an  iiius- 


tration  of  some  of  the  Tiews  eontained  ia  iIm  '  Pdlitieal 
Justice,'  and  a  realisation  in  the  pmon  of  Caleb  of  maav 
oomplaints  contained  in  the  *  Political  Jnitioe*  of  the  jn- 
vailing  state  of  society,  designed  to  work  tipoo  minds  fsc 
which  the  disquisitional  character  of  the  tetter  tnatiae  was 
unsuited.  The  success  of  Godwin  as  a  novelist,  added  to 
his  previous  notoriety  as  a  political  writer,  raised  hu  famo 
to  its  height. 

Towards  the  close  of  1794  some  of  Godwin's  dbief  IHendA. 
Holcroft,  Home  Tooke,  Thelwall,  Hardy,  and  others,  w«rt 
arrested,  and  brought  to  trial  on  charges  of  high  treason. 
Godwin  had  himself  studiouslv  kept  aloof  firom  those  «^ 
cieties,  which  were  then  the  chief  object  of  fear  to  the  i^ 
vernment,  and  as  being  members  of  which  his  friends  vim 
arraigned ;  for  however  great,  nay  extravagant,  mkht  be  U  • 
changes  which  he  contemplated,  he  had  always  aavocated  & 
quiet  and  gradual  mode  of  attaining  them,  and  avowed  hitt 
self,  whether  in  writing  or  conversation,  the  enemy  of  r^  •. 
lution.  But  to  his  friends  in  danger  he  now  tendered  \ 
valuable  assistance.  His  '  Cursoiv  Strictures'  on  the  ehar?* 
delivered  by  Judee  Byre  to  the  fury,  which  were  publisfaKt: 
instantly  in  the  '  Morning  Chronicle,*  were  thought  at  tie 
time  to  have  contributed  greatly  to  the  aoquittafof  the  ac- 
cused. 

In  1797  he  published  the  *Bnquirer,'  a  ooUertion  «-.' 
essays  on  moral  and  literary  subjects.    It  was  in  April  • ' 
this  year  that  he  married  Mary  WoUstonecraft,  having,  »r 
pursuance  of  the  opinions  whicu  he  then  entertained,  ar/: 
in  which  she  concurred,  against  the  institution  of  marriu' 
previously  cohabited  with  ner  for  a  period  of  six  montlsf 
His  wife  died  in  childbed  in  September  of  the  same  ynr 
leaving  Godwin  a  daughter  who  now  bears  the  name    f 
Mrs.  Shelly,  and  who  has  given  proofs  that  she  inherits  tl.% 
powers  of  her  parents.    In  1798  Godwin  edited  the  posthu- 
mous works  of  ois  wife,  and  also  published  a  small  memoir  cf 
her  which  is  eminently  marked  by  genuine  fSeeling,  simpUr :  .t. 
and  truth.    'This  light  was  lent  to  me  for  a  very  \h-  ". 
period,'  are  the  words  with  which  it  eoneludea,  *  and  :■ 
now  extinguished  for  ever.' 

The  novel  of  '  St  Leon'  was  published  in  1799.  In  tit 
course  of  the  next  year  Godwin  paid  a  visit  to  IrelaMl 
residing,  while  in  that  country,  principally  with  Curran.  1 . 
1801  he  married  a  second  time.  His  '  Life  of  Chaucer 
appeared  in  1803,  and  was  followed,  the  next  year,  b%  t 
third  novel,  bearing  the  name  of*  Fleetwood*  or  the  >k«% 
Man  of  Feeling.' 

It  was  about  this  period  of  life  that  Godwin  entered  xr.*- 
business  as  a  bookseller,  and  leaving  the  nobler  and  m  ^r* 
pleasant  paths  of  literature,  employed  himself  for  aome  ti::« 
in  the  composition  of  school-books,  which  were  pobluot  * 
under  the  assumed  named  of  Baldwin.    He  came  forma r« 
however  in  1808  with  his '  Essay  on  Sepnlchrea,  or  a  Pr» 
posal  for  erecting  some  Memorial  of  the  lUustriooa  Dead  in  sL 
ages  on  the  spot  where  their  Remains  have  been  interr^ 
In  1816  he  published  his  fourth  novel, '  Mandeville/     li 
1820  appeared  his  '  Treatise  on  Population,*  in  reply  Vy  Mr 
Malthus,  whose  own  '  Bssay  on  Population'  had  ocen  s. in- 
gested by  Godwin's  views  of  the  perfecdbitity  of  man.  c* 
expounded  in  the '  Political  Justice  and  the  *  Enquirer.'    H  " 
afterwards  devoted  himself  for  some  time  to  hia  '  UUtncv  ■ 
the  Commonwealth  of  England,'  the  four  volumca  of  wu^k 
appeared  successively  between  the  years  1894  and  l^:« 
In  1830,  when  now  seventy-four  years  old,  he  publishc^i  t  -> 
fifth  and  last  novel,  entitled  '  Ck>udesley.'    In  laai    U 
published  a  volume  of  essays  under  the  title  of  *  T1ioo«b* 
on  Man,'  and  in  1834  his'  last  work,  the  'lives  of  i.S* 
Necromancers.' 

Shortly  after  the  aooession  of  Lord  Grey  to  power*  G<«: 
win  was  appointed  to  a  situation  in  oiie  of  tho  pul4'* 
offices,  which,  in  his  declining  years,  supplied  him  with  sr 
assistance  and  a  comfort  that  ne  needed.    He  died  on  xW 
7th  of  April,  1836,  in  the  eighty-first  year  of  his  a^e 

The  name  of  Godwin,  as  a  writer,  is  chielty  knovo  r 
connexion  with  the  *  Treatise  on  Political  Jostiee  ;*  bu!  .-i* 
best  title  to  fkme  is  derived  from  hia  novels.  Ho  h^l 
neither  reach  nor  precision  of  thought  snfileient  to  fumi  » 
good  philosophical  writer.  But  though  deficient  in  pr^wvr  f ' 
reflection,  he  possessed  a  singular  skill  in  observm^.  aiv.:  - 
describing  what  he  observed,  which  fitted  hun  to  po*-trfv 
character.  The  characters  of  Falkland,  in  *  Caleb  Will  iiniN' 
and  of  Mandeville,  are  great  examples  of  his  sksU  in  i.i  . 
respect ;  and  there  are  perhaps  no  novels  (noS  ev^n  eixrvc 
ing  Sir  Walter  Beott's)  whioh  interesi  so  modi  m  tbottc  '< ' 


COL 


292 


GO  L 


with  Other  pieces  weighing  from  two  to  four  pounds  mch. 
It  is  also  found  in  a  considerable  tmet  of  country  in  North 
and  South  Carolina,  and  in  the  other  adjoining  Atlantic 
States  of  the  North  American  Union. 

Native  gold  occurs  crystalliied,  capillary,  and  massive ; 
the  primary  form  is  a  cub6.  It  gives  no  cleavage ;  fracture 
hackly;  hardness  2*5  to  3*0;  colour  yellow,  of  various 
shades;  streak  shining, opaque ;  specific  gravity  17  to  19. 

Gold  not  unfrequently  occurs  alloyed  with  silver,  and 
this  compound,  where  the  quantity  of  silver  is  considerable, 
is  known  by  the  name  of  eiectrum,  Electrum  analyzed  by 
Klaproth  was  found  to  consist  of  64  of  gold  and  36  of  silver, 
which  are  almost  exactly  in  the  proportions  of  one  equiva- 
lent of  each  metal.  Boussingault,  who  has  since  examined 
electrum  from  various  parts  of  Columbia,  found  it  to  consist 
of  very  different  proportions  of  the  metals,  but  they  were 
all  definite  compounds.  Gold  is  separated  from  the  various 
substances  with  which  it  is  mixed  by  the  process  of  amal- 

gamation ;  this  consists  in  combining  it  with  mercury,  and 
eating  the  amalgam  formed,  so  as  to  distil  the  mercury, 
which  is  thus  repeatedly  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

Gold  is  of  a  fine  yellow  colour,  and  is  susceptible  of 
a  high  degree  of  polish.  It  is  nearly  as  soft  as  lead ; 
its  specific  gravity  is  19*3;  it  is  so  exceedingly  mallea- 
ble that  one  grain  may  be  extended  over  fifty-six 
square  inches  of  surface,  and  gold  leaf  is  only  about 
jgj^of  an  inch  in  thickness;  some  authors  say  ^gja^  of  an 
inch.  Gold  is  also  exceedingly  ductile;  a  single  grain 
may  be  drawn  out  into  500  feet  of  wire :  in  point  of  tenacity 
it  is  inferior  to  iron,  copper,  platinum,  and  silver ;  a  wire  0*767 
of  a  line  in  diameter  is  capable  of  supporting  about  150 
pounds.  Gold  suffers  no  change  by  exposure  to  air  or 
moisture,  even  when  heated.  It  melts  at  about  2016  of 
Fahr.,  according  to  Daniell's  pyrometer ;  when  in  fusion  it 
appears  of  a  brilliant  green  colour.  It  is  scarcely  at  all 
volatile,  and  may  be  long  kept  in  fusion  in  a  furnace  with- 
out losing  weight ;  but  when  it  is  melted  b;^  the  heat  of  a 
lens  a  plate  of  silver  held  over  it  at  some  inches  distance 
becomes  gilt  by  its  vapour.  It  contracts  more  than  any 
other  metal  on  cooling,  and  crystallizes  in  octohedrons. 

We  shall  now  describe  the  more  important  compounds  of 
gold.  Oxygen  and  gold  unite,  but  not  by  direct  action ;  it 
lias  indeed  been  stated  that  gold  may  be  oxidized  by  the  elec- 
tric spark  in  atmospheric  air,  but  this  is  denied  by  Bcrzelius. 

Oxide,  or  Protoxide,  of  Gold  is  prepared  by  adding  a 
solution  of  potash  to  one  of  protochloride  of  gold;  a  green 
powder  is  separated,  which  is  the  protoxide  in  question ;  it 
must  be  waslied  and  dried  at  a  temperature  not  exceeding 
lOO"*  Fahr. ;  if  the  heat  exceed  this  it  is  converted  into  me- 
tallic gold  and  peroxide ;  indeed  this  change  is  stated  by 
some  authors  to  occur  at  almost  any  temperature ;  it  is,  at 
any  rate,  an  extremely  unstable  compound.  It  consists  of 
One  equivalent  of  oxygen  »  8 

One  equivalent  of  gold  200 

Equivalent  208 

Peroxide,  or  Teroxide,  qf  Gold  is  best  obtained,  accord- 
ing to  Pelletier,  by  decomposing  solution  of  perchloride  of 
gold  by  digesting  it  with  a  slight  excess  of  magnesia ;  the 
peroxide  of  gold  precipitates  in  combination  with  the  mag- 
nesia; after  being  washed  the  precipitate  is  treated  with 
dilute  nitric  acid,  which  dissolves  the  magnesia  and  a  little 
of  the  peroxide  of  gold,  but  leaves  the  greater  part  unacted 
upon ;  it  is  a  hydrate  of  a  bright  reddish-yellow  colour ;  but 
when  concentrated  nitric  acid  is  used  instead  of  dilute, 
the  oxide  is  anhydrous,  and  nearly  black.  This  oxide  is  de- 
composed by  exposure  to  day-light,  and  by  it  its  oxygen  is 
very  readily  expelled.  This  oxide  is  with  difficulty  soluble 
in  any  acid ;  thus,  although  sulphuric  acid  dissolves  a  small 
portion,  it  is  precipitated  by  water.  It  appears  indeed  to 
possess  rather  the  powers  oi  an  acid  than  a  base,  and  has 
been  called  auric  acid,  and  it  combines  with  potash,  soda, 
and  barytes,  to  form  salts,  which  have  been  termed  aurates. 
This  oxide  consists  of 


decomposition  of  mtrio  and  hydfochloxle  uadg,  ani  edDcd 

aqua  regia* 

PercfUoride,  or  Terchlonde,  qfGold  gives  m  yeUov-eoknirvd 
solution,  which  becomes  nearly  red  by  evaporation,  owing  tn 
concentration  and  the  expulsion  of  any  excess  of  acid.  Ih 
taste  is  acrid  and  bitter ;  with  excess  of  acid  this  salt  erysul* 
lizes  in  long  needle-form  crystals  of  a  bright  ye&ow  colour, 
which  are  unalterable  in  a  dry  atmosphere,  but  deli^uew 
in  a  moist  one ;  on  the  oontrary,  when  a  neutral  aolutxm  m 
evaporated  until  chlorine  commences  to  be  evolved,  m  deep 
ruby-coloured  crystalline  mass  of  perchloride  of  f^ld  a 
obtained.  Gold  is  precinitated  in  the  metallio  state  fr^iu 
the  perchloride  even  by  the  action  of  light;  hydroigeiu  rfaax 
ooal,  phosphorus,  and  many  metals^  produoe  a  atniibir 
effect;  so  also  do  the  protosulphate  of  iron,  &c»  Tu 
skin  is  stained  of  a  purple  colour  by  this  iolutioiu 

Perchloride  of  gold  is  composed  of 

Three  ec^uivalents  of  chlorine      **      108 
One  equivalent  of  gold    •  s      200 


Equivalent 


308 


Three  equivalents  of  oxygen 
One  eqmvalent  of  gold  • 

Equivalent  '  •  224 

Neither  azote  nor  hydrogen  combines  with  gold. 
Cfdmine  and  Gold  unite  to  form  two  compounds.    The 
percMorJde  is  most  readily  obtained ;  it  may  be  formed 
either  by  digesting  gold  in  an  aqueous  solution  of  chlorine,  i 
it  tueaticg  it  with  nascent  chlorine^  derived  from  the  mutual  | 


ProtoMortde  qf  Gold  is  obtained  by  heating  the  per 
chloride  to  a  heat  of  about  500®  Fahr.  in  a  porcelain  vcsm: 
If  it  be  too  strongly  heated,  gold  is  deposited ;  it  ia  belter 
therefore  to  heat  it  rather  less,  and  to  treat  the  reside 
with  water,  which  dissolves  the- perchloride  and  leaves  ibe 
protochloride,  which  is  a  colourless  saline  mass,  iuuJt«r- 
able  in  the  air,  but  in  contact  with  water  gradually  chacctn 
into  metallic  gold  and  perchloride :  boilmg  water  deooo- 
poses  it  instantly.    In  consists  of 

'    One  equivalent  of  chlorine  ^        •        36 
(   One  equivalent  of  gold     •  «^   '200 

Equivalent    '•  •  '   236 

Bromide  of  Gold  is  procured  by  dissolving  the  metal  in  i 
mixture  of  hydrobromic  and  nitric  adds.     The  aoluti.n 
yields  by  evaporation  a  deep  red-coloured  saline  m««^ 
sometimes  it  yields  crystals.    This  salt  has  so  intense  % 
colour  that  one  part  of  it  tinges  5000  parts  of  water. 

Sulphurei  of  Gold  is  prepared  by  passing  hydrosnlphur*- 
acid  gas  into  a  solution  of  perchlonde  of  gold ;  it  is  a  bl^  i 
powder,  which,  when  heated,  readily  separates  into  suljiii  .«f 
and  gold.  *  This  sulphuret  is  soluble  in  the  alkalis  poCaO 
and  soda,  and  prepared  in  a  different  mode  it  is  emplt*%««« 
in  covering  earthen  vessels.    It  consists  of 

Three  equivalents  of  sulphur       •        48 
One  equivalent  of  gold     •  •      200 

Equivalent     •  •      248 

Phosphuret  of  Gold  may  be  obtained  either  by  directli 
heating  gold-leaf  and  phosphorus  in  a  tube  deprived  of  &^ 
or  by  passing  phosphurettea  hydrogen  gas  into  a  soltttioD  c : 
chloride  of  gold.  As  obtained  by  the  first  proooasit  u  a  w^s 
substance  of  a  metalUc  lustre ;  when  obtained  by  the  eec«>oi 
it  is  a  brownish  powder.  When  heated  in  the  air  it  is  de- 
composed.   Its  composition  has  not  been  determined. 

Iodide  qf  Gold, — ^iodine  and  gold  do  not  act  uoon  ra&>!i 
other  even  when  heated  together;  but  when  a  solutaMi  .  f 
iodide  of  potassium  is  mixed  with  one  of  chloride  of  g^i. 
yellowish  brown  iodide  of  gold  is  nrecipitated,  whicl.  ^ 
insoluble  in  cold  water,  dissolved  bv  the  alkaline  solutaMiN 
and  decomposed  by  heat ;  when  boiled  in  water,  to  aeporau 
any  excess  of  iodine,  it  probably  consists  of 

One  equivalent  of  iodine  .  .      It6 

One  equivalent  of  gold     •  •      200 

Equivalent     .  «      336 

Having  described  the  principal  binary  compounds  whicb 
result  from  the  union  of  gold  with  non-metallic  elemenT.N 
we  shall  mention  the  more  important  binary  oampounGi 
which  it  forms  with  the  metals,  or  the 

Alloys  of  Go^.— Most  metals  are  susceptible  of  c^ir 
bining  with  gold ;  but  it  is  to  bo  observed  that  nochin  ■:  t* 
known  of  the  compounds  which  it  forms  with  the  meuU  ii 
the  alkalis  and  earths,  as  potassium,  calcium,  Sec 

Arsenic  and  Gold— This  alloy  is  obtained  by  heeria; 
gold-leaf  and  arsenic;  with  the  application  of  a  ^ntle  Itrat 
the  vaporised  arsenic  combines  with  the  gold ;  it  l*  a  ^m 
brittle  giey  metallic  compound;  it  is  readily  decoQi|%>«oi 
by  calcination,  and  the  whole  of  the  aisenie  b  exprVled. 
$h  of  arsenic  is  sufficient  to  destroy  the  maUcmbility  of 


GO  L 


294 


60  L 


be  states  it  to  be  common  in  many  parts  of  France  and  Ger- 
many, bnt  a  bird  of  passage  only  in  HollanA.  In  the 
British  Islands  it  is  a  constant  resident,  and  the  Prince  of 
Musignano  notes  it  as  very  common  and  permanent  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Rome,  where  it  passes  the  summer  in  the 
mountains  and  the  winter  in  the  plains.  Mr.  Gould  {Birdg 
of  Europe)  says  that  the  Earopean  continent  appears  to  be 
the  utmost  range  of  the  Goldfinch.  '  It  gives  preference,' 
he  adds,  *  to  high  lands  and  mountainous  districts  durine^ 
winter,  particularly  such  as  are  wild  and  barren,  and  afFord 
a  plentiful  supply  of  the  thistle,  plantain.  &c  the  seeds  of 
which  constitute  its  favourite  food:  at  this  period  it  is 
generally  to  be  observed  congregated  in  small  flocks  flying 
through  the  air  and  suddenly  settling  among  its  favourite 
food.  When  the  spring  advances  and  the  trees  display  a 
verdant  appearance,  the  Goldfinch  separates  in  pairs,  each 
male  taking  a  mate,  and  quitting  the  wild  and  open  country 
for  woods,  orchards,  and  gardens,  and,  on  the  Continent,  for 
the  rows  of  fruit-trees  that  border  the  road-side.  As  soon 
as  the  fbliage  becomes  dense  enoush  to  conceal  the  nest, 
the  task  of  incubation  is  commenced ;  the  nest  is  placed  in 
the  fork  of  a  branch,  and  is  of  the  neatest  construction, 
being  composed  of  lichens,  moss,  and  dried  grasses,  lined 
with  hair,  wool,  and  the  seed-down  of  the  willow  and 
thistle ;  the  eggs  are  four  or  five  in  number,  of  a  bluish- 
white  spotted  over  with  dashes  of  brown  towards  the  larger 
end.' 

This  bird  is  so  fkmiliar  to  most  that  a  detailed  description 
wou^d  be  superfluous.  The  sexes  are  nearly  alike,  but  the 
tints  of  the  female  are  not  so  bright  as  those  of  the  male. 
The  young  are  clad  in  a  comparatively  simple  plumage,  in 
which  brown  predominates,  till  their  flrst  change,  and  are 
then  the  •  Branchers'  of  the  London  bird-catchers. 

In  captivity  the  Goldfinch  is  prized  more  for  its  beauty, 
docility,  and  affectionate  disposition,  than  for  its  song.  It 
is  frequently  taught  to  perform  a  number  of  tricks,  and  we 
have  seen  one,  exhibited  by  a  German  master  of  legerdemain, 
go  through  its  part  with  great  accuracy,  feigning  death  at 
the  proper  moment,  and  lying  motionless  though  a  train  of 
powder  laid  round  it  was  fired. 

Pennant  is  of  opinion  that  this  bird  is  the  Xpwroft^rpiQ 
iChrysomciris),  or  Xpvtrofiirptg,  of  Aristotle. 

The  reader  who  is  interested  may  consult  the  useful  and 
amusing  English  translation  of  Bechstein,*  for  the  mode  of 
treatment  in  captivity  and  the  proper  methods  of  tuition. 

[FllINOILLID.«.] 

Hybrids. 

For  an  account  of  the  mules  bred  from  a  hen  Canary 
and  a  Goldfinch,  see  Canary  Birh,  vol.  vi.,  p.  228. 

GOLDO'NI,  CARLO,  was  born  at  Venice  in  1707,  of  a 
family  originally  from  Modcna.  His  grandfather,  in  whose 
house  he  was  bom,  was  a  man  of  pleasure,  fond  of  the 
company  of  musicians  and  comedians,  and  young  Gtoldoni 
early  showed  a  predilection  for  theatrical  performances. 
He  was  sent  by  his  father  to  different  colleges,  but  he 
repeatedly  interrupted  his  studies  by  running  away  with 
some  company  of  strolling  players.  Having  at  last  taken 
his  degree  of  doctor  of  law  in  the  university  of  Padua, 
he  began  practising  at  Venice  as  an  advocate,  but  soon  left 
it  to  resume  his  rambling  life,  and  engaged  himself  to  a* 
company  of  actors  as  stage  poet.  After  some  years  he  left 
his  companions  in  1742,  and  began  practising  at  Pisa  as 
a  lawyer  with  great  success,  but  the  appearance  of  another 
dramatic  company  made  him  give  up  his  practice,  and  he 
engaged  himself  again  as  a  stage-poet,  in  which  situation 
he  continued  for  the  greater  part  of  his  life.  From  that 
time  he  aspired  to  the  honour  of  being  the  reformer  of  the 
Italian  stage.  The  Italian  comedy  had  from  its  birth  been 
deficient  in  oiiginality ;  it  was  an  imitation,  first  of  the  old 
classic  drama,  and  afterwards  of  the  romantic  Spanish  plavs, 
and  although  a  few  clever  writers,  such  as  Machiavelli, 
Aretino,  Bibbicna,  Delia  Porta,  and  the  younger  Buonarroti, 
produced  some  good  specimens  both  of  the  classic  and  the 
romantic  styles,  yet,  generally  speaking,  the  want  of  a 
national  drama  suited  to  modern  Italian  manners  was  felt, 
and  the  stage  was  given  up  either  to  dullness  or  licen- 
tiousness and  absurdity.  The  melo-drama,  or  opera,  intro- 
duced by  Rinuccini  tended  to  favour,  under  the  shelter  of 
muMical  attraction,  all  sorts  of  irregularities  of  plot  and 
action,  and  it  gradually  drove  the  regular  comedy  from 

%<..wHliiiole*  by  th«T)tmadM»;i4iiM,8vo.,dn  and  Smith, 


the  stags.    Bat  there  via  another  ipeckt  of  pkir  which 
might  1^  styled  national,  namely,  the  '  oommedie  dell*  arte.' 
or  *  4  Mggetto.'   These  plays  were  not  written ;  m  men  out- 
line  of  tl^  plot  was  sketched  out,  and  the  various  eharadm 
being  assigned  to  the  aotors,  each  filled  up  his  own  port  at 
he  chose,  the  dialogue  being  for  the  most  part  Mrrvve*! 
cxtouipore  on  the  spur  of  the  occasion,  just  uke  a  conver- 
sation in  private  society.    It  might  be  called  aa  improt  i  v> 
drama.    Tne  prineipal  eharaoters  of  these  plays  were  ftxeil. 
and  consisted  chiefly  of  what  the  Italians  called  Mascherr. 
because  the  actors  who  performed  them  wen  masks ;  th<*y 
were  a  sort  of  caricature  representatives  of  the  nati^i* 
humour  and  local  peculiarities  of  the  people  of  the  various 
Italian  states.    Thus,  Pantalonewas  the  protolvpe  nf  £ 
Venetian  tradesman,  honourable  and  good-natored  even  t.» 
weakness,  with  much  of  the  humour  peculiar  to    ht* 
country;  the Dottore was  a  Bolognese  professor nvnewh-jt 
pedantic;  Brighella,  a  sort  of  Italian  8capini«  was  an  in* 
triguinff  rogue  of  a  servant ;  Harlequin,  from  Berfpamo,  v  «« 
a  curious  compound  of  simplicity  and  waggeiy ;  Policineij  i, 
a  Neapolitan  clown,  a  licentious,  pilfering,  but  humurcuf 
knave.   Each  of  these  spoke  his  native  dialect,  while  tti  t 
other  dramatis  persone  spoke  the  written  Italian.    Thc^ 
generally  consisted  of  an  amoroso,  or  lover,  and  his  mis trv«<s 
often  a  couple  of  each,  beside?  subordinate  femaleeharactt-r* 
of  pert,  shrewd,  intriguing  servant-maids,  with  the  gene.  .^ 
names  of  Colombina,Smeraldina,  Spilletta,  ficc  The  atlra-- 
tion  of  these  plavs  consisted  in  their  wit  and  drollefy.  th- 
nuick  repartee,  the  licentious  double  meaning,  and  alsi»   :. 
tne  acting  of  the  performers.    A  few  clever  actors  here  &*  I 
there  gave  a  peculiar  zest  to  the  play,  and  many  of  iK-- 
unwritten  performances  had  really  considerable  merit,  b-  t 
mediocrity  was  fatal  to  them,  and  in  most  cases  xh^-K 
comedies  degenerated  into  mere  scurrility  and  low  vnlgan  * 
Goldoni  determined  to  revive  the  use  of  regular  comr* . « 
and  with  this  view  he  wrote  a  vast  number  of  plays  de«rnr<^ 
tive  of  the  life  and  manners  of  his  countrymen.    He  hud  : 
great  fund  of  invention,  a  facility  of  writing,  and  was  a* 
attentive  observer  of  men.     He  excels  in  painttnir  t.* 
Venetians  of  his  time,  jovial,  licentious,  good-nat\jrc<X3-  : 
careless  ;  several  of  his  plays  are  entirely  in  the  Venct . «.: 
dialect,  and  are  remarkable  for  raciness  and  Ituenr^      r 
diction.    His  Italian,  on  the  contrary,  is  hr  from  ptir-. 
and  the  expressions  are  at  times  mean.    Goldom,  althu>.^  *. 
himself  an  uonourable  man,  had  mixed  during  a  great  \>  ^. 
of  his  lifb  with  very  equivocal  company,  and  the  mann*  -% 
which  he  paints,  though  real,  are  not  always  the  bc*^- : 
indeed,  some  of  his  scenes  would  not  be  tolerated  on  i :  ' 
English  or  even  French  stage.    Being  deficient  in  gem  - 
information,  whenever  he  has  attempted  to  sketch  Totki.  \ 
manners  he  has  committed  blunders.    He  often  wtotc  .*. 
great  hurry  for  bread,  as  he  himself  says,  being  bound  t  • 
supply  his  company  with  a  certain  number  of  new  p'   » <. 
annually,  and  at  one  time  he  wrote  as  many  as  sixteen  m  <  -  •. 
year,  a  circumstance  which  may  account  for  the  great  . 
equality  observable  in  his  compositions.    But  with  al!  I  - 
faults  Goldoni  was  certainlv  the  restorer,  if  not  the  creat  * 
of  Italian  comedy ;  his  plays  continue  to  be  acted  «  * 
applause ;  there  is  still  a  company  in  Italy  which  ^v?^  : 
his  name,  Corapagnia  Goldoni;  and  the  best  writer  %  • .' 
comedy  that  Italy  has  produced  since  his  death,  such  ^^^  T- 
Rossi,Giraud,  Nota,  &c.,  arc  confessedly  disciples  of  GoUi . 
He  retained  the  Maschere  in  many  of  his  plays,  but   ^« 
subordinate  characters.    As  for  the  old  impromptu  C  -. 
medio  dell'  Arte,  specimens  of  it  are  still  performeo  on  i^jn 
of  the  minor  theatres  of  the  Italian  cities,  to  which  the  br  . . 
humour  of  policinella,  harlequin,  gianduja«  girolamo,  ^«- , 
attract  numerous  audiences,  especiuly  of  the  lower  ordi  r- 
In  Goldoni*s  time  the  Commedie  dell*  Arte  found  a  powc.  '^ 
defender  in  Carlo  Gozzi.  a  writer  of  unquestionable  th^^u. 
ill-regulated  genius,  who  was  Groldonis  ^eat  antagon>-*. 
and  dfivided  with  him  the  applause  of  the  Venetian  pub!  - 
He  wrote  some  clever  parodies  of  Goldoni*s  plays.     Ti  < 
contest,  which  made  great  noise  at  the  time,  and  is  hy  : 
means  devoid  of  interest  for  the  history  of  the  Italian  mi-  \ 
is  noticed  at  some  length  by  Ugoni,  ijetieratura  Ita!t.r  . 
article  *  Carlo  Gozzi,*  and  also  by  Baretti  in  his  *  Aco  u  : ' 
of  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  Italy.'    Baretti  howt  «tr 
was  prejudiced  against  Goldoni,  and  is  ui^ust   tow^ni* 
him.  (See  an  account  of  the  Italian  drama  under  the  ki%.« 
English  Drau  a.) 

Goldoni,  after  many  years  of  a  very  laborious  Iife«  vas 
still  poor,  when  hi  1761  he  was  invited  to  Pkris  b>  thi 


GO  L 


296 


GO  N 


for  subsistence,  and  wrote  onlvaa  often  and  as  mucli  aa  the 
pressure  of  his  wants  requirea.  He  was  ever  ready  to  yield 
to  the  impulse  of  the  moment,  and  a  niteous  tale  would  so 
work  upon  his  feelings,  that  for  the  relief  of  an  applicant 
he  often  not  only  gave  his  all,  hut  even  involved  himself  in 
debt.  His  weakness  also  assumed,  in  a  remarkable  degree, 
the  form  of  vanity,  with  instances  of  which  fkiling  the  reader 
of  Bosweirs  '  Life  of  Johnson '  will  be  acquainted. 

Of  Goldsmith  the  author  but  little  need  be  said.  The 
humour  of  the  '  Vicar  of  Wakefield,'  the  pathos  of  the 
'  Traveller,'  and  the  '  Deserted  Village,'  and  the  wit  of  some 
of  his  smaller  poems,  are  known  and  appreciated  by  alL 
His  numerous  compilations,  which  were  only  written  for 
money,  are  not  proper  objects  of  criticism.  His  histories  of 
Greece  and  Rome  certainly  possess  no  critical  value  of  any 
kind;  and  yet  they  have  long  been  read  and  probably  will 
still  continue  to  be  read  with  pleasure  by  a  large  class  who 
feel  the  charm  of  the  writer's  easy  and  lucid  style,  without 
caring  or  troublix^  themselves  about  the  accuracy  of  his 
statements. 

A  life  of  GoldsmiTb  was  published  not  long  after  his  death 
by  Bishop  Percy ;  and  a  memoir  of  him  is  to  be  found  in 
Sir  Walter  Scott's  'Miscellaneous  Prose  Works.'  A  life  in 
two  vols.  8vo.  has  lately  appeared,  written  by  Mr.  Prior,  the 
biographer  of  Burke ;  a  work  to  which  neither  novelty  of 
matter  nor  attractiveness  of  manner  gives  a  value  propor- 
tioned to  its  bulk.  Mr.  Prior  has  also  published  an  edition 
of  Goldsmith's  '  Miscellaneous  Works,'  in  4  vols.  8vo. 

GOUUS,  JAMES,  was  bom  at  the  Hague,  in  1596. 
He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Leyden,  where  he 
studied  the  antient  languages,  mathematics,  theology,  and 
medicine,  and  made  such  great  progress  in  his  studies  that 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  at  Rochelle  soon  after 
he  had  attained  nis  twenty-first  year.  He  resigned  this 
office  after  holdine  it  a  very  short  time,  and  returned  to 
Leyden,  where  he  devoted  himself  particularly  to  the  study 
of  Arabic  under  Erpenius.  Y^en  the  United  Provinces 
sent  an  embassy  to  the  king  of  Marocco,  in  1622,  Golius 
accompanied  it  by  the  advice  of  Erpenius,  in  order  to 
obtain  a  more  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Arabic  language. 
He  had  alreadv  made  sufficient  proficiency  in  Arabic  to 

1>resent  to  the  king  of  Marocco  a  memorial  written  in  that 
anguage.  In  1624  Golius  was  appointed  professor  of 
Arabic  on  the  death  of  Erpenius,  wno  had  recommended 
him  as  the  only  person  worthy  to  fill  the  chair.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  sailed  to  the  Levant,  travelled  in  Arabia  and 
Mesopotamia,  and  returned  home  by  way  of  Constantinople 
in  1629.  During  his  absence  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
mathematics.  He  resided  at  Leyden  for  the  remainder  of 
his  life,  and  died  on  the  28th  of  September,  1667.  The 
work  which  has  given  most  celebrity  to  the  name  of  Golius 
is  his  'Lexicon  Arabico-Latinum,*  published  at  Leyden, 
1653,  in  folio.  It  was  principally  formed  on  the  basis  of  the 
Arabic  Lexicon  of  Jauhari,  entitled  '  Al  £>f  AoA,'  i.  e. '  the 
purity,'  and  bus  been  deservedly  considered  as  a  most  ex- 
traordinanr  work  for  the  time  in  which  he  hved.  Many 
Arabic  scholars  prefer  it  to  the  new  Lexicon  by  Professor 
Freytag  of  Bonn.  Among  the  other  principal  works  of 
Golius  we  may  name  '  Proverbia  qundam  Alis  Imperatoris 
et  Carmen  Tograi,'  Leyden,  1629,  8vo. ;  '  Ahmedis  Arab- 
aiadn  Vits  et  Rerum  gestarum  Timuri,'  Leyden,  4to., 
1636 ;  and  a  reprint  of  the  Arabic  grammar  of  Erpenius, 
Leydep,  1656,  with  the  addition  of  several  Arabic  works. 
He  also  compiled  a  PerAian  Lexicon,  which  was  used  by 
Castellus  as  the  basis  of  the  Persian  Lexicon  in  his  '  Lexi- 
con Heptaglotton.*  Further  particulars  concerning  the 
works  of  Golius  are  given  by  Schnurrer  in  his '  Biblio- 
theca  Arabica,'  and  by  Silvestre  de  Sacy  in  the  '  Biographic 
Universelle,'  art  Gohus. 

GOLTt  or  GAULT,  an  argillaceous  deposit,  separating 
the  upper  green  sand  (also  called  fire-stone,  malm-rock, 
&c.)  fit>m  the  lower  green  sand  (also  called  Woburn-sand, 
iron-sand,  &c).  In  Kent,  Sussex,  Surrey,  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  Wiltshire,  and  Cambridgeshire,  its  geological  situa- 
tion and  organic  contents  may  be  well  studied.  The  clay 
of  Speeton  on  the  Yorkshire  coast  unites  the  characters  of 
golt  and  Kimmeridse  clay.    [Crstackous  Group.] 

GOLTZIUS,  Henry,  a  celebrated  engraver  and 
painter,  was  bom  at  Mulbrecht,  in  the  duchy  of  Juliers,  in 
1 558.  He  was  first  instructed  by  his  father,  who  painted 
glass,  and  afterwards  studied  design  under  Jacques 
^hard ;  but  it  was  his  own  genius  and  application  that 
I  him  to  the  rank  which  he  held  among  tae4»e8tartist«  I 
(time. 


ATI 


He  began  as  an  engraver ;  and  some  of  his  earlieat  finnts 
bear  the  date  of  1578.  One  of  them  is  a  portrait  of  1il« 
father  John  Goltziua.  Bartsch  says  he  diu  not  begin  tu 
paint  till  he  was  42  years  of  aee. 

His  first  settlement  was  at  Haarlem,  where  he  mamf  d, 
and  where  he  resided  for  a  considerable  time.  He  tbm 
travelled  through  several  parts  of  Italy,  and  studied  a  Ion,: 
while  at  Rome,  where  he  assumed  the  name  of  Ilennr 
Braeht  to  avoid  interruption,  till  he  thought  himself  caf  x- 
hie  of  appearing  to  advantage  as  a  painter.  He  was  inde- 
fatigable m  his  attention  to  nature  as  well  as  the  antiqor  ; 
and  he  made  many  designs  after  Ralfaelle,  Polydoro,  and 
Michel  Angelo.  Late  as  he  began  it  was  incredible  whi: 
a  number  of  pictures  he  finished.  Two  of  his  best  wort 
his  Danae  ana  a  picture  of  the  Crucifixion.  Htstofy  and 
portraits  were  his  ravourite  subjects  in  both  arts. 

GU)ltzius*s  finest  engraving,  the  Boy  and  Dog,  bears  tbr 
date  of  1597.  His  two  prints  of  the  Hercules  in  the  palar« 
of  the  Belvedere  were  published  immediately  after  htadeaih. 
which  happened  January  1,  1617. 

(joltzius  was  the  founder  of  a  school  which  had  a  fio« 
and  singular  command  of  the  graver.  His  immediate  aiii 
most  successful  pupils  were  Mathan,  Saenredam«  and 
Muller. 

GOMAR,  FRANCIS,  was  bom  at  Bni£[es,  on  the  SOtk 
of  January,  1563.  After  spending  some  time  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Strasburg  and  Heidelberg,  he  came  to  Englaitc 
in  1582,  and  continued  his  studies  at  Oxford  and  Caor 
bridge,  at  the  latter  of  which  he  took  the  degree  of  BacheUr 
of  Divinity  in  1584.  In  1587  he  was  chosen  pastor  of  the 
Flemish  church  at  Frankfort,  and  in  1594  prolesaor  '( 
divinity  at  Leyden.  He  is  principally  known  as  the  o^ 
ponent  of  Arminius,  who  was  appomted  as  his  colleague  at 
Leyden  in  1603.  On  the  death  of  Arminius  in  1609,  and 
tlie  appointment  of  Vorstius,  who  held  similar  theological 
doctnnes,  as  his  successor,  Gomar  retired  to  Middelborf, 
where  he  remained  till  1614,  when  he  was  elected  profaaiV 
of  divinity  at  Saumur.  Four  years  afterwards  he  settled 
at  Groningen  as  professor  of  Hebrew  and  divinity,  at  which 
place  he  remained  till  his  death  in  1641.  He  was  present 
at  the  synod  of  Dort  in  1618.  His  works  were  printed  a: 
Amsterdam  in  1645.  As  he  took  the  lead  in  oppoaitioa  to 
Arminius,  those  persons  who  agreed  with  him  in  c<mdemn* 
ing  the  opinions  of  Arminius  were  called  Gomarttts,  and 
also  Anti-Remonstrants.  They  obtained  the  latter  nani« 
firom  their  opposition  to  the  remonstrance  whidi  Arminius 
presented  to  the  States-General  in  1608.  An  account  of 
the  theological  warfare  between  Gomar  and  Arminius  ts 
given  under  Arminius. 

GOMBROON,  called  klso  Bunder  Abbas,  is  a  town  in 
Persia,  situated  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Persia*  op- 
posite the  fair-fiimed  island  of  Ormuz.  The  town  once  va^ 
flourishii^,  and  carried  on  such  an  extensive  trade  thai  th* 
English,  French,  and  Dutch  found  it  advantageous  to  main- 
tain  large  factories  here ;  but  owing  to  some  dbpote  amor.^ 
the  natives,  the  factories  were  destroyed,  and  the  place  alu&- 
doned  hj  Europeans,  and  its  trade  removed  to  Ahosbebr 
or  Bushire.  Before  that  event  the  town  is  said  to  ha^<> 
contained  30,000  inhabitants;  now  the  population  ts  r^^ 
duced  to  3000  or  4000  Arabs.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  mu-l 
wall,  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  circumference*  T>  •. 
houses  are  flat-roofed,  but  rather  oommodiouslr  bnilt ;  tb% 
streets,  as  in  most  Oriental  towns,  are  narrow  and  dirty.  T^c 
best  building  in  the  town  is  the  palace  of  the  ^eikh,  wh.<  i 
was  formerly  the  Dutch  ftctory,  and  has  been  ooovrrtoi 
into  the  residence  of  the  Arabian  chief.  There  u  a  k^«1 
anchorage  off  the  town,  where  a  vessel  may  be  perfect  I  r 
sheltered.  During  the  oppressive  heat  of  summer,  the  in- 
habitants remove  to  the  high  mountains  at  the  hack  of  the 
town,  on  account  of  the  unhealthiness  of  the  plaoe.  Tbe 
sheikh  of  Gombroon  is  dependent  on  the  sultan  of  Musfa: 
in  Arabia.  (Fraser's  Account  qf  Persim;  KempthoriK, 
in  London  Geogr,  Joum.,  vol.  v.) 

GOMERA.    [Canaries] 

GdMOR.      [HUNOAHY.] 

GOMPHOLITE,  a  name  given  by  M.  Bron^iart  t- 
oonglomerate  rocks  of  the  tertiary  series  which  in  Siii(io:> 
land  are  called  Nagelflue. 

GONDAR.    [Abyssinia.] 

GONDI.    [Rktz,  Cardinal  dr.] 

GO'NDOLA  is  the  name  given  to  the  pleasure-boalft  at 
Venice,  which  are  very  numerous,  and  serve  aa  a  attbsutu:< 
for  tbe  coaches  and  carriages  of  other  cities.     The  ta«% 


GON  at 

nitM,  presenUd  tba  Mowing  efauactata  of  tba  group  in 
1830:— 

The  lobet  of  th«  sopta  are  nomplBtcly  depriveii  nf  latml 
detiticultttions  or  symmetriwil  cienaluivi,  so  thai  their  ron- 
tour  presenis  always  a  continuous  uiiinlerrupiud  line.  The 
siphon,  compared  to  that  of  other  ammonite*,  in  small  and 
delicate  ;  the  strite  of  growth  are  sigmoidal  on  the  sides  (as 
in  Jiff.  2),  intlesed  from  the  aperture  on  the  back,  so  as  to 
form  a  sinus  thero  in  the  apertut«,  thus  rowmbhng  nautili ; 
whereas  in  ammonites  frenerallj'  the  strisa  advance  along 
the  dorsal  line  supported  probably  by  the  siphon.  The 
last  chamber  of  Guniatiles  extends,  according  to  Couot 
Munster,  more  than  one  turn  beyond  the  roncamerations, 
but  in  ammonites  only  three-faurths  of  a  turn. 

Later  invest igatiuna  have  scarcely  modifled  these  funda- 
mental views,  except  by  showing  a  greater  variety  in  the 
forms  of  the  sutures  than  was  at  first  expected. 

Eiiflituen  species  of  Goniatiles  are  distributed  by  Von 
Buch  in  the  followitig  manner  r  — 

1.  Sutures  with  rounded  lobe* :— 

a,  dorsal  lobe  simple  .  .     4  specie* 

b,  dnrsal  lube  double  .  ,  .     1      „ 
'J.  Sutures  with  pointed  lobe*: — 

a,  dorsal  lobe  Biinple  .  .  .     6      „ 
6,  dorsal  lobe  double          .             •  .     7      „ 

Couiit  Munster  (/Inn.  dei  Set.  Nat.,  1834)  gives  twenty- 
Iwo  ii'>rcrtnined  and  four  doublfut  xpecies  (mostly  different 
fnjm  Von  Buch's)  from  the  Fichlelgebirge.  His  arrange- 
ment is  different,  vii.  :— 

I.  With  simple  lobes  alightly  sinuous  and 

rounded     .  .  .4  apeciM 

S.  With  angular  or  Unguiform  lobes : — 

0,   shell   entirely  involute,  sutnres  with 

one  lateral  angular  lobe  .  .     8      „ 

b,  shell   entirely  involute,  suture*  with 

two  lateral  lobes  .  .  .     4      „ 

c,  shell  evolutc,  t\\rcb  lateral  lobes  8      „ 
Doubtful  specie*                                              .    A     „ 

Martin,  in  '  Petri flrata  Derbiensia,'  1B09.  flguivd  two 
fipecies  of  Goniatiles ;  Sowerby.  in  the  '  Minenl  (%ncholoKy 
of  Great  Britain,'  addud  two  others ;  and  Profttasor  Phillips, 
in  the  2nd  vol.  of  the  'Illustratians  of  the  Geology  of  York- 
shire,' 1836,  has  raised  the  number  of  British  species  from 
the  carboniferous  limestone,  millstone  grit,  and  coal  forma- 
tions, lu  thirly-threo  species,  the  septa  of  which  are  com- 
pletely ascertained. 

Beyrich  iDf  GontatUn  in  Montibu*  Rhenani$  ocearren- 
tibut,  1837)  describe*  eighteen  species  (eight  of  them  i>up- 
posed  to  be  new),  and  presents  a  funeral  riassiflcation  of 
all  the  Continental  species  suppjsed  to  be  diKtinct,  at  that 
time  known  by  the  descriptions  of  Haan,  Von  Buch,  Mun- 
ster. (joldfuss,  &c.  Tliey  amount  to  fbrty-lwu.  Of  dicee 
only  three  or  four  are  perfectly  identical  with  those  de- 
icribed  in  the  'Geology  of  Yorkshire,' and  thus  w«  have^  as 
the  total  numberof  q>mies  really  distingniriied,  seventy-one 
ivcniy-ti 


Qouuiiui  LincrJ,    (Sontby.) 

Fig.  4.  Pfg.  & 


Vanai 


1  of  Straelure.— In  external  form  Goniatites 
present  an  almost  complete  series  of  gradations  IVMn  die 
mvolute  subglobular  figure,  common  among  nautili,  tn  the 
discoid  spiral  shape  of  the  ttaitesl  ammonites.  Tlie  follow- 
ing Qgures,  ft-om  Phillips's  '  Gedogy  of  Vorkahiie,'  vol.  ii, 
yl.  19  and  20,  will  illu*tiat«  this. 


.    (PblUliii.)  OuWitHn  OIhgid,    (miin 

Most  of  the  Goniatites  hare  rounded  backi;  t  few  an 
earinated,  as  G.  vittiger  and  G.  rotijbnmt,  Phillips. 

In  nearly  all   the  Goniatiles  the   surface  ii  marked  l> 
transverse  sigmoid  ally-bent  lines  of  growth;   a  few  tun 
merely  annular  strin  ;  in  some  these  itriss  rile  into  tubrf-     I 
cles  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  whorls  ((?.  Littm,  Sow. :  (/ 
tubnodotai,  Munsl.).    The  strie  are  occasionally  i«ticula.-r4 
by  spiral  lines.     Radiating  undulatioOs  occur  on  some     '    I 
the  flatter  species;  in  a   fev (O.  Gibtoni)  ther«   are   r.' • 
divided  afler  the  mannerof  many  ammonite*;  and  C.  6t\ - 
dotus,  Munster,  ha*  two  rows  of  tubercles.     In  all  th'->i    i 
particulars  the  parallelism  of  the  series  of  Goniatile*  to  liis: 
of  common  ammonites  is  very  remarkable. 

This  analogy  with  the  usual  forms  of  annDOBites  is  bu,-- 
mentcdby  tho  ot«urrence  of  constrictions  on  tbe  cast  of  iU 
interiot  of  the  shells  (fig.  3,  c).  These  conitrictioaa.cumr- 
sponding  to  internal  Ihirkeiiihgs  of  the  shell,  are  tnoat  ro- 
markahle  in  the  involute  Goniatites.  (See  ntillifis'i  d'  ■- 
logy  of  YurXshire,  vol.  ii,  pi.  Six.,  fig.  1,  1,  34,  16  ;  pi.  i\  . 
fig.  I  ;  Munster,  in,4nn.(feiS^t.^ut.,pl.v.,flg.  3;  and  Br> 
rich,  in  his  Dusertalinn,  tab.  u.,  fig.  8.)  Tfcey  are  porai.i' 
or  nearly  so  to  the  lines  of  growin,  and  erou  th«  suturv 
withont  any  definite  relation.  They  maybe  viewed  at  )•» 
riodiral  thickenings  of  the  edge  of  the  aperture,  and  *• 
contributing  to  strengthen  the  last  chamber  of  tte  eaU.'-;- 
\Tie  shell.  They  rary  as  to  number  and  position  in  in-l- 
vidualsof  the  same  species.  The  aperture  of  many  Gooiai:t>~ 
resembles  that  of  the  recent  Nautilus  Pompiliu*. 

The  sutures  of  the  Goniatites  are  eitremety  nrkio 
bcauiiflil.  and  characteristic  of  the  species.  Individuals  o* 
several  of  the  species  have  been  compared  almwt  tVuni  '.t<. 
nucleus  to  f\i11  growth  without  any  great  change  b«iiig  \  •.'. 
ble  in  the  fbnn  of  the  septum  (as  fiw  instance,  G.  tutm  . 
bat  in  others  this  is  not  the  case.  The  following  arran,.  - 
and  accompanying  figure*  vill  show  the  prtiu-ip^ 
ions  of  the  sutures.  Iho  arrow  U  in  each  cbib  su|> 
posed  to  point  towarda  the  aperture. 
Division  1.  The  dorsal  lobe  simple;  one  Utenl  lobe. 

a,  lateral  lobe  sit^e  ami  roanded.   O.  tmpoHmu,  Vk 
Bueb,  Jig.  6. 

b,  lateral  lobe  single  and  angnUr.    G.  tmUmtit,  Mmd 
ster,;!^.  7. 

Divnim  S.  The  dorsal  lobe  simple ;  more  ttnin  one  hirr^: 
lobe. 

a,  lateral  lobes  lingiiirorrn,  and  nearly  equaL     'J 
Hentlowi,  Sowerby,  J^.  8. 

b,  lateral  lobes  rounded  and  nearly  equaL     G.  *trrj<»- 
tiniu,  Phillips,^.  9. 

C  inner  lateral  lobes  very  mudi  tho  largMt.     G.  Jfwa- 

Mleri,  Von  B\ic)i,J!g.  10. 
d,  lateral  lobes  very  unequal  andobliqua,  CAnwv 

AoiwT,  Von  Bucb,/^.  i|. 


PhiUips.^?.  13. 
b,  laienil  lobet  ftud  ainuses  anguini.     G.  tmatUf. 
Sowerby.J^.  13. 
virion  4.  Donsl  lobe  divided  or  complicated;  lateral  lobes 
more  ihan  oae. 
G.  eyelotobia,  Phillipa,;^.  14. 


Compared  wiib  ordinary  amnionilcs.  the  differences  of  the 
Hulures  are  easily  seized ;  but  by  ibe  group  of  Ceratiles  of 
Huan,  which  is  supposed  to  be  peculiar  to  the  muschelkalk, 
the  transition  is  not  difficult,  as  the  subjoined  figures  show 

Fig.  19. 


Ifvfation  to  other  Qenera. — The  same  transition  rocks 
■V.ch  contain  a  largo  portion  of  the  Continental  species  of 
>  ^Liutites  yield  a  cugnale  group,  from  which  thev  are  with 
'  ';<  uliy  distinguished.  ThcsevrerefirstEeparalcd  by  Count 
Mi.ii-iur,  under  the  name  of  Chmenia.  If  Goniaiiles  ate 
'<':i-.'lered  as  of  the  aminiinaid.ClymcniEe  may  he  included 

I  ilic  nautiloid  type!     Their  siphon  is  always  on  the  inner 

II  irijin,  and  the  septa,  instead  of  a  reflex  wave  on  the  dor- 
il  lini;,  liave  there  abend/onrarrf  toward  the  aperture. 
11, >!  Clymenin  have  all  the  same  variations  of  form  and 
■  irfai^  which  have  been  menlionod  willi  regard  to  Genia- 
[  •■•^i:  Fig*.  \i  lo  18  represent  the  forms  ol'  septa  of  Qy- 
[..viiise,  for  comparison  with  those  of  Gonialite^). 

Fig.  15. 


Clj««ial>Tl|iM,   CMuuln.) 


h-^sLcvn./v.^p-v.y'vAru^ 


Professor  Phillips  has  mentioned  in  the  carboniferous  lime- 
stone of  tlie  north  of  England  some  otherwise  genuine  nau- 
tili with  dorsal  aiphoiv — their  sutures  cannot  be  made  to 
agree  with  the  Goniaiiles;  and  others  wiih  a  ventral 
siplioQ,  which  yet  cannot  be  ranked  with  Clymenia. 
iOeol.  of  Yorkshire,  vol.  ii.) 

Diitribuiion  of  the  SpecifS. — Goniatites,  and  their  allies, 
the  ClymenifD,  appear  entirely  confined  to  the  rocks  of  the 
carboniferous  and  older  systems  of  strata.  Only  one  spe- 
cies (Goniates  Listeri,  Sowerby)  is  mentioned  as  occurring  in 
the  coal -formal  ion,  and  that  in  the  lowest  portion  (near 
Bradford,  Halifax,  and  Sheffield,  Yorkshire).  In  the  shales 
and  limestones  of  the  millstone  erit  end  mountain  limestone 
series  of  England  and  Ireland,  Professor  Phillip  descrlies 
and  figures  3.'!  species ;  Beytich  gives  (from  Goldfuss),  3 
others  ;  Von  Buch  (Gon.  expansus),  I  other:  lolal  in  car- 
boniferous system,  3t>  species. 

In  the  strata  presumed  lo  lie  below  the  old  red  sand- 
stone occur  many  other  snecies;  at  least  so  is  the  fact  on 
the  continent  of  Europe,  tnough  in  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land they  are  but  rarely  met  with  in  the  primary  and   Iran- 

Twenty-six  wet«  described  by  Munsler  from  the  Fichtel- 
gebir^e  alone;  and  Bejrich  admils  in  his  general  summary 
(1837)  as  many  as  thirly-six  species  from   the  ttansitiun 

The  Goniaiiles  yet  descrilied  are  almost  entirely  from 
European  localities.  Von  Dechun  quotes  G.  Listeri  from 
India.  IHandbuch  d"r  Gengnosie.)  We  have  seen  no  site- 
cimens  from  Norlh  America.  None  are  mentioned  in  the 
slaly  rocks  of  Weslmorcland  or  Wales;  none  occurred  to 
Mr.  Murchison  along  the  range  of  the  Silurian  rocks:  they 
are  not  rare  in  Devonshire  (occunring  about  Barnstaple 
and  near  Launceslon).  It  is  in  the  North  of  England,  from 
Dcrbvshire  to  the  Tweed,  and  in  the  limestones  of  the  car- 
boniferous system  of  slrala,  that  Ihcy  B|>coially  abound. 
About  Enniskillen,  and  uear  Casllolon,  in  the  Islo  of  Man, 
the  same  rocks  vield  a  considerable  number  of  species. 
3Q2 


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300 


GO  N 


GONIO^METER  (from  two  Greek  words,  ytM^ia,  an 
Ungle,  fthrpov,  a  measare)  is  the  name  of  an  instrument 
employed  to  determine  the  angles  at  which  the  planes  of 
crystals  are  inclined  to  each  other.  [Angle  ;  Planb/]  The 
principle  of  the  common  goniometer  is  simply  this.  It  may 
easily  DO  shown  that  if  two  right  lines  mtersect  one  another, 
the  opposite  angles  thus  formed  will  be  equal.  Hence, 
Tegarainff  the  point  of  intersection  as  a  centre,  about  which 
eiUier  of  those  right  lines  is  free  to  revolve  while  the  other 
remains  fixed,  if  we  suppose  one  of  the  edges  of  a  solid 
bounded  by  plane  surfiices  to  be  applied  to  that  centre,  so 
that  the  edge  may  be  perpendicular  to  the  plane  in  which 
the  two  right  lines  are  situat^  and  then  suppose  the  lines 
to  coincide  with  the  two  contiguous  planes  of  the  solid,  it 
will  be  evident  that  the  divergence  of  the  lines  will  be  the 
measure  of  the  inclination  of  the  planes.  A  graduated  arc 
being  now  adjusted  to  the  line  which  we  supposed  fixed, 
the  position  of  Uie  other  line  would  indicate  the  number  of 
degrees  at  which  the  planes  of  the  solid  were  inclined  to 
each  other.  As  this  instnimont  however,  when  applied  to 
laminated  substances,  such  as  crystals,  is  incapable  of 
affording  results  sufficiently  accurate  to  determine  the 
species  to  which  the  crystal  belongs,  in  consequence  of  the 
frequent  irregularity  of  the  fracture  and  the  ordinary  mi- 
nuteness of  the  planes,  we  shall,  without  dwelling  longer 
upon  its  construction,  proceed  to  describe  the  more  perfect 
instrument  invented  by  Dr.  Wollaston,  and  called  the 
reflective  goniometer. 

It  is  well  known  that  a  ray  of  light  falling  upon  a 
polished  plane  is  reflected  at  an  angle  ecjual  to  the  angle  of 
incidence,  and  that  to  an  eye  situated  m  the  direction  of 
the  reflected  ray  the  object  from  which  the  ray  emanated 
will  appear  as  much  below  that  plane  as  it  is  really  above 
it  If  therefore  we  place  one  of  the  planes  of  a  crystal  in 
such  a  position  that  the  reflection  of  an  object  above  the 
plane  may  appear  to  coincide  with  another  object  beneath, 
and  then  turn  the  crystal  until  the  reflection  of  the  same 
object  above  (from  the  second  plane  of  the  crystal)  shall 
a||jain  anpear  to  coincide  with  the  same  object  below,  it 
will  readily  appear  that  the  arc  which  the  crystal  will  have 
described  will  be  the  measure  of  the  supplement  of  the  in- 
clination of  its  two  planes,  that  is,  the  difference  between 
that  inclination  and  180°.  In  turning  the  crystal  the  direc- 
tion of  the  edge  common  to  its  two  planes  should  not  be  al- 
tered, and  the  rays  in  both  instances  should  be  reflected 
from  that  portion  of  the  planes  nearest  to  their  common  edge, 
otherwise  the  observation  will  be  affected  by  parallax.  Such 
is  the  principle  of  Dr.  Wollaston's  reflective  goniometer,  by 
means  of  wuich  the  inclination  of  planes  whose  area  is  less 
than  the  100,000th  part  of  a  square  inch  may  be  determined 
within  a  minute  of  a  degree,  and  which  is  oqually  effective 
whether  the  fracture  be  even  or  irregular.  Ttie  instrument 
itself  consists  of  a  graduated  circle  mounted  upon  a  hori- 
zontal axis,  to  one  extremity  of  which  is  attached  a  move- 
able pin,  having  a  slit  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  a  small 
brass  plate.  To  this  plate  the  crystal  is  attached  by  means 
of  a  piece  of  wax,  so  that  it  may  project  beyond  the  edge 
of  the  plate.  The  pin  (which  Ib  provided  with  a  vertical 
and  horizontal  movement)  is  then  raised  or  lowered  until 
the  reflection  of  any  convenient  object  above  appears  to 
coincide  with  some  other  object  beneath.  The  instrument 
being  thus  adjusted,  the  graduated  circle  is  turned  until  a 
similar  reflection  is  obtained  from  the  contiguous  side  of  the 
cr^'stal.  The  arc  which  the  circle  will  then  have  described 
will  (as  was  before  stated)  be  equal  to  the  supplement  of 
the  inclination  of  the  crystalline  planes ;  but  the  margin  of 
the  circle  being  graduated  in  an  inverted  order,  the  true  in- 
clination is  given  without  further  computation,  and  may  be 
read  off  by  means  of  the  vernier  [Vkrnixr]  with  consider- 
able accuracy. 

GONIOMETRY,  the  measurement  of  angles ;  a  name 
which  should  be  substituted  for  Trigonometry,  if  it  were 
advisable  to  alter  established  designations.  The  latter 
science,  beginning  with  the  measurement  of  triangles,  made 
all  that  was  known  of  the  analysis  of  angular  magnitude 
its  own  peculiar  instrument.  The  various  accessions  which 
real  goniometry  received  were  therefore  considered  as  ad- 
ditions to  trigonometry:  so  that  at  this  day,  under  a  word 
which  imports  measurement  of  triangles,  we  have  a  science 
which  wanders  as  far  from  the  etymology  of  its  name  as 
geometry  does. 

OONICyPORA.    [Madrbphyllkba.] 
(XNOPLAX,   GQfJOPLAX  TRIBE,  GONOPLA- 


CIANS,  Brachyurous  crustaceans  (belonging  to  the  fk 
mily  of  CatoTneiopei)  whose  carapace  is  either  sqiuuv 
or  rhomboidal,  and  much  wider  than  it  is  long.  Thn 
posterior  border,  measured  between  the  base  of  the  fifth 
pair  of  feet,  equals,  nearly  always,  the  half  of  its  trnm^ 
verse  diameter ;  while  in  the  tribe  of  Oeypodiofu,  as  well 
as  in  the  Cyclometopes,  and  the  grntter  part  of  the  Osy- 
rhynchi,  the  length  of  this  border  is  only  about  a  fourth 
of  the  greatest  width  of  the  carapace.  The  front  is  but 
little  inclined,  and  very  wide ;  it  does  not  curve  downwarK 
so  as  to  tmite  itself  throughout  nearly  its  whole  width  lo 
the  epiitome,  as  in  the  Oofpodians^  and  it  is  equal  to  tirc»- 
thirds  of  the  buccal  frame  measured  at  the  point  of  ir« 
greatest  width.  The  ocular  peduncles  are  in  general  rer^^ 
much  elongated  and  rather  small ;  their  length  often  cqua2'« 
five  or  six  times  that  of  their  diameter,  and  the  cnm/>2 
which  terminates  them  is  always  smalL  The  extcrnii 
angle  of  the  orM  ordinarQy  occupies  the  lateral  extremity 
of  the  carapace.  The  internal  antenna  are  always  hori- 
zontal, quite  exposed,  and  lodged  in  little  pits(fo8settr«i 
distinct  from  the  orbits.  The  external  antenncp  are  dispoi<'«i 
nearly  as  in  the  Ocypodians,  The  epistome  is  often  plact-d 
at  some  distance  behind  the  inferior  orbitaiy  border,  a  cha- 
racter which  is  always  met  with  in  the  Cyclometopes,  tiil 
exists  but  rarely  in  the  family  of  Catametopee,  Th« 
buccal  frame  is  generally  wider  at  its  anterior  border  tban 
at  its  posterior  part,  and  the  fourth  joint  of  the  extnytal 
jawfret  is  inserted  nearly  always  at  the  internal  angle  of 
the  preceding  articulation.  The  sternal  plastron  is  \cn( 
wide,  and  is  sometimes  perforated  for  the  passage  of  the 
intromissive  male  organs  Oes  verges) ;  but  in  general  tht->^ 
organs  are  inserted,  as  in  othor  families,  at  the  bosilary  juint 
of  the  posterior  feet,  and  are  lodged  in  a  small  transvefvil 
canal  hollowed  in  the  sternal  plastron  at  the  point  ofitm  ;i 
of  its  two  last  segments,  a  canal  which  serves  them  fur  ; 
sheath  till  they  arrive  under  the  abdomen.  The  length  <f 
the  anterior  feet  varies ;  it  is  sometimes  very  considerable, 
and  those  of  the  third  or  fourth  pair,  which  are  always  i  )ir- 
longest  among  the  eight  last,  have  nearly  two  and  a  ha  f 
times  the  length  of  the  post-frontal  portion  of  the  carapoct* 
they  are  all  slender,  and  terminatca  by  a  stvliform  tai^ii* 
The  abdomen  of  the  frmale  is  very  wide,  and  covers  near  I  % 
the  whole  of  the  sternal  plastron ;  but  that  of  the  mo/^,  tm 
the  contrary*,  is  very  narrow,  and  instead  of  extending  to 
the  basilary  joint  of  the  posterior  feet,  leaves  expooied  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  sternal  plastron  between  its 
external  edge  and  the  base  of  those  feet.  In  the  greater 
number  of  cases  its  second  ring  is  entirely  linear,  while  the 
others  are  sufficiently  well  developed. 

Such  is  the  character  given  to  this  tribe  by  M.  Mtlno 
Edwards,  who  places  it  between  the  Oeypodians  and  the 
Grapsbidians,  and  divides  it  into  the  four  following  genenL 

Pseudorhombila.    (Milne  Edwards.) 

M.  Milne  Edwards  states  that  the  crustacean  which  > 
the  type  of  this  new  genus  is  very  remarkable,  inasmuch  a% 
it  holds  a  middle  place  between  the  Cancenans  and  i!k* 
Gonoplares.  The  form  of  its  carapace  approaches  that  vf 
the  Panopes,  and  of  some  other  Cancenans,  for  it  is  slight  I  > 
arched  m  fix)nt,  and  between  the  orbits  and  the  latent, 
borders  a  considerable  portion  of  its  contour  is  curved  bac-L- 
wards  after  the  manner  of  the  latero-anterior  border  of  tl « 
carapace  of  the  Cyclometopes ;  but  nevertheless  its  genen] 
form  is  that  of  a  rhomb,  and  its  posterior  border  occupu^ 
more  than  the  third  of  its  diameter.  The  body  is  very 
thick,  and  much  elevated  anteriorly.  f)nont  nearly  hori- 
zontal and  divided  into  two  truncated,  very  large  loltesk 
Eyes,  antennae,  epistome,  and  external  jawfret,  prebentiD^ 
the  same  disposition  as  in  the  cral^  Sternal  plastr.  u 
much  wider  than  long,  and  very  strongly  curved  fr».:a 
before  backwards ;  at  its  posterior  part,  which  is  very  witk* 
may  be  remarked  on  each  side,  in  the  male,  a  canal  nf 
considerable  calibre,  which  lodges  the  intromissive  organ v 
the  origin  of  which  may  be  seen  at  the  base  of  the  poster?  r 
feet  The  anterior  fret  are  very  strong,  and  very  long  n. 
the  male ;  the  succeeding  feet  present  nothing  remarkab^  -. 
except  tnat  those  of  the  second  pair  are  nearly  of  the  san.r 
length  as  those  of  the  third  pair,  and  that  these  la»t  an 
rather  shorter  than  the  following  ones.  The  form  of  tl  «• 
abdominal  appendages  differs  but  little  from  the  form  ' 
those  of  XanUius. 

Example,  Pseudorhombila  quadridentaia.  Leo  gth  ab .  u  t 
2  inches;  colourrosy*    Xoco/tfy  unknown. 


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308 


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rmM  in  general,  is  entirely  that 
differs  remarkably  from  the  shape  of  the  same  parts  in  Gono- 
plax;  and  he  records  the  following  species; — Mtwrophthal- 
mu9  LatreiUii  {Gonoplax  Laireillii^Desm.);  MacrophUuU- 
mui  incinu  (Cancer  lapidesceta,  Rumph. ;  Chnopiax  incisa, 
Deam.) ;  Macraphthalmus  emargiiuUus  {Oonoplax  emargi- 
fuUa,  Desm.).  Of  Gonoplax  impressa  M.  Milne  Edwards 
remarks  that  it  comes  very  near  the  preceding  species,  but 
ought  not  to  be  referred  to  the  same  genus,  because  its  ca- 
rapace is  nearly  as  long  as  it  is  wide,  and  its  anterior  feet 
are  very  short  and  convex  (renliees). 

GONZA'GA,  a  historical  fkmily  of  Italy,  which  was 
numbered  among  the  sovereigns  of  that  country  as  here* 
ditary  dukes  of  Mantua  and  Monferrato  for  more  than 
three  centuries.  The  Gonzaga,  like  the  Medici,  did  not 
belong  to  the  feudal  nobility ;  they  were  originally  a  plebeian 
family,  which  took  its  name  from  their  native  village. 
Luigi  Gonzaga  was  appointed  Podesti  of  Modena  in  1313, 
through  the  influence  of  Passerine  Bonacolsi,  lord  of 
Mantua.  In  1328,  a  conspiracy  having  broken  out  at 
Mantua  against  Bonacolsi,  who  was  murdered  with  all  his 
relatives,  Luigi  Gonzaga,  who  was  privy  to  the  conspiracy 
under  the  pretence  of  restoring  liberty  to  his  country,  was 
appointed  captain-general,  and  in  the  following  year  the 
Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria  made  him  imperial  vicar  of 
Mantua.  From  that  time  the  Gonza^as  became  hereditary 
rulers  of  that  coiuitry.  A  century  later  they  assumed  the 
title  of  marquises  of  Mantua,  still  acknowledging  them- 
selves feudatories  of  the  Empire.  They  were  repeatedly 
cnt^ged  in  war  with  the  Visconti  of  Milan.  In  1405 
Gianfrancesco  Gonzaga  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
Italian  league,  for  the  purpose  of  driving  the  French  under 
Charles  VIII.  out  of  Italy.  He  commanded  at  the  battle 
of  Tornovo  on  the  river  Taro,  on  the  6th  July  of  that  year, 
in  which  the  French  were  worsted,  and  Charles  was  obliged 
to  make  a  precipitate  retreat  across  the  Alps.  Gonzaga 
then  marched  towards  Naples,  was  present  at  the  battle  of 
Atella,  and  contributed  with  Cronzalo  of  Cordova  to  the 
evacuation  of  the  kingdom  by  the  French,  and  the  resto- 
ration of  the  Aragoneso  dynasty.  When  Louis  XII.  again 
invaded  Lombardy,  Gonzaga  was  obliged,  in  order  to  save 
himself,  to  do  homage  to  him,  and  in  1509  he  joined  the 
league  of  Cambrai  against  the  Venetians.  His  son  Fre- 
deric fought  against  the  French  commanded  by  Lautrec 
and  Bonnivet ;  and  as  a  reward  for  his  services  was  made 
duke  of  Mantua  by  Charles  V.,  and  obtained  also  the 
marquisate  of  Monferrato  in  1536.  Frederic's  brother, 
Ferrante  Gonzaga,  distinguished  himself  also  in  the  im- 
perial service,  and  was  made  by  Charles  V.  governor  of  the 
Milanese.  He  founded  the  line  of  the  dukes  of  Guastalla, 
a  principality  which  he  obtained  partly  by  purchase  and 
partly  by  intrigue.  Guglielmo,  son  ana  successor  of  Fre- 
deric, was  humpbacked,  and  it  is  recorded  that  when  he 
ascended  the  ducal  throne  the  courtiers  vied  with  each 
other  in  puttine  on  artificial  humps,  thinking  to  please 
their  sovereign  thereby.  He  proved  a  good  prince,  and  he 
protected  the  learned ;  Bernardo  Tasso,  the  father  of  Tor- 
auato,  was  his  secretary ;  Paolo  Sarpi  was  for  a  time  his 
theologian,  and  the  Jesuit  Possevin  his  confessor.  The 
city  of  Mantua  in  his  time  had  a  population  of  43,000  in- 
habitants, almost  double  its  present  number-  His  son 
Vincenzo  early  showed  a  disposition  for  learning,  and  a 
fondness  fur  learned  men.  He  went  to  Fenara  on  purpose 
to  eflet't  the  deliverance  of  Torquato  Tasso,  who  was  con- 
fined as  being  insane,  and  he  obtained  his  liberty  from  the 
Duke  Alfuubo  d'Este.  But  in  the  course  of  time,  after  he 
succeeded  his  father  on  the  ducal  throne,  Vincenzo  aban- 
rloned  himself  entirely  to  pleasure,  neglected  the  interests 
of  his  subjects,  and  dilapidated  the  pronert^  of  his  own 
family.  Il  was  he  who  has  been  charged  with  the  assas- 
sination of  James  Crichton,  in  1583,  who  had  been  his  pre- 
ceptor. [Crichton.]  Vincenzo  died  in  1612,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Francis,  who  began  by  introducing  economy 
into  the  palace,  from  which  he  drove  away  the  actors, 
singcr8,  and  parasites  whom  his  father  had  gathered  round 
him.  He  died  a  few  months  after  his  accession,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother.  Cardinal  Ferdinando  Gonzaga, 
who,  dying  in  1626.  left  his  states  to  his  other  brother,  Vin- 
cenzo, who  died  in  the  following  year.  None  of  these  tlu-ee 
princes  left  any  legitimate  son,  and  with  the  last,  Vincenzo, 
the  direct  line  of  the  house  of  Goozaga  beoame  extinct  in 
1627.    It  was  however  succeeded  in  t&  sovereignty  by  the 


lateral  hnmeh  of  Nevei%  desoended  from  Looii,'biodMr  of 

Guglielmo  the  humpbadLed,  who,  having  gone  to  FrMieot 
had  married  there  Henrietta  of  Cleves,  neireis  of  the 
duchies  of  Nevera  and  RetheL  His  son  Charles  was  called 
to  Italy  by  the  prospect  of  the  extinction  of  the  ducal  hou^ 
of  Mantua,  and  after  the  death  of  his  cousin,  the  Duke 
Vincenzo,  he  claimed  the  succession  to  the  ducal  thruoe. 
But  his  claims  were  disputed  by  his  cousin  Gonsaga,  duke 
of  Guastalla,  a  descendant  of  Don  Ferrante,  already  nieo- 
tioned ;  and  the  duke  of  Savoy,  seizing  the  pretext  of  ihm 
disputed  succession,  invaded  Monferrato,  upon  which  he 
had  some  old  claims,  while  the  Kmperor  Ferdmaad  1 L  on 
his  side  invaded  Mantua  aa  an  imperial  iie£  Louis  XIIL 
took  the  part  of  the  duke  of  Nevera,  and  the  question  of 
the  Mantua  succession  occasioned  a  Suropean  war.  The 
French  entered  Piedmont,  and  obliged  the  duke  of  Sa^or 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Casale  in  Monferrato  in  1629,  while 
the  imperial  army  took  Mantua  after  an  obstinate  aiegc; 
and  pillaged  the  town  for  three  days.  The  paintings. 
statues,  and  other  works  of  art,  collected  during  eenturie» 
by  the  dukes  Gonzagn^  were  carried  to  Prague,  many  of 
them  were  purchased  by  Christina  of  Swed^,  and  aller- 
wards  bought  by  the  duke  of  Orleans  for  his  galleiy  of  the 
Palais  Royal.  At  last,  in  1 630,  by  the  treaty  of  mttsfaoo. 
between  the  emperor  and  France,  and  that  of  Cbenscu, 
with  the  duke  of  Savoy,  Charles  of  Nevers  was  pat  in  poa- 
session  of  Mantua  and  Monferrato^  and  received  tb« 
solemn  investiture  from  the  emperor.  In  1636  he  seised 
upon  the  principality  of  Correggio,  which  he  added  to  hm 
dominions.  He  died  in  1637,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  grandson  Charles,  under  the  regency  of  his  mother. 
Charles  proved  a  weak  dissipated  prince ;  he  wavered  be^ 
tween  the  French  and  Spanish  alliances  during  the  Italiaa 
wan;  he  sold,  in  1659,  the  duchies  of  Nevers  and  Rethot 
and  his  other  possessions  in  France  to  Cardinal  Maaann, 
and  died  in  1605,  leaving  an  only  son,  Ferdinand  Charle», 
under  the  guardianship  of  his  mother,  who  was  an  Austrian 
aichduchess.  Ferdinand,  once  on  the  throne,  showed  him- 
self even  more  dissolute  than  his  father.  He  collected  ai 
his  court  female  performers,  singers,  and  dancers  ftum 
every  part  of  Italy,  in  whose  company  he  delighted,  and 
by  whom  he  was  attended  when  he  travelled  about.  On 
the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  the  Spanish  sueoessaon, 
Ferdinand,  although  a  feudatory  of  the  emperor,  allowed 
the  French  to  garrison  Mantua.  The  Emperor  Joseph  I. 
put  him  under  the  ban  of  the  empire  as  a  traitor;  and  aa 
the  French  ultimately  lost  their  footing  in  Italy,  the  Au»- 
trians  took  possession  of  Mantua,  which  was  annexed  t.i 
the  Milanese.  Ferdinand  being  deserted  by  the  French, 
for  whose  sake  he  had  lost  his  dominions,  retired  to  Padu^ 
where  he  died  in  1708,  leaving  no  issue.  He  was  the  last 
duke  of  MantiML  The  other  lateral  branchee  of  the  Goo- 
zagas,  of  Guastalla,  Sabbioneta,  Novellara,  and  Castigltonc; 
became  also  extinct,  or  were  dispossessed  of  their  pruio- 
palities.  Some  of  their  descendants  were  living  at  Mantua 
not  many  years  since  as  private  indinduaU.  The  eighternth 
century  saw  the  extinction  of  three  Italian  sovereign  bouses 
Medici,  Gonzaga,  and  Farnese,  while  that  of  Este  haa  be«n 
perpetuated  only  by  a  female.  (Litta,  FamieUe  cHe^n 
lialiane;  Botta,  Storia  <f  Italia,  b.  34;  GoseUni,  i'tiaS 
Don  Ferrante  Gonzaga^  1574.) 

GONZA'LO,  HERNANDEZ  DE  CCRDOVA.  aur- 
named  the  Great  Captain,  was  born  of  noble  and  wealthy 
parents  at  Montilla,  near  that  city,  in  1463.  Having  oari> 
lost  his  father,  he  was  brought  up  by  a  knight  called  !>»«>:*• 
Carcamo,  who  inspired  him  with  that  grandeur  of  toul  aiMl 
love  of  glory  by  which  Gonzalo  amply  compensated  tlie  di«- 
advantages  to  which  the  law  of  primogeniture  had  subjcct<-i 
him  as  a  second  son.  When  tne  city  of  Cordova  espouMrd 
the  cause  of  the  Infante  Don  Alonso  against  his  brothtr 
Henry  IV.,  Gonzalo,  though  vet  an  inexperienced  louih. 
was  sent  by  his  own  brother  Alonso  de  Aguilar  to  A«)lx 
where  the  unfortunate  Henry  was  solemnly  despoiled  of 
crown  and  sceptre.  On  the  sudden  death  of  the  new  iinr 
his  sister  Isabella,  the  right  heiress  to  tlie  Castilian  cro«a 
also  requested  the  service  of  Gonzalo  against  the  partisan* 
of  J  nana,  called  La  Bertraneja,  the  dubious  dauirhier  ^^f 
the  dethroned  Henry,  who  was  married  to  the  king  if 
Portugal. 

Gonzalo,  by  his  military  and  fashionable  acoompluhmenta. 
heightened  by  his  character  for  generosity,  was  hailed  a^ 
the  pnnce  of  the  Spanish  youth,  and  became  the  greatest 


GOO  i 

plojment  in  liUTBture.  For  a.  time  bu  p^o^reis  was  very 
■low;  but  by  perseveranee  he  guccoeded,  and  in  1820  found 
himgelf  BO  well  cFt&blisbed,  both  in  literaiyand  professioDal 
ftne.  that  be  dctennined  on  taking  the  diploma  of  M  JD.  st 
MariBcbal  College,  Aberdeen.  From  this  time  to  big  death, 
wbieli  occurred  in  January,  1827,  after  a  long  and  painful 
illness,  be  continued  actiTely  pursuing  the  practice  of 
medicine  and  the  study  of  almoat  all  branches  of  scieDce 
and  literature. 

Dr.  Good  was  a  voluminous  and  learned  writer  on  various 
subjects ;  his  pKncipal  works  were  the  following : — 

179S.  'Dissertation  on  Diseases  of  Prisons  and  Poor- 
houses,'  prize  essay,  published  at  the  request  of  the  London 
Medical  Society,  I2ino.  1793.  'A  Short  History  of  Medi- 
cine,' published  at  the  ret^uesl  of  the  Phennaaeutical  Society, 
ISmo.  It  consists  principally  of  an  Bccunte  history  of  the 
practice  of  apothecaries  in  England.  1800.  '  Translation, 
in  verse,  of  tbe  Song  of  Solomon.'  1803.  '  Memoirs  of  Dr. 
Geddes,'  I  vol,  8vo.  I80S.  '  Translation  of  Lucretius'  (in 
veru),  2  vols.  4to.,  his  principal  classical  work-  1812. 
■  Translation  of  the  Book  of  Job,'  1  vol.  8vo.  1820.  '  Phy- 
wological  System  of  Nosology,  with  a  corrected  and  Bimpli- 
fled  nomenclature,'  I  vol.  8vo.  He  bad  been  twelve  yean 
collecting  materials  for  Ibis  work,  and  it  served  as  on  intro- 
duction to  the  larger  one  which  be  published  in  1622. 
1821.  'TmnstaUon  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs.'  1822.'Study 
of  Medicine,'  in  4  vols.  Svo.,  consisting  of  a  digest  of  the 
several  systems  of  nosology  previously  published,  and  an 
attempt  to  classify  all  described  diseases  in  regular  orders, 
genera,  &c.,  as  in  the  arrangements  employed  in  natural 
history.  1826.  '  Book  of  Nature,'  3  vols.  8vo.  This  work 
contained  the  lectures  delivered  by  tbe  author  at  the  Surrey 
Institution  on  the  phEenomena.  1st,  of  tbe  material  world; 
2nd,  of  the  animate  world;  3rd,  of  the  mind. 

'  A  Translation  of  the  Book  of  Psalms'  was  just  completed 
at  the  time  of  bis  death.  These  however  were  but  a  portion 
of  his  works ;  for  some  time  pievious  to  settling  in  London 
he  had  been  a  large  contributor  to  the  World,  a  daily  news- 
paper, at  that  time  in  extensive  circulation,  and  to  the 
'  Analytical  and  Critical  Review.'  Of  tbe  latter  he  was  for 
a  considerable  time  the  editor;  and  a  great  number  of  the 
roost  celebrated  articles  on  theology,  morals,  and  Eastern 
liteiBtura  in  it,  as  well  as  in  the  British  and  Monthly 
Magazines,  were  from  his  pen.  He  was  engased  at  the 
same  time  in  many  other  literal^  pursuits,  as  in  the  editing 
«f  the  '  Pantologia,'  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Boswurlh  and 


to  indicate  their  character;  they  evince  the  greatest  in- 
dustry, with  a  retentive  and  orderly  mind,  and  every  mark 
of  sincerity  and  piety ;  but  they  show  that  he  was  deficient 
in  personal  observation,  and  his  medical  writings  especially 
are  hence  of  far  less  value  than  the  labour  that  must  have 
been  bestowed  upon  them  might  have  given  them,  had  it 
been  better  directed.  His  principal  fscullv  seems  to  have 
been  a  facility  of  acquiring  languages:  be  had  learned 
latin,  Greek,  atid  French,  in  his  father's  school ;  while  an 
apprentice  he  acquired  Italian,  and  soon  after  commenced 
Hebrew.  While  engaged  in  the  translation  of  Lucretius 
he  studied  German,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese ;  and  after- 
wards, at  different  times,  Arabic  Persian,  Russian,  San- 
scrit, and  Chinese.  Of  his  knowledge  of  all  these,  sufficient 
evidence  is  presented  in  unpublished  tianslations,  in  re- 
views of  their  literature,  and  in  the  constant  references 
made  to  their  works  in  his  medical  and  other  writings.  A 
biography  of  Dr.  Good  has  been  published  by  his  friend 
Dr.  Olinlhus  Gregory,  in  I  vol.  Svo. 

GOODKNIACE.1E,  a  small  natural  order  of  Exogens, 
chieQy  inhabiting  New  Holland,  and  in  that  country  re- 
preseuting  the  Carnpanulacen  and  Lobeliscero  of  the  north- 
em  hemisphere.  'They  are  in  fkct  so  nearly  allied  to  the 
latter,  that  they  can  scarcely  he  said  to  differ  in  anything  of 
importance,  except  the  presence  of  a  cupule  surrounding 
the  sligma.  This  cupule  is  a  fleshy  or  membranous  cup, 
sometimes  undivided,  sometimes  lacerated,  within  the  base 
of  which  the  stigma  is  situated.  It  appears  to  be  formed  by 
the  consolidation  of  the  hairs  which  in  Campanulacen  so 
thickly  clothe  the  style,  and  which  in  some  Lobelias  are 
collected  into  a  ring.  Where  the  cupule  is  lacerated  at  the 
edge,  it  is  to  be  supposed  that  the  consolidation  of  the  hairs 
has  only  taken  place  imperfectly.  Nine  or  ten  genera  are 
■11  that  this  order  contains.  The  prevailing  colour  of  their 
flowen  is  yellofr ;  and  mow  of  Uwm  uv  lufficiently  hand- 


some to  be  worth  cultivation.    They  an  all  Iwrbaoeoat 
plants,  of  no  known  use. 


iTAlA-     1.  Aftont  fLsw  DlACDrgUa.    ?-  The  ormir  *1 


«l).i 


,    3.  That 


^.1 


GOODWIN  SANDS.    [Kb: 

GOOMTEZ.    [Hindustan.] 

GOORIA,    [Gborcia.1 

GOOSANDER.    [Meroanink.] 

GOOSE,  GOOSE-TRIBE,  ANSERINiC.  asubLunilf 
of  Anatidte. 

The  reader  wQl  find  under  the  articles  ANATiD.E,AxsEi^, 
Birds,  Ducks,  and  FuLtcuLi.fx,  the  views  of  omitfaol"- 
gists  generally  as  to  the  position  occupied  by  the  subfaiiitlv 
of  Geese.  Mr.  Swainson,  in  the  '  Class iQ cation  of  Biid^' 
(vol.  ii.,8vo..  Lend.  I  S3?),  considers  that  the  ^  wrtVxrn- ii- 
Btitute  the  rasorial  subfamily  of  the  whole  group  of  .4na/i< .',-'. 
Although  much  nearer  related,  in  Mr.  Swainson's opinion,  t.. 
the  true  ducks  than  are  the  Flamingos  (PAtTntcopfimr,  Sv  1. 
next  to  which  he  places  them,  they  are.  he  remaxks,  neveclLc- 
less  much  more  terrestrial  in  their  habits ;  and  in  their  stmi..; 
and  high  legs,  fondness  for  grain  and  vegetables,  and  oin- 
parative  shortness  of  wing,  he  traces  many  of  the  chief  cl.j- 
racters  of  the  rasorial  type.  The  first  form,  after  qniiii  -.-^ 
the  Flamingos,  seems  to  him  to  be  the  natatorial  gi-ii-i 
Cygmu,  which,  by  its  great  length  of  neck  and  large-siiol 
body,  softens  down  the  interval  between  the  Ducks  and  il.: 
Phamicoptina.  'We  next,'  continues  Mr.  Sw»iii..vn, 
'  come  to  the  true  geese,  forming  the  eenus  Atuer,  \\j: 
typical  division  of  the  whole  group,  ana  which  cunlj..  • 
most,  if  not  all,  of  the  usual  subgenera.  The  tree  geeut  i<.- 
ducks,  as  they  have  been  called)  next  follow,  among  «).'.  „ 
tbe  subgenus  ChcnalopUx  (Chenalopex ?)  wilt  pnibaMv 
find  a  place.  Pkclroplerut  is  the  rasorial  genus  ■nak.gix..-, 
by  its  spur-wings,  lo  tbe  Eallida,  while  tbe  Ausimlnu 
genus  Cereoptit  (equally  representing  the  pigeons)  appra-- 
alone  necessary  to  complete  Ibis  circle.'  In  his  "  Synup^.i ' 
(part  iv.  of  the  same  vol.)  Mr.  Swainson  makes  the  Aimii'Lr 
consist  of  the  following  subfamihes: — Phienicoplitur.  .In 
trrinm,  Anaiinee,  Futigtilinie,  and  Mergaiada  (Hit- 
ganinc?).  The  subgenera  of  the  Ansrrina,  he  says,  haM- 
not  yet  been  determined,  but  he  gives  the  following  gener-j : 
— Cygfiw*,  Antiq.,  SttoJi*;  .Jntn',  Aniiq.,  GMf«(A.  hypcrlj  - 
reuB,Bemicla);  t>efKtroeugrtiL,^-v.,TTeeDuekt{Ji.vreaa.\3, 
Horsf.,Java;  arborea,Edw.);i>facfropt«'U(,Leaeh,/'.  G*m- 
bentei  (Gambensis?);  and  Cereopttt.  Lath.,  Pignm  (Srt.f 

Mr.  Eyton,  in  his  arrangement  of  tbe  Anatidr  [Fulici- 
liNjB,  vol.  xi.,  p.  12],  makes  the  subfamily  Plectroptrrin.^ 
consist  of  the  genera  Choriilopitt,  Eyton  {Ana»  temipalTntt- 
fia,  I«th.),  and  Iho  genus  Piectroplenu  of  authors.  TIic 
subfamily  Amerinte,  according  to  the  same  omitholog.-c. 
embraces  the  genera  Cfreoptu,  Lath. ;  Cktoepitagtt, 'Ryu.-ri 
(Aruer  MagetUinicus  oT  authors);  ficrat'cfa,  Brias. ;  Ann-tr 
of  authors;  Cy^u«  ofautbore;  &iribVfiomu(Cariiiarqg7u. 
Steph.) ;  and  Chenaiopex  of  the  antients. 

The  following  cuts  will  in  soma  degrea  Ultutola  tlt» 
(bim  of  the  bill  m  the  G«ece. 


GOO 


306 


GOO 


it  lean  ii|>,  according  to  Wilsoiit  from  the  manbes  like  the 
hogs,  and  here  its  powerful  strongly-serrated  bill  becomes 
a  ihost  useful  instrument.  Of  the  berries,  the  crow-berry, 
Empetrum  nigrum^  appears  to  be  the  favourite.  I>r. 
Richudson  states  that  this  species  breeds  in  the  barren 
grounds  of  Arctic  America  in  great  numbers,  and  that 
their  eggs  are  of  a  yellowish-white  colour  and  regularly 
ovate  form,  three  inches  in  length,  and  two  in  their  greatest 
breadth.  At  the  end  of  August  the  young  fly,  and  all 
have  departed  southward  by  the  middle  of  September ;  but 
Jt  is  said  that  the  young  do  not  attain  the  full  plumage  of 
the  old  bird  before  their  fourth  year,  and  until  then  they 
appear  to  keep  in  separate  flocks. 

Utility  to  Man, — In  common  with  most  of  the  true  geese, 
the  plumage  of  the  Snow  Goose  is  available  for  adding  to 
the  comfoAs  of  man,  and  its  flesh,  when  well  fed,  is  ex- 
cellent. Dr.  Richardson  states  it  to  be  far  superior  to  that 
of  the  Canada  Goose  in  juiciness  and  flavour.  At  the  time 
of  their  departure  southward  from  Severn  Fort  in  October, 
Dr.  Latham  says  that  many  thousands  are  killed  by  the 
inhabitants,  who  pluck  them,  and,  taking  out  the  entrails, 
put  their  bodies  into  holes  dug  in  the  ground,  covering  them 
with  earth,  which,  freezing  above,  keeps  them  perfectly 
sweet  throughout  the  severe  season,  during  which  the  in- 
habitants occasionally  open  one  of  these  storehouses,  and 
find  the  birds  untainted  and  good.  In  Siberia  the  same 
mode  of  preserving  them  seems  to  be  practiced. 

Geographical  Distribution,  <f-c'. — Nuttall  states  that  the 
Snow  Goose  is  common  to  the  north  of  both  continents. 
He  says  that  early  in  November  they  arrive  in  the  river 
Delaware,  and  probably  visit  Newfoundland  and  the  coasts 
of  the  Eastern  States  in  the  interval,  being  occasionally 
seen  in  Massachusetts  Bay.  They  congregate  in  large 
flocks,  and  are  very  noisy :  their  note  is  more  shrill  than 
that  of  the  Canada  Grooae,  and  they  make  but  a  short  stay 
in  winter,  proceeding  farther  south  as  the  severity  of  the 
weather  increases.  The  Prince  of  Musignano  notes  it  as 
rare  and  accidental  in  the  winter  at  Philadelphia.  Nuttall 
further  remarks  that  the  Snow  Geese  begin  to  return 
towards  the  north  by  the  middle  of  February,  and  until  the 
breaking  up  of  the  ice,  in  March,  are  frequentlv  seen  in 
flocks  on  tne  shores  of  the  Delaware  and  around  the  head 
of  the  bay.  He  observes  that  they  are  met  with  commonly 
on  the  western  side  of  America,  as  at  Oonalashka  and 
Kamtschatka,  as  well  as  in  the  »stuary  of  the  Oregon, 
where  they  were  seen  by  Lewis  and  Clark.  According  to 
Dr.  Richardson,  they  are  numerous  at  Albany  Fort,  in  the 
southern  part  of  Hudson's  Bay,  where  the  old  birds  are 
rarely  seen;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  old  birds  in 
their  migrations  visit  York  Factory  in  great  abundance, 
but  are  seldom  accompanied  by  the  young.  The  Snow 
^^reese,  he  adds,  make  their  appearance  in  spring  a  few  days 
later  than  the  Canada  Geese,  and  pass  in  large  flocks  both 
through  the  interior  and  on  the  coast 

Mr.  Go^ld,  who  rives  a  very  good  figure  of  the  adult  in 
his  magnificent  work  on  the  Birds  of  Europe,  says  that  the 
species  inhabits  all  the  regions  of  the  Arctic  uircle,  but 
more  especially  those  portions  appertaining  to  North  Ame- 
rica. From  the  northern  portions  of  Russia  and  Lapland, 
he  adds,  where  it  js  sparingly  diffused,  it  regularly  migrates 
to  the  eastern  portions  of  Europe,  and  is  occasionally  found 
in  Prussia  and  Austria,  but  never  in  Holland.  To  the  polar 
regions,  he  concludes,  it  retires  as  its  congenial  locality  early 
in  the  spring,  to  perform  the  duties  of  incubation  and  rear- 
ing its  young. 

The  Grey  Lag,  or  common  Wild  Goose,  is  the  origin  of  the 
domestic  goose  of  our  farmyards.  '  It  is,*  says  Pennant, 
'  the  only  species  that  the  Britons  could  take  young  and 
familiarize ;  the  other  two' — the  wMie-fronted  Goose  {Anser 
albifrons)  and  the  Bean  Goose  {Anas  segetum^  Lath,  and 
Gmel.)  [Bean  Goose,]  are  probably  the  species  meant — 
'  never  breed  here,  and  migrate  during  summer.'  The  grey 
lag-goose,  then,  and  the  domestic  goose,  may  be  considered 
identical.  It  is  the  Xijy  {Chen)  of  the  Grreeks  and  Anser 
of  tlie  Romans— tlie  same  that  saved  the  capitol  by  its  vigi- 
lance and  was  cherished  accordingly.  Pliny  (lib.  x.,  c.  xxii.) 
speaks  of  the  bird  much  at  length,  stating  how  they  were 
driven  from  a  distance  on  foot  to  Rome ;  he  mentions  the 
value  of  the  feathers  of  the  white  ones,  and  relates  that  in 
some  places  they  were  plucked  twice  a  year.  '  Miram  in 
hac  alite,  a  Morinis  usque  Romam  pedibus  venire.  Fessi 
proferuntur  ad  primes,  ita  ea>tcri  stipatione  naturali  propel- 
lunt  eot*    Gandidorum  altenun  veetigal  in  pluma.  ^  Vel- 


luntnr  qoibiisdam  loeia  bis  anno.  Runus  plimigeri  w^ 
tiuntur :  moUiorque  qiuB  corpori  quam  proxima,  et  ^  Grr- 
mania  laudatisaima.  Uandidi  ibi,  yerum  minores,  ganx^  vo* 
cantur.  Pretium  plumas  eorum,  in  libras  denarii  quini,'  &r. 
The  domestic  goose  is  the  Oye  priveg  and  the  WkM 
goose  is  the  Oye  sauvage  of  Belon;  Anser  Jerug  acd 
Anser  of  Gesner  and  others ;  Anter  domesHcus  and  An9<? 
palustris  nosier^  Grey  Lagg  dictui  of  Ray;  Anas  An^^r 
ferus  of  Latham ;  Anas  Anser  of  LinnsDus.  It  la  tluB  Om 
(tame).  Oca  salvaiica,  Ocagrossa  col  becco  rosso  (wHd)  ar.  1 
Oca  PagUetane  of  the  It^ians ;  Oie  domsstique  and  (a  » 
sauvage  of  the  French ;  Oie  Cendree  ou  prenuere  of  Tec: 
minck ;  Gans,  Grau  Gans  and  Wilde  Gemeine  Gans  of  t  U.- 
Germans ;  Gacu  of  the  Danes ;  Gas  and  Will  Gas  of  iIk 
*  Fauna  Suecica;'  Gwydd  of  the  antient»  and  Goose  sl*. 
Wild  Goose  of  the  modem  British. 

Though  this  bird  is  well  known,  there  has  been  so  mu-i 
confusion  in  consequence  of  there  being  three  sprcie^  n' 
wild  goose,  viz.  Anas  Anser,  Lin^  Anas  (Anser)  sf^ciury 
[Bban  Goose,  vol.  iv.],  and  Anas  {Anser)  albifrons,  icAi  ^ 
fronted  Wild  Goose,  that  it  may  be  as  well  to  give  P<.'.i- 
nant*8  description. 

'This,*  writes  Pennant,  Ms  our  largest  ipeeiea;  i^r 
heaviest  weigh  ten  pounds;  the  length  is  two  feet  nii.r 
inches;  the  extent  five  feet  The  bill  is  large  and  elevate  ., 
of  a  flesh  colour  tinged  with  yellow;  the  nail  while ;  i.. 
head  and  neck  cinereous,  mixed  with  ochraceous-yellcw  ; 
the  hind  part  of  the  neck  very  pale,  and  at  the  base  of  « 
yellowish-brown ;  the  breast  and  belly  whitish,  cluui^tZ 
with  grey  or  ash-colour;  the  back  grey;  the  leaser  cD\rr?« 
of  the  wings  almost  white,  the  middle  row  deep  cinen.-  1 1 
shghtly  edged  vrith  white ;  the  primaries  grey,  tipped  « .  :. 
black  and  edged  with  white;  the  coverts  of  the  tail  and  i! 
vent  feathers  of  a  pure  white ;  the  middle  feathers  of  tlu*  * .  \ 
dusky,  tipped  with  white,  the  exterior  feathers  almoat  mh-  ii; 
white ;  the  legs  of  a  flesh  eolour.' 

In  ita  reclaimed  state  it  varies,  like  most  domeatira*-*  \ 
animals,  infinitely ;  but  it  is  said  always  to  retain  the  wbtti 
ness  of  the  coverts  of  the  tail  and  the  vent  feathers :    \i « 
whiter  the  plumage,  the  more  it  is  esteemed. 

Geographical  Distribution. — ^The  seas,  the  shorca,  aiii 
the  marshes  of  the  Oriental  countries ;  rarely  advanr«rt; 
northward  above  53^ ;  abundant  in  Germany  and  towards 
the  centre  of  Europe ;  in  very  small  numbcn,  on  ita  paaa^ 
in  Holland  and  Franee.  The  domeatie  racea»  aQ  sprtir.^ 
from  this  species,  multiply  in  all  countriea  (Teaaminck  i 
'  The  grey  lag  is  known  to  inhabit  all  the  extensive  mar&b? 
districts  throughout  the  temperate  portions  of  Sarooe  guu- 
rally ;  its  range  northwards  not  extending  fiurther  loan  the 
fifty-third  degree  of  latitude,  while  southwards  it  extend*  ti 
the  northern  portions  of  Africa,  eastwardljlo  Perua,  anc, 
we  believe,  is  generally  dispersed  over  Asia  Minor.*  tGuuV^ 
Birds  qf  Europe.)  The  Prince  of  Musignano  notes  xt  u 
rather  common  in  winter  near  Rome. 

Food,  Habits,  Beproduction,  4^. — ^Aquatic  vegetables  and 
all  sorts  of  seeds.  '  The  grey  lag,'  says  Gould,  *  ftanembUi 
in  flocks,  and,  like  the  bean  goose,  seeks  the  moat  opm  asd 
wild  districts,  often  descending  upon  fields  of  newly  sprun*: 
wheat,  which,  with  the  blades  of  fine  grasaea.  trefinl  &i.2 
grain,  constitute  its  food.'  Temminck  says  that  the  no«t  s 
made  in  heathy  spots  ( '  bruydres ' ),  and  in  marshea.  n\'C*t 
tussocks  of  rushes  and  dried  herbs,  and  that  the  num- 
ber of  eggs  is  five,  six,  or  eight,  rarely  twelve  or  fouitcvn. 
of  a  dirty  greenish — Gould  says  sullied  white.  Peunart 
states  that  this  species  resides  in  the  fens  the  whole  yvtiT, 
breeds  there  and  hatches  about  eight  or  nine  young,  whio 
are  often  taken,  easily  made  tame,  and  esteemed  moat  tn- 
oellent  meat,  superior  to  the  domestie  gpose.  The  old  gc^e^r. 
which  are  shoK  are,  he  says,  plucked*  and  sold  in  tb: 
market  as  fine  tame  ones,  and  readily  bought,  the  purr  has*  r 
being  deceived  by  the  size,  but  their  flesh  ia  eoarae.  Ti> 
war&  winter  he  adds,  they  ooUect  in  great  flocks^  but  in  lA 
seasons  hve  and  feed  in  the  fens. 

The  tame  goose  is  very  long  lived.  '  A  certain  friend  •  ■• 
ours,'  it  is  Willughby  who  relates  the  story — *  of  undoubto. 
fidelity,  told  us  that  his  father  had  once  agooee  that  «.^ 
known  to  be  eighty  years  old,  which  for  oughl  be  kn  - « 
might  have  lived  the  other  eighty  years,  had  be  nut  Kr. 
constrained  to  kill  it  for  its  mischievousness  in  beating  i  r! 
destroying  the  younger  geese.' 

Utility  to  3/<i;i.^One  of  the  most  useful  of  bvdjs  «}M^thl•* 
we  consider  its  flesh  or  its  feathers.  Tune  geote,  urn 
Pennant* '  ore  kept  in  vast  multitude  in  the  iMia  uf  Lmi* 


fttve  been  held  in  great  rcneration  by  the  uttieiit  Egfp- 
titns,  aa  we  frequently  find  a  figure  of  it  among  ihs  monu- 
nwntH  of  that  celebrated  peo[ile.  It  is,  he  Myn,  abundant 
on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  and  is  distributed  ovvr  the  wholi 
of  the  vast  continent  of  Africa. 

Thi*  handsome  species  breeds  freely  in  confinement,  and 
is  often  seen  in  the  aviaries  and  near  the  lakes  of  those  who 
take  pleasure  in  collecting  and  dDmesticoting  ornamental 
water-birtlf, 

The  Spur-winged  Goote,  or  Gambo  Goote  (Aiuer  Gam- 
bean*  of  Ray  and  othora,  Anai  Gambentit  of  Linntcus, 
PleatToptenu  Gambemi*  of  modL-rn  omithologisis),  was 
confounded  by  Willughby,  and  oflentonls  by  Buffon,  wilb 
the  Kgyplian  goose.  It  is  however  a  very  diffecenl  bird, 
as  any  one  will  inslanlly  perceive  wliun  lie  tees  the  two 
geese  side  by  side  in  our  menageries. 

Sixe  nearly  that  of  llie  common  Goose ;  but  the  lite* 
long,  and  placed  under  the  middle  oflhebody.  BUfhrtxA 
and  llal,  with  a  (uberrlc  at  the  baw)  like  that  of  the  tama 
twan.  This  tubercle  increases  with  age.  Bend  of  the 
wine  armed  with  a  large  blunt  spur,  whicli  is  sometimes 
double.  Bill  and  its  basal  tubercle  dull  red ;  sides  of  the 
head  while ;  ttpjier  part*  of  body  glossy  black,  with  metal- 
lic refleclioni ;  ba^  of  ihe  wings  with  a  while  patch  mot- 
tle<l  with  black  spots ;  under  parU  white ;  legt  slightly 
tinged  with  red;  q>ur,  which  is  only  visible  when  the  wing 
is  expanded,  horn  colour. 

Mr.  Swainson  thus  characterises  the  genus  Fleet roplenu. 
Leach;  'Sile  large;  wings  armed  with  naked  tubercles  or 
spines;  bill  lengthened,  wide  at  the  tip;  the  base  with  a 
naked  protuberance.     Rasorial.' 

Geographieal  Distribution. — Northern  and  Western 
Africa.  More  rare  in  colleclioni  than  the  EK)'ptian  Goose, 
hut  has  lived  well  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoulugical  Society 
of  London,  at  the  R«genl'B  Park. 

The  Ctnada  Ooose,  or  Cravat  Goote,  Auier  CatJodentit 
of  authors,  in  its  contour,  especially  irtraut  the  neck,  seems 
to  approach  the  swan*.  Indeed,  Mr.  T.  C.  Eyton  arrange* 
iIundertheKenuaCv,^iu.  It  is  the /VmmoA.  or  if t>f  «A(^ 
tueteah.  of  the  Cree  Indians,  LOuttn^  of  the  French-Ca- 
nadians, Buttard  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  settlers,  Wild-Gooie 
of  the  Anglo-Americans,  and  LOie  a  cravale  of  thi 

Henme,  Pennant,  WiUon,  Audubon,  Nuttall,and  others, 
give  very  iuterettine  aeoounts  of  the  habits  and  chaee  of  this 
species,  whose  annual  advent  furnishes  such  an  abundant 
harvest  of  food  to  the  resideols  in  the  countries  visited  by 
iL  Our  limits  will  not  permit  us  to  indulge  in  these  enter- 
taining but  somewhat  lengthened  narrative*,  and  we  select 
Dr.  Richardson's  account  as  being  at  once  clear  and  con- 
cise. 'The  arrival  of  this  well-known  bird,'  says  Dr.  Ri. 
chardson,  in  'Fauna  Boreali-Americano,'  'in  the  fur- 
couutrietisansiously  looked  for  and  hailed  with  great  joy 
by  the  natives  of  the  woody  and  swampy  distncts,  who 
depend  principally  upon  it  for  subaistence  during  the  sum- 
mer. It  makes  its  first  appearance  in  flocks  of  twenty  or 
thirty,  which  are  readily  decoyed  within  gun-shot  by  tho 
buntos,  who  set  up  st^es,  and  imitate  its  call.  Two  or 
three,  or  more,  are  so  frequently  killed  at  a  shot,  that  the 
usual  price  of  a  goose  is  a  single  charge  of  ammunition. 
One  goose,  which,  when  fat.  weighs  about  nine  pounds,  is 
the  daily  ration  for  one  of  the  Company's  servants  during 
tlie  season,  and  is  reckoned  equivalent  to  two  snow-geese, 
or  three  ducks,  or  eight  pounds  of  buffalo  and  moose-meat, 
or  two  pounds  of  pemmican,  or  a  pint  of  maiie  and  four 
ouQoes  of  suet  About  three  weeks  after  their  first  appear- 
ance, the  Canada  Geese  disperse  in  paira  throughout  the 
country,  between  tile  50th  and  67lh  parallels,  to  breed, 
retiring  at  the  tame  time  from  the  shores  of  UuiIboii's  Bay. 
They  are  seldom  or  never  seen  on  the  coa»ts  of  the  Arctic 
Sea.  In  July,  after  the  young  bir<ls~are  hatched,  the  pa- 
runts  moult,  and  vest  numbers  are  killed  in  the  rivers  and 
small  lakes  when  they  are  unable  lo  lly.  When  chased  by 
a  canoe  and  obliged  to  dive  A-equonlly,  they  soon  become 
iktigued,  and  make  for  the  shore  with  the  intention  of  hid- 
ing thenueUes ;  hut  ai  they  are  not  fleet,  they  tall  an  eusy 
prey  to  their  pursuers.  In  the  autumn  they  again  assemhle 
in  flocks  on  the  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay  for  three  weeks  or 
«  month  previou*  to  their  departure  southwards. 

It  hu  been  observed  that  in  their  migrations  the  Geese 
annually  resort  to  certain  passes  and  resting- placet,  some  of 
which  are  bequenled  both  in  the  spring  and  autumn,  and 
«lban  only  in  the  spring.    The  Cnnai^  Guoie  geiiemlly 


e  GOO 

bm1ds  its  nest  on  Uie  ground ;  but  some  paun  oMHioooOy 
breed  on  the  banks  of  the  Saskatchewan  in  %Kta,  Atjant- 
ing  their  eggs  in  ilie  deserted  nests  of  ravens  ur  C>hii.e 
cngles.  lis  rail  is  iiuilaled  bt  a.  prulungoJ  nasal  prunuuc^ 
tion  of  the  syllablq  icook  frequently  rejicoled.' 

R>od,  Repraduclion,  ^. — The  principal  food  of  this  »)c- 
cies  consists  of  sedge-root.'^  herboge,  and  delicate  tnaritr 
plants,  such  as  those  of  the  genua  Utca.  In  the  spun: 
they  feed  on  berries  which  have  been  preserved  by  the  r\... . 
through  the  winter,  such  an  those  of  tlie  Silvery  Ducki  li.>r- 
iEleagnus  arsentea).  Mr.  Audubon  found  them  \itix'\.:: 
on  Ihe  coast  of  Labrador ;  the  eggi,  six  or  seven  in  ii  u:i. 
ber,  of  a  greenith  white,  arc  laid  in  a  roughly-msde  iin' 
Mr.  NutluU  says  that  In  the  month  of  March,  Ulo,  ni'i:  . 
were  nesting  in  the  Shave-rush*  bottom*  uflhe  Mi**-!!.!! 
no  farther  up  than  Fire  Prairie,  I'oiiudciablj'  bcla»  i!  - 
Junction  of  the  river  Platte;  so  that  the  breeding  rnii^-'- 
the  Canada  Goo&e  probably  extends  through  not  \aa  t\  i. 
30  degrees  of  latitude.  The  Prince  of  Musignano  a.'i- • 
as  common  in  winter  near  Philadelphia,  and  as  being  (>ii  '■'' 
ject  of  chase  on  the  scu-sburo  in  the  autumn. 

Utility  to  Afort.— When  it  is  remembered  that  \\iv  11-- 
son's  Bay  residents  depend  greatly  on  the  supply  of  C^i..  .. 
Geese  for  their  winter  provision,  and  tliat  m  favom..:  . 
years  as  many  as  3000  or  4000  are  said  to  have  bmi  L  .- 
and  barrelled  up,  it  is  evident  that  without  this  aidnum  . 
must  bo  in  a  very  forlorn  condition.     It  lias  been  a^w-r  ' 
that  on  a  good  day  a  single  native  from  Ihe  ambush  ul  i  - 
bough  hut  will  kill  as  many  aa  jOO.     They  are  prescntil  i 
frost  with  the  feathers  on,  and  the  flesh  is  juicy  atid  di-  . 
tious,  though  not  equal  to  that  of  the  suow-guuM.     1.. 
feathers  alio  are  of  commercial  value.     The  bird  h&t  U' : 
long  domiciled  in  Europe,  i 

freely,  and  is  a 

-     ^l  Versadlf, 

will  breed  also  with  the  common  goote.  He  prudun  ' 
the  latter  intermixture  are  said  to  be  much  more  itelKi  . 
in  flavour  and  quality  thatt  the  unmixed  progco}  ul  \:.. 
domestic  goose. 

Deieription.—Head,  two-thirds  of  the  neck,  grc-..'— 
quills,  rump,  and  tail,  pilch-black.  Back  and  teingt  br.r  - 
brown,  edged  with  wood-brown.  Base  of  the  neeh  U' 
and  the  under  plumage  generally  brownish  gray.  A  f  ■ 
fL'alhera  about  the  ei/t,  a  large  kidney-shaped  patch  .>ii  : 
thmat,  the  sides  of  the  ruHip  and  upi>er  and  uudi-i  .'- 
coverltyiie  while.     Bill  axtA/tet  black. 

Dr.  Richardson  observe*  that  individuals  dilTir  rui,- 
derably  in  dimensions. 


Tlic  author  laiit  above  quoted  states,  as  : 
Fauna  Boreali- Americana,'  that  the  Geese  few]  onvc.. 
table  substances,  pasturing  by  day,  and  retiring  in  the  d  ^  ' 
lo  repose  on  tbe  water.  This  must  be  taken  u  «  gcn.-:> 
proposition,  for  the  Canada  Goose  is  scid  lonly  le  *k>i 
upon  the  water,  except  in  very  calm  weather,  their  Tauttin.: 
phice  being  mostly  m  the  marshes.  Ur.  RiehatdMo.  i,i 
continuation,  says  that  they  swim  well,  hut  dive  onlv  wWr. 
moulting  and  unable  lo  fly.  If  punued  at  sueh  liowi  cbci 
leave  the  water  and  try  to  hide  themselTe*  on  dtora.    TU<y 

>>TiBsl<',tbMa(iiiwanlit«(BrlntW^    CMKimLt 


GOO  SI 

peculiar  flavour  vhieh  it  attaim  in  iU  favourite  eliasta; 
and  a  different  method  ofpruning  and  training  OMht  to  ba 
pracliaed  accordingly.  Tbua  in  the  north  the  branchM 
■hould  be  leh  thin,  w  at  to  espoM  the  fruit,  and  with  the 
same  view  the  spun  should  he  short  In  the  soulh  tka 
trees  should  uot  be  laid  lo  open,  and  the  lateral  yoang 
BliooUt.  instead  of  being  cut  rlote  in,  immediately  above  the 
fruit-bud  at  their  hose,  should  have  two  buds  left  to  pro- 
duce leaves  for  shading  the  fruit  in  Eummer. 

In  the  manutiicturing  districts  of  lAnrashire  and  the 
adjoining  counlies  the  cultivation  of  the  gooseberry  has 
been  broi^ht  to  surprising  perfection,  at  least  as  regards 
the  size  of  the  fiuit ;  and  this  chielly  by  the  roanufkitiiTing 
clauses,  in  consequence  of  priie«  being  awarded  to  success- 
fU  competitors  at  the  gooseberry-show  ineetingB.  Judging 
from  (he  quality  of  the  varieties  ^wa  for  competition  in 
this  way,  it  appears  that  weight  is  the  only  qualification 
required;  it  is  however  much  to  be  regretted  tnat  fiavour 
u  not  also  taken  into  account  From  the  neglect  sf  this 
requisite  many  of  the  fine  Lancashire  gooseberriea  are  not 
at  all  worth  cultivation  except  on  account  of  their  coming 
to  a  size  sufiiciently  large  for  cooking  earlier  than  the 
stualler.  For  thii  purpose  those  with  snuxith  skint  should 
be  avoided,  because  the  ikina  becmne  tough  in  the  process 
of  cooking. 

For  flavour,  the  small,  or  '  Old  English '  kinds,  an 
the  best,  and  indeed  are  the  only  torts  worth  growing ;  but 
they  do  not  look  well  among  a  destert.  We  give  below  a 
list  of  such  sorts  as  are  proper  for  a  selection,  when 
flavour  is  the  principal  object ;  and  another  in  which  men- 
tion is  made  of  the  best  Lancashire  varieties,  where  flavour 
and  size  are  in  a  tolerable  degree  combined.  Those  who 
wish  for  more  extensive  information  will  find  such  in  a 
table  published  in  the '  Guide  lo  (he  Orchard  and  Kitchen 
Garden,' which  includes  upwards  of  700  sorts,  distinguish- 
ing their  colours  and  the  respective  weights  to  which  2D0  of 
the  principal  prize  sorts  have  been  grown  in  different  sea- 
sons, together  with  the  number  of  prizes  each  has  obtained. 

Gooseberries  are  arranged  systemalically  according  as 
(heir  eiiliniT*  are  red,  yellow,  green, or  while;  and  sub- 
divided with  regard  to  tluir  tur/ace  being  hispid,  downy, 
or  tmooth. 

Small,  or  Old  Engliih,  Gootebernes 

Division  1.     Ikttit  Rsd.     IC.  Yellow  Ball. 

•  Sur/nce  liinpid.  Division  3.  Fruit  Gbbxn. 

1.  Rough  Red.  *  Surface  liisfiid. 

2.  SmJl  Red  Globe.  17.  Early  Green  Hairy. 

3.  Small  Dark  Rough  Red.  18.  Ulenlon  Green. 

4.  Scotch  Bust  Jam.  19.  Hehburn  Green  FroliSc. 

5.  Red  Champagne  '  *  "  Surface  tnwith. 
G.  Keen's  Se(>dling.              20.  Pilmaston  Green  Gage. 

7.  Raspberry.  21.  Groen  Walnut. 

8.  Red  Warrington,  Division  A.  Frvit  White. 

9.  Rob  Roy.  '   Surface  hitpid. 
*'*  Surface tmoalh.  22.  While  Crystal. 

10.  Red  Turkey.  23.  White  Champagne. 
Division  2.  Fbuit  YbilOw.  2.1.  Taylor's  Bright  Venus. 

•  Surface  hiipid.  *  *  Surface  downy. 

11.  Early  Sulphur.  25.  Early  While. 

13.  Yellow  Champagne.  •  *  '  Surface  tmooth. 

13.  Hebburn  Yellow  Aston.  26.  Wliite  Damson. 

•  •  Surface  downy.        37.  White  Honey. 

14.  Rumbullion.  2B.  Crystal. 
•  •  •  Surface  tmoolh, 

I  J.  Amber. 

Of  the  above,  Nos.  I,  3,  4,  S,  7,  are  exoellent  tot  pre- 
serving. No.  14  is  the  beat  sort  for  bottling  green-  The 
earliest  aro  Nos.  9,  II,  17,  21,  23,27;  and  the  latestii 

No.e. 

Large,  or  Laneaahire,  Gooteberriei. 

Dirision  1.  Fri'it  Red.  Division  2.  Fnuii  Yrllow. 

•  Surface  hispid.  '  *  *  Surface  emoolh. 
Uigh's  R.fL-man.  Dixon's  Golden  Yellow. 
Loraas's  Viclory.  .  Division  3.     FariT  Grbrx. 
Melling's  Crown  Bob.  •   Surface  hi»pid, 
Boardman's  British  Crown,  Princess  Royal. 
Brathcrion's  Huntsman.  Uopley's  Lord  Crewe. 

•  *  Surface  dnwny.  '  *  Surface  dotoay. 
Berry's  Farmer's  Glory.           Parkinson's  Laurel. 

"  ■  "   Surface  tmooth.        Collier's  Jolly  Angler 
Farrow's  Roaring  Lion.  •  '  •  Surface  tmoolh. 

Ridw'a  BoBBlvd  hemn.        Ibiwr'*  Heart  o<  Oak. 


GOO 

Sdwardd't  Jelly  Tar.  Woodward's  Whitcflnita. 

Large  Hmouth  Green.  Welling  Ion's  Gl-jry. 

rision  4.  Fruit  Whiti.  Saunders's  Chwhire  L«»« 
'  Surface  hitpid.  "  *  Surface  tauiotA. 

Cleworih's  While  Lion.  Cook's  White  Ea^le. 

"  "  Surface  downy. 
7S«  fnming  qf  OooteberTU*  is  perlbrmad  any  time  dur- 
ing the  winter,  and  before  the  tap  begins  to  be  in  mut-un 
in  the  spring.  The  operatnn  eonaitU  in  reEBunnc  ul 
cross  laterals,  so  as  to  leave  the  branchat  at  nearly  a*  pi-^ 
sihie  at  regular  distances,  round  an  open  centre,  excrit 
where  the  beet  of  the  climate  renders  it  necessary  to  relai:i 
branches  in  the  centre  for  shade;  and  the  points  of  tlu<< 
branehes,  where  too  extended,  at  weak,  should  aUo  U 
shortened  lo  some  well  situated  bud.  Very  struug  abuuii. 
assuming  the  character  of  robbers,  should  be  cut  dean  uui. 


health  of  Ihe  tree,  to  pinch  off  the  tops  of  these  Mronj;  tbtuJt 
in  the  tummer.  and  thus  prevunt  their  monopoliitnK  Ibe  *tt 
from  the  olher  parts.  Suckers,  on  the  same  principk.*. 
should  be  prevented  from  growing  at  the  root 

The  branches  in  all  eases  should  be  pruned  toft  unei. 
terminal  shoot  In  short,  the  plant  should  eihibit  a  r«f;uLjr 
appearance  without  any  overcrowding  in  one  put  and  dv 
Bciencv  in  another 

GOftCUM.      [HotLAfTD.] 

GORDIA'NUS.  MARCUS  ANT0NIU8  AFRIC.l- 
NUS,  bom  under  the  reign  of  the  first  Antoninus,  of  "i.^ 
of  the  most  illustrious  and  wealthy  families  of  Rome,  mul' 
himself  very  popular  during  his  quMStorship  by  his  mu 
flcence  a»d  the  great  sums  whico  be  spent  in  prm'irl'  . 
games  and  other  amusements  for  the  people.  He  abo  rw.- 
tivated  literature,  and  wrote  several  poems,  among  olln-r< 
one  in  which  he  celebrated  the  virtues  of  the  two  Ant-, 
nines.  Being  entrusted  with  the  government  of  scwr.. 
provinces,  he  conducted  himself  so  as  lo  gain  general  apgi;.- 
balion.  He  was  proconsul  of  Africa  in  *j>.  237,  when  a:, 
insurrection  broke  out  in  that  province  against  Haximinu*. 
on  account  of  his  exactions,  and  the  insurgents  uji..ii.^ 
Gordianus  as  emperor.  He  prayed  earnestly  to  be  excuse-, 
on  account  of  his  great  age,  being  then  \mt  eigbtr,  and  !■> 
be  allowed  to  die  in  peace ;  but  the  insurgents  ihrealrn;^^ 
to  kilt  him  if  he  refused,  he  accepted  the  perilous  digniCT, 
naming  bis  son  Gordianus  as  his  colleague,  and  both  ms^- 
their  solemn  entry  into  Carthage  in  the  nudst  of  univnul 
applause.  The  senate  cheerfully  confirmed  the  eWii  'it. 
nroclaiming  the  two  Gordiani  as  emperois,  and  declarin.- 
Haximinus  and  his  son  to  be  enemies  to  the  conni.'. 
Meantime  however  Capillianus,  governor  of  Mauritania,  c.l- 


Cota  ol  QkAuu  Ik*  TonB^t. 
BiUbkHMHM.    AdHlibh    Csn>K    Wd^t.a»t(nB. 
Thi  bmtpUoB  IB  tfe*  otnns  afite  tn  Bidak  la  Ike  ■■*. 

lectcd  troops  in  favour  of  Haximinus,  and  marched  •eain>t 
Carthage,  The  younger  Gordianus  came  out  to  opj^--. 
him,  but  was  defeated  and  killed,  and  his  aged  &lh>.r,  n 
learning  the  tad  tidings,  stranded  himaelt  Tbeir  men 
*  '  '  lasted  twomontbaalto^ther.yettbeyweregmiiy 
it  boDuiM  of  tbtii  ptnoMl  qMlitii^Atil  Ifa*  b«fM 


6CIR 


312 


60S 


peraiioe,  which  aoeured  to  his  last  days  the  full  posietsion 
of  his  faculties,  and  imparted  cheerfulness  and  resignation 
to  I  he  hour  of  death. 

According  to  Eusehius,  Gorffias  flourished  in  the  86th 
Olympiad,  and  came  to  Athens  (Olymp.  88,  2,  or  b.c.  427)  to 
seek  assistance  for  his  native  citv,  whose  independence  was 
menaced  hy  its  powerful  neighhour  Syracuse.  In  this 
mission  he  justified  the  opinion  which  his  townsmen  had 
formed  of  his  talents  for  business  and  political  sagacity, 
and  upon  its  successful  termination  withdrew  Arom  public 
life  and  returned  to  Athens,  which,  as  the  centre  of  the 
menUl  activity  of  Greece,  offered  a  grand  field  for  the  dis- 
play of  his  intellectual  powers  and  acquirements.  He  did 
not  however  take  up  his  residence  permanently  in  that  city, 
but  divided  his  time  between  it  and  Larissa  in  Thessaly, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  died  shortly  before  or  after  the 
death  of  Socrates. 

To  the  84th  Olymp.  is  assigned  the  publication  of  his 
philosophical  work  entitled '  Of  the  Non-being,  or  of  Nature* 
(ircpc  rov  fi^  Bvtoq  ^  xfpc  ^69cwc)f  in  which,  according  to  the 
extracts  from  it  in  the  pseudo-Aristotelian  work  '  De  Xeno- 
phane,  Zenone,  et  Gorffia,'  and  in  Sextus  Empiricus,  he 
proposes  to  show,  1st,  that  absolutely  nothing  subsists; 
2nd,  that  even  if  anything  subsists,  it  cannot  be  known ; 
and  3rd,  that  even  if  aught  subsists  and  can  be  known,  it 
cannot  be  expressed  and  communicated  to  others.  His 
pretended  proof  of  the  first  position  is  nothing  less  than  a 
subtle  play  with  the  dialectic  of  the  EleatiB,  as  carried  out 
to  its  extreme  consequences  by  Zeno  and  Melissus.  There 
is  much  more  of  originality  in  the  arguments  which  he 
advances  to  support  the  other  two :  thus,  in  respect  to  the 
second,  he  urged  that  if  being  is  conceivable,  every  concep- 
tiqin  must  be  an  entity,  and  the  non-being  inconceivable ; 
while,  in  the  third  case,  he  showed  that  as  language  is 
distinct  from  its  object,  it  is  difficult  either  to  express  accu- 
rately our  perceptions  or  adequately  to  convey  them  to 
others.  Now,  however  sophistical  may  have  been  the  pur- 
pose for  which  all  this  was  advanced,  still  it  is  no  slight 
merit  to  have  been  the  first  to  establish  the  distinction  be- 
tween conception  and  its  object,  and  between  the  word  as 
the  sign  of  thought  and  thought  itself.  By  thus  awakening 
attention  to  the  difference  between  the  subject  and  the 
object  of  cognition,  he  contributed  largely  to  the  advance- 
ment of  philosophy. 

In  these  arguments  however,  and  generally  in  his  phy- 
sical doctrines,  Gorgias  deferred  in  some  measure  to  the 
testimony  of  sense  which  the  stricter  Eleat»  rejected  abso- 
lutely as  inadequate  and  contradictious:  on  this  account, 
although  the  usual  statement  which  directly  styles  him  the 
disciple  of  Empcdocles  is  erroneous,  it  is  probable  that  he 
drew  from  the  writings  of  that  philosopher  his  acquaintance 
with  the  physiology  of  the  Eleatic  school. 

Subsequently  it  would  appear  that  Gorgias  devoted  him- 
self entitbly  to  tho  practice  and  teaching  of  rhetoric ;  and 
in  this  career  his  professional  labours  seem  to  have  been 
attended  both  with  honour  and  with  profit  According  to 
Cicero  (de  Orat^  i.  22 ;  iii.  32),  he  was  the  first  who  engas^ed  to 
deliver  impromptu  a  public  address  upon  any  given  subject. 
These  oratorical  displays  were  characterized  by  the  poetical 
ornament  and  elegance  of  the  language  and  the  antithetical 
structure  of  the  sentence,  rather  than  by  the  depth  and 
vigour  of  the  thought ;  and  the  coldness  of  his  eloquence 
soon  passed  into  a  proverb  among  the  antients.  Besides 
some  fragments,  there  are  still  extant  two  entire  orations, 
ascribed  to  Gorgias,  entitled  respectively,  *  The  Encomium 
of  Helen,'  and  '  The  Apology  of  Palamedes,*  two  tasteless 
and  insipid  compositions,  which  may  however  not  be  the 
works  of  Gorgias.  On  this  point  consult  Foss  {De  Gorgia 
Leontino  Commentatio,  HaUe,  1828),  who  denies  their  au- 
thenticity, which  is  maintained  by  Schonhozn  {De  Authentic 
Deciamaiionum  qtuB  Gorgue  Leontini  nomine  extant, 
Breslau,  1626). 

GORGO'NIA.      [ZOOPHYTARIA.] 

GORGONOCE'PHALUS.    [Stelliwma.] 
GORGONS,  GO'RGONES,  is  the   name  of  certain 
mythological  personages,  which  in  their  vulgar  acceptation 
were  represented  as  three  daughters  of  Phorcys,  a  marine 

SkI,   and   his  wife  Goto.     Their    names   were  Medusa, 
uryale,  and  Stheno.     Many  wild  and  discordant  stories 
wore  told  of  them,  such  as  their  having  great  wings,  sharp 
crooked  claws,  teeth  like  the  tusks  of  Uie  wild  £>ar,  and 
ikes  instead  of  hair,  and  one  eye  among  the  three,  and 
some  poets  hav»  represented  one  of  them»  Medusa^  as  a 


very  fasdnatiii^  a«ilttre.  (Ovid,  Metamorpkfmi,  b.  iu.) 
The  Gorgons  weie  represented  as  living  in  the  fitfthcst  vest, 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  known  world ;  othen  placed  Ihnn 
in  the  unknown  regions  of  Libya.  They  were  saSd  to  haw 
had  the  power  of  turning  into  stone  all  those  who  gaxed  at 
them.  At  last  Perseus,  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  of  Daivv, 
set  out,  encouraeed  and  assisted  by  Minerva,  to  eoeonnter 
the  Gorgons,  and  he  conquered  them,  cut  off  tlie  head  iJ 
Medusa,  from  whose  blood,  dropping  on  the  ground,  tV 
horse  Pegasus  was  engendei^sd.  He  then  gave  Che  ImsmI  iif 
Medusa  to  Minerva,  who  fixed  it  on  her.  mgm  or  sfau4d. 
which  ever  after  had  the  power  of  turning  the  beholden 
into  stone. 

GORLITZ,  a  westerly  cvcle  of  the  Prussian  prorince  ni 
Silesia,  forming  part  of  Upper  Lusatia,  and  bounded  south 
and  west  by  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  has  an  area  of  .>  *^ 
square  miles,  and  contains  about  48,900  inhabitant*.  It  « 
very  mountainous  in  the  south.  It  contains  only  one  lar^ 
river,  the  Neisse,  but  a  number  of  small  streams.  It  is  le< . 
an  agricultural  than  a  manufacturing  country,  and  rvir 
much  cattle. 

GORLITZ  (Solerz,  in  the  Wend  language),  the  rbrr.' 
town  both  of  the  circle  and  of  the  former  maigraviair  : 
Upper  Lusatia,  is  a  fortified  place  on  the  left  bank  of  t.\- 
(Lusatian)  Neisse,  lying  at  an  elevation  of  665  feet  ah-^  - 
the  level  of  the  sea,  in  5^  9'  N.  lat.  and  1$**  i'  E.  luii^ 
There  is  a  bridge  over  the  Neisse;  the  main  street*  *rt 
broad  and  straight,  and  the  number  of  houses  is  about  U  .*  .>. 
and  of  inhabitants  about  12,100.  The  principal  buiH.r., 
are — the  castle;  eight  churches,  all  Protestant  (of  which  u-- 
high  church  of  St.  Peter  and  St  Paul  is  built  in  a  r.-"> 
and  noble  st>'le ;  the  town-hall,  exchange,  high  school,  tlir . 
libraries,  an  orphan  asylum,  a  seminary  for  female  teacht  in 
four  hospitals,  a  house  of  correction,  and  the  church  of  i;** 
Holy  Cross.  Among  the  manufactures  are  woollena,  v  h.ri 
employ  300  looms;  linens,  stockings,  leather,  hata»  butt^xii. 
&c.,  tobacco-pipes,  woollen  yams,  iron-ware,  and  maa^c.*. 
instruments.  Gorlitz  has  a  considerable  wholesale  a;.: 
transit  trade.  In  conjunction  with  the  remainder  of  Uf- 
per  Lusatia,  it  was  separated  from  Saxony,  and  transfrrrt*. 
to  Prussia  in  the  year  1815. 

GORTZ,  a  large  circle  in  the  government  of  Trieste  tn  .< 
kingdom  of  Illyria,  bounded  on  the  east  by  Camiola.  ar.  f 
south  by  Trieste.  Its  area  is  966  square*  miles,  and  .t 
contains  3  districts,  5  municipal  and  5  market-town*,  44. 
villages,  and  a  population  of  about  176,000  <in  \^\*\ 
168,236;  and  1825,  162,926).  Nearly  the  whole  of  tha 
circle  is  a  valley  enclosed  by  the  Alps;  it  is  watered  bv 
the  Isonzo  and  Idriza ;  and  produces  winet  silk,  flax,  bemf , 
fruit,  and  a  small  quantity  of  com. 

GORTZ,  or  Gorizia,  the  chief  town  of  the  circle.  i« 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Isonio,  and  spreads  a^^r,: 
the  sides  of  the  Schlossberg,  a  ruinous  castte,  once  th^ 
residence  of  the  counts  of  Gortz,  in  45°  67'  N.  lat.  en . 
13°  29'  E.  lon^.  It  contains  about  730  well-built  hou^-'^ 
and  9 700  inhabitants.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopnc  ac^ 
has  fouc  churches,  besides  a  cathedral*  with  an  e|>i».^  - 
pal  seminary.  The  Attems  family  possesses  the  rnvJ. 
known  '  Roman  stone,*  which  affords  evidence  that  t.4 
antient  Norica  stood  in  the  vicinity  of  this  town.  Gi'*tx 
has  large  silk  spinnerics  and  manufactories  of  silks»  dretr/ 
establishraents,  bleach-grounds  for  wax,  &c. 

GORUCKPORE.    [Oudk.] 

GOSHAWK.    [Falconidx.  vol.  x,  p.  1 78-9.] 

GOSLICKI,  LAURENTIUS,  a  learned  Pole,  who  l.^   ! 
in  the  sixteenth  century.    Having  commenced  his  stv.r!u<« 
at  Cracow,  he  continued  them  at  Padua,  where  he  pub- 
lished his  work  *  De  Optimo  Senatore,'  which  was  print*- 
at  Venice,  and  published  at  London,  1733,  4to.,  und«rr  :* 
title  of  the  'Accomplished  Senator  Lauren tius  Go^Zk  .. 
Bishop  of  Tosnania,  done  into  English  by  Wm.  Oldisa  4ir  * 
The  translator  gives  in  his  notes  a  parallel  between  *^- 
Polish  and  English  constitutions.     Goslicki  eatere«l  :'■ 
church,  became  bishop  of  Posnania,  and  was  frequrr.::- 
eniployed  in  many  political  affairs. 

GOSPEL,  derived  from  two  Saxon  words  of  the  «3-*. 
meaning  as  the  Crreek  evangHitm  (cteyylXMv),  which  -.r 
nifies  '  good  news,*  is  employed  both  by  the  authors  of  i  - 
New  Testament  and  by  modem  theologians  to  denote  t. 
whole  Christian  system  of  religion,  and  also  more  parr»«"w 
larly  the  good  news  of  the  coming  of  the  Messiah.  71- ■ 
books  containi^ji;  an  aooount  of  the  life  of  Chiiat  were 


G  O  S 


3U 


G  O  S 


tains,  usually  in  rod  and  white  stripes,  and*stuffdd  with 
cotton  (commonly  called  purdahs),  are  employed  every- 
where in  India,  and  at  Delhi  even  in  the  king's  hall  of 
audience.  This  consists  of  colonnades  of  pillars  supporting 
a  light  roof  in  the  court  hefore  the  private  ^mrtments  of 
the  palace.  On  the  outer  rows  of  pillars  these  purdahs  are 
suspended;  hence,  the  author  infers,  we  may  understand  the 
use  to  which  were  applied  the  rowi  of  pillars  in  front  of  the 
palace  in  the  ruins  of  Fersepdis 

Cotton  was  no  douht  in  later  tiiAes  cultivated  and  manu- 
factured into  cloth.  Pliny  (lib.  xix.,  c.  1)  states  that 
Upper  Bgypt  produces  a  small  shrub  which  soms  call  got- 
sypion,  others  xyion,  bearing  fruit  tike  a  nut,  from  the 
interior  of  which  a  kind  of  wool  is  produced,  from  which 
very  white  and  soft  cloth  is  manuftictured.  Had  it  been 
common  in  Bgypt  in  the  time  of  Herodotus,  it  could  not  have 
escaped  him ;  as  he  says  specially  of  the  Indians,  that  they 
possess  a  kind  of  plant  which,  instead  of  fruit,  produces  wool 
of  a  finer  and  better  (|uality  than  that  of  sheep :  of  this 
the  natives  make  their  clothes.  Near ch  us  describes  the 
dress  of  the  Indians  as  being  made  of  flax  from  trees  ('  Li- 
brary of  Entertaining  Knowledge,'  Egyp.Aniiq.,  ii.,  p.  125). 
Theophrastus  (lib.  iv.,  c.  9)  clearly  describes  the  cotton  with 
leaves  like  the  vine  as  being  abundant  in  the  Island  of 
Tylos  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  Heeren,  in  his  work  on  the 
'  Commerce  of  the  Antients,*  comes  to  the  conclusion  that 
these  plantations  of  cotton  in  the  Island  of  Tylos  were  the 
result  of  the  commerce  with  India,  the  true  country  of  the 
cotton.  The  inferences  from  these  quotations  of  the  original 
introduction  of  cotton  from  India  into  Egypt  are  in  some  mea- 
sure confirmed  by  there  being  no  species  of  CK)ssypium  indi- 
genous and  peculiar  to  the  latter  countnr.  In  conclusion  it  is 
necessary  to  refer  to  the  facility  with  which  cotton  is  distin- 
guished from  linen  to  controvert  the  assertion  of  Rossellini 
that  it  was  always  employed  for  mummy-cloth;  as  the 
result  of  numerous  observations  by  Bauer,  &c.,  with  the 
most  powerful  microscopes  of  modem  times,  and  every 
variety  of  mummy-cloth,  has  proved  that  it  is  invariably 
composed  of  linen,  and  not  of  cotton  cloth.  The  one  fibre 
is  easily  distinguished  from  the  other ;  that  of  cotton  having 
a  flat  tape  or  riband-like  appearance,  while  the  fibre  of  the 
linen  has  a  round  tubular  anid  even-jointed  structure.  {Egyp, 
Antiq,, '  Library  of  Entertaining  Knowledge,'  vol.  ii.,  p.  182.) 

The  genus  Gossypium  is  characterised  by  having  a  dou- 
ble calyx,  of  which  the  inner  is  cup-shaped,  obtusely  6- 
toothed,  the  outer  or  involucre  tripartite,  with  the  leaflets 
united  at  the  bas^  cordate,  with  the  margins  irregularlv 
out  Stigmas,  3-5.  Capsules,  3  or  5  celled,  many  seeded. 
Seeds  clothed  with  wool-like  hairs,  or  cotton. 

The  species  of  Grossypium  occupy  naturally  a  belt  pro- 
bably exceeding  the  torrid  sone  in  breadth,  but  in  a  culti- 
vated state  we  have  cotton  now  extending  on  one  hand  to  the 
south  of  Burope,  and  Lower  Virginia  and  even  Maryland, 
in  the  United  States  of  America ;  while  on  the  other,  we  have 
it  as  far  south  as  the  Cape  of  Grood  Hope,  and  in  America  to 
the  southern  parts  of  Brazil.  Within  these  limits  it  may  also 
be  seen  cultivated  at  considerable  elevations.  Baron  Hum- 
boldt mentions  having  seen  it  even  at  9000  feet  of  elevation 
in  the  Equinoctial  Andes;  and  in  Mexico,  at  5500  feet 
Dr.  Royle  states  it  as  being  cultivated  in  small  quantities  at 
4000  feet  of  elevation  in  SO""  N.  lat  in  the  Himalayas.  The 
localities  suited  to  the  production  of  cotton  depend  as 
much  upon  the  climate  as  the  soil,  and  also  upon  the  spe- 
cific peculiarities  of  the  different  kinds  of  cotton  plants. 
That  the  production  of  cotton  is  so  much  influenced  by  ex- 
ternal circumstances  is  not  more  remarkable  than  in  many 
other  cultivated  plants ;  indeed  we  might  expect  it  to  be 
more  so  from  the  susceptibility  of  Uiis  hairy  development 
to  the  influence  of  situation.  [Cotton.]  Humboldt  has  re* 
marked  that  OoiSffpium  baroaden$€,  kirnUum,  and  religio- 
man  flourish  in  a  climate  where  the  mean  annual  temperature 
is  from  82^  to  68° ;  but  that  G.  herbaceum  is  successfullv  cul^ 
tivated  where,  the  summer  heat  being  75"  or  73*,  that  of 
winter  is  not  less  than  46**  or  48°.  The  cultivation  of  this 
cotton  however  does  not  depend  so  much  on  winter  cold  as 
on  sufficient  length  of  suitable  summer  heat.  The  ther- 
mometer in  Upper  Virginia  is  sometimes  as  low  as  zero  of 
Fahr.  in  winter,  and  yet  cotton  can  be  cultivated  during 
the  long  summer. 

It  is  remarkable  that  a  genus  so  important  fmr  its  pro- 
duct and  so  long  known,  ana  witli  comparatively  ao  small  a 
number  of  species,  should  yet  have  theae  undetermined. 
The  eelebx»ted  De  CaodoUe  »t«tesi  that  no  g«au8  nore 


uiflently  rcquupos  thelaboun  of  a  monograph  flrom  a  care  ft. 
botanist  wUo  could  have  the  opporluniiy  of  iceiu^c   tLo 
species  in  a  living  state.    The  confusion  has  iu  a  ^z<  . 
measure  proceeded  from  botanists  absurdly  negkc-im;:  i 
cultivatea  in  their  search  fur  uew  species^;  aud  cul.i« . 
bein^  incompetent  or  unwilling  to  distinguish  vari4?itc»  :.    . 
species;  frequently  raising  the  former  to  the  rank  uf 
latter,  because  the  produce,  in  which  alone  tbey  arc  i. 
rested,  happened  to  be  more  or  less  valuable.    In  th«-  i 
ceedings  of  the  East  Indian  Committee  there  i&  an  tnicx  t  • 
letter  from  Mr.  Spalding,  where  he  informs  us  tliat  i 
American  cultivators  confine  their  attention  to  such  \u 
as  are  of  annual  growth.     1st  The  Nankeen  coUon,  i 
duced  at  an  early  period.    This  is  abundant  in  proa 
the  seed  covered  with  down,  the  wool  of  a  dirty  }« 
colour,  and  usually  low  priced.    2nd.  The  green-stcd  r<.;.- 
with  white  wool,  which,  with  tbe  former,  is  grouii  ui  ; 
middle  and  upland  districts,  whence  the  latter  is  cu. 
upland  cotion,  also  short  staple  cotton,  and,  from  the  w 
in  which  it  was  cleaned,  bowed  Georgia  cotton.    3nl.  1 . 
sea-island  or  long-staple  cotton,  whicn  is  distingui^bci  • 
the  black  colour  of  its  seed,  and  the  fine  white  strorif;  ^ 
silky  long  staple  by  which  it  is  surrounded.    This  ia  fp^', 
in  the  lower  parts  of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina  acar  .. 
sea,  and  on  several  small  islands  which  are  not  very  di^^.  * 
from  the  ihore. 

The  species  admitted  by  botanists  are  not  yet  ckmrl)  v' 
termined.      M.  de  CandoUe,  the  most  reoent  sy»tvta%- 
author,  admits  thirteen  species,  and  notices  others.    T  - 
have   since   been   described   by  Dr.  Roxburgh.  on«*    •  • 
Roausch,  and  another  in  the '  Flore  de  Senegambte.*   O' 
rieties  Mr.  Bennet  says  he  knows  more  than  100  ku.- 
and  that  they  appeared  to  him  never-ending.    l>r,  K«.> 
the  most  reoent  author  who  has  treated  expressly  of  i 
species,  admits  eight  species,  in  which  are  absorbed  ftjtxyt. 
De  Candolle's;  whilt  others  are  avowedly  unnoticed  for  >  - 
of  materials  fi^r  satiafiictory  determination.  But  from  hhi  c. .  . 
observations.  Dr.  Roxburgh's  '  Flora  Indica,'  as  well  a.i  ir 
Swartz,  ^Observ.  Bot.'  for  the  West  Indies,  and  tb«  s^t 
mens,  though  few,  in  the  British  Museum,  it  is  probable  t  : 
several  of  the  cultivated  species  are  correctly  determtnc  ' 

G.  herbaceum,  Lin.,  which  is  herbaceous  in  tcm^'crL*  . 
and  usually  with  bi-triennial  stems  4-6  feet  high  m  :- 
pical  countries,  is   no  doubt  the  Xylon  s.  Goes)*r>ium  .. 
tiquorum,  and  includes  also  the  G.  indtcum  of  Lama:  », 
which  would  indeed  be  the  preferable  name  for  this  sp«^ . 
The  younger  parts  of  the  stem,  as  well  as  the  flower-  i-  . 
leaf-stalks,  hairy  and  marked  with  black  spots^     Lr:*! 
hairy,    palmate,    3-  generally  5-lobed,    lobes    broad    a:< 
rounded  with  a  little  point  or  in  the  woody  vaiielwa  *. 
lanceolate  and  acute.     Stipules  &lcate,  lanceolate.   Fli^»i..-« 
of  a  lively  yellow  colour,  with  a  piurple  spot  near  tbe  a- 
Segments  of  exterior  calyx   dentate^    sometimes  ent 
Capsules  ovate,  pointed,  3-  or  4-celled.    Seeds  free,  cl*:l- 
with  finely  adhering  greyish  down  under  the  sbort'»t»{ 
white  wool. 

This  and  its  varieties  are  those  chiefly  cultit-atirl     . 
India.    It  has  been  procured  from  China  and  the  M:&Jx>  - 
Peninsula,  and  also  from  Egypt    G,punctatum,  from  Sc 
gambia,  is  probably  a  variety.    It  is  that  cultivated  in  t. 
Mediterranean  region,  and  must  have  been  tho  s|xr«. 
taken  to  America  from  Smyrna. 

G,  arboreum,  Un.  Stem  arboreous  15-2ft  feet  aometrr:  «<^ 
shrubby,  young  parts  hairy,  tinged  of  a  reddiali  nil- 
Leaves  palmate,  3-  or  4-lobed,  hairy,  dotted  with  blar-%> 
spots  of  a  dark-green  colour;  lobes  elongated,  lan<vv  U  • . 
sometimes  mucronate,  sinus  obtuse,  glands  one,  samet^n 
three.    Stipules  oval-shaped.    Flowers  solitary,  with  >t  : 
peduncles,  red,  with  a  yellowish  tinge  near  the  daws.  L*  •- 
lets  of  the  exterior  calyx  cordate,  ovate,  entire^  soOMMiri  • 
dentate.     Capsule  ovate-pointed,  3-  or  4-eeUed,  aeeds  <-  " 
vered  with  a  greenish-ooloured  fiir,  enveloped  in  fine  »  • 
yellowish-white  wool.    This  species  is  fi>una  in  the  iaXaiA 
Celebes  and  in  every  part  of  India.    It  is  noticed  an  t  ^ 
lists  of  the  plants  of  Arabia  and  also  of  Egypt  <      U   > 
planted   near   temples  and  the  habitation  of   Faquir. * 
in  India,  and  is  stated  to  be  saored  to  the  Hindu  dci'..<x 
and    therefore   employed  onlT  for   making  mu^lui   t  : 
turbans.  The  species  is  marked  Q,  rel^j^um  in  '  Ur>T«  • 
Herbarium,'  and  one  specimen  of  6.  harbaidemt  u  marie. 
6.  arboreum  in  the  'linnean  Herbarium.' 

G, rehgiosfiin.  Perennial; item 3-4 feet, bmnchca and i»- 
tioto»»]iittteY4iwt^hiiiiil»tPwariith»ai»ftTitBd  m^^rmk 


GOT 


316 


GOT 


muslins  and  cottons,  which  employ  above  400  hands ;  and  in  I 
that  of  porcelain,  paper,  cloth,  linen,  thread,  yarn,  camlets,  | 
tobacco,  musical  and  surgical  instruments,  toys,  newter  and 
japan  goods,  furniture,  gunpowder,  excellent  saddlery,  &c. 
Their  breweries  are  extensive,  and  thev  are  likewise  famous 
for  their  sausages.  A  considerable  trade  is  also  carried  on  by 
the  merchants  of  Gotha.  As  the  environs  of  Grotha  possess 
a  very  fertile  soil,  many  of  the  inhabitants  are  occupied  in 
agriculture  and  the  rearing  of  cattle ;  it  also  possesses  some 
clever  artists  and  mechanics,  and  is  the  resiaence  of  many 
eminent  literary  characters.  It  is  the  birth-place  of  the  poet 
Gottcr,  who  died  in  1795,  and  of  Blumenbach.  Near  the 
town  is  the  fine  Observatory,  built  by  Duke  Ernest  II.,  on 
the  Seeberg,  a  hill  which  is  1192  feet  in  height.  It  was 
the  scene  of  the  labours  of  Zach. 
GOTHARD,  ST.    [Alps] 

GOTHE,  JOHANN  WOLFGANG  VON,  was  bom  at 

Frank  fort-on-the-Main  in  the  year  1749.  The  history,  or 
rather  the  poetical  account,  which  he  has  given  of  his  own 
life  in  the  book  entitled  '  Aus  meinem  Leben,'  enables  the 
reader  to  trace  from  early  childhood  the  mental  development 
of  this  extraordinary  man.  The  taste  of  his  father  (who 
was  a  man  in  comfortable  circumstances)  for  literature  and 
works  of  art,  and  the  sensation  created  by  the  breaking  out 
of  the  Seven  Years*  War,  had  a  ^reat  influence  on  .his 
mind,  and  had  the  effect  of  forming  him  to  habits  of 
reflection.  In  early  years  he  seems  to  have  had  anxious 
thoughts  about  religion,  and  before  he  had  attained  the  age 
of  eight  he  devised  a  form  of  worship  to  the  '  €rod  of  Nature,* 
and  actually  burned  sacrifices.  Music,  drawing,  natural 
science,  the  study  of  languages,  all  had  charms  for  him ; 
and  to  further  his  proficiency  in  language,  he  wrote  a 
romance,  wherein  seven  sisters  corresponded,  each  in  a  dif- 
ferent tongue.  He  soon  turned  his  attention  to  poetry,  and 
composed  songs  for  the  amusement  of  some  young  persons 
with  whom  he  had  become  accidentally  acquainted.  These 
young  persons  however  turned  out  to  be  bad  characters, 
and  his  connexion  with  them  was  broken  off.  The  intimacy 
led  to  his  feeling  for  the  first  time  the  passion  of  love. 
Gretchen  (Peggy),  who  cave  a  name  to  the  heroine  of 
'  Faust,'  was  the  object  of  his  early  passion ;  she  was  related 
to  one  of  his  young  friends,  and  seems  to  have  been  a  sen- 
sible well-inclined  girl,  who  would  have  warned  him  from 
her  own  circle  of  acquaintance.  After  the  connexion  was 
broken  off,  he  never  saw  her  again :  a  severe  fit  of  illness 
was  the  consequence  of  this  separation.  Shortly  after  his 
recovery  he  was  sent  to  the  university  of  Leipzig,  where 
Gottsched,  who  favoured  the  French  school,  Ernesti,  and 
Gellert,  were  leading  men.  Here  his  decided  poetical  turn 
first  became  manifest ;  and  though  his  father  aesigned  him 
to  study  jurisprudence,  instead  of  devoting  himself  to  this 
pursuit,  he  looked  around  him,  in  order  to  learn  or  discover 
some  satisfactory  theory  of  poetry.  But  it  was  the  infancy 
of 'German  literature :  he  could  find  no  certain  criterion 
of  taste,  and  this  prompted  him  to  look  within  himself. 
'  Here  began,*  says  ne, '  that  tendency,  from  which  I  did  not 
depart  all  my  life,  to  turn  everything  which  pleased  or 
pained  me  into  a  song.*  A  little  piece  called  '  Die  Laune 
des  Verliebten*  (The  Lover's  Whimsicality*)  appeared  at 
this  time,  as  well  as  a  comedy  called '  Die  Mitschuldiger ' 
(the  accomplices),  which  was  designed  to  exhibit  the  im- 
morality of  private  life  concealed  under  a  smooth  out- 
side. He  also  paid  attention  to  the  history  of  the  fine 
arts:  Winckclmann  was  his  favourite  author.  He  even 
made  some  attempts  at  etching;  but  the  exhalations  of 
the  acid  impaired  his  health,  and  he  had  hardly  recovered 
in  1 768,  the  vear  in  which  he  left  Leipzig.  To  restore  him 
to  strength,  he  was  sent  to  the  residence  of  a  lady  named 
Kletten^rg,  the  '  fair  saint*  whose  confessions  are  recorded 
in  '  Wilhelm  Meister.'  She  was  a  mystic :  her  society  led 
Gbthe  to  study  the  alchemical  and  cabalistic  authors  ;  and 
he  even  had  thoughts  of  founding  a  new  religion,  to  be 
based  on  the  Alexandrian  philosophy.  These  strange  pur- 
suits made  him  turn  his  attention  to  natural  science ;  and 
when  he  went  to  Strasburg  to  finish  his  legal  studies,  he 
neglected  jurisprudence  for  chemistry  and  anatomy.  Here 
he  became  acquainted  with  Herder,  who  advised  him  to 
peruse  the  Italian  poets.  On  his  return  home  he  published 
the  play  of  •  G6t«  von  Berlichingen'  (1 773)  and  the  novel  of 
'  Werther*  (1774),  which  excited  a  sensation  over  all  Ger- 

*  It  !■  dlflftult  to  flad  an  English  word  which  exaetlv  correipondt  to 
*  Laune.*    The  bvbuoue  ezpreMioB  '  humounomeomt '  might  be  coined  for 
It  meaos  here  the  mood  of  one  who  b  in  iU-hvinour  about  nothing. 


many.  The  Prince  of  Weimar  made  his  aeouaintance,  an'1 
on  assuming  the  government  invited  him  to  his  court.  I]' 
went  to  Weimar  in  1775,  and  in  1779  was  made  a  pr.\t 
counsellor  (geheimrath),  and  in  the  same  year  aor-.«ft. 
panied  his  prince  to  Switzerland.  In  17S6  he  tiuvert  i 
into  Italy,  where  he  remained  two  years.  Subsequer.  '• 
he  became  one  of  the  ministry,  received  honourable  mnri. 
of  distinction  from  different  sovereigns,  and  closed  » 
long  life,  devoted  entirely  to  science,  literature,  and  art,  il 
1832. 

As  this  brief  sketch  of  Gothe*s  life  has  not  given  a  t).  # 
of  the  order  of  his  works,  we  shall  here  notice  them  ut-^r'.f 
in  their  chronological  arrangement 

'  Werther,'  which  was  one  of  his  earliest  production^,  t.  .. 
occasioned  by  the  suicide  of  a  young  gentleman   narvf  . 
Jerusalem.    It  is  written  with  immense  power  and  cncr.-« . 
of  which  the  flat  English  translation  gives  a  very  ioadequ..: 
idea. 

'  Grotz  von  Berlichingen*  is  less  a  drama  than  a  seru.--    ' 
dramatic  scenes,  which  give  an  almost  pictorial  view     i 
the  times  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian.    The  cbarartrr 
Martin  Luther,  yet  a  monk,  the  Bauerkrieg  (war  of  :l- 

Eeasants),  the  Fehmgericht,  or  secna  tribunal,  are  c  \ 
ibited  with  a  gmphic  accuracy  which,  considering  ih<*  » j 
of  the  author,  is  wonderful.    The  character  of  (jotz,  an 
Grerman  knight,  who  lives  to  see  civil  rights  overpower  * 
old  club-law,  is  most  interesting,  while  nis  fate  excite^  -  ■  - 
deepest  sympathy.     The  characters  of  Adelaide,  an   • 
triguing  court-lady,  and  Francis,  an  amorous  page,  d:*f-    • 
great  knowledge  of  human  nature.    A  translation  of  t).  - 
piece  was  one  of  Sir  W.  Srott*s  earliest  works. 

The  drama  of  'Egmont'  is  immortalized  by  tbr  r\ 
racter  of  Clara,  which  is  a  most  beautiful  picture  of  fcmtn  ■ 
constancy  and  devotion. 

These  works,  together  with  a  variety  of  small  p<w^  • 
may  be  reckoned  as  the  prototypes  or  one  class  of  \ 
writings.    The  small  poems  are  the  exact  illustraticit. 
that  habit  which  has  been  already  noticed.     A   sn  j 
thought,  and    that  a  very  trivial  one,  often  form«   li. 
sole  subject  of  a  lyrical  piece;  yet  these  thoughts  or- 
so  true  to  nature,  and  are  so  perfectly  suited  to  the  subject 
as  to  render  these  little  effusions  perhaps  the  most  delis:  :.t- 
ful  of  all  his  works.    To  the  same  class  may  be  refcrr   1 
'Clavigo,'  a  domestic  tragedy,  and 'Stella,'  a  aenument^u 
comedy  with  rather  an  equivocal  moral. 

The  second  order  of  works  consists  of  those  which  wrrt 
written  at  a  later  period  of  life,  the  prototypes  of  which  arc 
classical  models.  '  Iphigenia  auf  Tauris*  stands  at  the  hea  i 
of  this  class,  and  is  universally  admitted  to  breathe  a  m^rc 
truly  Greek  spirit  than  any  work  of  modem  times.  It  t>  • 
master-piece  of  its  kind;  the  antiquity  of  its  aqiect  d.o^ 
not  consist  in  a  blind  regard  for  antient  forma.  Ibr  it  i.»> 
not  even  the  chorus  of  the  antient  drama,  but  the  \t.rv 
thoughts  are  cast  in  a  classic  mould.  Professor  Hemxati^, 
of  Leipzig,  has  turned  parts  of  this  drama  into  Gn>i. 
*  Torquato  Tasso'  is  another  piece  of  the  same  kind«  whu  u 
represents  the  contrary  positions  of  a  poet  and  a  man  of  t*:- 
world.  His  *  Epigrams  from  Venice'  and  his  '  Blegies*  aSi 
bear  the  classic  stamp,  and,  though  frequently  hc«nti..us 
are  excellent  as  being  a  repetition  of  tba  spirit  of  x}^: 
Roman  elegiac  and  amatory  poets. 

Three  works  of  Gbthe  stand  prominently  ibrth«  wb  r> 
it  is  difficult  to  place  in  any  class;  these  are  *WUhr*. 
Meister's  Apprenticeship,'  'Hermann  and  Dorothea,*  «: 
'  Faust.'   The  first  is  a  novel,  which  contains  many  valur' 
critical  remarks  (particularly  on  Shakspeare*8  'Hamlet* 
but  its  main  purpose  is  to  exhibit  the  progress  of  a  \\}u* . 
man  who,  though  at  first  ignorant  of  the  world  and  iHlcd  « .  . 
the  most  romantic  ideas,  ends  with  being  an  accomplK%h> 
gentleman.    Many  of  the  scenes  give  curious  picture^ 
German  life,  and  the  character  of  Mignon  has  been  r-i 
oririn  of  Sir  W.  Scott's  Fenella  in  'Peveril  of  tKe  Pcalw 
and  of  Esmeralda  in  Hugo's  '  Notre  Dame.' 

'  Hermann  and  Dorothea'  is  a  kind  of  idyllic  e^n%^-  V  • 
subject  is  merely  a  love  story  in  a  small  town ;  the  ptctiii^s 
are  drawn  from  humble  life,  but  the  style  is  Homeric,  ar  . 
the  plot  artfully  interwoven  with  the  French  ReTolut:.  ^ 
J.  H.  Voss  had  previously  written  his  idyll  'Lui»e*  aL«  .• 
hexameters,  and  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  st>1e;  b. 
Hegel,  late  professor  of  philosophy  at  Berlin,  ingenwu* « 
pointed  out  the  difTerenco  between  the  two  worki^  sr  1 
showed  that  'Luise*  is  a  mere  domestic  idyl,  while  the  sut- 
ject  of  '  Hermann  and  Dorothea'  is  not  to  ctxcluatTely  ec«i- 


GOT 


SIS 


O  O  T 


"°S" 


oonmeree  of  the  proMut  town  U  confined  to  tba  produoa  of 
its  forests,  quarries,  and  the  exportation  of  jye,  but  it  i« 
rathur  active  and  thriving.  It  has  ■  ^od  grammar-schooL 
About  fifteen  miles  aoulh  of  it  U  Klmtehamn,  a  good  har- 
bour, whenre,  on  certain  da^ri,  a  post-boat  goei  to  Boda- 
bamn  on  the  island  of  Oland. 

Giiltland  liSn  contains  93  churches,  which  give*  an  ave- 
rage of  only  about  42B  persons  to  each  church.  [Thompson's 
Traveli  through  Siceden ;  Schubert's  RMitdarch  Sehiteden ; 
Slathiikvon  Schweden.yon  Carl  af  Forsell,  Liibepk,1835.) 
GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE.  This  popular  appella- 
tion of  the  style  marked  by  the  full  development  and  eon- 
sislont  application  of  the  pointed  arch  has  been  objected  to, 
both  as  historically  incorrect  and  as  conveying  a  reproachAiJ 
idea  in  itself.  Yet  although  originally  used  in  a  conlemp- 
tuou*  sense,  no  meaning  of  the  kind  is  now  attached  to  it ; 
and  however  ill-chosen  the  epithet  Gothic  may  be,  however 
arbitrary  the  acceptation  thus  connected  with  it.  the  term  is 
>  established,  not  only  in  our  own  but  in  other 
n  languages,  that  it  ii  useless  to  attempt  to  explode 
n  could  it  be  effected,  no  real  advantage  would  bo 
iained  by  banishing  it.  since  it  misleads  no  one ;  neither 
has  any  equivalent  been  yet  found  for  it,  every  substilut4! 
hitherto  proposed  being  either  too  vague  or  too  limited  in 
meanine.  Tne  term  'Chnstian  architecture,'  for  instance, 
besides  being  afTccled,  is  also  inaccurate,  because  that  would 
equally  well  suit  any  other  style,  whether  earlier  or  later, 
prevalent  in  the  religious  edifices  of  Christian  countries, 
Saxon,  Norman,  or  Lombardic.  ll  would  further  seem  to 
imply  that  the  style  so  denominated  had  its  rise  together 
with  Cliristianity  itself,  and  was  devised  by  its  Srst  profes- 
sors in  opposition  to  Pagan  architecture ;  consequently,  iti- 
stcad  of  correcting  error,  the  adaption  of  such  a  name  would 
be  merely  the  inconvenient  substitution  of  a  new-fangled 
mislako  in  lieu  of  an  inveterate  and  Srmly-rooted  one.  The 
term  'Pointed  architecture' is  upon  the  whole  the  least 
cxccptioiiablo  of  any  which  have  been  proposed,  being 
tolcmbly  significant,  and  may  therefore  be  allowed  to  bo 
employed,  not  to  the  exclusion  of  the  word '  Gothic,'  but  as 
n  very  useful  synonyme,   that   may  be   used  indifferently 

By  either  'Gothic' or '  Pointed'  we  understand  that  style 
wherein  llio  pointed  arch,  as  applied  to  various  purposes, 
some  chiefly  of  conitruction,  others  of  design  and  embel- 
lishment, becomes  a  leading  characteristic  of  the  ediSce. 
The  origin  of  this  form  of  the  arch,  and  consequently  of 
the  style  itself,  has  been  matter  of  much  discussion,  and 
has  led  to  a  variety  of  hypotheses,  more  or  less  plausible, 
but  all  destitute  of  posiLve  historic  proof,  and  some  of 
them  obviously  absurd  in  their  ingenuity.  Forgetting  that 
striking  analogies  and  resemblances  frequently  exist  where 
imitation  is  entirely  out  of  the  question,  Warbutton,  Mur- 
phy, and  Sir  James  Hall  have  all  suffered  themselves  to  be 
most  egrcgiously  misled  by  casual  and  superflciat  coinci- 
dences of  such  kind.  The  first  tells  us  that  an  avenue  ol 
over-arching  trees  was  the  prototype  of  the  aisles  of  out 
ancient  calhedr.ila;  while  Muriihy  points  to  the  pyramids 
OS  the  source  whence  the  builders  derived  liie  idea  ofspiros, 
pinnacles,  and  oihcr  aouminjled  forras;  and  Sir  James, 
with  equal  felicity  of  imagination,  refers  us  to  interlaced 
wicker-work  as  the  undoubted  type  of  the  Gothic  slyU 
all  its  leading  forms,  its  arched  and  groined  roo^^  its  c__. 
tered  pillars,  its  windows  and  their  fanciful  tracery.  As 
far  as  cxcmpliflcalion  of  bis  theory  goes,  the  last-mon- 
tioned  writer  has  certainly  brought  forward  much  stronger 
proof  than  the  other  two,  because  he  has  illustrated  it 
rather  fully  with  drawines  which  prove  plainly  enough  that 
wicker-work  may  be  made  to  imitate  the  principal  furms  of 
Gothic  architecture  with  tolerable  exactness.  One  fatal 
blow  to  all  these  theories  is,  that  instead  of  the  resemblance 
to  the  supposed  model  being,  as  it  ought,  the  closest  and 
most  exact  in  the  first  stages  of  the  style  said  to  be  derived 
from  it,  the  resemblance  is  there  least  of  all  discernible. 

Whether  the  real  origin  of  the  pointed  arch  will  now  bo 
ever  satisfcctorily  accounted  fcr  and  proved  beyond  dispute 
may  fairly  be  questioned ;  neither  would  any  actual  advan- 
tage be  derived  from  its  being  done,  linoe  we  should  not 
thereby  be  at  all  advanced  in  our  study  of  tba  stylo,  nor 
enabled  to  cooy  it  with  greater  ability  than  at  present. 
Yet  although  the  inquiry  itself  is  one  of  mere  curiosity,  the 
controversies  and  lealous  researches  to  whieh  it  has  given 
rise  have  proved  exceedingly  beneficial,  both  by  directing 
aiteation  to  the  subject  of  Gothic  uchitectura,  and  by  lead- 


ing to  tha  atudy  of  it,  t)ier«by  diffusing  a  popular  frrliTii* 
Tor  it.  Perhaps  therefore  it  is  rather  an  advanlatic  than  ti... 
contrary,  that  instead  of  flnding  it,ve  have  been  i>t'tii.- 
to  turn  and  dig  up  the  whole  Held  in  search  of  a  conrcal  - 
Ireasura;  whereas,  had  they  stumbled  upon  it,  our  ai.ii 
quories  would  probably  have  desisted  from  tlieir  toil. 

The  first  idea  of  tlie  painted  arch  is  suppoeod  by  Milr.*r 
have  been  suggested  by  the  intersection  of  rirrulu 
blank  arches  crossing  each  other,  and  employed  for  •U'-r 
ration  on  the  faces  of  walls,  as  in  the  annexed  specimi 
taken  from  the  front  of  Lincoln  Cathedral,  which  i*  fto  t\- 
ample  of  the  preceding  or  Norman  style,  and  wber*  lU; 
spnces  between  the  pillars  terminate  in  smaller  aeutekicl^i 


This  conjecture  has  much  probability  in  its  favinir 
yet,  even  if  we  admit  it,  we  find  that  ws  shall  vbtam 
merely  a  single  and  simple  elementarv  form,  whieb  ptci 
but  a  little  ifay  towards  oonatituting  tno  deflnita  poinio) 
style.  The  mere  ciroumstanco  of  apertures,  whether  Aum 
or  windows,  being  pointed,  is  iatumdent,  at  w  pfared  bi 
casual  instances  of  such  features  in  buildings,  to  give  a:ii 
idea  of  the  finished  style  itself ;  in  proof  of  which.  ww»  ii 
not  that  more  modurn  examples  might  be  potDlcd  on 
at  home — and  wa  need  look  no  farther  (hjui  toe  front  i.! 
Guildhall,  London — we  might  refer  to  the  pointed  anba* 
which  occur  in  many  Moorisn  and  Arabian  buildups,  vhirli 
yet,  independently  of  that  obvious  peculiarity  of  tona.  b&ir 
little  else  in  common  with  those  of  Gothic  arcbitecturr. 
The  coincidence  as  to  this  solitary  particular  has  led  ma:.* 
to  attribute  the  invention  of  tbe  pointed  arch  to  the  Aral-.. 
and  to  infer  that  it  was  borrowed  bv  the  Cfusaden  from  tin- 
Saracens.  We  oan  only  lav  that  inere  isitroiig  probaliititi 
in  ihvour  of  such  theory  ;  but  then,  if  that  single  fcatnrr 
was  so  borrowed,  the  style,  of  which  it  aftanraidi  becanuso 
distinguishing  a  characteristic,  is  altogethec  European,  un- 
less we  also  suppose  the  tracery  of  Gothic  windowa  to  iv 
derived  from  a  similar  source,  and  that  the  ides  uf  it  w*a 
first  furnished  by  the  ornamental  open  l«tti(«-vork  m 
common  in  Oriental  buildings,  and  soma  of  whow  compli- 
cated intersections  have  been  thought  to  have  suggealoi  Uii- 
pointed  arch  itself.  What  however  con tradicti  the  tiuli^u 
of  Gothic  tracery  having  soorigioated  is,  that  such  emlwl- 
lishment  does  not  mark  the  earlier  Gotbio  style,  as  it  mai 
reasonably  be  supposed  would  have  been  the  owa  h»d  t 
been  imported,  top^ther  with  Iha  pointed  arch  it*eU;  ftom  a 
distant  country. 

Notwithstanding  the  perplexing  conOict  of  opinioo*  a*  to 
the  origin  and  formation  of  the  Gothic  style,  mora  th^a 
one  of  which  may  be  partially  correct,  becaiua  a  f^tal 
variety  of  circumstances  may  have  contributed  more  oi  le*< 
towards  the  same  end,  there  i*  one  thing  which  adiBiU  i  * 
no  doubt,  namely,  that  the  style  sudden^  aprung  vp  oboui 
the  close  of  the  twelfth  cenlurv,  anil  showed  itteli^  mt  m 
one  country  alone,  but  througliout  tbo  principal  p«ri  •■( 
Europe.  Still,  this  very  fact  itself  has  served  in  do  mall 
degree  to  increase  perplexity,  sinee,  while  it  seem*  to  pii.i  i 
to  some  model  borrowed  in  common  from  elsewben.  it  bu 
given  rise  to  much  dispute  as  to  the  country  in  whKh  it 
first  appeared.  The  honour  of  its  parentage  haa  bt«^ 
claimeu  fur  England,  France,  and  Germany,  by  aotiquani-- 
of  the  respective  countries.  The  late  Mr.  Hope,  oa  iU' 
contrary,  iu  his  '  Historical  Essay  on  Architecture,'  x  worl 
which,  althouKh  left  in  an  unfinished  state,  brings  te^lbrr 
a  vast  mass  of  information  on  the  subject,  has  pot  forwari 
much  able  argument  to  tbow  that  ptvfereitM  o(  ciata 


horoonlalW,  or  polygonal  in  plan,  or  erolx>»sed  with  Bculp- 
luri!,  IT  eillier  twUled  or  cut  inlo  spiral  groovB*  and  mould- 
insjs.  Equal  divotiity— not  to  rjill  it  exlravagouce— prevails 
in  the  capilaU,  which,  a»  far  bb  ifeneral  miKs  and  outline 
go,  bear  some  analogy  to  the  Corinlhiaii.  Of  such  foliaged 
canitali  one  from  ine  doorway  of  Mcnli  rathedral  idb^ 
■^ve  as  on  iustwice,  though,  being  a  single  Epecimen,  it 
must  not  be  received  u  a  lauiple  of  the  entire  clas«. 


GOT 

lath  it,  10  that  two  of  ilt  arches  owupr  no  wider  <■!  -■■■ 
than  one  of  tlioae  below  it.  Another  practice  \-ecu\-^r 
this  alyle  a  that  of  earning  a  range  of  Brcbes  Wi>ff:i  ' 
eable,  ascending  one  above  the  other  in  tiie  nme  *\-\ 
direction  as  the  sides  of  the  roof;  instances  of  which  '-- 
...  the  front  of  the  Duoino  at  Parma,  and  in  thow  uf  i 
cathedral  at  Cotrara,  and  the  church  of  San  Zcno  si  \  • 

,  in  which  two  latter  instances  however  the  ba-- 
the  columns  are  all  on  the  same  level,  and  coni«auentl>  '  - 
columns  themselves  gradually  increase  in  heiglit  a^  1^ 
approach  the  centre.  Tlie  fVont  of  the  cathedral  at  i> 
offers  a  double  instance  of  the  same  kind  in  the  Jipfer 

J  story,  and  in  the  half  gables  over  the  end*  -.i  ■ 
second  one,  with  the  difference,  that  in  the  lalterlhv  f-  . 
support  merely  blocks  placed  beneath  the  inclined  ln'-- 
the  roof.  We  may  aUo  remark  tliat  this  and  aeveral  <. 
edifices  in  the  same  city  are  in  a  style  so  peculiar  a*  tu  i., 
been  distinguished  by  some  as  a  separate  one,  by  the  n:  - 
of  the  Pisan. 

I  in  Norman,  to  too  in  Lombaidio  architecture.  V  ' 


If  however  some  capitals  are  much  deeoratod,  others  are 
nearly  plain,  and  these  are  frequently  in  the  form  of  an 
inverted  cone,  cut  in  such  manner  as  to  present  four  flat 
sides,  or  feces,  which  again  are  occasionally  raare  or  less 
ornamented.  In  bases  thero  is  much  less  variety,  they 
being,  for  the  most  part,  only  a  series  of  mouldings  in  rude 
itnitatiun  of  the  common  allic  base  But  one  very  great 
singularity  in  this  style,  connected  with  columns,  is  that  of 
plaaing  Ihcm  upon  the  backs  of  couchant  animals,  or  other 
figuces,  which  serve  as  pedestals  to  them.  Whimsical  as  it 
appears  to  us,  it  may,  very  probably,  liave  originated  not 
altogether  in  caprice,  but  have  been  occasioned  by  employ- 
ing materials  and  fragments  taken  from  ruined  edifices, 
where  columns,  being  found  too  short  for  their  intended  situ- 
ation, were  raised  or  stilted  up  by  being  set  on  other  frag- 
ments, for  which  purpose  remains  of  sculpture  may  have  been 
adopted,  either  because  they  chanced  to  be  at  hand,  or  be- 
cause considered  more  ornamental  and  as  adding  richness  to 
the  column  itself.  Upon  the  ^amc  supposition  we  may  easily 
account  fur  the  great  variety  of  columns  and  capitals  in  the 
same  building,  namely,  that  they  were  ornaments  collected 
at  random  feoia  tberemains  of  other  structures,  and  that  the 
vregulacity  thus  occasioned  in  the  first  instance  grew  by  de- 
grees to  be  a  matter  of  ta^ie,  and  was  adopted  out  of  choice. 
Columns  of  the  kind  just  specified  were  however  by  no 
means  very  usual,  and  are  chiefly  tu  he  met  with  in  those 
forming  porches,  or  decorating  Iho  chief  entrance  to  a 
church,  as  in  that  of  San  Ciriaco  at  Ancona,  and  in  San 
Zeno  at  Verona.  Although  not  invariably  so,  columns  are 
to  be  understood  as  aceumpaniraents  to  arches  which  spring 
from  them ;  and  arches  applied  in  diSercnt  ways  are  very 
predominant  features  of  the  style.  Besides  giving  the 
form  to  doorways  and  windows,  they  were  empluyed  for 
decorating  the  faces  of  walls,  in  very  nearly  the  same  man- 
ner as  in  the  kindred  Norman  style,  an  instance  of  which 
has  been  shown  above.  The  arch  itself,  being  semicircular, 
continues  of  the  same  proportions,  but  not  so  in  regard  to 
tlie  space  over  which  it  extends,  because  this  is  sometimes 
very  tall  and  narrow  in  comparison  with  the  chord  of  the 
arch  ;  in  others  abort  and  wide;  besides  which,  arches  of 
various  sizes  appear  in  the  same  front  Arches  again  ex- 
hibit considerable  diversity  of  decoration  in  their  mould- 


disposed,  the  apertures  for  windows  being  few  and  small, 
ana  destitute  of  ornament ;  and  they  generally  form  either 
successive  tiers,  one  above  the  other,  like  so  many  blank 
galleries,  or  occur  at  intervals  in  the  vertical  line  of  the 
''ce.  In  these  kinds  of  arcades,  that  which  is  uppermost 
DenllfofmtKbNBallerdimeiuioiii  lliui  tho  odo  be- 


the  style  we  are  speaking  of,  such  projecting  &cinga  ur.  •     . 
frequently  as  not,  confined  to  the  angles,  so  as  to   ftirra  . 
kind  of  border  or  framing  to  the   whole   front,  which  i- 
returned  horiiontally,  or,  if  beneath  a  gable,  in  a  »t  •)-    : 
direction,  corbelled  iij)on  small  pendent  arcbua.     At  <  ' 
limes  the  front  is  divided  inlo  several  compartments  "I   •■. 
same  kind  by  two  or  more  such  projections   intervc      .-   i 
between  the  extreme  ones,  so  that  the  whole  forms  a   k. 
of  panelling  upon  a  larae  scale,  which  system  is,   in  b  : . 
instances, earriedonhy  ihelargespacesbeingaimilarU  i  .      j 
elled  and  subdivided  by  columns  and  archer     Wiul... 
as  wo  have.said,  were  fur  the  most  part  sparingly  intrtxlui 
and  of  small  dimensions,  so  that  they  rarely  contrihui,  '.       i 
all  tovrards   embellishment;    doorways,   on   the  con:.  - 
were  made  very  important  features,   the  chief  onia:  .         I 
being  lavished  upon  them.    The  aperture  itself  indeini  ■■' 
generally  plain,  and  also  square-headed,  but  it  was  ein  I  ' 
in  a  recess  formed  by  a  series  of  arches  one  within  bii'->: 
and  resting  upon  columns  j  and  so  deep  was  ihis  v..       I 
casing  as  lo  be  frequently  very  nearly  as  wide  a*  tbc  ai  -  , 
doorway. 

In  the  older  buildines  of  Venice  the  Lomhardic  at?  It  -  - 
pears  to  have  combined  itself  with  Byuntine.Saraccn^i.'. 
Arabian  archictecturc,  in  some  instances  to  such  a  il  -  _ 
as  to  constitute  one  altogether  mi  generii,  and  pecul.-. 
that  city.    While  St.  ItiHu-k's,  with  its  numerous  ani  i 
cupolas,  seems  to  point  to  an  immediate  Bytanlinv  nr  . 
the  fa^es  of  the  doge's  palace,  the   Ca   d'Oro,  aim  ' 
palazii  Foscari  and   Pisani,  with  their  portico*  awl    ■ 
galleries,  are  strikingly  Oriental  in  their  physiogiioiiji  . 
although  they  exhibit  the  pointed  arch,  and  even  Ir^-i  • 
and  ogive  varieties  of  il,  they  do  not  in  the  sUehtesi  <„  . 
partake  of  the  pointed  style ;  having  nothing  whatci  c. 
character  in  their  outline  or  composition,  which  is  m; ; 
by  horizontal  lines.   Although  our  limits  render  it  impute 
to  enter,  as  we  could  wish  to  do,  more  fully  into  pat1t>-i..  ■ 
as  to  this  very  singular  Venetian  stvlc,  we  bava  ihu..  - 
proper  to  direct  attention  to  it  thus  briefly,  as  being   i>' 
interesting  and   instructive,   if  merely  from  ahowin,;  • 
without   other  elements  and  principles  the   pmnlud   i- 
alone  would  not  necessarily  have  led  to  the   £xmali'  n 
Gothic  architecture,  such  as  we  now  find  it 

These  few  generaliiations  will  serve  as  a  mere  !>L.' 
and  help  us  to  point  out  the  affinities  between  the  precw 
style  and  the  two  other  branches  of  the  same  alork.  - 
Saxon  and  Norman.     In   regoid  to   tfaeie,  it   i*  iluu!>.. 
whether  any  authenticated  examples  of  the  flnt-toeiiti 
remain,  it  beinf[  now  generally  suspecied  ihat  what  has  ■- 
called  Saxon  is  no  other  than  early  Norman,  b«f,«f  '... 
style  had  expanded  itself  by  being  employed  on  a  11-. 
s^e  and  with  greater  refinement  of  deaigo.    Such  <  . 
he  the  case,  yet  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  tlui  ■■ 
early  Norman  itself  differed  from  the  genuine  Saxua  "'   < 
in  degree,  and  not  at  all  in  kind.     Undoubtedly  the  arc- 
tects  of  the  Saxon  period  copied  the  mode  of  building  t  . 
prevalent  in  Italy,  and  which  we  have  just  dascnbed,  - 
though  they  were  unable  to  vie  with  Ueir  modeU.    V> 
mav  therefore  be  allowed  to  infer  the  character  of  Su.: 
architecture  from  that  of  the  specimena  which  have  hilhtrtj 
puwd  cwiwit  for  it;  and  tf  cwdudif  thai  jt  was  RamjMJ 


GOT 


bjr  ludaneas  and  nuuirawM.  From  the  aecounU  left 
}t  Anglo-Saxon  building  by  clironieiers  gre&t  dcduc- 
:ianB  uught  to  be  ms'le  in  regard  to  the  commendaliaus 
bvy  have  bestowed  upon  ihem ;  jret,  is  fbr  as  anything  can 
tc  iiiu)e  out  front  such  exceedingly  vague  and  icanty  notices, 
hey  So  not  appear  to  contradict  the  opinion  we  have  as- 
iumed.  Architecture,  and  the  oj-ta  connected  with  it,  must 
lave  sadly  retrograded  if  the  structures  spoken  at  hy  con- 
^mpoiary  writers  as  magnincent  deserved  to  be  so  termed, 
!Tcn  in  a  qualified  sense,  when  those  supposed  to  have  been 
irecleJ  about  the  time  of  the  Conquest  are  to  uncouth 
iicii  in  what  scant;  embellishment  they  possessed. 

Norman,  which  was  only  a  gradual  expansion,  or  per- 
ii|)fi  Be  should  say,  sudden  expansion  ana  gradual  reflne- 
neBt,  of  the  Augli^-Saxon  mode,  possesses  so  many  indicial 
narks  in  common  with  the  Lombardin,  that  we  are  war- 
-snled  in  regardinf^  it  as  merely  another  bianch  of  the 
lomanesque.  Here  likewise  arches  exhibit  themselves 
n  profusion  on  the  exterior  of  building*,  and,  as  on  thewe:>t 
hint  of  LinDoln,  at  Castle  Acre  Priory,  Norfolk,  Stc,  pre- 
cnt  the  appearanoe  of  tiers  of  galleries ;  but,  as  ft«quenlty 
s  not,  witu  this  diflerence — that  each  arch  passes  over  the 
ie\l  column  to  the  one  beyond  it,  so  that  the  arches  in  the 
rbule  range  cross  and  interlace  each  other,  and  by  their  inter- 
Bclions  cause  the  space  between  every  two  columns  to  be- 
Dme  an  acutely  pointed  arch,  similar  to  those  first  hrouf;ht 
Btu  use,  and  constituting  the  lancet-arch  style.  Should  ihia 
splanatioD  not  be  sufficiently  intelligible,  the  reader  will 
efer  to  the  first  cut  which  also  offers  an  example  of  arches 
wording  to  the  general  Lombardic  mode.  As  in  this  last- 
oenlbned  style,  so  too  in  Norman,  the  windows  are 
ound-headed,  and,  except  in  some  very  large  buildings,  of 
rosll  dimensions,  being  merely  a  simple  aperture  ua- 
linded  by  mullions,  though  instances  are  not  uncommon  of 
wo  arched  openings  being  put  together  with  a  central  pil- 
xi  between  them,  as  shown  in  the  annexed  specimen  from 
^slon  chuich,  Northamptonshire. 


^Bossssa 


And  hoie  we  may  obser\e,  that  this  mode  of  including 
to  or  more  distinct  arched  openings  divided  by  columns, 
ithin  a  larger  arch,  occurs  in  many  Italian  buildings ; 
mong  others.  Or  San  Micbele,  Florence  (1337>,  and  Uie 
Endows  of  the  palaiio  Slroiii,  in  the  same  city,  which 
diflce  bean,  in  regard  to  them,  a  marked  resemblance  to 
ne  Normaik  mode  of  composition,  although  it  was  not 
ommenced  until  1-I9I. 

Windows  of  a  precisely  similar  descriptbn  occur  in  the 
ingular  church  of  St.  Stefano  Rolondo,  at  Rome,  supposed 
y  tome  to  have  beenoriginally  a  temple  dedicated  to  Faunus, 
y  others  a  market ;  and  which,  besides  other  peculiarities, 
xbibits  two  orders  of  different  heights,  and  plain  arches  rest- 
ig  immediately  upon  the  capitals  of  Conntbian  columns. 
Iiere  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  belongs  (o  the  period  of  the 
'kcailener,  when  that  loftiness  of  interior  b^gon  to  be  aimed 
I.  which  is  so  contrary  to  the  proportions  observed  in  the 
'aiilheon,  but  which  has  ever  been  affected  by  Italian 
rehilectt  within  buildings  covered  by  a  dome. 

Another  window,  from  Southwell  Minster,  Notts,  shows 
somewhat  different  mode  of  inserting  the  columns 
nto  the  window  recess,  and  cutting  them,  as  it  were,  out 
f  the  jambs.  Windows  bearing  a  strong  similarity  to 
tns  example  occur  in  Lombardic  buildings ;  as  those  in 
be  tower  of  St.  Abbondio,  at  Como,  where  however  the 
<uier  mouldinn  of  the  arch  do  not  rest  upon  impost  lines, 
P.  Cn  No.  638 


but  are  carne<l  don-n  to  the  bottom,  forming  a  broad  en- 
riched border  along  its  sides.  Doorways  partake  of  Ihe 
same  forms  and  decorations  upon  a  larger  scolo.  and  carried 
to  a  greater  extent,  the  arches  being  cut  into  variously 
carved  mouldings  (among  which  the  chctTon,  or  zigzag  onir, 
is  the  most  usual),  and  the  number  of  columns  at  tho  itidvs 
is  increased.  The  one  here  represented  is  from  Uomscy 
Abbey,  Hants,  and  will  serve  to  give  a  general  idea  of  iha 


which,  measured  across  the  external  mouldings,  seldom 
vary  much  thim  a  square  andaquarter  to  a  square  and  a  half 
in  height  In  Ncurman  doorways  a^n  the  aperture  is  fte- 
quently,  though  not  so  invariably  as  in  the  other  style,  mada 
s(juBre-headed ;  and  the  head  of  the  arch  is  sometimes  filled 
with  sculpture,  sometimes  left  quite  plain.  If  we  look  for 
further  points  of  resemblance  we  shall  find  them  in  the 
plain  parapet,  corbelled  upon  either  small  nendent  arches 
or  modillion  blocks,  somewhat  after  the  fashion  of  machi- 
colations (a  very  expressive  name,  its  literal  meaning  being 
mecAet  eouier,  Le.  to  pour  down  matches  and  other  ignited 
materials  on  besiegers,  tor  which  purpose  apertures  wore 
loll  between  tho  blocks,  or  corbels) ;  and  also  in  the  vertirad 
projections  like  very  shallow   buttresses,  which   were  fre- 

Juently  mode  to  break  at  intervals  the  exterior  of  walls, 
n  the  interior  of  churches  tho  open  arches  are  generally 
turned  on  exceedingly  massive  o)-lindrica]  piers— for  pillara 
tbey  can  hardly  be  c^lod.  This  is  particularly  the  case  in 
crypts  and  other  subtemmeous  constructions,  where  such 
pillars  scarcely  exceed  three  diameters  in  height,  and  some' 
times  fall  short  of  that  proportion,  yet  look  teas  heavy  than 
those  in  the  nave,  or  other  parts  aboveground,  owing  to 
their  being  so  mnch  wider  apart,  and  the  arches  they  sup. 
.Vol.  XI.— 3  T 


GOT 


322 


GOT 


port  being,  in  companion  witli  them,  so  much  more  lofty. 
Norman  pillars  of  the  kind  above  alluded  to  are  some- 
times quite  plain,  but  frequently  also  ornamented  on  their 
surface  with  various  mouldings,  such  as  the  chevron,  or 
zigzag,  in  horizontal  rings ;  or  reticulated  with  raised  in- 
tersecting stipes,  or  else  channelled  vertically  or  spirally ; 
while  others  consist  of  lesser  columns  attached  to  the 
main  one.  Of  Norman  work  various  specimens  occur  in 
most  of  our  English  cathedrals,  as  will  bo  seen  by  referring 
to  the  article  Church,  which  contains  some  particulars 
respecting  them.  Waltham  Abbey,  and  St.  Bartholomew's, 
West  Smithfield,  are  also  interesting  examples  of  Anglo- 
Norman. 

The  transition  from  the  Norman  to  the  Pointed  style  was 
somewhat  sudden  and  abrupt,  the  latter  being  adopted  at 
once  for  the  earryinsr  on  and  completion  of  buildings  that 
had  been  commenced  according  to  the  first ;  and  in  coui*se 
of  time  similar  changes  in  the  mode  of  building  took  place, 
as  fresh  improvements  were  ingrafted  upon  that  which  had 
previously  been  fuUowed.  Ii  is  owing  to  this  practice,  and 
to  the  sudden  abandonment  of  one  system  of  design  for 
another,  that  most  of  our  larger  Gothic  buildings  offer  so 
many  successive  varieties  of  architecture,  and  tnat  we  are 
enabled  to  determine  with  tolerable  accuracy  the  dates  of 
the  respective  portions,  and  the  time  of  commencement  and 
duration  of  different  styles :  for  the  architects  of  those  ages 
seem  never  to  have  reverted  to  a  style  which  had  been  gene- 
rally discontinued,  or  to  have  endeavoured  to  revive  what 
had  once  been  exploded.  With  them  design  appears  to 
have  been  experimental,  inventive,  and  innovating,  through- 
out its  successive  stages :  whereas  modern  design  is  nearly 
entirely  retrospective,  and  imitative  of  some  one  previous 
mode  adopted  as  a  model,  accordingly  as  the  taste  of  the 
architect  or  his  employer  may  suggest. 

Of  the  Pointed  style,  at  which  we  are  now  arrived,  and 
which  we  can  do  no  more  than  consider  with  reference  to 
our  own  country,  several  distinct  classes  or  phases  have  been 
established,  differently  named  by  different  writers.  Dallaway 
divides  them  into  five,  viz.  Semi  or  Mixed  Norman, 
from  1170  to  1220;  Lancet-arched  Gothic,  from  1220  to 
1300;  Pure  Gothic,  from  1300  to  1400;  Ornamented 
Gothic,  from  1400  to  1460;  and  Florid  Gothic,  from  1460 
to  the  extinction  of  the  stvle,  in  the  middle  of  the  following 
century.  Rickman,  on  tne  other  hand,  reduces  the  classes 
to  three :  Early  English,  from  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Hen- 
ry II.  to  the  end  of  that  of  Edward  I.,  or  from  1189  to  1307  ; 
Decorated  English,  from  1307  to  1377,  or  a  few  years  later; 
and  Perpendicular  English,  firom  1377  to  the  close.  Thus 
we  find  that  under  the  term  Perpendicular  he  comprises 
both  the  Ornamented  and  the  Florid  Grothic  of  the  other 
as  essentially  belonging;  to  one  and  the  same  class,  namely, 
that  which  is  marked  oy  the  prevalence  of  perpendicular 
lines,  both  in  the  tracery  of  windows  and  in  other  decora- 
tion. The  term  itself  has  been  objected  to  by  many,  but  it 
must  certainly  be  allowed  to  be  a  tolerably  intelligible  and 
descriptive  one,  and  so  is  that  of  Florid  Gothic ;  but  the 
latter  is  not  so  appropriate  to  the  entire  class  comprehended 
under  it  as  to  particular  examples  of  it,  such  as  King's 
College  Chapel,  Cambridge ;  Henry  VII.*s  Chapel,  West- 
minster; and  St.  George*8,  Windsor,  where  the  whole 
surface  of  the  building  is  enriched ;  for  it  not  unfrequently 
happens  that  particular  features,  doors  and  windows,  kc,  are 
of  elaborate  and  rich  design,  and  yet,  taken  as  a  whole,  the 
building  may  be  rather  plain  than  otherwise.  So  too  there 
are  specimens  in  other  styles,  which,  both  firom  the  minutias 
and  profusion  of  detail,  might  very  well  claim  to  be  charac- 
terized as  Florid.  Were  it  not  that  there  are  so  many  other 
and  collateral  particulars,  all  more  or  less  characteristic  and 
influential,  it  would  not  be  difficult  to  form  a  scheme  of  classi- 
fication for  Gothic  architecture  analogous  to  that  observed  for 
Grecian,  taking  the  arch  as  the  indicial  characteristic  of  each 
family  or  tribe,  and  describing  it  accordingly  as  belonging  to 
the  acute  arch,  the  equilateral,  the  drop,  and  the  compound 
or  four-centred  arch  respectively.  Here  it  may  not  be  im- 
proper to  explain  the  different  kinds  of  pointed  arch,  which 
are  such  that  the  style  named  from  it  contains  in  that 
respect,  owing  to  its  being  struck  from  two  centres,  a  source 
of  variety  unknown  to  any  other;  for  the  single-centred,  or 
round-headed  one,  can  be  varied  only  by  making  it  more  or  less 
than  an  exact  semicircle,  in  which  former  case  it  approaches 
the  horse-shoe  curve,  and  in  the  latter  becomes  a  segmental  or 
acheme-arch.  But  arches  struck  from  two  centres,  and  there- 
ion  pointed  by  the  two  curves  meeting  each  other»  may  be  of 


varioui  degrees  of  aoutenesa^  and  •xhibil  grsat  iliffMHW 
to  the  proportion  which  the  chord  or  span  of  the  arch  be^n 
to  a  vertical  line  drawn  f^om  it  to  the  vertex  or  ciowo.    1  -. 
the  semicircular  or  one-centred  arch  the  spaa  is  invanao 
equal  to  double  the  radius,  or  line  drawn  ilrom  the  ceotit'  * 
the  intrados,  or  curve  bounding  the  aperture;  but  in  i:. 
narrow  acute  lanoe^arcb•  which  is  extra-centred  (that  Uk  : 
struck  from  centres  on  the  outside  of  the  arch),  the  apaa  .* 
less  than  the  radius,  and  the  aroh  itself  eoBaequci:*  . 
narrow  and  tall,  and  more  or  less  so  in  proportion  a*  t: 
distance  between  the  centres  is  increased  or  disniaiah*. 
In  the  equilateral  arch,  sometimes  distinguished  ms  t. .. 
characteristic  of  Pure  Gothic,  the  centres  coincide  with  : ' 
extremities  of  the  span,  which  ia  equal  to  the  radius*  so  \t 
the  chord  and  the  two  lines  drawn  fkom  the  cantr«a  to  : 
vertex  form  an  equilateral  triangle.     This  apeei«i  of  ar 
is  called  by  the  Italians  the  testo  ociito,  because  the  h: 
just  mentioned  are  equal  to  the  radius*  or  one  side 
a  hexagon  doscribed  within  a  cirole  struck  by  it.     Wti^ 
the  ramus  is  less  than  the  span,  or,  in  other  wotds,  ::. 
centres  are  on  the  span  itself,  the  arch  beoomoa  a  dn^  c 
more  correctly  speaking,  an  obtuse-pointed  one,  tho  iA\ 
term  being  more  suitable  for  such  aa  have  their  ceta- 
below  their  span  or  impost  line ;  and  it  is  hardly  n«oc^> 
to  observe  that  the  aroh  becomes  more  obtuse  in  propur: . 
as  the  centres  are  brought  nearer  each  other,  Ibr  were  t: 
to  unite  the  arch  would  become  a  single-centred  end  »« . 
circular  one.     All  these  varieties  may  occur  in  tbe  >&-: 
example ;  because  if  the  mouldings  be  very  Dumerous.  ^ 
occupy  a  great  space,  as  is  firequently  the  ease  in  cloorx>a« 
being  all  concentric,  some  of  the  eurvee  will  describe  inner 
centred  or  obtuse,  others  extra-centred  or  acute  arehe».  . 
may  be  perceived  by  this  diagram,  which,  omitliDg  xhm  i: 
termediate  mouldings,  will  serve  to  exemplify  the 
varieties  of  the  two-centred  arch  above  defined. 


tn 


The  centres  in  the  intermediate  ftf^ure  (B)  being  at  r 
respectively,  and  the  line  joining  ce  being  idso  the  choni  * 
span,  B  is  an  equilateral  arch:  A  and  C  are  respcctni*. 
obtuse  and  acute  arches,  the  centres  in  the  arch  A  Itr:-. 
on  the  span,  and  in  C  being  without  it,  aa  ebore  «) 
plained.  The  four-centred  arch,  so  prevalent  in  *•-• 
later  or  Perpendicular  Gothic  as  to  be  almost  chenicter>'« 
of  it,  is,  on  the  contrary,  struck  firom  two  eentres  on  ccc 
side,  one  on  the  span  of  the  arch,  and  the  other  belov  r. 
as  will  afterwards  be  explained. 

Having  given  these  necessary  exDianations,  w*  prxjcffi 
at  once  to  thebroader  distinctions  or  the  three  snbordini! 
styles  into  which  our  Pointed  architecture  has  been  dm  !^-\ 
without  attending  to  the  intermixture  produced  by  x*^ 
tranaition  from  one  to  another  of  them.     The  Unit  stv.i. 
denominated  by  Rickman  Early  English,  and  anawerin;   • 
the  Pure  Gothic  of  Dallaway,  was  not  completely  de^eKp- 
until  a  full  century  or  more  after  the  jperrect  pcsniH  an 
had  been  applied  in  the  church  of  St.  Cross,  pear  Winc2'< 
ter,  erected  by  Henry  II.  in  1132,  about  fifty  years  c«r..*'r 
than  the  period  from  which  the  commencement  of  tbe  «(i. 
itself  is  usually  dated.    At  first  the  arch  waaexc«vdinl'« 
acute,  and  employed  chiefly  wliere  small  span  wns  t*quif>^l 
as  in  windows,  which  at  first  consisted  of  a  single  apert^-f. 
then  of  two.  either  distinct,  with  a  narrow  spare  or  p  r: 
between  them,  or  combined  together  by  means  of  a  centr. 
pillar.    This  led  to  similar  grouping  of  three  apartnrei^  ibs 


f  nia  Yvk  Cluplii'liouH. 
in  number,  an  urangement  irhich  accords  beaulifVilly  with 
the  trian^tar  outline  of  the  space  so  occupied ;  altliesame 
time  that  these  circular  divisions  contrast  agreeably  with 
the  acute  form  of  the  arch,  and  soften  its  asperity.  In  like 
manner  the  multiplied  divisions  in  the  lower  'part  of  the 
vindoir  are  produced  by  merely  putliog  together  two 
arched  eompartmenti  with  circles  in  their  heads,  similar  to 
the  example  already  ^ven  from  Westminster,  with  anarrower 
one  between  them;  thus  forming  the  whole  lower  space 
into  five  narrow  comportments,  each  of  whinh  has  its  own 
arch.  In  these  lesser  arches,  which  are  simply  cuaped,  and 
H  far  differ  from  those  in  the  first  example,  we  see  I' 
commencement  of  trefoil  and  cinquefbil  ones ;  while 
their  shafts  we  plainly  recognise  muUions,  which  were 
afterwanls  of  general  appticalioo,  either  of  uniform  dimen- 
sions, or,  in  larger  windows,  consisting  of  principal  and 
secondary  ones.  When  tbe  arch  became  equilateral,  or 
nearly  so,  the  tracery  also  assumed  a  different  chatacler, 
becoming  of  that  kind  which  is  cnlled  geometrical,  and  con- 
sisting of  mora  varied  forms  and  patterns,  produced  by 
circles,  portions  of  circles,  and  other  curves,  enriched  with 
cusps,  dividing  the  spaces  into  foils.  Of  such  windows 
Kive  examples  from  one  at  Exeter,  and  another  at  Kirton 
Church,  Lincolnshire. 


GOT 

in  windows,  so  too,  both  in  the  splari  of  doorways  and  m 
arch  piers,  columns  began  to  be  incorporated  with  ibe  main 
"  T,  or  splay  itself;  and  in  smaller  doorwajs  the  ar<h 
. .  luldings  are  frequently  continued  down  vertically,  without 
any  indication  of  capital,  or  impost  to  the  arches,  aail  d..: 
away,  as  it  is  termed,  into  a  sloping  surface,  at  a  short  do- 
tance  from  the  ground.  The  external  projecting  mouldin£i 
of  the  arch,  called  by  some  hood-mouldings,  by  otben  wio- 
ther-mouldings,  or  dripstone,  as  serving  to  throw  off  ik 
droppings  of  rain,  usually  rest  on  corbels  cut  into  the  Ciruii 
of  heads.  In  many  instances  these  hood -mould  logs,  but!i 
of  dooiB  and  windows,  are  surmounted  by  other  mouldioei. 
forming  a  kind  of  gMe,  distinguished  by  the  name  J 
canopy.  These  canopies  are  generally  enridied  witb  crock- 
ets, small  leaf-like  ornaments,  placed  at  interrala  on  tLc 
outer  edge ;  and  the  pediment  heads  to  the  different  stacn 
of  buttresses  are  often  similarly  decorated.  In  aonfunntx^ 
with  the  rest,  greater  ornament  was  Ukewiie  beatowed  utK« 
pinnftclei,  as  will  be  seen  on  comparing  an  early  English 
specimen  of  such  feature,  fhim  Wells  Cathedral,  witb  two 
others  belonging  to  the  second  style,  Ibe  first  from  St.  lla.r}  '>, 
Oxford,  the  other  &om  York. 


In  the  first  of  these  the  pattern  is  formed  chiefly  by  a 
•ingle  large  circle  subdivided  into  three  spherical  triangles 
sixfoiled,  and  three  lesser  ones  trcfuiled ;  to  which  minutiB> 
we  call  attention  in  order  that  the  reader  may  be  led  to  ex- 
amine the  figure  attentively,  and  thereby  learn,  without 
further  explanation,  what  is  meant  by  those  terms,  and  by 
/oiU  and  ctupi  generally.  He  will  here  further  observe  that 
small  shafts  and  capitals  have  given  way  to  muUions, 
although  retitined  at  tlie  sides  of  the  window.  The  other 
example  differs  from  the  one  just  spoken  of,  not  onljr  in 
tracery,  which  is  more  playful  and  flowing,  but  in  having 
orders  of  mullion^  that  in  the  centre,  or  the  principal  n 
lion,  being  thicker,  and  composed  of  more  mouldings  than 
the  secondary  ones.  It  deserves  also  to  be  remarked  that 
here  tbe  number  of  the  open  spaces,  or  lights,  as  they  are 
termed,  is  even,  and  that  of  the  mullions  uneven  ;  whereas 


Lnd  design  of  urn* 
IS  generally  nt' 
drawn  with  greater  freedom,  and  mora  natural.  So  too  ie 
groined  vaulting  of  tooU  additional  variety  and  richnea*  wr'- 
produced  by  the  addition  of  intermediate  ribs  iatencri:.:; 
each  other,  so  as  to  produce  a  kind  of  tracery  coDsistini; 
stars  anil  other  flguios.  By  way  of  instancing  one  ur  t>. 
of  the  finest  examples  of  Decorated  English,  we  may  mm 
tion  the  choir  of  Lincoln  (1324),  the  nave  of  York  (rvn 
pleted  in  1330),  St.  Stephen's  Chapel.  Westminster  (U-cu  i 
in  the  same  year),  parts  of  the  choir  at  Lichfield,  &e^  \ai. 
as  a  finished  specimen  of  general  corapoaiiion,  the  mi-.-, 
front  of  York,  which,  in  regard  to  its  outline  and  lodLii; 
parts,  has  been  imitated  on  a  small  scale  in  that  i>(  ta. 
Scotch  church.  Regent-square,  London. 

Before  we  take  leave  of  this  division  of  our  labjcvt.  ■■■ 

mar  not  be  amiss  to  obser\-e  that  instances  of  acnie-pomi> . 

ari:hes  are  by  no  means  unfVequent,  yet  without  a«y  ol  v. 

character  of  the  lancet-aieh  style,  suah  arches  being  fiX  . 

with  tiacery,  and  in  their  general  design  similar  to  oibc'r> 

In  many  ca»es  the  reason  for  applying  tham  is  obv-.j'.. 

enough,  OS  they  occur  in  narrow  compartment*  and   mi'.-- 

dows,  where  it  ho*  been  thought  better  to  vary  tbe  fi^r-.. 

rather  than  not  keep  all  the  arches  of  the  same  hei^hi. 

Neither  is  it  uncommon  to  meet  vrith  tbe  acute  or  ext.-a- 

centred  arch  in  the  subordinate  divisions  of  windows  vb-w 

heads  are  much  lower  than  an  equilateral  arch,  owing  ii>  lu- 

oirangement  of  the  compartments,  as  in   the  gitAi  '»e^'- 

er.     So  also  are   there   exampln   .1 

lund-heoded  arches  having  be«n  'J'j- 

tb  tracery  of  a  late  date,  as  one  in  ur 

rwieh:  nor  are  similai  combioat'rij^: 

I  bnCainzs,  in  evidence  of  which  •« 

;hel^  at  Flonnce,  and  the  doialcf  .f 

Pisa. 

id  tiM  tbiid  olui  (<  Um  Peistod  *i]l«i 


GOT  8! 

not  appear  1»  haTo  been  earlier  (han  the  middle  oT  the 
fifteenlh  century;  and  this  receives  some  conflrmation 
fom  euch  arch  having  obtained  the  appellation  of  the 
Tudor.  Tliis  third  r.lasa  of  our  Bngtiih  Gothic  would  rea- 
dily admit  therefore  of  being  further  subdivided,  aecordinf 
as  il  is  cm)>lo]:ed  with  t^o-centred,  or  conipound  arches, 
even  though  in  other  respects  there  may  happen  to  be  little 
difference  of  chaiecler.  Its  vindowa,  as  has  been  stated, 
were  not  only  mull ioned  hut  transomed  ;  nnd  in  some  of 
the  richer  examples  the  transoms  are  embattbd,  or  indented 
by  being  cut  into  small  battlements.  As  to  the  variety  they 
display  in  their  tracery,  it  is  quite  impoisible  to  describe  it, 
since  almost  every  specimen  exhibita  a  ilifTerent  pattern  ; 
the  general  character  of  which  majr  however  be  understood 
from  the  second  of  the  examples  above  given  from  York 
Cathedral.  On  the  olher  hand  there  are  instances  of  com- 
pound-arch windows  of  exceedingly  plain  design,  being 
without  either  tracery  of  any  kind  or  transoms,  as  are  those 
of  the  hall  of  the  palace  at  Croydon,  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  eroded  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
Of  doorways  the  outline  became  square,  owing  to  the  arch 
beineincloscd  within  mouldings  fbrraing  what  iscalledafoAef, 
which  generally  terminated  at  the  spring  of  the  arch,  where 
il  either  rested  upon  corbels  in  the  form  of  shields  or  beads, 
or  was  else  bent  and  returned  horiEontally  far  about  double 
the  breadth  of  the  other  "nouldings.  Tlie  triangular  spaces 
or  ij-.andreh  thus  formed  between  the  curved  mouldings 
ofihe  arch  and  the  square  onesof  the  label  aremosllyfllledup 
with  quatr^Cjil  circles  or  other  decoration.  In  the  larger  and 
richer  kind  of  doorways,  as  in  the  porch  of  King's  College 
Chapel,  Cambri(I(i;e.  the  spandrels  are  greatly  enlarged  by  the 
hean  of  the  square  pane!  or  compartment  in  which  the  arch 
is  placed  being  carried  up  much  higher.  In  this  example 
tliere  is  an  ogee  canopy  formed  by  what  are  called  mouldings 
of  contrary  flexvre!  and  this  is  crockeled  and  surmounted 
by  a  finial.    It  should  be  reroarked  however  that  alttaougb 


6  GOT 

Windows  placed  within  computnieRti,  with  tpMdrrU  of 
blank  traceiy,  may  bo  seen  in  the  eUretlory  (tiie  opper 
range  of  winnows  in  a  church,  admitting  light  into  the  nax  • 
and  choir,  above  the  archesof  the  aisles  and  the  trifona,  at 
galleries  over  them)  of  Henry  VII.'s  Chapel. 

Hitherlo  we  have  spoken  chiefly  of  archea  and  window^ 
but  we  must  now  brietly  advert  to  the  roof,  at  least  to  on',- 
species  of  vaulting  used  for  It,  pocvliar  to  the  florid  claat  (7f  th:( 
style,  we  mean  that  consisting  or/on-frorery,  so  called  fn^. 
the  numerous  small  ribs  or  mouldings  spreading  out  fr.n- 
the  spring  of  the  groining  as  from  a  stem,  end  radiatinp  • 
as  to  describe  a  semicircle,  the  fan  on  one  side  meetinfc  t-.  ii 
on  the  other,  in  the  centre  of  the  vaulting;  wberclij  \ 
spandrel  with  four  convex  curves  for  its  sides  is  tcfl  (>• 
tween  two  opposite  pairs,  and  this  space  is  cither  filled  w:*' 
tracery  arranged  so  as  to  form  a  circle,  or  else  isocctipird>-i 
what  is  called  &/an-pendent,  similar  lo  the  olher  fans  cxo-r : 
(hat  its  hose  on  the  ceiUng  is  on  entire  circle  instead  t-'.  : 
semicircle.  Of  fan-groining  with  enriched  spandrels  or.  i 
Ihe  cloisters  of  St  Slephen^s  Chapel,  WEslromslcr,  off.-;  ' 
a  beautiful  example;  and  of  that  with  pendents,  the  chn[x-l- 
of  King's  College,  Cambridge,  and  Henrv  VII,  WttHi!  i-. 
sler.  Tlie  two  structures  just  mentioned  and  Sl  Geurg'  - 
Chapel,  Windsor,  are  in  every  respect  perfect  example*  ' 
this  style,  being  of  uniform  design  ibroughout,  without  i:> 
termixlure  of  any  other.  Mr.  Hosking,  who  calls  it  t- 
Corinthian  order  of  Pointed  Architecture,  observos  (hn;  .: 
is  almost  peculiar  to  this  country,  end  that  neither  C. -■ 
many  nor  Franco  can  show  any  buildings  similar  to  i!.. 
above  inglanced.  Mr.  Willis,  too,  who?o  recent  '  Rcma-i  ■ 
on  the  Architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages'  contDm  oi^- ^ 
entirely  fresh  and  important  information,  says,  '  the  F^■^ 
pcndicular  is  our  own,  and  heartily  may  we  congralulitt 
ourselves  upon  it  when  we  compare  it  with  its  sialur  »t\lf 
in  France  and  Germany.* 

As  we  have  already  hinted,  this  third,  or  later  Eaxi- 
style,  should  such  term  be  preferred  to  Mr.  Ric  lunanV  iii-.» 
be  subdivided  into  two  classes,  as  regards  decoration,  ii<  U 
peodently  of  dale,  namely.  Simple  and  Florid  ;  or  elw  n,: 
two  periods,  the  one  prior,  the  other  subscouenl.lolhc  nifl-W 
of  the  flfleenlh  century  ;  as  has  been   oone  bv  Mr.  I^w.' 
in  his  '  Ohsen'Btions  on  the  Classification  and  DctaiU 
the  Architecture  of  the  Middle  Aect,'UrcAf.Arq^..  N>..  . 
to  which  we  would  refer  the  sluoent,   not  only  on  acc'jui.; 
of  the  subject  being  very  intelligently  treated,  but    ill';' 
tralcd  by  a  great  many  flgurea 

This  third  class  of  the  Pointed  style,  or  (hat  whirh  i.r- 
vailed  during  the  whnle  of  the  Hneenlh  and  the  first  L 
of  Ihe  sixteenth  century,  is  greatly  more  extended,  boih  - 
its  uses  and  modifications,  than  the  other  Iwo^  having  U-i '. 
applied  to  domestic  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  archilcciuti 
whereas  we  are  acquainted  with  the  preceding  stjle*  ■ 
as  It  was  employed  in  religious  buildings ;  for  nxlel!^)'  ' 
ones  of  the  same  periods  have  so  little  in  common  with  ii  j 
former,  and  so  very  few  features  wherein  Ihe  geneiti)  >.•.'.  I- 
at  all  exhibits  itself,  that  they  must  bo  considered  a«  f^-i: 
ing  a  distinct  doss  by  themselves.  In  the  omamenteil  A  ■ 
mestic  architecture  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  rcDlerif^ 
generally  designated  Tudor,  as  there  are  few  example*  \ 
fore  that  period,  1      '  '  '  '     "'  '  '         '    " 


Duun.y.  KiDf'i  Lullet*  Ch>t>l,  CwbcM;*. 

this  specimen  has  been  selected  as  a  beautiful  instance  of 
the  later  or  Perpendicular  style,  it  does  not  exhibit  the 
four-centred,  or  compound  arch,  notwithstanding  that  the 
latter  characterizes  the  olher  parts  of  the  edifice. — In  the 
architraves  or  mouldings  along  the  sides  of  doors  and  win- 
dows there  are  generatty  one  or  more  large  hollows,  which 
mav  be  taken  as  one  of  the  marks  of  this  style. 

Although  they  have  not  labels,  both  windows  and  pier 
nrches  ate  not  unfrequently  treated  somewhat  aimilaily, 
bcin^  placed  within  square-headed  compartments,  whose 
sjinnrtrels  are  filled  up  with  trecery  resembling  that  of  the 
window ;  which  practice,  no  doubt,  aFlerwards  led  to  that  of 
square-headed  windows,  by  perforating  the  whole  compart- 
ment, and  makio    the  sputdrets  part  of  the  window  itsel£ 


lainly  perceive  Ihe  same  style  as  tl^ 


ecclesiastical  buildings  applied  to  another  class,  wberr,  ^' 
though  the  parts  ace  on  a  smaller  scale  andsommtbal  Jill>i 
enlly  composed,  the  style  of  detail  and  ornament  is  eMcnia:^; 
thesame.  While  some  features,  such  as  doors  and  pon'bes.  j-. 
verr  little  altered  from  those  of  churches,  others  unknor  • 
to  the  latter  class  of  buildings,  such  as  chimneys,  tx^tin- 
highly  characteristic  ond  decorative  in  thiit  Bay  windi'n . 
and  Oriels  are  likewise  peculiar  lo  it.  Ilieie  lerm^  i-~ 
often  used  indiscriminalely,  but  it  is  heller  to  eanOne  iSr 
first  to  such  projections,  filled  in  with  windows,  as  txk  in- 
mediately  (bom  the  ground  ;  and  ihe  second  lo  similar  it  ~ 
jections  when  they  ^ut  out  in  the  upper  nart  of  a  buil  J.-.; 


and  overhang  that  below,  being  c( 


1  upon  moulrimi.! 


forming  a  splay  tapering  downwards  on  evejy  side,  Otii 
are  either  single  or  compound,  that  is,  are  eilhm-oonSnol : 
one  of  the  upper  floors  of  the  building,  or  earrtrd  lc 
through  all  its  stories ;  of  which  latter  dncription  is  th. 
Einguraclv  rich  one  in  the  entrance  tower  of  Magdalen  C  '- 
lege,  Oxford,  accurate  drawings  and  details  of  which  in 
given  in  Pugin's  '  Gothic  Examples,"  a  work  oontair.  r^ 
many  choice  illustrations  both  of  entire  buildingi  and  pa:- 
ticular  parts  belonging  to  our  domestic  architecture  of  :hi.' 
Tudor  period,  including  ThoraburfCaitle^  QloncMtcnhiic, 


GOT 


328 


GOT 


anonymt  in  Literai  Gothieas^  with  specimens  of  the  Mnso- 
Gothie,  old  high  Gennan,  Anglo-Saxon,  and  other  old 
Teutonic  dialects,  followed  hy  four  different  Scandinavian 
Gothic  alphabets  collected  from  various  inscriptions,  and 
one  of  which  is  similar  to  the  one  given  by  Magnus  in  his 
Historia  Gothorum  Sueonumque,  b.  i.,  ch.  7.  The  old 
Scandinavian,  or  None,  or  Suio-Gothic,  is  considered  by 
Adelung  as  bemg  a  mixture  of  Grothic  with  the  language  of 
the  Sveones,  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula  previous  to  the  Gothic  immigration,  and  the 
modem  Swedish,  which  is  derived  from  the  old  Scandma- 
vian,  appears  to  have  elements  in  it  foreigpi  to  the  Teutonic, 
though  the  Teutonic,  or  Gothic,  greatly  prevails  in  both. 
(Petersen,  Det  Danske,  Norske  og  Svenske  Sprogs  HU- 
iorie,  Copenhagen,  2  vols.  8vo.,  1830.) 

GOTHOFRE'DUS.  DENYS  GODEFROY.  bom  at 
Paris  in  1549,  studied  at  Louvain,  Cologne,  and  other  uni- 
versities, and  was  made  councillor  of  the  Chfitelet  at  Paris. 
Being  obliged  to  leave  France  on  account  of  the  persecu- 
tions against  the  followers  of  the  Reformed  religion,  which 
he  professed,  he  went  to  Geneva,  where  he  was  "made  pro- 
fessor  of  law  in  1580.  In  1589  Henri  IV.  appointed  him 
bailli,  or  governor  of  the  district  of  Gex,  bordering  upon 
Geneva,  but  he  was  driven  thence  by  the  arms  of  the  Duke 
of  Savoy,  on  which  occasion  he  lost  his  books  and  other 
property.  In  1 594  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  law  at 
Strasburg,  and  in  1604  he  removed  to  Heidelberg,  where 
he  filled  the  same  professorship.  In  1621,  being  driven 
from  Heidelberg  by  the  war  in  the  Palatinate,  he  withdrew 
to  Strasburg,  where  he  died  in  the  following  year,  with  the 
reputation  of  being  the  first  jurist  of  his  age.  His  edition 
of  the  '  Corpus  Juris  Civilis,'  2  vols.  foL,  nas  often  been 
reprinted ;  the  notes  are  valuable.  Among  his  numerous 
otner  works  on  law  the  following  deserve  mention: — 1, 
'  Pontes  Juris  Canonici ;'  2, '  Praxis  Civihs  ex  Antiquis  et 
Recentioribus  Scriptoribus;'  3,*IndexChronologicusLegum 
et  Novcllarum  k  Justiniano  Imp.  Compositarum ;'  4, 
'  Qunstiones  Politic®  ex  Jure  Communi  et  Historia  ab- 
swnptcD  ;*  5, '  Dissertatio  de  Nobilitate ;'  6, '  Consuetudines 
Civitatum  et  Provinciarum  GallisD,  cum  Notis ;'  7, '  Statuta 
Rei^ni  GallisD,  juxta  Francorum  et  Burgundionum  Consue- 
tudmes  cum  Jure  Communi  coUata  et  Commentariis  illus* 
Irata  ;*  8,  a  Greek  and  Latin  edition  of  the  '  Promptuarium 
Juris '  of  Harmenopulus.  He  wrote  also  on  classical  litera- 
ture:— 9,  •  Notas  in  Ciceronem;'  10,  '  ConjectursB,  vario) 
Lectiones,  et  Loci  Communes  in  Seneca;'  ll,'Auctore8 
Linguee  Latino)  in  unum  redacti  Corpus,' with  notes;  12, 
'  Antiquee  Histoiin  libri  sex,'  being  a  compilation  from 
Berosus,  Manetho,  Cato,  and  other  antient  historians.  He 
wrote  likewise  a  controversial  work  on  a  subject  of  peculiar 
interest  in  his  time :  '  Maintenuo  et  Defense  des  Empe- 
reurs,  Rois,  Princes,  Etats,  et  Republiques,  centre  les  Cen- 
sures, Monitoires,  et  Excommunications  des  Papes.'  His 
minor  works,  '  Opuscula,'  were  published  together  in  one 
vol.  fal.  S6nebier,  Histoire  Littcrcdre  de  Geneve,  gives  a 
catalogue  of  all  the  works  of  Denys  Godefroy,  with  a  bio- 
graphical notice  of  the  writer. 

GOTHOFRE'DUS.  JACQUES  GODEFROY,  son  of 
Dehys,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1 58  7.  In  1 6 1 9  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  law  at  Greneva,  and  afterwards  was  made  councillor 
of  state ;  he  also  filled  various  other  important  offices  of  that 
republic,  and  was  sent  upon  several  foreign  missions,  all  of 
which  he  discharged  to  tne  satisfaction  of  his  countrymen. 
He  was  deeply  versed  in  the  study  and  history  of  jurispru- 
dence in  all  its  branches,  was  an  accomplished  classical 
scholar,  and  upon  the  whole  was  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished men  that  Geneva  has  produced.  His  principal 
work,  about  which  he  laboured  for  thirty  years,  and  which 
was  published  after  his  oeath,  is  his  edition  of  the  Theodosian 
code,  or  collection  of  the  Roman  law  as  promulgated  by 
Theodosius  the  younger,  a.d.  438.  This  Theodosian  code 
contains  the  edicts  and  rescripts  of  sixteen  emperors,  from 
the  first  Constantino  to  Theodosius  himself;  it  is  divided 
into  sixteen  books,  and  the  laws  are  arranged  in  chronolo- 
gical order.  An  abridgment  of  this  code  is  contained  in 
the  *  Breviarium'  of  Anianus,  a  compendium  of  the  Roman 
law,  compiled  in  506,  by  order  of  Alaric,  for  the  use  of  his 
Roman  subjects.  Several  editions  of  the  Theodosian  code, 
all  of  them  more  or  less  defective,  were  published  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  The  edition  of  Gothofreaus,  entitled  'Codex 
Theodosianus  cum  perpetuis  Notis,'  6  vols,  fbl.,  1665,  is  a 
master  work  of  its  kind.  To  the  text  of  the  Code  Godefroy 
subjoins  the  antient  explanation,  followed  by  his  own  notes, 


in  which  he  adverts  to  the  variotu  readingSi  snd  to  tbc 
parallel  or  conflicting  passages  in  the  Tfaeodo^ian  tnd  Juv 
tinian  Codes ;  and  he  completes  the  illustration  of  each  tale 
by  an  ample  commentary  on  the  scope  and  tendency  of  tK> 
various  enactments,  presenting  tlie  reader  with  an  innneok* 
mass  of  erudition,  classical,  historical,  and  juridical  U* 
has  moreover  prefixed  to  the  first  volume  a '  Chronolvu 
Codicis  Theoaosiani,'  followed  by  *  Prolegomena  *  on  tK 
same,  concerning  the  history  of  the  Code.  The  last  Wurr.? 
contains  '  Notitia  Dignitatum  seu  Administrationum  tj.:; 
Civilium  quam  Militarium  Imperii,'  a '  Prosopograpbu.'  •>.' 
notice  of  all  persons  mentionea  in  the  Code,  a  *  Topoi^ph.i 
sive  Orbis  Komanus  ex  Codice  Theodosiano  descciptu..' 
and  a  '  Glossarium  Nomicum  Codicis  Theodosian L*  M 
these  accessory  tracts  are  so  many  mines  of  most  va]mb^ 
information.  Gibbon,  in  the  '  Memoirs  of  his  own  Life/  r 
knowledges  the  great  obligations  he  owed  to  Go(kf^J}  i 
labours  while  composing  his  own  *  History  of  the  Ronu; 
Empire,'  and  he  styles  his  edition  of  the  Theodosian  C<i}' 
'  a  Aill  and  capacious  repositorv  of  the  political  state  of  th 
Empire  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.'  About  kvc  iTt 
years  after  the  appearance  of  Godefroy's  work,  Prnfo^. 
J.  D.  Ritter  republished  it  with  various  additions,  in  7vi.* 
fol.,  Leipzig,  1736-45.  Since  that  time  inedited  fragmem. 
of  the  Theodosian  Code  have  been  discovered  in  the  At 
brosian  and  Turin  libraries,  filling  up  manv  lacunv  in  tL 
first  five  books.  'Codicis  Thc^osiani  libri  v.  pnur> 
recognovit,  additamentis  insignibus  a  W.  F.  Clos»io  • 
Amedeo  Peyron  repertis  aliisque  auxit,  notis  subitan'** 
turn  criticis  tum  exegeticis  instruxit  Car.  Frid.  Chn&tani* 
Wenck,'  8vo.,  Leipzig,  1825. 

Among  the  numerous  other  works  of  Jacques  Godefp}. 
the  following  are  the  most  esteemed: — 1, 'Manuale  Jur* ' 
2, '  Pontes  quatuor  Juris  Civilis,    containing  fragmenis  < 
the  Twelve  Tables,'  with  notes ;  3, '  De  Statu  Paganoni': 
sub  Imperatoribus  Christianis ;'    4,  '  Opusculum  de  In 
perio  Maris  et  de  Jure  Naufiragii  CM>lligendi,  Lege  Rboda.' 
5,  *Not8D  in  Tertulliani  "  Ad  Nationes,"  libros  duo»  n 
editos  ;*  6, '  V .  Orationes  Libanii  Sophists  primum  vk  * 
Latina  donatSB ;'  7,  *  III.  Orationes ;  de  Statu  Gerraan.1. 
de  Causa  Odii  Juliani  in  Christianos,  de  Causis  Achsnan 
ReipublicsB    Interitus  ;*    8,  '  Dissertatio  de  SuburbiGini> 
Regionibus  et  Ecclesiis ;'  9, 'Fragmenta  LegumJuliff*- 
Pappios  coUecta  et  Notis  illustrata.*    He  also  edited  *  He- 
lostorgii  Cappadocis  Ecclesiasticae  Historis,  libri  xii^'  <•> ' 
'  Vetus  Orbis  Descriptio  Grseci  Scriptorissub  Coostanti>it 
Constante  Imperatoribus,'  in  Gre«k  and  Latin.    Gudcf- « 
wrote  in  French,  *  Le  Mercure  Jesuitique,  ou  Recueu  . 
Pieces  concernant  les  Progrds  des  Jesuites  depuis  l^^' 
Godefroy  died  at  Geneva  in  1G52.    His  juridical  «urv 
except  his  illustrations  of  the  Tlieodosian  Code,  werp  '^ ' 
lectcd  by  Trotz,  fol.,  Leyden,  1733,  with  a  notice  of', 
author.    See  also  S^nebier,  Histcire  Littercdre  de  Grnt' 

GOTHS,  GOTHI,  a  powerful  northern  DsUon  >i 
acted  an  important  part  m  the  overthrow  of  the  R(«i'U' 
empire.  The  name  '  Goths '  appears  first  in  histor?  in  i!  • 
third  century,  and  it  was  then  used  by  the  Roman  «nt>  '* 
as  synonvmous  with  the  more  antient  one  of  Gets,  a  pe  'tv 
who'  lived  on  the  banks  of  the  Lower  Danube,  near  ih 
shores  of  the  Euxine.  The  Greek  writers  gencrallj^'- 
sidcr^  the  Gets,  or  Goths,  as  a  Scythian  tribe,  i^'^ 
has  been  much  discussion  on  the  question  whether  '1-' 
Geto).  or  Goths,  came  originally  from  Scandinavia,  or  ct 
grated  thither  from  Asia.  The  old  Scandinarian  trailtt  a 
in  the '  Edda '  makes  their  chief  Odin,  or  Wodan,  come  firo'j 
the  banks  of  the  Dniester  to  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  se^cni 
centuries  before  our  sera,  though  others  fix  this  mtgrai<r. 
in  the  century  previous  to  the  birth  of  Christ.  Scm  anD- 
quarians  have  supposed  that  there  were  several  Odins  i* 
well  as  several  migrations,  at  various  epochs.  How^**' 
this  may  be  with  regard  to  the  Scandinavian  Goths,  «e  ti'< 
the  GetSD  mentioned  in  the  time  of  Augustus  as  living  ' 
the  banks  of  the  Danube ;  and  a  century  later,  Tv'  | 
{German.)  mentions  the  Gothones  inhabiting  the  shurc»  •• 
the  Baltic  as  a  German  tribe,  while  he  conside»>  t^. 
Gothini,  who  lived  in  ^Southern  Germanv»  as  a  tribe  • 
Celts,  or  Gauls.  About  the  middle  of  the  third  ceotnnr  '^ 
Goths  are  recorded  to  have  crossed  the  Dniester  and  ^  > 
have  devastated  Dacia  and  Thrace .  The  Emperor  I)****/^^ 
his  life  in  opposing  them  in  MTssia,  a.ix  251,  ^*5  ,  '*' 
his  successor,  Gallus,  induced  th«m  by  money  to  wjw''  "» 
again  to  their  old  dwellings  on  the  Dniester.  '^^/I^ 
seem  to  have  spread  eastwards,  and  to  havs  oceupwd  w 


GO  U 


330 


G  O  U 


hospital,  a  philological  seminary,  a  hotanic  garden  and  a 
nursery,  and  a  hall,  endowed  with  funds  towards  providing 
meals  for  poor  students ;  the  whole  under  the  management 
of  the  senate  and  professors.  There  are  yearly  exhibitions, 
or  stipends,  for  the  benefit  of  students  with  slender  means. 
It  would  perhaps  be  difficult  to  name  any  place  of  learning 
the  history  of  which  is  so  instructive  as  that  of  Gottingen. 
With  moderate  means,  under  the  wise  and  paternal  care  of 
Munchhausen,  it  soon  rose  to  the  highest  rank  among  the 
schools  of  Germany,  and  it  has  preserved  to  t}ie  present 
day  a  constantly  increasing  reputation  for  able  teachers  in 
every  branch  of  knowledge.  Gottingen  has  also  a  royal 
society  of  sciences,  a  German  society,  a  gymnasium,  a 
school  for  females  of  the  upper  class,  a  school  of  industry, 
seven  elementary  schools,  five  printing  establishments,  &c. 
The  review,  called  the  *  Gottingische  gelehrte  Anzeigen,* 
is  the  oldest  and  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  Germany:  it 
was  begun  in  1739.  The  expenditure  of  those  connected 
with  the  university  forms  the  principal  means  of  subsistence 
to  the  inhabitants:  but  they  have  also  considerable  manu- 
factures of  woollens,  tobacco,  leather,  soap  and  candle^*, 
musical  and  scientific  instruments,  stockings,  &c.  The 
linen  trade  is  also  extensive.  There  is  an  institution  for  the 
relief  and  employment  of  the  poor,  an  infirmary,  and  an 
orphan  asylum.  The  town  is  surrounded  by  country- 
houses  and  gardens,  and  forty  fountains  and  pumps 
within  it  are  supplied  through  pipes  from  the  *  Rein- 
hards-b()rne,'  the  water  of  the  Leine  being  muddy  and 
unpalatable. 

The  fourth  and  the  twentieth  numbers  of  the  *  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Education'  contain  an  account  of  the  library  of 
Gottingen  and  its  administration,  with  a  sketch  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  university,  and  its  condition  in  1835 

GOTTORP.    [ScHLEswiG.] 

GOTTSCHED.   [GERirt^NV,  Language  and  Ltterature.] 

GOUDA,  a  town  in  the  province  of  South  Holland, 
situated  en  the  Yssel,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Gouw,  in 
52**  3'  N.  lat.,  and  4°  51'  E.  long.,  distant  12  miles  north- 
east from  Rotterdam.  The  town  is  surrounded  by  wide 
and  deep  ditches,  and,  by  means  of  sluices,  the  surrounding 
country  can  be  laid  under  water  in  a  few  hours.  The  church 
of  St.  John  the  Baptist  is  a  large  handsome  building,  and 
contains  a  very  fine  organ :  its  painted  windows  are  much 
admired,  and  they  are  preserved  with  the  greatest  care. 
Gouda  is  a  place  of  considerable  trade,  and  contains  12,000 
inhabitants.  Manufactories  of  pottery  and  tobacco-pipes  are 
established  there :  of  the  latter  there  were  at  one  time  up- 
wards of  300  establishments. 

GOUGH,  RICHARD,  an  eminent  English  antiquary, 
son  of  Henry  Gough,  Esq.,  was  bom  in  Winchester  Street, 
London,  October  21,1 735.  He  became  a  fellow-commoner 
of  Benet  College,  Cambridge,  in  July,  1752,  but  left  the 
University  in  1756,  without  taking  a  degree.  He  was 
elected  F.S.A.  in  1767,  and  in  1771,  upon  the  death  of  Dr. 
Gregory  Sharpe,  Master  of  the  Temple,  was  chosen  director 
of  the  society,  an  office  which  he  held  till  1797.  He  was 
elected  F.R.S.  in  1775.  Mr.  Gough*s  first  publication  of 
importance  was  his '  Anecdotes  of  British  Topography,'  4to., 
Lond.,  1768,  reprinted  and  enlarged  in  2  vols.  4to.,  1780. 
In  1773  he  formed  the  design  of  a  new  edition  of  Camden*s 
•Britannia,'  which  he  had  partly  begun  to  translate  before, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  making  additions  to  which  he  had 
for  years  made  regular  excursions  through  the  different 
counties  of  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland.  His  edition 
of  the  '  Britannia'  was  at  length  published  in  1789,  in  three 
volumes  folio;  reprinted  in  four  volumes  folio,  1806.  In 
17S6  he  published  the  first  volume  of  the  'Sepulchral 
Monuments  of  Great  Britain,  applied  to  illustrate  the  His- 
tory of  Families,  Manners,  Habits,  and  Arts,  at  the  different 
Periods  from  the  Norman  Conquest  to  the  Sixteenth  Cen- 
tury.' This  splendid  volume  in  folio,  which  contains  the 
first  four  centuries,  was  followed  in  1796  by  a  second,  con- 
taining the  fifteenth  century;  and  in  1 799  by  an  Introduc- 
tion to  the  second  volume,  with  which  he  thought  proper 
to  conclude  his  labours,  instead  of  continuing  them  to  the 
sixteenth  century,  as  he  first  intended. 

Among  his  publications  of  a  minor  kind  were  *  An  Ac- 
count of  the  Bedford  Missal,'  'The  Historv  of  Pleshy,  in 
Essex,'  4to.,  1 803,  and  in  the  same  year  *  An  Account  of 
the  Coins  of  the  Seleucidse,  Kings  of  Syria,'  4to. 

He  was  the  improver  and  editor  of  Martin's  '  History  of 
TKctford,'  4to.,  1780 ;  published  a  new  edition  of  Vertue's 
*  Medals,  Coins,  and  Great  Seals,'  by  Simon;  and  in  the 


same  year  contributed  a  preface  and  glossary  to  Mr.  KiehoUN 
collection  of '  Royal  and  Noble  Wills,'  4to. 

Mr.  Gough  drew  up,  at  the  united  request  of  the  yr'j- 
sident  and  fellows,  the '  History  of  the  Society  of  An'  - 
quaries  of  London,*  prefixed  to  the  first  voluine  of  tii-  * 
'  ArchsDologia,'  in  1770;  and  to  the  eleven  succeeding  >  • 
lumes  of  that  work,  as  well  as  to  the*  Vetutta  Menu  meTjt.L 
he  contributed  numerous  valuable  memoirs.   He  was  ei\uA 
liberal  to  Mr. Nichols's  'Bibliotheca  Topographica  Bnt «: 
nica,'and  to  hb  '  History  of  Leioestershira.' 

Mr.  Gough  died  February  20th,  1809,  and  was  bnri<«l 
the  churchyard  of  Wormley,in  Hertfordshire.     Bv  hi<«  .. 
will  he  bequeathed  to  the  Universitv  of  Oxford   all  .*. 
printed  books  and  manuscripts  on  Saxon  and  North- 
literature  ;   all  his  MSS.,  printed  books,  prints,  maft^.  • 
drawings  illustrative  of  or  relating  to  British  topograf . 
his  interleaved  copies  of  his  three  greater  works  a1i«- 
mentioned,  and  all  his  unengraved  drawings,  of  scpul' : 
monuments ;  with  fourteen  volumes  of  drawings  o(  «•  *, 
chral  and   other  monuments  in   France;    the   entrr.!- 
copper-plates  of  his  greater  works,  &c.    The  renaa.n'i^r 
his  library  and  collections  were  sold  by  auction  in  1  >*  1  < 
1812;  the  printed  books  producing  3552/.  3s.,  and  the  pr 
drawings,  coins,  and  medals,  517/.  6«.  6d. 

(Biogr,  Pre/,  to  the  Catalogue  of  Mr.  Gough *«  Lihr:  -. 
Nichols's  Literary  Anecdotes.) 

GOURD,  a  kind  of  fruit  obtained  from  various  pUi.** 
the  natural  order  CucurbitacesD.      In  countries  ha\iii!; 
and  dry  summers  the  different  kinds  of  this  fruit  are    • 
in  high  estimation,  and  are  a  valuable  article  of  ooii-ki.* 
tion,  acquiring  a  very  large  size,  abounding  in  nutr.t. 
matter,  and  being  moreover  very  whalesome.    The  Ur. 
is  the  kind  called  Potiron  Jaune  by  the  French,   « .. 
sometimes  weighs  above  2  cwt     All  the  roost  estcvn 
kinds  belong  to  the  genus  Cucurbita,  the  species  of  >a  : 
are  almost  entirely  destitute  of  the  bitterness  that  n*rr     • 
other  fruits  of  the  same  natural  order  unfit  for  foo<l .  t 
the  vegetable  marrow  is  supplied  by  the  Cucurbita  o\  .:> 
the  potiron  by  C.  maxima ;  the  squash  gourd,  a  ver}  (W . 
cate  sort,  and  perhaps  the  most  agreeable  of  all   % 
cooked  in  a  very  young  state,  by  C.  melopepo;    aiid    i 
orange  gourd  by  u.  aurantia.      j^ottle  gourds,  whirli   . 
bitter  and  dangerously  drastic,  ate  the  fruit  of  La^«'T>  .- 
vulgaris ;  while  what  is  called  the  colocynth  gourd,  a  p(>w 
ful  purgative,  is  in  reality  a  kind  of  melon,  the  Curwi 
colocynthis. 

GOUT  {gutta,  a  drop).    This  name  was  given  to  iIm- 
ease  which  we  are  about  to  describe,  from  a  fanciful  n*-. 
that  it  arose  from  some  morbid  matter,  deposited  by  «1 
in  the  joints.    In  technical  language  Gout  is  called  Ar. 
tis  or  Podagra.    It  may  be  defined  to  be  an  intUmmA. 
affection  of  the  joints,  arising  fVom  some  peculiar  uk  -  * 
action  in  the  system,  the  nature  of  w)iich  is  unknown.    . 
is  mostly  an  hereditary  disease,  coming  on  without  an\  ^ 
dent  external  cause,  generally  preceded  by  disorder  i»f 
digestive  organs,  and  accompanied  by  a  plethoric  »7a:« 
the  system.    The  inflammation  attacks  the  smaller  j^-- 
particularly  the  first  joint  of  the  great  toe,  and  returr:* 
intervals,  various  joints  or  parts  becoming  affected  afli  -  :. 
peated  attacks. 

There  have  been  many  theories  and  much  discussion 
specting  the  intimate  nature  of  gout,  but,  after  ageas  «>. 
quiry,  we  know  this  affection  only  by  its  symptoms  ana  ;. 
effects  to  which  it  gives  rise.    We  have  yet  to  learn 
essential  nature,  or  the  special  cause  which  producv^  * 
Much  of  the  obscurity  and  complexity  which  exiat  in  v 
history  of  gout  is  owing  to  the  various  anomalous  affeci  •   • 
which  have  been  described  as  forming  a  part  of  the  dis«-..»- 
but  which  are  in  a  great  measure  ineidental  derangeixii 
and  disorders  occurring  in  a  gouty  constitution  ar  a. 
with  an  attack  of  gout,  and  which  may  exist  in  cooQ<.'-t. 
with  many  other  maladies.    Thus  we  rc«d  of  atonic  ^  . 
which  is  only  this  disease  occurring  in  a  person  of  d( 
tated  constitution,  when  it  is  consequently  modified  lu 
effects. 

A  paroxysm  of  gout  is  generally  preceded  by  some 
stitutional  disturbance,  though  it  mav  attack  a  person  .* 
denly  who  is  apparently  in  good  health.     It  is  airov 
ushered  in  by  a  disordered  state  of  Cbo  whole  system :  u 
the  circulating,  nervous,  di^stire,  and  secretins  ef>  *  * 
are  out  of  order.    The  pulse  is  frequent  and  full ;  therv    > 
feeUng  of  repletion  ana  oppression ;  drowBinete.  or  fr«rc<^- 
ness;  general  lassitude  and  deptenm  of  quiitB;  flstukiK-. 


GOV 


332 


GOV 


tion  of  the  same  parts  arising  firom  other  causes.  The  ex- 
ternal proper  tunics,  particularly  the  sclerotica,  may  bo 
affected  in  the  gouty ;  though  in  this  case  the  iris  generally 
participates  in  the  inflammation.  The  sclerotica  and  con- 
junctiva may  however  he  attacked  without  the  iris  in  gouty 
persons ;  this  affection  is  then  similar  to  that  modification 
of  external  ophthalmia  which  occurs  more  frequently  from 
exposure  to  cold  in  persons  who  suffer  from  rheumatism, 
and  is  denominated  rheumatic  ophthalmia.  [Rhkumatism.] 

Sometimes  gouty  inflammation  of  the  sclerotica  is  ac- 
companied  with  an  erysipelatous  form  of  inflammation  of 
the  conjunctiva.  Beer  has  seen  this  follow  the  suppression 
of  sout  in  the  feet  by  cold. 

Inflammation  of  the  iris  (arthritic  iritis)  is  a  much  more 
common  affection  than  the  last  in  gouty  persons,  and  is 
usually  of  an  acute  character.  It  commences  with  uneasy 
sensations  in  the  eye,  which  are  followed  by  pain  about  the 
orbit,  forehead,  and  side  of  the  head,  and  lastlv  in  the  eye 
itself.  Redness  of  the  sclerotica  comes  on,  which  is  par- 
ticularly seen  round  the  cornea ;  attended  with  watering  of 
the  eye.  and  intolerance  of  light  The  iris  soon  becomes 
dull  and  discoloured,  the  pupil  is  contracted,  and  fixed  at 
one  or  more  points  to  the  capsule  of  the  lens.  It  has  been 
observed  that  the  red  zone  round  the  cornea  is  less  bright 
in  this  than  in  other  forms  of  iritis  [Iritis]  ;  and,  as  in 
rheumatic  ophthalmia,  does  not  quite  extend  to  the  cornea, 
but  leaves  a  narrow  white  ring  between  them.  This  form 
of  iritis  often  returns  again  and  again,  the  eye  recovering 
almost  completely  after  repeated  attacks.  The  iris  however 
often  becomes  attached  to  the  capsule  of  the  lens  by  whitish 
adhesions,  though  without  causintr  much  injurv  to  vision. 
Mr.  Lawrence  says  that  gouty  inflammation,  when  severe 
and  long-continued,  sometimes  causes  complete  disorgani- 
zation, with  puckering,  and  tubercular  projection  of  the 
iris,  and  extinction  of  sight.  When  arthritic  u'itis  occurs 
in  a  person  of  plethoric  habit,  we  must  bleed  and  adopt 
general  antiphlogistic  treatment.  Colchicum  may  also  be 
given  with  advantage.  Mercury  seems  to  do  more  harm 
then  good  in  this  affection.  The  recuri'encc  of  the  disease 
must  be  prevented  by  such  means  as  remove  the  gouty  dis- 
position. 

Besides  the  affections  which  wc  have  described,  persons 
of  a  gouty  constitution  are  sometimes  attacked  with  more 
extensive  inflammation  of  the  eye,  affecting  the  internal 
parts  of  the  globe  generally ;  that  is.  the  choroid  membrane, 
iris,  retina,  vitreous  humour,  lens  and  its  capsules,  and 
secondarily  involving  the  sclerotica  and  cornea.  It  gene- 
rally ends  in  loss  of  sight,  with  a  dilated  pupil  and  opaque 
lens ;  but  in  some  cases  the  latter  change  does  not  take 
place,  and  a  green  discolouration  of  the  pupil  remains: 
m  this  case,  Mr.  Lawrence  calls  the  affection  acute  glau- 
coma. Arthritic  inflammation  of  the  internal  tunics  is 
a  much  more  serious  disease  than  gouty  iritis,  and  almost 
invariably  destroys  sight.  It  is  attended  with  great  suffer- 
ing; there  is  severe  burning  pain,  which  extends  to  the 
face  and  side  of  the  head ;  and  the  eye  itself  feels  distended, 
or  swelled.  There  is  redness  of  the  sclerotica  and  conjunc- 
tiva; dulness  of  the  cornea  and  iris;  the  pupillary  margin 
of  the  latter  is  turned  backwards,  and  the  opening  itself 
dilated  and  fixed.  The  lens  becomes  opaque,  and  often  of 
a  greenish  colour,  and  is  pushed  forward  into  the  dilated 
pupil ;  the  eye  loses  its  brilliancy  and  looks  dead.  The 
sight  is  lost  at  an  early  period  of  the  disease.  This  disorder 
generally  affects  both  the  eyes  in  succession,  and  the  most 
energetic  treatment  has  hardly  any  effect  upon  it  Loss 
of  blood,  and  other  active  measures,  must  be  resorted  to  in 
the  first  stage  of  the  affection.  This  disease  is  generally 
seen  in  elderly  persons  of  full  habit,  with  bloated  red  faces 
which  are  owing  to  indulgence  in  the  pleasures  of  the  table. 

GOVERNMENT  is  a  word  used  in  common  speech  in 
more  than  one  sense.  1,  It  denotes  the  act  of  governing, 
as  when  we  speak  of  •  the  business  of  government.'  2,  The 
persons  who  govern  are,  as  often  as  not  called  *  the  govern- 
ment ;"  and  we  thus  speak  of  *  the  French  government* 
'  the  Russian  government,'  &c.  3,  The  word  *  government* 
is  used  elliptically  for  the  phrase  form  of  government^  as 
when  we  speak  of  •  a  monarchical,  aristocraiical,  or  repub- 
lican government ;'  or  again  of  *  the  English  or  French 
government' meaning  thereby  the  English  or  French  form 
of  government,  or  (changing  the  phrase)  the  English  or 
French  constitution. 

Of  tlieso  three  meanings  of  the  word  *  government,'  the 
first  and  the  last  are  considerably  the  most  important.    As 


regards  the  second,  there  is  no  more  to  be  taid  than  faa» 
been  already  said,  amounting  to  such  an  explanaUoo  a« 
finds  place  in  dictionaries.  But  the  other  two  admit  of  fL>- 
quisition.  Each  of  these  other  two  meanings  open*  out  & 
large  and  interesting  field  of  inquiry ;  and  corretpood«tit  to 
each  of  them  is  a  science. 

First,  there  is  the  science  which  (to  use  the  briefest  mc^ 
of  expression  possible)  relates  to  the  business  of  goTerri 
ment;  and  secondly,  there  is  that  which  relates  to  t'-j 
formation  of  government  The  first  of  these  two  fccieo^  . 
enumerates  and  classifies  the  operations  of  governing  :  ti.v 
second,  the  forms  of  government:  and  the  end  of  go\er.- 
mcnt  being  the  production  of  the  greatest  possible  atntju  t 
of  happiness  for  those  who  are  governed,  the  first  scck-^  t 
determine  how  the  operations  of  governing  shaU  he*Jt  b-. 
carried  on,  and  the  second  how  the  government  shall  b.  •: 
be  formed,  with  reference  to  the  attainment  of  this  i  n*'. 
Each  of  these  sciences  may  be,  and  sometimes  is,  called  ti. 

*  science  of  government ;'  the  word  'government*  iu  it   - 
expression  signifying  at  one  time  the  act  of  governing,  aix'* 
at  another  being  a  short  way  of  saying  '  form  of  gu%crj} 
ment.'     But  it   is  important  if  this  expression  bo  u»*  i 
thus  doubly,  to  bear  in  mind  its  two  meanings,  and  ii.t 
difference  between  them,  as  well  as  the  existeooo  of  t«.v 
distinct  sciences  of  government;  by  confounding  or  i  r 
getting  which  some  writers  on  government  have  fiulea  ii.t 
grievous  errors. 

The  science  of  government,  in  the  first  of  the  two  sen^'  ^ 
or  the  science  which  relates  to  the  business  of  ^Temmt-..:. 
is  more  commonly  called  the  science  of  legislation.     &>  i  ij 
art  which  flows  from  this  science,  or  the  art  of  govern tti^:.  ;• 
called  the  art  of  legislation.     In  accordance  then  with  i: 
common  phraseology,  we  shall  now  dismiss  this  first  of  t;> 
two  sciences,  and  together  with  it  that  sense  of  the  wcr: 
'  government '  in  which  it  signifies  the  act  of  goverrufu 
reserving  them  for  treatment  under  the  headLsaisLAtio  . 
In  the  present  article  we  shall  concern  ourselves  e\clusi\cM 
with  the  second  of  the  two  sciences,  and  with  that  sen»e  • : 
the  word  *  government'  in  which  it  stands  for  the  phra.-^ 

•  form  of  government* 

We  begin  with  enumerating  the  various  forms  of  ga>«rn  • 
ment.  Having  made  this  enumeration,  we  shall  prnv  •: 
to  consider  abstractly  which  of  these  various 'forms  i2»  I'  •: 
fitted  to  attain  the  end  of  government  or  is  fitted  to  prvriu-i 
the  greatest  amount  of  happiness  for  the  governed.  \\  !:•  : 
we  say  that  we  shall  consider  this  question  abstraril«,  «; 
mean  that  we  shall  make  abstraction  of  all  local  and  *  -v  r j 
sional  circumstances  which  are  incidental  to  particutii 
states,  as  well  as  of  the  present  existence  of  some  particuU' 
form  of  government  in  each  particular  state,  and  of  ti«. 
difficulties  standing  in  the  way  of  its  removal.  Abstract).: 
of  these  circumstances  is  made  in  that  science  of  goveninic:;: 
of  which  it  is  our  purpose  to  treat. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  explain  the  phrase  *  form  of  p  > 
vernment*  though,  if  it  were  necessary,  many  cxplanai»  • . 
might  be  given  of  the  sort  supplied  by  a  change  uf  phra-  * 
Thus  we  might  say  that  the  form  of  government  is  but  i.. 
other  and  a  shorter  phrase  for  the  mode  of  distributing  t:»- 
powers  of  government  or  (*  powers  of  government'  and  •  *^>ti  - 
reignty'  being  interchangeable  expressions)  of  dtstribuiir.^ 
the  sovereignty  in  a  state.    Ana  many  other  cban^c^  • : 

Shrase,  which  it  is  not  worth  while  to  enumerate,  mi^bi  u 
e vised.  Or  we  might  explain  the  phrase  by  enumeraiitc 
the  various  items  which  it  comprehends.  Thus,  not  pr 
fessing  now  to  make  anything  like  a  complete  enumerau>n. 
we  might  sav  that  the  number  of  the  governors  or  gorrnt- 
ing  bodies,  their  relations  to  one  another  (if  more  than  onr^ 
and  the  modes  in  which  they  are  severally  appointed,  or. 
so  many  elements  of  a  form  of  government  But  it  t»  vU 
vious  that  an  enumeration  of  these  elements  will  be  de- 
tained in  the  enumeration  of  forms  of  government  whicL 
we  now  proceed  to  make. 

1 .  A  government  consists  either  of  one  person  or  of  uuMt 
than  one. 

When  it  consists  of  one  person  only,  the  apprvpn^tc 
name  for  the  form  of  government  would  be  monarchy.  Bat 
we  shall  see  hereafter  that  this  name  is  generally,  in  com- 
mon speech,  fantastically  bestowed  on  a  particular  cU&»  «.-<' 
governments  of  more  than  one;  while  a  government  of  me 
only  is  called  by  the  names  ot  absolute  monarcA^,  detpoutvt 
and  tyranny.  Of  these  three  names,  the  last  two  m^y  W 
objected  to  as  names,  beoause  they  always  imply  disappro 
bation,  or  because  they  are  not  only  iiaiiies»  but  abo  tw 


GOV 


334 


G  O  W 


It  IS  necessary  to  enforce  at  somewhat  greater  lenffth  the 
considerations  which  we  have  adduced,  and  by  which  alone 
we  test  forms  of  government.  In  doing  so  however,  we 
shall  not  observe  the  order  in  which  we  have  named  them, 
but  shall  adopt  a  lino  of  argument  which  leads  most 
directly  and  conveniently  to  the  *  foregone  conclusion '  of  a 
pure  representative  government. 

It  is  desirable,  in  the  first  place,  thftt  the  powers  of  go- 
vernment should  not  be  vestea  solely  in  an  mdividual,  or 
in  an  aristocratic  body,  or  (in  other  words)  that  the  form  of 
government  should  not  be  an  absolute  monarchy  or  an 
aristocracy,  because  there  is  a  great  probability  that  the 
despot  or  the  aristocratic  body  will  pursue  respectively  his 
or  their  own  interest,  to  the  detriment  of  the  great  bulk  of 
the  community,  and  because  further  the  great  bulk  of  the 
community  are  in  such  cases  deprived  of  the  means  of  im- 
provement which  a  participation  in  government  supplies. 
This  improvement,  we  have  already  observed,  is  one  chief 
way  in  which  government  may  contribute  to  increase  the 
happiness  of  the  community.  With  reference  to  the  proba- 
bility of  a  despot  or  aristocratic  body  abusing  his  or  their 
power,  it  is  important  to  observe  tnat  we  affirm  no  more 
than  a  probability.  Some  despots,  or  obsolute  monarchs, 
there  have  been  in  every  way  deserving  of  praise.  There 
may  have  been  also  aristocratic  bodies  whose  use  of  the 
powers  possessed  by  them  has  been  conducive  to  the  general 
interest.  But  these  are  the  exceptions.  It  is  clearly  in  the 
nature  of  things  probable  that  there  will  in  such  coses  be 
an  abuse  of  power;  and  the  abstract  question  concerning 
forms  of  government  is,  after  all,  only  a  question  of  proba- 
bility,— wnich  form  of  government  is  it  probable  will  con- 
duce most  to  the  happiness  of  a  community  ? 

Secondly,  it  is  desirable  that  a  share,  whether  direct  or 
indirect,  in  the  government  should  be  possessed  by  as  large 
a  number  as  ore  likely  to  be  fit  to  exercise  the  power  thus 
confened  on  them.  There  are  two  reasons  for  this  exten- 
sion of  power,  correspondent  to  the  two  reasons  which  have 
been  already  stated  against  its  restriction  to  one  or  a  few. 
First,  the  greater  is  the  number  of  those  who  have  a  share 
in  the  government,  the  greater  is  the  probability  of  the 
general  mtcrest  being  regarded ;  for  the  more  widely  are 
the  powers  of  government  distributed,  the  less  division  will 
there  be  in  the  community,  and  consequently  the  less  will 
particular  interests  appear ;  and  further,  there  is  a  greater 
probability,  in  an  extensive  distribution  of  political  power, 
that  all  the  disturbing  eifects  of  particular  interests  will 
neutralize  one  another,  and  merge  in  the  pursuit  of  the 
general  interest.  Secondly,  the  more  political  power  is 
extended  the  more  widely  will  the  improvement  to  be 
derived  from  its  exercise  be  diffused. 

But,  in  the  third  place,  it  is  improbable  that  any  very 
large  number  will  be  fit  in  any  community  to  be  members 
of  a  deliberative  body,  and  have  a  direct  share  in  legislation. 
Further,  besides  their  being  unlikely  to  possess  the  requi- 
site amount  of  intelligence,  it  is  unlikely  tnat  any  very  large 
number  of  men  could  spare  time  from  such  pursuits  as  are 
necessary  to .  the  attainment  of  a  liveliliood  lor  the  work  of 
dulil)eration.  Again,  an  assembly  consisting  of  a  majority 
of  the  community,  or  of  a  number  approaching  to  the  whole 
of  the  community,  would,  from  its  size,  be  unfit  for  the 
purpose  of  deliberation.  For  these  three  reasons  it  is  de- 
birable  that  the  power  which  is  extended  through  a  large 
number  should  be  one  merely  of  election;  and  that  the 
doraocratic  body  should  be  one  not  large  and  in  which  the 
great  bulk  of  the  community  have  a  direct  share,  but  small, 
elected  by  the  great  bulk  of  thp  community,  and  (in  the 
common  phrase)  representing  them.  A  large  number  will 
be  found  fit  to  elect,  though  not  to  deliberate;  to  judge  of 
the  amount  of  intelligence  and  honesty  possessed  by  can- 
didates for  representation,  though  not  to  decide  upon  the 
many  and  important  subjects  which  the  representative  is 
required  to  consider.  The  act  of  election,  however  fi-equent, 
will  not  interfere  with  the  toils  necessary  for  subsistence; 
and  the. amount  of  attention  to  political  subjects  occasioned 
by  the  duty  of  election  will  be  sufficient  to  ensure  the 
gtncral  intellectual  development  which  wo  have  spoken  of 
as  one  of  the  tests  of  a  good  government. 

Thus  far  we  have  merely  been  arg:uing  for  an  extensive 
distribution  of  power,  with  which  an  hereditary  chief 
or  an  aristocratic  body  might  very  possibly  co-exist  in  the 

vcrnrncnt.      It  remains  to  complete  the  argument  by 

nting  out  the  objections  to  a  mixed  government,  or  to  a 

erumcnt  which,  by  ita  very  mode  of  coustruction,  creates 


a  diversity  of  intereats.  First,  in  so  ftur  is  ptrtieolar  in- 
terests are  embodied  and  made  separately  influential  in  a 
state,  the  attainment  of  what  is  for  the  general  iniervst  ^ 
impeded ;  secondly,  from  the  separate  embodiment  of  ihc«« 
particular  interests  collision  ensues  (for  the  much-talked  v^ 
balanee  of  powers  is  only  an  imagination),  and  by  colli* :u* 
is  engendered  ill-will.  On  the  baid  moral  effects  of  the  : 
will  thus  engendered  it  is  unnecessary  to  dilate. 

Such  is  a  rapid  sketch  of  the  abstract  arfuroent  in  fav<..-;r 
of  a  ptu*e  representative  government;  aid  such  may   U 
eonsiaered  a  orief  general  view  of  that  science  of  ^\>'r:>- 
ment  which  employs  itself  in  determining  which  farm 
government  is  best  adapted  to  increase  the  happincee  of  th.- 
governed,  or  (briefly)  is  the  best. 

It  cannot  need  to  be  remarked  that  when,  abUracf: -.• 
ourselves  from  all  particular  circumstances  of  time   ... 
country,  we  concluae  that  a  pure  representative  gover* 
ment  is  the  best  form  of  government,  we  do  not  cootc. 
either  that  such  form  of  government  should  now  be  est..  • 
lished  in  any  particular  states  or  state,  or  that  it  ought  t. 
have  existed  m  all  states  in  all  periods  of  their  biet'.r:*- 
It  were  absurd  even  to  think  of  a  general  distributiuo 
political  power,  snch  as  is  implied  in  a  pure  representat.. 
^overnmeni,  in  the  earW  periods  of  ignorance  and  naet*. 
mactivity.    And  it  were  outrageous  to  attempt  to  establ  -: 
in  each  state,  in  defiance  of  the  many  habits  and  interim** 
which  must  have  grown  up  around  the  forms  of  goremiuv' 
already  established,  a  new  one,  which  is  abstractly  xik 
best,  or  (in  other  words)  is  the  best  if  we  leave  these  hah  u 
and  interests  out  of  consideration. 

Yet  must  not  this  science  of  government  be  prtmoun*^  <. 
idle  and   unprofitable.     It  may  be  out  of  the  qiie«t  ^^  . 
as  generally  it  will  be,  to  establish  immediately,  or  perhai** 
even    ultimately,   that   government    which    the    ab&tr. 
science  tells  us  is  tho  best.    Bat  though  the  goal  of  |  •  • 
fection  be  unattainable,  it  is  useful  to  have  it  constanlh  .: 
view.    And  wliile  it  will  be  the  duty  of  each  existing  l 
vernment,  learning  the  feelings  of  its  subjects  andpruCi  •  ^ 
by  the  opportunities  of  the  time,  to  seek  to  approaco  m^. 
and  nearer  to  that  form  of  government  which  is  abstrj' 
the  best,  all  such  changes  as  arc  made  with  distinct  nt  - 
euce  to  this  obstract  form  of  perfection  will,  as  betng  tu* '. 
on  the  soundest  principles,  Y)c  the  best. 

GOWBR,  JOHN,  an  early  English  writer,  was  born 
the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century.     Whether  he«. 
older  or  younger  than  Chaucer  is  doubtful;  certain  *:  .* 
that  they  were  friends,  probably  from  their  colk|ge-«lj*» 
The  profession  which  Gower  followed  is  as  uncertain  a»  c* 
birth-year.     It  appears  that  he  studied  law,  but  the  «     ' 
of  his  having  been  some  time  chief-justice  of  the  Conuu 
Pleas  wants  proof.     He  was  attached  to  the  duke  of  Gin 
cester,  Richard  II.'s  uncle,  and  appears,  like  Cbau£«r. 
have  taken  part  in  censuring  the  vices  and  foiliea  ol  it 
ecclesiastics  of  those  times.    In  the  latter  period  of  Gewtr  r 
life  it  seems  nearly  certain  that  a  coolness  existed  betvc' 
him  and  Chaucer,  and  Tyrwhit  thinks  he  has  disci(\Y'^  -. 
some  trace  of  it  in  certain  expressions  of  Chaucer,  and  . 
the  fact  that  in  the  second  edition  of  his  poems  Go'<«: 
omitted  some  verses  in  praise  of  his  friend.     As  huwcM- 
this  second  edition  did  not  appear  till  after  the  aecessio'i    ' 
Henry  IV.,  it  is  probable  that  Chaucer,  who  only  *urx.>' 
that  event  about  a  year,  never  felt  the  blow  thus  a:x>-. 
against  him, 

Gower's  works  are: — 1.  'Speculum  Meditanti&.*  a  -- 
lection  in  French  verse  of  precepts  and  examples  of  chj« 
tity;    2.  *  Vox  Clam  ant  is,*  a  Latin  poem,  in  sexvn  ^•'•i* 
on  the  insurrection  of  the  Commons  under  Richard  II 
3.  •  Confessio  Amantis,*  which  is  written  for  the  mo*t  p-' 
in  English  octave  verse,  with  interspersed  Latin  rie^c» 
Latin  prose  tables  of  contents,  something  like  the  m 
known  running  commentary  to  the  *  Ancient  Mariner.'    . 
consists  of  eight  books  and  a  prologue,  and  in  some  \  i    * 
takes  the  form  of  a  conversation  between  the  lover  and 
priest,  where  story  and  disquisition  are  heaped  on  <■. 
other  in  the  most  unsparing  profusion,  with  the  intccr. 
apparently  of  solacing  the  lover. 

The  '  Confessio  ./Qnantis'  was  written  towards  th«»  tx  • 
of  Gower's  life,  and  appears  by  its  form  to  have  indica:*  -I  . 
wish  oil  his  part  to  conform  to  that  taste  lor  En^l 
poetry  which  Chaucer  had  awakened  among  bis  counmn'-r 
As  a  poet  he  ranks  very  far  below  his  friend.     Hi»  ic:-  . 
are  tedious,  overladen  with  misplaced  learning  tpa  ••. 
poetically  introduced;  and  it  seems  pretty  crideiit  tha:  iu^ 


6  R  A 


336 


G  R  A 


it  18  a  small  fortress,  called  Rabatto.  Gozxo  is  the  Gaudus 
of  Strobo  (Casaub.,  p.  277). 

GRAAF  REYNkT.    [Cape  of  Good  Hope] 

GRABE,  JOHN  ERNEST,  was  born  at  Kunigsberg, 
July  10,  1666,  and  was  educated  at  its  university,  in  which 
his  father  Martin  Sylvester  Grabe  was  professor  of  divinity 
and  history.  He  applied  himself  diligently  to  the  reading 
of  the  fathers,  and  was  led  by  the  perusal  of  them  to  ques- 
tion the  validity  of  the  ordination  of  ministers  in  the  Lu- 
theran church.  He  therefore  resolved  to  embrace  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  faith ;  but  first  presented  to  the  ecclesiastical 
consistory  at  Sambia  in  Prussia  a  memorial  containing  his 
doubts  and  difficulties.  Three  Lutheran  divines  were  com- 
manded by  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  to  reply  to  this,  but, 
imable  to  convince  him,  they  recommendea  nim  to  go  to 
Ene^land,  where  he  would  find  a  clergy  which  derived  their 
right  to  the  ministry  from  apostolical  succession.  In  ac- 
cordance with  their  advice  he  came  to  England,  where  he 
uas  well  received  by  William  IIL,  who  settled  a  pension 
upon  him.  He  took  orders  in  the  Church  of  England,  and 
was  made  D.D.  by  the  University  of  Oxford,  April  26, 1 706. 
He  died  in  London,  November  13,  1711,  in  his  forty-fifth 
year,  and  was  interred  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Dr.  Hickes 
lias  given  an  interesting  account  of  the  life  of  Dr.  Grabe, 
from  which  we  learn  that  he  was  in  favour  of  prayer  for  the 
souls  of  the  dead  who  died  in  faith,  for  anointing  the  sick 
with  oil,  for  confession  and  sacerdotal  absolution,  and  that 
he  used  to  lament  that  the  Reformed  churches  had  dis- 
carded many  primitive  customs  which  were  retained  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  church. 

Dr.  Grabe  published  many  works,  of  which  the  most  cele- 
brated is  his  edition  of  the  Septuagint,  printed  at  Oxford  in 
4  vols.  fol.  and  8  vols.  8vo.,  1707-1720.  The  text  of  this 
edition  was  founded  upon  the  Alexandrian  MS.  now  in  the 
British  Museum.  He  only  lived  to  sunerintend  the  publi- 
cation of  the  first  and  fourth  volumes ;  tne  second  and  third, 
uublished  after  his  death,  were  edited  respectively  by  Dr. 
Lee  and  Mr.  Wigan.  Among  his  other  works,  the  principal 
are,  •  Spicilegium  S.S.  Patrum,'  2  vols.  8vo.  Oxf.  1698-9: 
•  J ustini  Apologia  Prima,'  8vo.  Oxf.  1700 ;  •  Irenroi  adversus 
HcBi-eses  Libri  V/  fol.  Oxf.  1702;  'Epistola  ad  Millium,* 
4to.  Oxf.  1 705,  to  show  that  the  Alexandrian  MS.  of  the 
Septuagint  contains  the  best  version  of  the  Book  of  Judges, 
and  that  the  version  in  the  Vatican  MS.  is  almost  a  new 
one,  made  in  the  third  century ;  *  An  Essay  upon  two  Arabic 
MSS.of  the  Bodleian  Library,  and  the  book  called  the  Doc- 
trine of  the  Apostles,'  8vo.  Oxf.  1711;  '  De  Forma  Conseera- 
tionis  Eucharistis,  hoc  est,  Defensio  Ecclesio)  Gra^cte  con- 
tra Romanam,'  8vo.  Lend.  1721.  {Li/e  qfDr.  Grabe,  by 
Dr.  Hickes,  prefixed  to  a  posthumous  work  of  Dr.  Grabe, 
entitled  '  Some  instances  of  the  Defect  and  Omissions  in 
Mr.  Whiston's  Collection  of  Testimonies,*  8vo.  Lond.  1712.) 

GRACCHUS,  TIBERIUS,  was  born  b  c.  163,  and  was 
the  son  of  Tiberius  Seinpronius  Gracchus,  a  man  of  some 
celebrity  in  the  annals  of  his  country,  and  of  Cornelia, 
daughter  of  Scipio  Afiicanus. 

T.  Gracchus  tne  elder  died  while  his  sons  were  yet  young ; 
having  twice  served  the  office  of  consul,  and,  according  to 
Plutarch,  obtained  two  triumphs.  Two  anecdotes  remain 
regarding  him  which  seem  to  exhibit  him  as  a  Roman  of 
the  old  class,  affectionate,  high-spirited,  and  religious.  Af- 
ter the  death  of  her  husband,  Cornelia  refused  all  offers  of 
marriage,  and  devoted  herself  to  the  charge  and  education 
of  her  children,  who,  as  Plutarch  tells  us,  were  less  the  in- 
heritors of  manly  virtue  by  being  sprung  from  the  noblest 
blood  in  Rome,  than  they  were  its  possessors  from  the 
careful  nurture  of  their  mother  Cornelia. 

Tiberius  served  his  first  campaign  in  Africa  under  his 
uncle  Scipio,  and  having  obtained  the  office  of  consul's 
quiBstor,  we  find  him  next  under  Mancinus,  the  unfortunate 
commander  in  the  Numantine  war.  His  name,  which  the 
Numantines  respected  from  remembering  his  father's  vir- 
tues, is  said  to  have  procured  the  terms  under  which  Man- 
•inus  obtained  safety  for  his  army ;  but  the  senate  on  his 
return  was  so  much  displeased  at  the  unfavourable  nature 
of  the  terms,  that  they  resolved  on  giving  up  all  the  prin- 
cipal officers  to  the  Numantines.  By  the  ^ood-will  how- 
ever of  the  ix>pular  assembly,  influenced,  as  it  should  seem, 
by  the  soldiers  and  their  connexions  in  the  lower  classes,  it 
was  decided  to  send  Mancinus  as  the  real  criminal,  and  to 
spare  the  other  officers  for  the  skke  of  Gracchus :  treatment 
of  this  nature  was  likely  to  rouse  Gracchus  against  the 
ae&ftte,  and  make  him  im  friend  of  tho  poor,  and  accord^ 


ingly.in  three  years  afterwards  we  fi  nd  him  beginninjt  i>u 
short  career  as  a  political  agitator.  He  was  elected  tntu:..> 
of  the  Plebs,  b.c.  138. 

The  long  wars  in  which  the  Romans  had  been  qt\z^;i  \ 
led  to  the  introduction  of  an  enormous  number  offij,-* 
into  Italy.  These  slaves  had  taken  the  place  of  the  reeul  r 
inhabitants  of  the  country,  and  tilled  the  large  ciUhs. ,.; 
the  rich  to  the  exclusion  of  the  regular  labourrr* 
In  Sicily  they  mustered  so  strong  as  to  maintain  li'm,. 
selves  for  upwards  of  two  years  against  their  nta^i-r. 
backed  by  all  the  power  of  Rome ;  and  in  ItaW  it^  • 
the  scene  which  presented  itself  to  T.  Graccbu*  m  i  . 
returned  from  Spain  was  that  of  a  whole  countr}  «:.  ^ 
only  cultivators  were  foreign  slaves.  Nor  did  he  And  \r>. 
cause  for  complaint  in  the  city,  crowded  as  it  appe&r« :. 
have  been  with  needy  soldiers,  whose  6er\'ices  had  founu  •. 
remuneration  adequate  to  their  expectations. 

These  causes,  acting  on  a  disposition  at  once  aniliti  .< 
and  humane,  and  aided  by  the  suggestions  of  a  mother,  v 
could  not  help  reminding  her  sons  that  she  was  still  rali.  l 
not '  mother  of  the  Gracchi,'  but '  daughter  of  Scipio,'  c  < 
by  the  general  voice  of  the  people  expressed  in  placanit 
memorials  addressed  to  him  as   to  their  prcMrMT  . 
champion,  combined  in  inducing  Tiberius  Gracchus  t  • . 
tempt  the  revi^Til  of  the  Licinian  Rogations.  [Agru  •• 
Law.]    In  so  doing  he  appears  to  have  bad  in  view  the  !# 
grand  principles  which  that  law  involved,  namely,  iIm»  .  . 
ployment  of  freemen  in  preference  to  slaves,  and  the  i^  ^ 
generally  recognised  principle  of  the  equitable  dimm 
the  public  land. 

Tnree  commissioners  were  to  be  appointed  to  sup^rin!* : ' 
the  working  of  the  new  law,  which  Gracchus  prupi«H"d. 
we  may  trust  Plutarch,  with  the  approval  of  several  o( :. 
most  eminent  persons  of  the  time,  among  wboin  r.  * 
Mutius  Scrovola  and  Crassus. 

Such  general  interest  was  excited  by  the  question,  t. 
crowds  arrived  from  all  parts  of  the  countiy  to  i\i\\  : 
either  side ;  and  there  appeared  no  doubt  which  vaf  r: 
matter  would  go,  when  left  to  the  tribes.    The  ariwiKr  • 
however  secured  the  veto  of  M.  Octavius,  one  of  iho  l 
bunes,  and  thereby  quashed  the  proceedings  whene\i';- ! 
law  was  brought  on,  which  violent  mode  of  opposiiioi'  •  i 
Gracchus  to  exercise  his  veto  on  other  questions,  m  <}< :  • 
supplies,  and  throw  the  government  into  the  most  cuin|i.  '* 
helulessness. 

Thus  far  the  contest  had  been  lawful,  but  at  this  jure? 
Gracchus,  irritated  by  continued  opposition,  innu  i  v 
tayius  to  propose  his  (Gracchus's)  ejection  from  tho  ot  ^ 
tribune,  and  on  his  refusal,  pleading  the  utter  uhI.  •-: 
of  two  men  so  different  holding  the  same  ofilcc,  he  pm  ■> 
question  to  the  tribes,  that  Octavius  be  ejected.  AV Ik ..  t  - 
first  seventeen  out  of  the  thirty-five  tribes  had  votcJ  f  r 
Gracchus  again  implored  him  to  resign,  and  on  bis  n.:  i  < 
proving  unsuccessful,  polled  another  tribe,  constnuin^i:  • 
majority,  and  sent  his  oflficers  to  drag  Octavius  down  f'' 
the  tribune's  chair.     The  Agrarian    law  was  tort!  - 
passed,  and  Gracchus  himself,  his  brother  Caius  ^nd 
father-in  law  Appius  Claudius,  were  appointed  tlie  ctMi<  - 
sioners ;  but  the  senate,  to  show  their  opinion  of  iIk*  v*i 
pi-oceeding,  withheld  from  him  the  usual  allowance  < ' ' 
public  otficer,  giving  him  only  about  one  shilling  a  '^^^ 
While  things  were  in  this  stote,  the  dominions  and  im<  - 
of  Attains,  king  of  Pergamus,  were  by  him  bequeotiu'' » ' 
the  Roman  people ;  and  to  enhance  his  own  ])0|'u'af'? 
Gracchus  proposed  to  divide  the  treasure  among  tbr ' 
cipients  of  land  under  the  new  law,  to  enable  tbeui  to  -'  ■ » 
their  farms,  and  to  commit  the  management  of  the  kn^  i 
of  Pergamus  to  the  popular  assembly. 

This  brought  matters  to  a  greater  pitch  of  distrust  t!  -' 
ever.      Gracchus  was  accused  by  one  senator  of  a^prr;  .• 
tyranny,  and  by  another  of  having  vioUted  the  san<'!  ;. 
the  tribune's  office  in  deposing  Octavius.     On  \Ui<  \ 
Gracchus  strove  to  justify  hitns^lf  before  the  pc<»i'ic. 
his  opponent  seems  to  have  gained  an  advanta|!e  ^'  - ' 
as  to  induce  him  to  postix>ne  the  assembly.    When  at  -•' 
he  did  make  his  defence,  it  rested,  if  Plulorch  w  c*'  > 
on  false  analogies  and  on  blinking  the  question  of  U ' 
violability  of  a  public  officer.  ^  . 

At  this  juncture  Gracchus  seems  to  have  tri'ro>'^ 
that  popularity  which  alone  preserved  him  trotn  m'K' ' 
ment ;  and,  lest  it  should  fiiil,  cndcavouiwd  to  «?»*"''^' 
own  re-election  to  the  ofRce  of  tribune.  .        . 

The  other  party  had  demurred  as  to  hit  cligibilii)  tu  ^ 


G  R  A 


<ld8 


G  R  A 


GRA'CULA.    ^Stuenida.] 

GRADUATE.    [Asts,  Dsgebzs  in.] 

GRADUATION  is  the  name  commonly  applied  to  the 
Art  of  dividing  mathematical  and  astronomical  instruments. 
The  nature  of  this  work  will  not  admit  of  a  detailed  account 
of  the  various  methods  and  machines  used  in  different 
branches  of  the  art ;  we  shall  only  give  an  outline  of  the 
different  processes,  with  references  to  the  standard  authori- 
ties, and  add  a  few  suggestions  for  the  consideration  of  the 
astronomer  and  artist. 

Graduation,  or,  as  the  workmen  more  generally  style  it, 
.dividing,  is  performed  in  two  ways,  by  making  a  copy  of  a 
svstem  of  divisions  already  existing,  or  by  original  dividing. 
The  straight  scales  and  rules  which  are  in  common  use  are 
divided  thus :— The  original  pattern,  and  the  scale  on  which 
the  copy  is  to  be  laid,  are  placed  side  by  side ;  a  straight  edge, 
with  a  shoulder  at  right  angles,  like  a  carpenter's  square,  is 
made  to  slide  aJong  the  original,  stopping  at  each  division, 
when  a  corresponding  stroke  is  cut  by  the  dividing  knife  on 
the  copy.  With  care  and  practice,  this  method  admits  of  con- 
siderable accuracy.  By  making  the  straight  edge  turn  on 
the  centre  of  a  divided  circle,  the  divisions  of  that  circle 
may  be  copied  upon  any  concentric  circle.  Common  pro- 
tractors are  thus  divid^,  and  seales  upon  circular  limbs. 
The  original  circle,  which  may  have  several  orders  of 
divisions  for  different  purposes,  is  called  a  dividing  piate. 

The  above  method  requires  a  standard,  which  must  be 
divided  originally.    This  will  be  noticed  hereafter. 

Small  tneodoUtes  and  ordinary  circular  instruments 
must  have  been  thus  divided,  previous  to  the  invention  by 
Ramsden  of  his  dividing  engine.  The  errors  were  of 
course  large,  and  Mayer  proposed  to  get  rid  of  them  by  his 

Srinciple  of  repetition  (Kepeatino  Circle]  ;  but  Rams- 
en's  discovery  of  a  machine  for  rapid  and  accurate  dividing 
was  better  adapted  to  ordinary  purposes.  The  general  prin- 
ciple of  Ramsden's  dividing  machine  may  perhaps  be 
understood  by  the  following  description : — ^A  horizontal  circle 
of  four  feet  diameter  turns  upon  a  vertical  axis ;  the  outer 
edge  is  ratched,  or  notched,  by  an  endless  screw,  one  revo- 
lution of  which  carries  the  circle  round  10';  the  pressure 
of  the  foot  upon  a  treadle  turns  the  screw  forward,  and 
there  is  a  series  of  very  ingenious  contrivances  which  enable 
the  divider  to  turn  the  screw  through  any  portion  of  its 
revolution  at  each  descent  of  the  treadle,  and  which  restore 
the  position  of  the  parts,  when  the  foot  is  taken  off,  without 
allowing  any  return  motion  to  the  screw.  The  circle  to  be  di- 
vided is  fixed  upon  the  dividing  engine,  and  made  concentric 
with  it,  and  a  aivision  cut  after  each  pressure  of  the  foot. 
The  Board  of  Longitude  gave  Ramsden  a  reward  of  300/. 
for  the  invention  of  this  machine,  and  3 15/.  for  the  machine 
itself,  leaving  it,  during  pleasure,  in  his  possession,  on  con- 
dition that  he  would  divide  sextants  at  six  and  octants  at 
three  shillings,  for  other  mathematical  instrument  makers. 
Machines  of  a  similar  kind,  with  some  alterations  and  im- 
provements, have  since  been  constructed  by  John  Troughton, 
Edward  Troughton,  and  others,  and  these  are  still  employed 
in  all  instruments  which  are  not  large  enough,  or  not  sufii- 
ciently  valuable,  to  require  original  dividing. 

Ramsden  invented  a  machine  for  dividing  straight  lines, 
in  which  he  used  a  screw  as  his  original.  In  the  form 
proposed  by  Ramsden  the  machine  has  not  been  deemed 
of  any  value,  since  a  long  screw  can  never  be  made  so  ac- 
curate as  a  scale  divided  by  bisections.  Mr.  Bryan  Donkin 
has  contrived  a  machine  where  a  screw  is  indeed  the  scale, 
but  where  the  errors  of  the  screw  are  corrected  by  additional 
mechanism.  We  do  not  think  that  this  machine  has  ever 
been  figured  or  described,  but  scales  have  been  divided,  and 
screws  cut  by  it  of  extraordinary  accuracy. 

Dividing  engines  have  been  constructed  somewhat  differ- 
ently by  Reichenbach  and  others  in  Germany,  and  by 
Gambey  in  Paris.  Much  of  this  German  division  is  excellent, 
and  probably  superior  to  any  English  engine-dividing.  It  is 
understood  to  be  performed  by  copying.  A  large  circle  having 
been  divided  originally  with  great  care,  ike  copy  is  placed 
upon  it,  and  concentric  with  it.  A  microscope  is  fixed  inde- 
pendently over  the  divided  circle,  the  divisions  are  brought  in 
succession  under  the  wires  of  the  micrometer,  and  a  line  is 
cut  in  the  copy  after  each  bisection.  This  process  is  much 
more  tedious  than  the  English  engine-dividing,  but  it 
admits  of  the  greatest  accuracy  when  the  workman  is  care- 
ful aud  expert.  It  is  a  defect  in  the  English  engine  that 
the  circle  to  be  divided  must  be  detached  from  its  centre 
aad  framipgi  wd  that  wb«Q  {«ftftmed  thorg  la  frequently 


a  sensible  excentricity,  t.e.  the  centre  of  the  divided  ciicle 
is  not  in  the  axis  of  rotation.  This  does  not  however  nuw 
any  error  if  two  or  more  opposite  readings  be  used.  It  u  t 
worse  fault,  that  if  the  instrument  be  badly  framed  the  cir 
cle  may  become  distorted  when  the  instrument  is  anin  pj: 
together.  But  when  the  divided  limb  is  only  a  part  of  ^ 
circle,  as  in  the  sextant,  any  eiror  of  excentricity  i>  i; 
serious  importance,  and  this  error  may  be  very  tett^M. 
after  Uie  utmost  care  of  the  artist  [Sextant.]  Gaa 
bey  has  constructed  a  dividing  engine,  by  wbicb  the  in- 
strument is  divided  upon  its  own  centre,  but  we  cann .! 
here  describe  the  contrivance,  and  are  not  aware  that  it  n. 
been  published. 

It  has  not,  we  believe,  been  ascertained  what  ^vtr.c- 
amount  of  error  is  to  be  feared  in  an  English  circle,  ent:.;.: 
divided.    We  have  not  been  able  to  learn  a  more  unpurri:,: 
point,  whether  circles  from  the  same  engine  are  facsim:!' .^ 
If  they  are,  it  would  be  easy  to  determine  the  error  of  u  .t 
copy,  and  to  apply  correcting  pieces  to  the  stop  of  the  di^i: 
ing  screw.     This  point  is  worth  the  attention  of  the  artist 
for  if  the  engine  does  always  give  the  same  result,  the  r.  r- 
rection  would  neither  be  troublesome  nor  expensiTe ;  and  / 
it  does  not,  nor  can  be  made  so  to  do,  the  German  modi- 
copying  must  be  followed  where  great  accuracy  u  rp> 
cessary. 

In  what  has  preceded,  the  existence  of  a  standard  is  pc 
sumed ;  we  will  now  give  a  brief  and  very  imperfect  skct. ' 
of  the  art  of  original  dividing.    Before  the  invention  of  u 
telescope,  almost  any  mode  of  division  must  have  been  tiS 
ficiently  accurate.    In  a  circle  of  thtee  feet  radiaa,  I'  '<i 
rather  more  than  0*01  inches,  a  Quantity  the  half  or  thir! 
of  which  is  readily  seen  and  atiu  more  easily  felt,  so  tb:' 
the  observations  of  Tycho  and  Hevelius  might  very  well  \au 
been  exact  to  10''  if  their  greatest  errors  had  arisen  fr-^: 
the  erroneous  division  of  their  instruments.    The  earhi^: 
essays  in  dividing  which  we  are  aivare  of  are  those  of  H<.«<  i 
and  Roemer.    Hooke  proposed   to  cut  the  edge  of  h- 
quadrant  by  an  endless  screw,  just  as  in  Ramwlen'i  r. 
gine,  and  to  use  the  revolutions  and  parts  of  (he  screw  a»  t 
aivision.    This  was  done  in  Flanasteed's  sector,  comtnir't . 
by  Tompion,  probably  under  Ilooke*s  control  and  also  -r 
his  mural  arc,  but  both  the  limba  were  also  divided  into  >i 
grees  by  diagonal  lines,  &c.;  and  in  the  '  Historia  Celr»t  • 
Qie  revolutions  and  parts  of  the  screw  are  set  down,a«  *>• 
as  the  divisions.    It  is  found  in  practice  that  such  am^di- 
dividing  is  liable  to  very  considerable  errors  unless  chcri  • 
and  corrected  by  independent  di^sions.    Roemer,  when  ^ 
had  constructed  his  transit-circle,  directed  his  pupiIHi>Ti 
bow  to  describe  a  number  of  concentric  ctrcl^  on  ti- 
limb,  very  near  each  other,  and  then  to  divide  them  if 
equal  parts  by  stepping  along  each  with  a  pair  of  comp;^*- 
opened  to  a  space  of  about  10'.     All  that  he  required  * 
to  have  the  dots  round  and  the  spaces  equal ;  the  a<*^  - 
value  of  each  space  was  to  be  ascertained  by  finding  t* ' 
many  were  contained  in  the  arc  ,of  90^,  between  tk^  ; 
and  the  equator,    Horrebow  informs  us  that  only  ono 
these  series  of  divisions  was  executed  which  tumcO  - 
exact  enough  to  satisfy  Roemer.    The  objection  to  its 
division  is  the  same  as  to  Hooke's  endless  screw,  that  tlj'r 
is  no  check  upon  an  accumulation  of  small  errors;  ><><'  •' 
is  probable  that  Roomer's  circle  was  the  best  dividcsl  :* 
strument  then  in  existence,  and  the  idea  of  detenommirt 
value  of  the  parts  by  observation  is  worthy  of  tt»  aut! 
We  have  no  account  of  the  way  in  which  either  Flaxs^it* 
sector  or  his  mural  arc  was  divided.    All  we  know  i»  ['  '• 
the  latter  instrument  was  divided  by  the  '  skilfiil  hao'i 
Abraham  Sharp,'  then  Flamsteed's  assistant. 

The  art  of  dividing  assumed  a  new  form  under  the  <^ 
brated  Graham,  the  father  of  all  good  dock,  wutrh.  r  • 
instrument  making  in  this  country,  and  the  worthy  a«^< 
of  Bradley.    He  pointed  out  the  fundamental  pnnrip!' 
original  graduation,   that   you    can  divide  a  given  '* 
accurately  into  two  parts,  but  not  into  three  or  five  e«v- 
parts.    The  dividing  tool  employed  by  Graham  «^'  * 
beam-compass,  a  straight  rod  of  wood  or  metal,  on  «M" 
perpendicular  points  of  steel  are  fixed.    Now  if  sKni* 
arc  is  to  be  bisected,  the  points  of  the  beam-ooinpa<»  ^\ 
placed  nearly  at  the  distance  of  half  the  line»  or  the  <-b 
of  half  the  arc  between  the  dots.    One  point  it  pls»(* ' 
one  dot,  and  a  fiunt  arc  is  struck  with  the  other  pant ' 
wards  the  distant  dot,  and  this  operation  is  repeated  wi^^ 
the  second  dot  as  a  centre.    The  two  fcint  arcswiJi  n"*^' 
include  a  small  space,  or  teaye  a  small  space  between  tJtai 


X?  R  A 


940 


6  R  A 


determimng  the  enon  of  dots  0'  and  180^  we  Bhould 
leave  the  microeoopea  A  and  B  undistnrbed,  and  fix  two  new 
micxnscopeSfC  and  D,  at  90**  and  270^  Then  having  ad- 
justed C  and  D  in  90*  and  270%  and  having  ascertained 
their  errors,  as  has  been  already  described,  the  circle  should 
be  turned  round  till  0*  and  180^  are  biseeted  by  B  and  A, 
when  90*  is  under  D,  and  270*  under  C.  The  errors  are 
then  to  be  again  determined  exactly  as  before.  Now,  if  the 
circle  turn  rbund  a  mathematical  point,  the  two  results  must 
of  course  be  identical ;  but  if  not,  it  may  happen  that  the 
observations  will  give  two  errors  for  dot  90*  and  two  ibr  dot 
270*,  which  should  however  have  the  same  difference.  The 
final  error,  or  that  which  the  artist  should  adopt,  for  each 
dot,  is  the  mean  of  the  two  determinations,  whicn  will  give 
^e  position  of  a  line  at  right  angles  to  the  diameter  nrom 
0^  to  180^,  and  the  nearest  possible  to  the  variable  centre. 
It  is  also  dear  when  this  discrepancy  is  found  that  the  centre 
has  not  been  oroperly  turned.  By  extending  the  above  process 
to  the  dots  wnich  bisect  the  quadrants,  t.  e.  shifting  the  mi- 
croscopes G  and  D  to  45°  and  225°,  and  trying  the  dots,  as 
in  Troughton's  method,  and  also  after  a  half-revolution,  a 
series  of  bisecting  diameters  may  be  found  which  will  cut 
the  diameters  already  determined  at  angles  of  45°,  and  pass 
as  near  the  variable  centre  as  may  be.  This  process  should 
be  continued  one  or  two  steps  more,  and  then  Troughton's 
method  may  be  considered  sufficient  for  the  rest  If  the 
above  system  of  examination  should  appear  too  trouble- 
some, it  would  be  at  least  advisable,  when  Troughton's  sub- 
division has  been  carried  to  16  or  32  parts,  that  the  table  of 
true  errors  should  be  checked  by  opposite  readings.  This  is 
easily  done  by  bringing  each  dot  in  its  turn  under  micro- 
scope A,  and  reading  off  the  apparent  error  of  the  opposite 
dot  by  microscope  B.  As  the  true  error  of  the  dot  under  A 
is  known  from  the  table  of  errors,  this,  +  the  aoparent  error 
as  shown  by  B,  should  ss  the  true  error  of  the  dot  under  B, 
which  is  also  known  from  the  table  of  errors.  Any  sensible 
discrepancy  in  these  two  values  will  show  a  faultiness  in  the 
centre.  Again,  if  the  artist  have,  as  he  ought  to  have,  a 
convenient  pier  and  a  sufficiency  of  micrometer  microscopesi 
he  may  ascertain  the  errors  of  his  foxa  or  eight  primary  dots, 
b^  placing  four  or  eight  equidistant  microscopes  round  his 
cutue,  and  reading  off  at  each  quarter  or  one-eighth  of  a 
revolution.  It  would  be  prudent  to  repeat  this  several  times 
and  on  several  days,  selecting  the  times  when  the  tempera- 
ture had  been  and  promised  to  be  steady.  This  principle 
might  be  carried  on  fartlier  in  examining  a  graduated  cir- 
cle by  changing  the  number  of  microscopes.  Indeed,  if  the 
centre  were  very  irregular,  and  therefore  the  curve  traced 
out  by  its  revolution,  a  belter  division  into  equal  parts  might 
be  got  after  a  preliminary  division  by  stepping  than  by 
Troughton's  method  unaltered.  As  the  +  and  —  signs 
used  in  forming  the  tables  of  apparent  and  true  errors 
may  cause  a  little  confusion,  it  is  usual  to  cut  a  few 
slight  divisions,  which  may  easily  be  rubbed  out,  and  thus 
to  test  the  accuracy  of  the  table  of  errors  before  commenc- 
ing the  actual  division. 

It  is  easy  to  see  how  Bird's  method  of  dividing  a  scale 
may  be  pursued,  adopting  microscopes  instead  of  the  beam- 
compass.  The  examination  of  sucn  a  scale  is  completely 
exemplified  in  Mr.  Bailv's  memoir  referred  to  in  the  sequel. 

It  may  be  useful,  before  we  give  a  list  of  references  for 
the  history  and  practice  of  graduation,  to  point  out  the 
effect  of  exoentricity  in  engine-divided  circles,  which  is 
almost  always  mistaken  for  bad  dividing  by  unskilful  per- 
sons. If  the  centre  of  the  divided  circle  is  not  concentric  with 
the  axis  of  rotation  (we  here  suppose  the  circle  to  revolve, 
and  the  verniers  or  microscopes  to  be  fixed),  it  is  clear  that 
the  centre  of  the  divisions  will  describe  a  very  small  circle 
about  the  axis.  Now,  suppose  we  set  out  from  the  position 
when  the  centre  of  the  divisions  is  in  a  line  with  and  be- 
tween the  axis  and  the  reading  apparatus.  On  turning  the 
circle  a  little  round,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  angle  through 
which  the  instrument  reaily  moves  is  less  than  the  angle 
read  off  at  that  vernier  or  microscope ;  and  on  drawing  the 
figure  it  will  be  seen  that  the  angle  read  off  is  the  exterior 
angle  of  a  triangle  of  which  the  true  angle  is  the  interior 
and  opposite ;  and  also  that  the  error  or  the  difference  be- 
tween these  two  angles  is  the  other  interior  angle  of  the 
triangle,  the  measuring  aro  of  which  to  the  same  radius  is, 
as  to  sense,  equal  to  a  perpendicular  from  the  centre  of  di- 
visions on  the  primary  line.*    Hence  the  error  caused  in 

'  f^t  A  be  Uie  uit  of  roUtiun.  C  c  th«  circle  dMcrilwd  by  the  centre  of  the 
4lTided  drdo  V  v  V  the  ^liioe  of  (h«  iMdiog .    la  the  poeition  Ont 


any  Ternier  by  Bteenitidty  is  an  are  equal  tsfhe  dditsei 
between  the  two  centres  x  sine  of  the  angle  from  ih» 
position  we  have  set  out  fh>m.  From  this  comidcntfjQ 
It  will  be  evident  to  one  who  knows  the  nature  of  trii>r<Q.r 
metrical  lines,  that  two,  three,  or  any  number  of  equ)«ij» 
tant  roadings  will  cure  exoentricity,  as  the  +  erron  td<.< 
always  equal  the  —  errors.  Now,  if  the  possessor  crf'i 
ciroular  instrument  having  two  or  more  equidistant  jn-.- 
ings  wishes  to  examine  the  divisions,  he  may  get  nd  nftiu 
effect  of  exoentricity  thus :— Take  the  mean  of  the  xiii- 
ings  at  every  lO^  20°,  or  30°,  and  subtract  eaeh  mr!.\ 
from  the  mean.  It  will  be  seen  whether  the  diflforeo  •* 
thus  obtained  can  be  represented  under  the  form  of  ar.- 
stent  quantity  -f  d/'  x  sin.  0,  where  9  is  teckoncd  fr  ,c 
some  definite  point  If  they  can,  there  is  no  error  of  ^\. 
sion,  and  the  residual  quantities,  when  the  above  eouat  ^ 
has  been  satisfied  in  the  best  practicable  manner,  will  ^,u 
soine  insight  into  the  qualitv  of  the  divinons.  The  m  '• 
which  arises  from  the  original  circular  form  changing  f^  u 
ellipse  b^  afrdl  or  other  injury  is  of  the  form  ff  x  tin.  ;;< 
where  ^  IS  the  angle  ftt)m  some  definite  point  of  the  diTKK  t\ 
Hence  two  readings  at  r^ht  angles,  or  three  equiduttr.: 
readings,  will  compensate  each  other;  so  that  three  or m- 
ec^uidistant  readings  will  destroy  the  effect  of  both  a^t: 
tncity  and  ellipticity.  In  like  manner  the  effect  of  uit 
error  which  obevs  a  law  may  be  investigated,  when  the  In 
is  known,  and  also  the  number  of  microscopes.  Hitbtr 
fi>ur  or  six  microscopes  seem  to  have  made  ereiy  cirt<  . 
well  divided  one. 

The  mode  of  readinj^  the  parts  of  larger  dirisiom  bi> 
been  partly  explained  in  the  description  of  the  mierteiccr' 
article  CiBCLB  [Astronomical],  and  will  be  finished  an. rr 
the  head  Vbrnibr. 

The  principal  sources  of  infonnation  on  this  subject  irc 
'The  Method  of  dividing  Astronomical  Instrumenu,'  \} 
Mr.  John  Bird.  London,  1767.  *Nouvelle  M^thode  p<iT 
divisor  les  Instruments  do  Math^matique  et  d*AstronoTC'.' 
par  M.  le  Due  de  Chaulnes,  1 76  8.  *  Description  of  &n  E.. 
gine  for  dividing  Mathematical  Instruments*  by  Mr.  ^ 
Ramsden.  London,  1 777.  Troughton*s  Memoir, '  Pr. 
Trans.,'  1809,  p.  105.  Graduation,  *  Edinburgh  Ocl.jr- 
dia.'  This  very  valuable  article  is  by  Troughton.  *On.l' 
Errors  of  the  Cape  Mural  Cirele,'  by  Messrs.  SheeD»bati;i 
and  Airy,  'Memoirs  Roval  Astronomical  Societr,  vu! .^ 

S.  326.    *  On  the  Cape  Mural  Circle/  by  Professor  H-- 
erson,  'Memoirs  Royal  Astronomical  Society,*  roL  tu,;> 
141.    'Description  of  the   Mural  Circle  of  the  Ann?.^ 
Observatory,'  by  Dr.  Robinson,  '  Memoirs  Rwal  Astr  \ 
mical  Society,*  vol.  ix.,  p.  1 7.     '  Report  on  tie  StanbH 
Scale  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,'  by  Mr.  F.  Ba^, 
'Memoirs  Royai  Astronomical  Society.'^ vol.  ix.,  p.  33.  1'. 
the  Introductions  to  the  '  Canbridige  Obsenationr  U 
1833-4-5,  and  the    Introduction   to  the  'Greenwich  0. 
servations'  for  1836,  will  be  found  several  instance*  of  tV 
way  of  examining  the  divisions  of  astronomical  rirrln. 
See  also  article  Circls,  and  the  references  there  givea 
GRiECIA  MAGNA.    [Maowa  Gracia.] 
GRiBVIUS,  JOHN  GEORGE,  was  born  in  l<^^^  »t 
Naumburg  in  Saxony,  and  studied  at  Deveuter  under  J  F 
Gronovius,  whom  he  succeeded  some  years  after  as  profo^r 
of  history  and  eloquence.    He  was  afterwards  appoint^'/' 
fill  the  same  situation  at  Utrecht,  where  hecontinuH'r 
above  forty  years,  to  the  time  of  his  death  in  Januair. ! :  •' 
He  acquired  the  reputation  of  one  of  the  flwt  classiral  tea- 

Uoned  Id  Uia  tut.  e  ooineidM  wHh  a  ftsd  •  viUi  V.  When  the  tMUv^^^ »» 
bMD  moT«d  nrand  Um  Angle  V  A  t,  the  angle  read  qf^  V  t  or  V  r  f .  tt*  »^ '  '•"• 

iiUieanfleAV*.  which  uiysr^Xila-VAt 


GR  A 


342 


G  R  A 


plants  proceeds  outwardly,  in  consequence  of  tlie  formation 
of  new  layers  of  alburnum,  interwoven  into  the  peculiar 
texture  of  the  tree  by  extensions  of  the  medullary  rays. 
Hie  alburnum  is  interposed  between  the  inner  bark  and  the 
heartwood,  with  both  of  which  it  is  in  vital  or  organized 
union.  The  greater  part  of  the  heartwood  of  a  tree  may 
be  bored  out,  and,  though  made  a  hollow  cylinder,  it  will 
still  continue  to  increase.  The  outer  bark  may  be  removed, 
and  a  new  one  will  gradually  be  formed ;  but,  if  the  albur- 
num be  entirely  destroyed,  death  will  be  the  consequence. 

It  appears  therefore  that  buds  with  some  portion  of 
alburnum  are  the  parts  essentially  necessary  for  propaga- 
tion ;  for  although  the  heartwood  and  bark  be  organized, 
yet  they  are  but  passively  so,  and  have  not  the  power  of 
extending  organization  to  new  matter  when  they  are  de- 
prived of  the  media  of  buds  and  alburnum.  Keeping 
therefore  the  importance  of  the  latter  in  view,  the  best  mode 
of  operation  is  that  whereby  the  greatest  possible  extent  of 
the  alburnum  of  the  stock  and  graft  is  brought  into  exact 
contact,  without  making  too  extensive  a  wound.  If  the 
sections  of  alburnum  can  be  made  to  coincide  in  every 
point,  the  result  of  the  operation  will  be  the  most  perfect 
that  can  be  obtained. 

The  modes  of  grafting  most  generally  practised  are,  whip, 
cleft,  saddle,  and  crown  grafting.  Of  these  whithgrq/ting  is 
by  far  the  commonest,  and  is  performed  as  follows : — the 
stock  is  cut  over,  sloping,  above  a  smooth  and  straight  part. 
The  end  of  the  scion  is  cut  sloping  and  thin  towards  the 
lower  end.  Then  on  the  same  side  of  the  stock  as  that  of 
the  lowest  part  of  the  slope  made  in  cutting  off  its  top,  a 
slice  is  cut  clean  off,  in  length  equal  to  that  of  the  cut  part 
of  the  scion,  and  in  breadth  so  as  to  expose  as  much  of  the 
wood  of  the  stock  as  will  equal  that  seen  in  the  slanting 
section  of  the  scion.  Both  sections  should  be  smooth  and 
plain,  and  as  regards  the  alburnum,  they  should  be  the 
exact  counterparts  of  each  other ;  or,  if  this  cannot  generally 
be  the  case,  the  coincidence  should  be  as  exact  as  can  be  on 
one  side  at  least.  A  thin  wedge-shaped  tongue  is  made 
very  near  the  upper  part  of  the  slope  in  the  scion,  and  a 
corresponding  nick  in  the  stock  to  receive  it  The  top  part 
of  the  scion  is  shortened  to  two  or  at  most  three  buds,  and 
fitted  to  the  stock,  to  which  it  is  tied  with  a  strip  of  pliable 
matting;  and  the  parts  so  united  are  then  covered  with 
grafting-clay,  or  some  other  composition,  which  remains  tiU 
the  graft  has  pushed,  or  as  long  as  there  is  no  danger  of  the 
matting,  used  as  a  ligature,  cutting  or  galling  the  parts 
when  they  begin  to  grow  and  to  have  an  enlarged  circum- 
ference. After  the  first  loosening  it  is  often  advisable  to 
apply  slightly  a  fresh  bandage  immediately ;  and  in  some 
cases  a  little  clay  or  composition  may  be  put  round,  should 
the  union  appear  too  tender  to  endure  exposure  to  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  the  weather. 

Cl^'gra/ting  is  performed  by  splitting  the  stock  diame- 
trically across  the  top,  which  should  be  cut  horizontally, 
and  then  nicely  inserting  in  one  side  a  scion  cut  like  a 
wedge.  This  mode  is  objectionable,  because  the  deposition 
of  young  wood  takes  place  for  the  most  part  in  a  projection 
exterior  to  the  circumference  of  a  circle  having  for  its  centre 
the  axis  of  the  stock ;  the  top  of  the  latter  is  consequently 
left  long  uncovered  and  becomes  unsound  from  the  wood 
being  split  to  admit  the  graft. 

Saddle- greying  is  the  reverse  of  the  preceding,  inasmuch 
as  the  stock,  instead  of  the  scion,  is  formed  like  a  wedge ; 
and  the  end  of  the  scion  made  to  fit  over  it,  like  a  saddle. 
It  is  preferable  to  cleft-grafting,  particularly  where  the 
stocks  are  small,  or  nearly  of  the  same  size  as  the  scion ; 
but  when  the  stocks  arc  large,  it  is  by  no  means  to  be 
recommended. 

Crown-grafting  is  performed  on  large  limbs  with  thick 
bark,  or  on  large  stems ;  in  either  case  these  are  cut  off  at 
right  angles ;  the  bark  is  raised  by  thrusting  in  a  tapering 
flattened  piece  of  smooth  hard  wood,  or  ivory,  between  the 
wood  and  bark ;  this  being  withdrawn,  the  end  of  the  scion, 
properly  thinned  as  if  for  whip-grafting,  but  without  the 
tongue,  is  inserted.  Three  or  four  scions  may  with  propriety 
be  thus  inserted  in  the  same  branch  or  stem.  This  method  is 
objectionable  for  the  following  reasons: — the  section  of  the 
scion  is  plane ;  the  part  of  the  stock  to  which  it  is  applied 
IB  circular;  consequently,  these  surfaces  can  only  come  into 
partial  contact  Again  the  abrasion  must  be  considerably 
larger  than  the  space  covered  by  the  scion,  particularly  if 
the  bark  of  the  stock  be  rigid.  If  we  compare  this  state  with 
the  principle  laid  down  in  the  preceding  part  of  this  article, 


the  result  will  be,  what  ample  experience  has  proved  to  W 
the  case,  that  even  on  large  trees  whip-grafting  is  prefer- 
able. In  fact,  the  cavity  on  each  side  of  the  scion  in  cruvih 
Rafting  must  be  filled  with  something ;  either  air,  %hirh  i« 
injurious,  or,  if  the  tree  be  vigorous,  a  deluge  of  sap  ^ii; 
flow  to  it ;  and  it  often  happens  that  this,  technically  hpcak- 
ing,  drowns  the  graft 

Cuttings  intended  for  scions  should  be  taken  fbm  iIk 
trees  befbre  the  movement  of  the  sap  commences  ia  spm  (^ 
and  put  in  moderately  moist  earth  or  sand,  and  out  of  iL' 
sun's  rays.  If  the  stocks  be  cut  down  at  the  same  time  : 
will  be  so  much  the  better;  any  large  limbs  of  trees  viirl 
it  may  be  found  necessary  to  graft  snould  by  all  mean*  u 
cut  in  before  vegetation  becomes  active,  otherwise  extra' & 
sation  takes  place  and  canker  is  in  consequence  induced. 

Grafting  Clay  may  be  made  from  any  smooth  da),  c 
adhesive  elayey  yellow  loam,  or  brick-earth,  mixed  «r: 
one-third,  or,  according  to  some,  one-half  of  cow*duDg»  Uw 
from  litter,  excepting  that  of  hay,  and  if  it  contain  nc^ne  i 
the  latter,  some  fine  nay  must  be  beaten  up  with  the  ni>\- 
ture;  the  hay  answers  the  same  purpose  as  hair  in  plsiU: 
A  mixture  of  clay  and  horse-dung  is  preferred  by  cjiui 
The  fact  is,  that  any  composition  will  answer  that  «..! 
exclude  the  air,  retain  some  degree  of  moisture,  and  ai  liv 
same  time  prove  not  injurious  to  the  barks  of  the  stock  &&d 
scion  which  it  surrounds. 

Grafting  Wax,  a  compound  of  pitch,  rosin,  bee«*T^ 
hogs'-lard,  and  turpentine,  has  had  a  great  reputation  i«  i 
means  of  fixing  the  scion  to  the  stock,  but  it  is  liable  U)  t^ 
serious  objections.  In  the  first  place  it  does  not  adhere  i;*. 
exclude  air  unless  both  stock  and  scion  are  perfect)}  in 
when  it  is  used ;  secondly,  the  winds  in  March,  the  geiMni 
period  of  grafting,  are  excessively  drying,  and  were  it  u- 
for  the  moisture  absorbed  from  the  clay  the  scion  wo  ji<i 
f^quently  be  shrivelled,  and  dried  up  before  it  had  time  t^ 
vegetate ;  but  resinous  substances  do  not  permit  of  olt 
similar  absorption  of  beneficial  moisture. 

Inarching  is  a  species  of  grafting,  the  success  of  which  df 
pends  on  the  principles  above  explained.  It  is  someumct 
called  grafting  by  approach,  because  in  performing  the  own- 
tion  the  branches  or  stems  of  two  contiguously  growing  puiitt 
are  made  to  approach  and  unite ;  ana  this  union  is  efliertr^ 
on  the  same  principles  as  that  of  whip-grafUng.  Com^ 
spending  slices  are  taken  off,  a  small  slit  being  made  op- 
wards  in  the  part  that  is  to  form  the  head,  and  another  ^c 
respondingly  downwards  in  the  stock ;  being  joined*  tu» 
wounded  parts  are  tied  together,  and  covered  with  mo>4  • ' 
grafting-clay.  When  properly  united,  that  which  i»  to  (m 
the  top  is  by  degrees  severed  from  its  parent  root,  uu. 
thus  transferred  it  ultimately  becomes  the  sole  ascend;:.: 
stem  of  the  one  to  which  it  was  naade  to  unite. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  although  the  stoek  and  sri-it. 
are  organically  united  bv  the  operation  of  grafting,  >et  thai 
no  other  effect  follows  the  operation  than  what  ma;  an.^ 
from  the  slowness  or  quickness  with  which  the  stock  al)tiv> 
the  sap  to  rise  upwaros  into  the  scion ;  and  it  is  geoeriii.« 
believed  that  the  scion  exercises  no  influence  whatr.cr 
upon  the  stock.  It  is  however  p^fectly  certain  that  a  bto 
of  a  variegated  jasmine,  made  to  grow  upon  one  brandiof  i 
large  tree  of  a  plain  jasmine,  wiD  gradually  give  the  nn 
gated  appearance  to  the  plain  stock.  This  was  long  ^i"*"- 
asserted,  then  denied,  and  has  been  lately  proved  to  be  tib* 
by  new  experiments. 

GRAFTON,  RICHARD,  a  printer  in  Lrodon,  in  ^ 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  under  whose  »n» »« 
several  works  relating  to  the  history  of  England.  He  » 
not  much  esteemed.  Bishop  Nioolson  says  of  him  that  be 
is  *  a  great  borrower  flrom  HalU  and  was  a  very  beedlw 
and  unskilful  writer,'  citing  Buchanan,  the  Scotch  hiatorja 
as  being  of  the  same  opinion. 

There  is  a  small  Chronicle,  in  16mo.,  which  was  ofl«n  r.- 
printed  between  1563  (when  it  first  appeared)  and  157^  t 
still  smaller,  in  24mo.,  1565;  and  his  great  Chronirk.  >« 
two  volumes,  folio,  1 569.  The  appearance  of  the  Cbronr.c 
of  Holinshed  and  Stowe  thi-ew  Grafton's  into  the  shade. 

GRAHAM,  JAMES.    [Moifrnosx.]  ,   ^ 

GRAHAM  ISLAND,  one  of  the  names  by  whicli  ihf 
volcanic  island  thrown  up  off  the  coast  of  Sicily  in  J^»V 
1 83 1 ,  was  called.    It  has  since  disappeared.    [VoiOA?fo , 

GRAIN  (granum,  a' seed),  an  old  measure  of  weigh-  * 
smallest  of  those  in  use.  It  is  of  about  the  weieht  of  a  «^^« 
of  wheat  corn,  and  must  therofoies  be  oonsideied  rather « • 
theoretical  aliquot  part  of  a  larger  weight,  than  as  i^^  * 


G  R  A 


344 


G  A  A 


Gruid€e, 

Ardei(UB,  Leach. 
Scokpcuntke. 
Rallida,  Leach. 
CharadriacUe,  Leach. 
Tlie  following  disposition  distinguishes  the  normal  and 
aberrant  families  :— 

Normal  Cfraia). 
Bills  long,  principally  fitted  for  suction  |  ^J^S^iete. 

Aberrant  Group, 

Bills  short,  and  fitted  for  capturing,  not  |  charadriada. 
"^^^''inK  •  •  [Gruidie: 

The  species  that  enter  into  the  diiferent  families  will  be 
noticed  in  the  articles  which  treat  of  them,  as  well  as  the 
mode  of  union  between  one  family  and  another. 

Mr.  W.  S.  MacLeay,  in  his  paper  •  On  the  Gomnarative 
Anatomy  of  certain  Birds  of  Cuba,'  observes  that  the  rela- 
tions of  analogy  pointed  out  by  Linnaeus  between  Mamma- 
lia and  Birds  are,  as  Hermann  has  observed,  not  always 
correct ;  and  that  his  errors  have  arisen  from  the  misfortune 
of  his  not  detecting  the  natural  group  of  Aristotle  and  Ray, 
which  the  latter  has  called  Ungulata,    '  Having,'  says  Mr. 
MacLeay, '  only  been  able  to  seize  Aristotle's  subdivisions 
of  Ta  fuv  ovK  afi^Sovra,  he  lost  the  parallelism  of  analogy, 
and  fell,  as  I  shall  hereafter  show,  into  very  glaring  mistakes. 
In  the  Sy sterna  Natwrts  however  he  has  mentioned  that 
very  striking  analogy  which  appears  between  the  groups  of 
GralUe  and  Bruta  [GrallaJ  ;    that  is,  according  to  the 
parallelism  of  analogy,  between  the  order  of  Grallatoree 
and  UngidatOf  since  the  Bruia,  as  we  have  seen,  do  not 
form  an  order,  but  only  a  natural  subdivision  of  the  Ungu- 
lata.    That  this  analogy  is  demonstrably  true,  I  deduce  from 
the  following  facts.  Of  their  respective  classes,  the  orders  of 
Ungulaia  and  GraUatores  contain  examples  of  the  longest 
lezs  in  proportion  to  the  body, — witness  Cameiopardalie  and 
luemantopus  (Himantopus  of  authors  ?).    Both  orders  pre- 
sent us,  in  groups  not  exactly  aquatic,  with  instances  of  the 
toes  being  soldered  together,  as  the  Horse ;  or  connected  to- 
gether with  a  web,  as  the  Flamingo.  Both  orders  present  us 
with  the  greatest  elongation  of  muzzle  or  facies, — ^witness 
Myrmecophaga  [Ant-Eater],  or  Antelope^  (particularly  A» 
Bubalus)  FAntblopb,  vol.  ii.,  p.  90],  and  Scolopax;  and 
also  with  the  most  depressed  form  of  muzzle, — witness  Hip- 
popotamui  and  Piatalea,  which  genera  also  afford  us  tne 
truest  specimens  of  wading  Vertebrata,     In  both  orders 
we  have  the  most  elongated  claws, — witness  Megcdonyx 
and  Parra,     Both  orders  afford  us  the  swiftest  animals  in 
running, — as  the  Horse  and  Tachydromus ;  and  the  most 
pugnacious  on  account  of  love, — as  the  Bull  and  Machetes. 
The  Bull  moreover  and  the  Butor  (or  Bostaurus,  for  hence 
comes  the  bird's  name)  [Bittern],  afford  us  the  loudest 
and  hoarsest  voice  of  their  respective  orders;   where  we 
have  also  the  most  remarkable  instances  of  the  upper  and 
under  mandible  touching  each  other  merely  at  tneir  base 
and  point,  as  Myrmecophasat  or  the  whole  of  the  ra  fuv  ovk 
aft^iovra  of  Aristotle,  and  Anastomus,  Illig.    Both  orders 
exhibit  ornamental  appendages  to  the  head, — as  the  antlers 
of  the  stag  and  the  crown  of  the  crane ;  and  both  afford  us 
the  only  instances  of  true  horns,  as  Bos,  or  Rhinoceros, 
and  Palamedea,  L.     To  see  a  hundred  such  instances  of 
resemblance  it  is  only  necessary  to  walk  into  a  museum. 
I  shall  therefore  only  fiirther  say,  that  both  orders  contain 
polygamous  animals,  are  generally  gregarious,  and  more 
graminivorous  than  granivorous,  being  essentially  inhabit- 
ants of  marshes  and  savannahs.    Thus  then  with  Linnieus 
I  place  the  Bruta,  or  rather  the  whole  order  of  Unguiata, 
to  which  they  belong,  opposite  to  the  GraUatores.* 

Mr.  MacLeay  then  proceeds  to  observe  that  four  orders 
in  each  class  being  disposed  of,  it  follows  by  parallelism  of 
analogy  that  the  Glires  ought  to  be  placed  opposite  to  the 
Easores,  But,  he  asks,  setting  theory  wholly  aside,  is  this 
position  true  in  fact?  Linnieus,  he  remarks,  from  the 
above-mentioned  error  in  his  series  of  afiinity  considered 
the  Rasores  to  be  analogous  to  his  group  of  Pecora,  But 
this  group,  according  to  Aristotle  and  Ray,  is  only  a  sub- 
division of  Unguiata,  which  have,  Mr.  MacLeav  considers, 
been  now  proved  to  be  analogous  to  the  GraUatores.  If 
therefore,  iie  concludes,  LinnSus  be  right  in  making  his 
^ni/a  analogous  to  the  order  of  Wading  birds,  it  f(Sloirs 
that  his  Pewra  must  be  to  alao. 


In  the  same  paper  therefore  Mr.  MacLeay  givci  tW 
following  tables  or  analogies  between  the  Jfomma/ta  ibi 

Animals  typioaUy 

carnivorous.   . 
.    .    omnivorous.   • 
.    .    fru^ivorous.   . 
1  frequenting  the  vici- 
I       nity  of  water. 


1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 


FXRJB     . 

Primates 
Glires  . 


5. 


Unoulata 
Cetacea   . 


1.  Raptous. 

2.  Insbssoru. 

3.  Rasorki. 

J  4.  Grallatori) 


aquatic.  ...    5.  Natatory. 


SCAVtMU. 


.A<||, 


PuTTAciojv  rapresentlng  tb«  DsitriBOtTftsa,  u>d  theraloi*  Um  illi«ui. 
RBAMrSASTiDA  Juioiiif  the    CoviaotrBit.    aad  fennlag  pan 

of  tht  IVUIMiiv 

C vcvuDA  fbcBinf  pari  of  Um  SeAmosn,        and  Joialag  lk«    Eanui 
CxsTBiAOji      JoiuJaac  ihc^'    TuniiBOfTUt,  osd  repiMcnllaf 

IM  OtiUiT^U 

FieiBiB     npnwaliBK  Uw     FiMiBotrms*,    iiii4tlMwlbnUMN4T4nui 


The  latter  table,  Mr.  MacLeay  observes,  will  exprc) 
several  analogical  relations  of  the  utmost  value,  and  tl 
reader  will  find  them  fully  explained  in  Mr.  MacL'j\  i 
memoir.    {Linn.  Trans.,  vol.  xvi.,  p.  1.) 

Mr.  Swainson  ( Classification  qf  Birds,  vol  I)  remofis 
that  the  grallatorial  or  tenuirostral  type  is  shown  m  b  :cx 
as  in  quadrupeds,  by  a  great  slendemess  and  elongali^Q  .' 
the  jaws,  muzzle,  or  bill — for  all  these,  he  states,  are  mert  > 
different  terms  to  express  nearly  the  same  thing ; '  the  noi . 
in  the  bill,  when  it  exists,  is  very  slight,  and  toe  feather^  ' 
the  front  are  considerably  advanced  upon  the  base  ul  \ .. 
upper  mandible.  The  opening  of  the  nostrils  it  ven  W 
often  tumid,  but  never  round.  Great  swiftness  either 
foot  or  of  wing  is  a  constant  indication  of  this  type.  Sus-i 
times,  as  in  the  Snipes,  both  these  charactera  are  uiuU'd .  : 
other  times,  as  we  see  in  the  Humming-birds,  tbissuiAiK-* 
is  confined  only  to  flight ;  while  in  some  few,  aa  in  tk  K. 
mingo,  the  wings  are  short,  but  the  feet  very  long.  Is* 
aperture  or  gape  of  the  mouth  is  generally  very  6Qia!l :« 
in  all  suctorial  animals, — ^witness  the  whole  of  the  i)p.'. 
Grallatores  OT  waders,  and  their  represents  lives  the  T^- 
chilidtB.  The  smallest  birds,  no  less  than  the  »iiuLrv 
quadrupeds,  are  of  this  type,  which  is  again  represeuu<i '  • 
the  little  gliriform Mammalia* 

Mr.  Swainson  gives,  in  the  same  volume,  the  foilov^: 
table  of  analogies :— 


Primary 

Orders 

Typical 

OnknW 

TypeiL 

oTBirdt. 

Clur«cten. 

Qiudrrfp  .i 

1.  Typical 

iMilatOBCi 

OrgUM  of  prelMBilaB 
and  gvocral  alnictttrt 
highly  daralopad. 

QCAOtrfci* 

S.  Sttb-typieal 

BAPTOftlS 

.  CaraivonMif ;  daws  M- 
traclila. 

Fiu. 

a  Aquatic 

NATATOKIt 

Uva  and  lb«d  in  tha 
water ;  feet  very  aburi, 
or  none.                    , 

CnAOA 

4.  SaelorUl 

GBA&LATOmSe 

Jawa  much  pr6li»B|ed : 
burrow  for  their  nod. 

Guin. 

RAtOUf 

Hedd    with  cretU  of 
horn  or  feathers ;  ha- 
biU  donostte;   feet 
louf ,  formed  for  walk- 
Inf. 

UMruri. 

Mr.  Swamson  considers  that  '  these  analogies  are  so  per- 
fect, and  the  series  so  completely  in  unison  with  tliort  of  i.* 
other  animals,'  that  he  deems  it  unnecessary  to  go  inlo4i; 
long  details. 

In  further  support  of  the  relation  between  the  6Va- 
tores  and  Glires  insisted  on  also  in  the  'Natural  Hta!0 
and  Classification  of  Quadrupeds,'  Mr.  Swainson  ail'uJ 
to  the  elongation  of  the  upper  jaw  or  mandible  of  ^t^^ 
animals,  a  peculiarity  which  is  more  conspicuous,  bi;si;s 
in  them  and  their  representatives  than  in  any  other  erou.-^- 
*If/  continues  Mr.  Swainson,  'we  examine,  for  initA:.-^. 
the  bill  of  the  woodcock  family,  we  find  that  its  tenoiuat. 
in  regard  to  the  contour  gives  an  almost  ludicrous  it^^ 
blance  to  the  muzzle  of  a  rat,  oarticulorly  if  vo  fituo  '^  *- 
both  were  of  the  same  size.  Now  it  is  perfectly  clear,  t  - 
as  these  two  animals  when  feeding  generally  insert  tb  •' 
muzzle  in  the  ground,  so  there  can  be  no  doubt  tint  1 1  • 
particular  formation  is  essential  to  that  propensity.  T.-> 
only  quadrupeds,  again,  which  have  the  snout  iDclinin;  ' 
wards,  are  of  the  gliriform  type ;  and  the  only  bird.*  • 
which  the  bill  takes  the  same  direction  are  trpictl  J  • 
Grallatores.  The  Sorex,  Dasypue,  &c,  are  all  typesyf  '• 
gliriform  quadrupeds,  as  those  of  DveAilut,  ^^;"; 
Tringa,  are  of  the  grallatorial  structure  in  bird* :  w  i»-' 
the  resemblance  of  the  snout  of  AW ua  and  Avosetta  on  ^^ 
like  as  it  is  possible,  considering  that  one  is  a  qaadrvT' 
and  the  other  a  bird.    To  the  aame  ivpe  also  bejon^  ^'' 


G  R  A 


346 


G  R  A 


pins  and  Feshica  quadndentata  a£ford  aimilar  instances  of 
this  singular  exception  to  ordinary  rules. 

For  these  and  similar  reason:},  classification,  which  at  all 
times  is  so  necessary,  here  becomes  the  very  foundation  of 
all  correct  knowledge,  and  it  has  accordingly  very  particu- 
larly excited  the  attention  of  systematic  botanists  from  the 
time  when  the  general  term  Gramen  was  broken  up  by 
LinnsBus  into  a  number  of  different  genera.  It  is  not  desi- 
rable in  this  place  to  show  by  what  degrees  the  knowledge 
of  botanists  upon  this  subject  has  advanced  from  the  days 
of  Linnesus  up  to  the  present  time.  Those  who  are  desirous 
of  gaining  this  information  should  consult  Palisot  de 
Beauvois* '  Agrostographie,*  published  at  Paris  in  1812,  and 
the  subsequent  writings  of  Brown,  Kunth,  Nees  t.  Esen- 
beck,  and  Trinius.  We  shall  confine  ourselves  to  a  general 
technical  description  of  the  order,  partly  founded  upon  the 
AgrosiograpMa  synopHea  of  Kunth,  and  to  brief  characters 
of  its  tribes  as  they  stand  in  the  recent  Genera  Plantartim 
of  Endlicher. 

General  Character, — RooU  in  all  cases  fibrous;  etem, 
called  culm  by  some  authors,  cylindrical,  rarely  compressed, 
varying  in  length  from  a  few  inches,  as  in  Knappia  agros- 
tidea,  to  eighty  or  ninety  feet,  as  in  the  bamboo ;  usually 
fistular,  except  at  the  joints,  where  it  is  always  solid ;  some- 
times solid  throughout,  as  in  the  sugar-cane ;  coated  with 
silex,  which  is  also  secreted  occasionally  in  lumps  in  the 
hollows  of  the  stem  under  the  form  of  the  opalescent  sub- 
stance called  tabasheer;  in  most  cases  only  of  annual 
duration,  but  sometimes  shrubby  or  arborescent.  Leaves 
one  to  each  node,  with  a  sheathing  petiole,  the  limb  mem- 
branous, usually  narrow ;  the  sheath  quite  surrounding  the 
stem,  slit  on  one  side,  usually  with  a  ligtUa  at  the  apex. 
Spikelets  terminal,  panicled,  racemose,  or  spiked ;  some- 
times immersed  in  the  thickened  rachis;  very  seldom 
Several  fascicled,  or  united  together,  and  surrounded  by  a 
general  spathe.  Flowers  hermaphrodite,  or  polygamous, 
sometimes  moncBcious,  very  rarely  dioecious,  destitute  of 
true  calyx  or  corolla,  surrounded  by  a  double  set  of  bracts, 
the  outer  constituting  the  glumes  (or  calyx  oC  some  authors), 
the  inner  the  paletp  (or  corolla  of  others) ;  all  together 
forming  a  disticnous  spikelet  of  one  or  more  florets.  Glumes 
alternate,  the  outer  usually  the  largest  and  most  distinctly 
ribbed,  and  often  having  its  midrib  extended  into  a  beard 
or  arm ;  sometimes  both  armed ;  sometimes  the  lower 
glume  only  present ;  occasionally  both  absent ;  diese  glumes 
are  only  found  at  the  base  of  the  spikelets,  and  may  lielong 
to  one  floret  only  or  to  many.  Paieee  usually  in  pairs,  and 
alternate  with  each  other;  the  lower  and  outer  1-3-many 
veined,  usually  keeled,  awned  or  awnless ;  the  upper  and 
inner  usually  two-veined,  more  membranous,  smaller,  awn- 
less, sometimes  absent  Hypogynous  scales  regarded  by 
Kunth  as  remains  of  the  ligula ;  oy  most  other  botanists  as 
the  rudiments  of  a  corolla,  usually  two  on  each  side  of  the 
base  of  the  inner  palea ;  sometimes  a  third  is  added  in  front 
of  the  inner  palea;  sometimes  united  with  each  other, 
sometimes  deficient.  Stamens  hypogycous,  usually  defi- 
nite, very  rarely  indefinite ;  if  six  or  tl^ee,  placed  all  round 
the  ovary ;  if  fewer  than  three,  placed  next  the  outer  palea ; 
filaments  long  and  flaccid ;  anthers  versatile,  linear,  bifid  at 
each  end.  OiHiry  solitary,  simple,  with  two  styles  (rarely 
three),  each  having  a  feathered  or  branched  stigma,  one- 
celled,  with  a  single  ovule  attached  to  the  pericarp  by  the 
whole  side,  or  the  lower  part  of  the  side  next  the  upper 
palea.  Fruit  a  caryopsis  in  most  cases,  occasionally  an  utri- 
culus ;  the  pericarp  thin  and  membranous,  in  the  former 
case  adhering  firmly  to  the  seeds,  in  the  latter  distinct  from 
it.  Seed  containing  a  large  quantity  of  floury  albumen, 
on  one  side  of  which  (that  next  the  lower  palea)  there  lies  a 
lenticular  embryo,  composed  of  a  thin  cotyledon,  whose 
edges  are  doubled  outwards  over  the  plumula  and  radicle, 
which  therefore  press  upon  the  side  of  the  pericarp  next 
the  outer  palea.  Tlie  plumula  is  free,  and  consists  of  seveiiu 
sheaths  overlying  each  other  ;  the  radicle  is  composed  of 
several  tubercles  which  break  through  the  sides  of  the 
embryo  as  soon  as  germination  commences. 

Under  this  character  M.  Kunth  assembles  about  2500 
species,  a  number  far  below  the  real  amount,  and  M.  End- 
licher 234  genera,  which  are  classified  by  the  latter  botanist 
as  follows : —     - 

Tribe  I.— Oryzea.  Spikelets  sometimes  one-flowered, 
with  the  glumes  frequently  absent;  sometimes  two-three- 
flowered,  with  the  lower  florets  consisting  of  but  one  palea, 
and  neuter,  the  upper  only  being  fertile.    Pale»  of  a  stiff 


papery  textiut.    Flowers  ofUa  unisenul,  ntoiUy  ba- 
androuSb 


Tribe  II. — Phalabidea.  Spikelets  hermaphrodite,  y^ 
lygamous,  or  rarely  mon<Bcious;  either  1 -flowered,  wiihcr 
without  a  stipitiform  rudiment  of  an  upper  floret;  or 
2-flowered,  with  both  florets  either  hermaphrodite  or  male, 
or  2-3-flowered,  with  the  terminal  floret  fertile,  tbe  mt 
incomplete.  Glumes  usually  equal.  Palea  often  ahmin^. 
hardened  in  the  fruit.    Styles  or  stigmas  mostly  loog. 


Tribe  III.— Panicba.  Spikelets  2-flower6d,  tbe  lotr 
floret  being  incomplete.  Glumes  thinner  than  the  ptiet 
the  lowermost  often,  occasionally  both,  beinff  Bbotii^t 
PaleoD  more  or  less  coriaceous  or  papeiy,  usually  svdIck, 
the  lower  concave.    Caryopsis  compressed  imm  the  bscL 


SirvpioMaebya. 

TribelV.— Stipbjb.  Spikelets  1- flowered.  Lower  palei 
rolled  inwards,  avmed  at  the  apex,  and  usually  indunt^l  . 
the  fk-uit;  awn  simple  or  trifid,  usually  twisted,  and  irt' 
culated  at  the  base.  O^'ary  stipitate.  SquamiUc  utoi » 
three 


Stip*. 


Ape... 

!  VI.— Abunoinb*.  Spilteleta  oilher  I-flowered, 
-  wiibout  the  tudiDaent  uf  an  upper  floret,  or  man)'- 
I.  Flurets  luually  surruuniled  or  covered  with  lung 
T-:.  Glumes  and  palete  2,  membranous- herbaceous, 
iiLT  usually  as  loii^-  as  the  lloreta  or  longer,  of  (he 
liu  lower  awned  or  awiilesa.     Usually  lall  grasses. 


Tiilie  VII.— PAPPOpHimii.B.  Spikeleta  3 -many -flowered, 
'  ii)'|H.'T  nitlierln^;.  Glumes  and  p^lera  2,  membranoua- 
r'^iux-uus.  Lower  palea  willi  3  or  more  subulate  awned 
t  i-.uiii,     InHorescenca  cap lUtc- spiked  or  patiicled. 


Enn,.pQg™. 

frilie  Vni.— Chloridbs.  Suikelels  in  unilateral  spikes, 
ijii)-flo»ered;  the  upper  floreU  withering.     Qliunea 


Tribe  IX. — Avbnes.  Spikelela  2-ioany-flowered ;  tho 
lerminBl  Horet  usually  vitbering.  Glumes  and  paleie  2, 
membranous- herbaceous ;  the  lower  palca  mostly  awaed; 
wn  usually  dorsal  and  twisted. 


A 


Tribe  X. — Festuces.  Snikclets  many-flowered,  rarely 
few- Honored,  Glmiies  and  palcm  2,  membranous-her- 
biiceous,  rarc-ly  coriaceous,  the  laller  usually  furnished  with 
an  awn  which  is  not  twisted  In  florescence  almost  always 
panic  led. 


Tribe  XT.— Hokde.e.    Spikelets  3-niany. flowered;  some* 

nea  l-flowcred.     Terminal    floret  withering.     Glumes 

(occasionally  del'icicnt)   and  polcie  2,  herbaceous      Sliunia 

sessile-     Ovary  mostly  hairy.     Inflorescence  spiked;   spika 

pie,  solitary;    rucliis  sumelimes  winged.     Ill  Uiis  Inbo 

collected  the  Cerea.ia,  namely,  wheat,  barlev  i-jc,  &c 


Tribe  Xn.—RoTTBOELLB«.  Inflorescence  spiked;  the 
racliis  in  most  coses  jointed,  Spikelcis  I  -  2-  or  very  rarely 
3-tlowered,  lu<1),'cd  in  hollows  of  the  rachis;  cither  solitary 
or  in  pairs,  one  being  stalked  aTid  wiiherinR.  One  floret  of 
each  spikelet,  cilher  the  upper  or  the  lower,  usually  incom- 
plete. Glumes  1-3,  sometimes  altogether  wanting,  mosily 
coiiKWtU.     Palete  membiaoous,  awule;^  or  now  and  theu 


Tnbo  XIIT.— Andkopogone.k.  Spikelets  2-flowerod 
tlic  lower  tlarct  bcini;  almost  oUrays  incomplele.  Palea 
thinner  than  tbe  gliimc»,  usually  tmnaparent. 


GRAMMAR.    [Lanouaoe.1 

GRAMHONT,  a  town  in  the  province  of  East  Flanilen, 
built  on  btith  sides  of  the  river  Dendcr,  in  50'*^■'  " 
lat  and  3°  50'  E.  long.,  and  16  miles  Boutli-soulh 
from  Ghent.  Grammont  was  founded  in  1068  by  Count 
Baldwin  of  Mons,  who  purchased  llie  site  and  surrounded 
it  wiih  walls  and  ditches.  The  town  con  to  in  ed  in  1^34  a 
population  of  7349 ;  it  hod  then  I4G1  houses,  tiro  churches, 
fourchapela.  a  town-hall,  sn  hospital,  a  college,  five  achoola, 
and  an  orphau-house.      The  chief  braiichea  of  industry 

Eursued  by  the  inhabitants  are  cotton-spin ninit,  dyeing, 
Icachincr.  tanning,  eoap-builing,  distilling,  brewing,  and 
oil-crushini;. 

GRAMMONT,  COUNT,  a  celebrated  pcrsonase  oftlie 
(^  of  I^uis  XIV.,  served  in  the  army  with  great  distinc- 
tion, and  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutcn ant-general,  hut  he 
acquii'od  bis  celebrity  by  his  great  wit  and  hia  relations 
MHtn  the  most  eminent  persons  of  bis  day.  Me  spent  some 
lirao  at  the  court  of  Charles  II.  of  England.  During  hb 
residence  in  England  he  engaged  to  marry  Miss  Hamilton. 
Forgetting  or  neglecting  his  promise,  he  set  out  to  return  to 
France ;  but  being  joined  by  two  of  the  lady's  brothers  at 
Dover,  and  asked  whether  he  had  not  forgotten  something, 
*Yos,  indeed,  I  have  fjrgoltcn  tomarry  your  sister,' anstvered 
Grammont,  and  immediately  returned  to  complete  his  en- 
^gemcnt.  Grammont  died  In  1707,  aged  64.  His  memoirs, 
which  were  published  by  his  hrotber-in-law  Anthony 
Hnmilton,  are  admitted  to  bu  tha  cleverest  production  of 
that  kind ;  they  abound  in  wit  and  animation,  and  present 
a  lively,  although  soroetimes  disgusting,  picture  of  the 
profligate  court  of  Charles  II.  They  have  gone  thtou);h 
tnany  editions  in  Paris  as  well  as  in  London.  Of  tho 
following  edition  only  100  copies  wore  printed  :—3/t'i»ot>e* 
da  Comie  ile  Grammont,  noiivelle  edition  augmentie  rff* 
nolei  et  icfaireitiemtn*  nicenaire*,  jxir  M.  Horace  IVal- 
jtole.  Strawberry  Hill,  I77a,  in  quarto,  with  three  portraits. 
Of  tbe  En^lisli  editions  the  best  Is  that  of  1  SI  I,  in  2  vols.. 
with  G3  portraits,  and  many  notes  and  illustrations,  some  of 
which  ore  ascribed  to  Sjr\V.  Scott.  (Lowndes's  Bibliogra- 
vhirat  Manual,  vol  i.,  p.  863,) 

GRAMPIAN  MOUNTAINS.  ThU  name,  which  occurs 
in  Tacitua  (Agric.\  designatei  %  mountain-range  or  region 


O  R  A 

___  Scotland,  and  though  the  lenn  is  not  uied  by  tbe  nuires 
of  that  part  of  Britain,  it  has  been  adopted  by  gec^rapben 
from  the  necessity  of  giving  distinct  names  to  mountain- 
ranges.  Geographers  however  do  not  agree  in  the  appl. ra- 
tion of  this  name.  Some  apply  it  generally  lo-»ll  the  rang.* 
north  of  the  parallel  of  tbe  Friths  of  Forth  and  Clyde,  ar.<l 
and  north  of  Strathraore ;  other*  however  limit  it  -.  • 
range  which  traverses  t lie  whole  breadth  of  Scuilan'. 
S7*  W.  lat,  and  thus  leave  without*  name  I  bat  nnn 
which  runs  thim  the  F  ith  of  Clyde  nearly  due  Donb  auij 
terminates  on  the  bunks  of  Loch  Rannoch. 

The  last-mentione<l  range  may  be  called  the  Soulhi-m 
Grampians,  It  begins  on  tbe  shores  of  the  Frilh  of  Cljd. 
at  PointToward,  which  constitutes  the  most  southern  exlie- 
mity  of  the  most  eastern  of  the  promontariei  in  which  It' 
iieninsula  of  Cowal  teiminates  on  the  south.  Cape  Towarl 
IS  of  moderate  elevation,  but  at  a  short  distance  behind  it 
the  mountains  begin  to  rise,  and  continue  to  inrreuc  tr. 
elevation ;  where  they  inclose  Loch  EcX,  their  highest  sum- 
mils  are  from  2500  to  300O  feet  above  the  sea.  Tlwvart 
somewhat  lower  between  the  northern  angles  of  I/irh  F?  r.* 
and  Loch  Long,  but  to  the  north  of  the  iait-mcnlioned  ir.- 
let  they  unite  with  the  mountains  of  Arroquhr,  whi-.j 
divide  Loch  Long  from  Loch  Lomond,  and  are  of  less  e\e\i- 
tion.  After  this  union  the  range  again  rises  to  about  3'  flj 
feet ;  and  where  it  skuts  the  eastern  side  of  the  narruw 
valley  of  the  river  Orchy  in  Argyleshire  it  contains  wvcri: 
high  summits,  and  the  groat  mountain-masses  at  Bcnici.e- 
\*an,  Benloighe,  Benour,  Bendoran,  and  Bendoe.  To  ii« 
north  of  Bendoe  it  terminates  in  some  lower  mountains  0.1 
the  banks  of  Loch  Ronnoch,  or  rather  turns  abruptli  ti 
the  east,  and  runs  in  that  direction  to  the  place  where  t^,^ 
Garry  rivcrjoins  the  Turael,  forming  the  southern  boundary 
of  Iho  vallev  of  the  Tumcl,  and  comirrehending  the  h:.  . 
summit  of  tlie  Scbehallien,  Its  length  from  south  to  nun  i 
is  about  50  miles,  and  its  breadth  in  that  quarter  betvcc.: 
1!  and  IS  miles.  The  eastern  offset  is  about  20  mile«  L>nv. 
but  hiudly  more  than  5  or  G  miles  wide.  A  carriage -r-jul 
leads  over  the  range  between  Benloighe  and  Benour,  friiu 
Glen  Tay  to  Glen  Orchy.  Several  lateral  ranges  branch  (.rf 
from  the  Southern  Grampians  to  the  east,  and  advance  :> 
far  as  Strathmoce.  In  the  southern  districts  thej  cilvrU 
only  about  ten  miles  from  tho  principal  range,  but  fsr:Lir 
north  this  distance  is  increased  to  nearly  30  miles.  Tho-? 
lateral  ranges  contain  several  very  high  summitj,  a*  Bfii 
Lomond,  Ben  Venu,  Ben  Ledi,  Ben  VorIicb,BeD  Lawcr-. 
Ben  More,  &c.    [Bbn,] 

The  Central  Giampians  commence  on  tbe  western  cua"! 
of  Scotland  with  the  enormous  moss  of  Ben  Ne\'is  [Bkn; 
contiguous  to  which  on  the  east  end  extending  as  br  li 
Loch  Ericht  there  is  a  dismal  mountain- region,  which  how- 
ever contains  no  very  elevated  summits,  but  is  coveted  w.-;. 
bare  rocks  towerinq  one  above  another,  separatbd  by  frit;,:t- 
ful  precipices  and  'intersected  by  numerous  bop.  No  ■!.- 
trict  of  Scotland  is  less  visited  by  man  than  thu  mounia^:- 
Iract.  East  of  Loch  Ericht  the  mountains  rise  asun,  bj: 
not  directly  to  a  great  elevation,  and  here  in  the  Fiirt>: 
of  Drummacher  is  the  mountain-pass  through  which  thc 
most  frequented  road  runs;  it  leads  from  Perth  throu;'t 
the  valley  of  tho  Si«y  to  Inverness.  At  some  distaner  tr_-- 
from  this  pass  tho  mountains  ri^e  higher 


of  3690  feet  abov 
tinues  eastward,  with  several  summits  exceeding  3uoo  f>- 
in  elevation, and  nav  be  considered  as  terminating  in  C^er- 
loch  (leso  feet),  18  miles  west  by  north  from  StonehaTct.. 
A  lower  range  advances  wiihin  three  miles  of  that  tovn. 
and  another  runs  north-east  to  tho  raoulb  of  tbe  IJ>.-<. 
where  it  terminates  at  Capo  Girdleness.  The  length  . .' 
this  range  maybe  nearly  100  miles;  Its  width  •casJm  hr 
tween  12  and  20  miles,  and  its  average  height  tnay  \: 
estimated  at  about  2U00  feet  above  the  sea. 

The  offsets  from  the  Central  Grampians  toward*  the  b-ct^ 
are  numerous,  but  of  no  great  length.  From  its  nortl.r:a 
side  however  there  issues  a  range,  which  on  •ecount  of  t'< 
elevation  and  extent  may  be  distinguished  by  the  name  of  tl* 
Northern  Gmmpians.  litis  range  is  connected  with  the  Ces 
tralGramnians  near  tbe  vast  maun  tain -mass  of  Ben-y-GhT, 
from  which  point  it  runs  north  by  east  for  about  13  mile* ; 
It  then  forms  the  still  more  extensive  and  more  clevatei 
group  of  the  Cairn  Gorm  Mountains,  inclosing  on  all  xiAf\ 
a  mountain-lake,  which  is  the  source  of  the  river  Avon,  ta 
nflluent  of  the  Spey.  Here  stands  Ben  Mac  Dhu,  «1mm  tun- 


O  R  A 


350 


O  R  A 


about  four  miles  in  compaas  and  2000  feet  in  height,  stands 
between  Almeria,  Granada,  and  Guadix»  and  is  known  by 
the  name  of  Sierra  de  Filares.  In  spite  of  untoward  poli- 
tical events  and  the  consequent  depression  of  industry  and 
trade,  this  province  is  in  both  respects  far  before  all  the  rest 
of  Andalusia. 

Malaga  is  still  a  vast  depot  and  a  great  i^ce  of  export  for 
native  produce.  Its  far-famed  batata  is  not  a  real  potato, 
or  solanum,  but  a  convolvulus.  Almeria  and  Adra  export 
lead,  and  the  amount  is  on  the  increase  since  the  working 
of  new  mines,  which  it  is  said  (though  we  do  not  know 
with  what  truth)  have  had  the  effect  of  preventing,  or  at 
least  diminishing,  the  earthquakes  which  were  formerly 
common. 

The  climate  is  generally  healthy ;  but  sometimes,  when 
the  solano  blows  from  Africa  on  the  coast,  the  air  is  so  sultry, 
so  intolerable,  and  so  pernicious  to  all  animal  as  well  as 
vegetable  life,  that  this  wind  might  appropriately  be  termed 
the  Botic  simoom. 

GRANADA,  a  city  of  Spain,  and  capital  of  the  pro- 
vince of  that  name,  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric,  and  till 
lately  of  a  chancery,  or  supreme  court  of  appeal  for  all  An- 
dalusia, Estremadura,  ana  part  of  Castile.  It  is  situated 
at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  at  the  termination  of 
La  Vega,  a  rich  garden  which  is  itself  the  best  part  of  a 
sloping  plain,  30  leagues  in  circumference,  where  nature 
ana  art  combine  in  bringing  forth  beauty  and  plenty. 

This  city  was  built  in  the  10th  century  by  the  Saracens, 
out  of  the  ruins  of  the  adjoining  municipal  Conventus  of 
lUiberis,  and  belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  Cordova.  After 
the  overthrow  of  this  empire,  Granada  became  in  1238  the 
no  less  celebrated  capital  of  the  new  kingdom,  and  the  last 
bulwark  of  the  Moslems  in  the  Peninsula.  It  increased  to  the 
extent  of  three  leagues  in  circumference,  and  in  1311  had 
a  population  of  280,000,  which  some  have  carried  even  as 
high  as  400,000  at  a  later  date;  and  finally,  in  1491, 
100,000  men  defended  its  walls  and  fortresses  against  all 
Christian  Spain  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  who  re- 
duced it  on  the  2nd  day  of  the  year  1 492.  The  Alhambra 
and  the  Greneralife  (whose  balconies  offer  the  best  prospect 
perhaps  in  Europe),  Torres,  Bermejas,  &c.,  are  the  prin- 
cipal but  faint  memorials  of  its  Arabian  grandeur,  and  of 
the  taste  with  which  a  spot  was  embellished,  so  highly 
gifted  by  nature,  and  once  so  improved  by  human  industry. 
(Jharles  V.  added  to  these  monuments  a  palace  within  the 
Alhambra,  which  was  never  finished. 

Granada  stands  on  and  between  two  hills,  about  2445 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  37''  17'  N.  lat.,  and  3*"  50' 
B.  long.  l*he  lively  stream  of  the  Darro  intersects  the  city, 
and  renders  it  clean  and  healthy  by  the  distribution  of 
its  waters  even  to  the  humblest  dwellings.  The  Jenil,  which 
bathes  its  skirts,  but  sometimes  inundates  part  of  the  city, 
joins  the  former  stream  close  to  it,  and  becomes  eventuallv 
the  amplest  tributary  of  the  Guadalquivir.  Both  rivers,  with 
their  shaded  banks  forming  the  charming  walks  of  Carrera 
de  Darro,  Carrera  de  Jenil,  which  latter  has  of  late  been 
greatly  improved,  render  the  country  round  remarkably 
picturesque.  This  effect  is  heightenecl  by  many  gardens 
called  carmenes,  from  the  Arabic  word  karam,  a  vineyard, 
for  which  purpose  they  were  originally  laid  out.  All  these 
advantages  of  soil  are  enhanced  by  its  salubrity  and  by  the 
cool  breezes  from  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which  refresh  the  at- 
mosphere even  in  the  dog-days.  No  wonder  that  the  Moors 
left  such  a  spot  reluctantly,  and  still  sigh  and  pray  for  the 
restoration  of  their  empire  of  Granada. 

The  aspect  of  the  city  at  a  distance  is  imposing ;  but  this 
effect  is  removed  on  entering  it  bv  the  intricacy,  steepness, 
and  narrowness  of  its  streets,  ana  by  the  mean  appearance 
of  the  houses.  In  the  level  parts  however  there  are  spacious 
squares,  as  the  handsome  Plaza  del  Triumfo,  Vivarambla, 
*  &c.,  and  stately  buildings  are  erected.  The  cathedral,  though 
irregular,  is  a  splendid  structure,  profusely  ornamented 
with  exquisite  jasper  and  marble  works  Arom  the  quarries 
of  the  neighboiurhood.  Beneath  its  fine  dome,  whicn  rests 
on  twelve  arches,  supported  by  as  many  pilasters,  stands  the 
high  altar,  on  the  aecoration  of  which  the  wealth  of  the 
kingdom  was  lavished.  This  church  also  contains  some  of 
the  best  pictures  and  statues  of  Alonzo  Cano,  and  of  his 
pupil  Pedro  de  Mena.  Annexed  to  it  is  the  Clapilla  de  los 
Reyes,  yhere  the  bodies  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  are 
deposited.  (3asts  of  the  fine  monuments  in  this  chapel 
(which  are  that  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  and  that  of 
Jauc  and  her  husband  Philip  of  Burgundy)  have  recently 


been  taken  at  an  enormous  expense  for  the  French  gal- 
lery of  the  Louvre.  The  pnncipal  buildings  are  the 
church  of  San  Jer6nimo,  which  contains  the  monument, 
the  remains,  and  the  sword  of  Gonzalo  de  Cordova ;  that  cf 
the  Chartreux,  whose  vault  is  painted  in  fresco  by  AnU>ni(> 
Palomino;  that  of  Las  Anguatias  noted  for  ita'  splendi»l 
high  altar ;  that  of  Santa  Cruz,  &c. ;  and  more  pariicn- 
lany  the  extensive  general  ho^ital,  or  infirmary  fur  ail 
comolaints,  even  lunacy,  of  San  Juan  de  Dios»  the  fir»t 
of  the  kind  founded  in  Spain;  and,  singularly  enough, 
an  inscription  at  its  entrance  records  that  its  founder,  lX»a 
Jos^  Robles,  'hizo  tambieu  los  pobres'   (made  also  the* 

5oor),  an  expression  which  has  become  proverbial  in  Spain* 
'o  these  may  be  added  the  archiepisoopal  palace  and  that  •  f 
the  former  Court  of  Chancery,  the  Alcahiceria,  or  Moorish 
bazaar,  still  containing  some  200  small  shops.  Numemu^ 
fountains  also  adorn  the  city.  Besides  a  university  founds  i 
in  1526,  there  are  six  colleges,  a  mathematical  academe, 
a  politico-economical  society  (Sociedad  de  Amigos  del 
Pais — which  by  the  by  should  rather  be  called  de  Amantot 
del  Pais-*an  institution  common  to  many  Spanish  cttke«i. 
and  a  school  of  design,  modelling,  and  drawing  of  the  hu- 
man figure  from  life.  There  is  also  a  royal  manufactory  t'  r 
saltpetre  and  gunpowder,  and  several  tor  silk  stuffs,  >urti 
as  velvet,  taffetas,  satin,  and  handkerchiefs,  which  are  vcr% 
durable,  and  more  particularly  for  ribands  (listoneriaK  :a 
the  making  of  which  the  Coventry  spring-shuttle  is  adofitcvi 
I  The  sewing  silk  of  Granada  is  preferred  to  all  others. 

The  once  numerous  and  celebrated  silk  manufactures  ^( 
the  city  have  greatlv  declined  since  the  separation  of  the 
Spanish  provinces  or  South  America.  Those  of  saildoih,  a« 
well  as  the  culture  of  hemp,  have  suffered  no  less  since  xtt<. 
almost  complete  annihilation  of  the  Spanish  navy.  In 
the  general  wreck  of  Granadian  industry  there  remain* 
a  branch  less  decayed  than  the  rest,  that  of  coarse  woollvii 
cloth,  which  is  carried  on  in  the  Albayacin,  a  thickly-peopird 
Quarter  occupied  by  descendants  of  the  Moorish  refugetrs 
rrom  Baeza. 

Granada  has  given  birth  to  many  illustrious  men,  such  a« 
Fai  Luis  de  Granada,  the  star  of  Spanish  orators ;  Luis  d'-l 
Marmol,  the  author  of  a  general  description  of  Africa,  in\ich 
valued;  the  Jesuit  Suarez,  who  gave  his  name  to  the  Sua- 
ristas ;  Alonzo  Cano,  before  mentioned ;  the  poet  Lopc  do 
Rueda,  the  Spanish  Thespis,  and  anterior  to  Lope  de  \  ega , 
Hurtado  de  Mendoza,  the  Spanish  Sallust,  &c. 

The  present  population  is  80,000. 

(Antillon,  Geographta  Fisica  y  Poliiica  de  Etpana  qr 
Portugal,  3rd  edit.,  1824;  Pablo  Lozano,  Aniiguedadet 
Arabes  de  Eepaua,  1780,  1804  (the  source  which  poster mii 
authors  have  resorted  to) ;  Minano,  Dicdonario  Geogrqfizj 
de  Espana  ;  Antiguedades  Supuesta*  de  Granada  (a  \  cry 
rare  work  on  some  pious  frauds  and  curious  forgery  of  in- 
scriptions carried  on  in  tho  last  century  at  Granada,  which 
called  forth  the  interference  and  the  severity  of  the  lav  > ; 
Jacob's  Travels  in  Spain ;  Swinburn's  TraveU  in  Sjmun  . 
Colmenar,  Dclices  del  Espagne ;  Laborde,  Itincrairt  !>■*- 
acriptifde  TEspagnp.) 

GRANADA,  NEW,  is  one  of  the  three  republics  m 
South  America  which  were  formed  when  the  republic  .»f 
Colombia  was  dissolved.  [Colombia.]  It  oomprehendA  tL< 
countries  which  belonged,  before  1810,  to  the  vice-kinsdua 
of  New  Granada,  with  the  exception  of  the  moat  souiheru 
districts,  which  now  constitute   the  republic  of  Ecuad^ 

g Ecuador.]  The  boundary-line  between  Granada  Ltivl 
cuador  is  not  exactly  settled,  but  it  lies  between  1*  anJ  «* 
N.  lat.  From  this  line  New  Granada  extends  northvori 
to  the  Colombian  Sea,  where  its  most  northern  point  u  m 
12*  ao'  N.  lat.  It  lies  between  70"  and  83"  W.  long.  lt» 
area  is  estimated  at  470,000  square  mOes,  or  somewhAt 
more  than  the  surface  of  France. 

On  the  south  it  borders  on  Ecuador,  from  vhich  it  » 
partly  separated  by  the  river  Guainia,  or  Rio  Negro ;  on  tl.^ 
east  on  Venezuela,  where  the  Orinoco  and  two  of  r> 
branches,  the  Cassiquiare  and  the  Apure,  chiefly  form  tin: 
boundary-line.  From  Central  America  it  is  divided  b%  12 
imaginary  line  running  across  the  Mexican  isthmus  fr  :;. 
Pt.  Boruca  (near  83'  W.  long.)  to  the  Caribbean  S«i»  t 
little  west  of  the  lagoon  of  Chiriqui.  The  western  part, 
which  is  more  than  half  of  its  surface,  is  comprehemilt- i 
within  the  range  of  the  Andes ;  the  eastern  belongs  to  liie 
great  plains,  or  Llanos,  of  the  Ormoco  nver. 

The  Region  within  the  Andes,~^Ti  the  boundarr-hno 

between  Kew  Granada  and  Ecuador,  but  rathiar  widua  the 


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352 


G  R  A 


healthiness,  heing  subject  to  daily  rains,  and  never  enjoying 
the  slightest  breeze  except  when  thunder«storms  occur, 
which  are  common  during  the  night  The  vapours  arising 
from  the  numerous  swamps  and  pools  render  it  extremely 
unhealthy. 

The  Rio  Cauca  rises  m  the  Paramo  de  Guanacas,  east  of 
the  volcano  of  Purace,  and  not  far  from  the  sources  of  the 
Magdalena.  It  runs  for  50  or  60  miles  in  a  narrow  valley 
between  high  mountains  nearly  due  west,  passing  within  a 
mile  of  Popayan.  It  then  turns  north  and  enters  the  wide 
valley  at  tne  village  of  Quilachoa.  This  valley,  which  may 
be  on  an  average  about  30  miles  wide,  extends  to  the  north 
of  Cartago,  nearly  180  miles  in  length.  The  course  of  the 
river  is  gentle.  About  30  miles  north  of  Cartago  it  enters  a 
narrow  glen,  formed  by  the  high  mountains  on  both  sides ; 
which  does  not  contain  level  ground  enough  for  a  road. 
In  this  glen  the  river  floMrs  with  astonishing  rapidity,  form- 
ing a  succession  of  rapids  and  cataracts,  from  Salto  de  S. 
Antonio  to  Boca  de  Espiritu  Santo  about  120  miles,  and 
within  this  distance  falls  probably  not  less  than  2500  feet, 
its  elevation  at  Cartago  being  about  3000  feet  above  the  sea. 
Issuing  from  this  glen  it  enters  a  wider  valley,  which  grows 
still  wider  north  of  the  town  of  Antioauia,  where  the  river 
declines  to  Uie  north-east  and  meets  tne  Magdalena  below 
Mompox.  The  whole  course  of  the  river  may  be  about  660 
miles. 

The  wide  valley  of  the  Upper  Cauca  is  from  3000  to  4000 
feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  nas  a  healthy  and  not  very  hot 
climate  and  regular  seasons.  The  two  rainy  seasons  occur 
about  the  time  of  the  equinoxes,  with  an  interval  of  dry 
seasons  between  them.  Alon^  the  river  the  plain  is  low 
and  marshy,  subject  to  periodical  inundations  and  mostly 
overgrown  with  rushes  and  reeds,  but  at  no  great  distance 
from  its  banks  the  country  rises  higher  and  extends  partly 
in  savannahs  and  partly  in  wooded  plains.  In  many  dis- 
tricts it  is  cultivated,  and  produces  rice  and  Indian  com  in 
abundance,  as  well  as  sugar,  cacao,  coffee,  and  tobacco; 
but  by  far  the  greatest  part  serves  as  pasture-ground  for 
numerous  herds  of  cattle  and  horses.  About  C^tago  the 
surface  of  the  plain  is  undulating  and  less  fertile,  in  the 
hills  which  skirt  the  Central  Andes  are  thick  layers  of  a 
reddish  sand,  which  contains  numerous  particles  of  p^ld ; 
considerable  quantities  are  washed  every  year.  The  valley 
of  the  Lower  Cauca,  about  Antioquia  and  farther  to  the 
north,  has  not  been  visited  by  intelligent  travellers.  Its 
character  is  not  known,  but  it  is  supposed  not  to  differ 
much  from  that  of  the  Rio  Magdalena  below  Honda. 

The  country  west  of  the  Western  Andes  and  between 
them  and  the  Pacific  contains  the  basins  of  the  rivers  Atrato 
and  S.  Juan,  and  a  rather  narrow  tract  along  the  sea-shore. 
The  account  given  under  Atrato  is  also  applicable  to  the 
river  S.  Juan.  The  tract  along  the  sea  has  a  soft,  alluvial, 
and  very  fertile  soil,  but  being  almost  incessantly  drenched 
by  rains,  it  is  nearly  a  continual  swamp  and  extremely  un- 
healthy, especially  for  Europeans.  It  has  accordingly  been 
abandoned  to  the  native  tribes  and  a  few  negroes,  who  are 
employed  to  wash  the  gold-sand  which  is  found  along  the 
western  declivity  of  the  Andes  in  great  abundance,  and  is  at 
some  places  intermixed  with  platinum.  Europeans  make 
only  hurried  visits  to  it,  and  their  accounts  of  this  part  of 
New  Granada  are  unsatisfactory.  For  a  description  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  and  the  contiguous  district  of  Veragua, 
see  Panama. 

As  for  tho  table-lands  which  extend  along  the  western 
declivity  of  the  Eastern  Andes,  the  most  southern,  those  of 
Bogota  [Bouota],  and  Tunja,  are  from  8000  to  10,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  on  them  the  grains  and  fruits  of  Europe 
are  cultivated,  with  the  root  called  the  aracacha.  Those  far- 
ther north  are  much  lower,  and  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of 
tropical  grains,  roots,  and  fruits,  as  well  as  cotton,  sugar, 
cotfee,  and  tobacco.  The  low  countrv  which  extends  be- 
tween the  table-lands  of  Girona  and  Cucuta  and  the  moun- 
tain-mass of  S.  Marta  is  mostly  covered  with  extensive 
forests,  and  nearly  uninhabited  on  account  of  its  unhealthi- 
nesH,  which  is  caused  by  numerous  swamps,  frequent  inun- 
dations, and  almost  continual  rains.  It  contains  the  ex- 
tensive lake  of  Zapatosa. 

The  Plains,  or  Llanos,  of  the  river  Orinoco  comprehend 
the  whole  tract  extending  to  the  western  banks  of  the  Ori- 
noco and  to  the  Cassiquiare,  between  the  Guainia,  or  Rio 
Negro,  on  the  south,  and  the  Apure  river  on  the  north. 
The  northern  part,  as  far  south  as  the  river  Vichada,  is  a 
complete  level,  on  an  average  300  feet  above  the  sea,  near 


the  mountams,  and  thence  insensibly  declining  fowarda  Hie 
Orinoco.  It  is  quite  destitute  of  trees,  with  the  excepiion 
of  a  few  palms,  which  occur  at  great  intervals  all  over  the 
plain.  Along  the  river  courses  are  some  low  bushy  trees. 
The  rainy  season  begins  in  April,  and  continues  to  the  end 
of  October.  During  this  time  the  rain  pours  down  in  tor- 
rents, and  is  accompanied  by  violent  thunder-storms,  which 
generally  occur  two  hours  after  noon.  The  dry  scaaun 
lasts  from  October  to  April,  and  during  the  monthi  of  IV- 
cember,  January,  and  February,  a  cloud  never  croeses  the 
sky.  This  extensive  plain  is  quite  unfit  for  culti^-ation.  but 
innumerable  herds  of  cattle  and  horses  find  here  abundant 

Sasture  during  the  wet  season,  though  they  suffer  tnurh 
uring  the  dry  months.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  a.r 
is  80**  Fahr.,  and  the  difference  between  the  rainy  ami  drj 
season  amounts  only  to  seven  or  eight  degrees :  the  nicv 
season  is  the  hotter.  That  portion  of  the  plain  which  h 
south  of  the  river  Vichada  is  somewhat  hilly  in  scv«-ni 
places,  especially  between  the  rivers  Guaviare  and  Guaimi. 
where  steep  rocks  rise  a  few  hundred  feet  above  it 4  Irv-f ; 
surface.  Its  mean  elevation  above  the  sea  is  stated  to  H# 
480  feet  It  is  covered  with  immense  forests,  haunted  ^t 
numerous  wild  animals:  it  is  two  or  three  degrees  hutiff 
than  the  level  plain  farther  north,  and  its  air  is  never  m.^^- 
tated  by  a  breeze.  Rain  descends  every  day,  sometime^  *: 
torrents,  sometimes  like  a  dense  mist,  and  the  annual  quan- 
tity is  very  great.  Only  the  months  of  December  and  Ji 
nuary  are  exempt  from  rain,  but  even  then  the  sky  *_- 
almost  continually  covered  with  clouds.  The  mo»t  scuri 
eastern  part  of  it,  which  is  enclosed  by  the  rivers  Orinr*  i>, 
Cassiquiare,  Guainia,  and  Atabapo,  may  be  called  a  woi»lr 
desert,  being  entirely  uninhabited,  though  covered  w.t . 
tall  forest-trees.  All  this  portion  of  the  Llanos  is  extremi  7 
unhealthy,  on  account  of  the  stagnant  air  and  the  vaffeiui  • 
which  continually  rise  from  its  rain-drenched  surface.  At 
for  the  rivers  which  drain  the  Llanos  of  Granada  bee  Ou:- 

NOCO. 

As  New  Granada  is  situated  near  the  equator,  and  p!> 
sents  such  a  great  diversity  in  its  surface,  it  is  evident  th.: 
within  its  boundary  not  only  aU  the  productions  of  the  \S  v*t 
Indies  mav  be  cultivated  with  success,  but  also  tliose  nh..  * 
are  considered  as  peculiar  to  the  temperate  cone.  \Vf 
shall  therefore  limit  our  observations  in  this  respect  U:  i 
bare  enumeration  of  those  productions  which  constitute  0* 
commercial  wealth  of  the  country,  or  are  likely  to  becitrr.c 
objects  of  exportation.  These  are  cacao,  cotton,  coffee,  ti*- 
bacco,  indigo,  rice,  and  sugar,  of  which  however  only  *^: 
two  first  named  commodities  yield  a  considerable  articii:  •  f 
export.  The  forests  furnish  different  kinds  of  dye-w.»^is 
as  Nicaragua  and  Brasiletto  wood,  fustic,  and  lot^u^l 
which  are  mostly  brought  to  the  ports  of  8.  Marta  and  Ri  ■ 
de  la  Hacha  from  the  forest  whicn  lies  at  the  back  of  tKne 
towns.  To  these  mav  be  added  the  Cinchona,  or  Pcic- 
vian  bark,  which  is  collected  in  some  places  near  the  sourrr* 
of  the  Magdalena  and  Cauca.  The  numerous  herds  whrt 
pasture  on  the  Llanos  furnish  hides  and  tasajo,  or  (lr:«% 
meat ;  horses,  mules,  and  homed  cattle  are  exported  to  t  V 
West  Indies. 

The  mineral  riches  of  New  Granada  are  considerable,  ar : 
mostly  occur  on  the  western  declivity  of  the  three  rh..-« 
of  the  Andes.  They  consist  of  gold,  silver,  platinum,  tar-- 
cury,  copper,  lead,  iron,  and  rock-salt.  Gold  seems  u*  orr.- 
along  the  whole  western  declivity  of  the  Central  xz.i 
Western  Andes,  and  is  obtained  by  washing  the  sand  of  t* 
rivers,  or  that  on  the  foot  and  sides  of  some  hills»  In  :  ? 
Eastern  Andes  it  is  found  only  on  the  table-lands  of  Girv  ^ 
and  Cucuta.  The  produce  of  gold  seems  to  be  on  th^*  .*.- 
crease,  but  has  not  yet  attained  the  quantity  which  vt« 
got  before  the  war  of  Independence.  Silver  occQr«  . 
the  table-lands  of  Girona  and  Cucuta,  but  the  :  n- 
duce  is  small ;  there  are  some  richer  mines  in  the  mt  u 
tain-region  north  of  5"*  30',  between  the  Magdalena  aj». 
Cauca.  Platinum  occurs  only  on  the  western  dechviti  v 
the  Western  Andes.  Mercury  is  found  in  the  vaUc%  ^ 
Santa  Rosa,  near  Antioquia,  and  in  the  Centnl  Andes  ni->r 
the  mountain-pass  of  Quindiu,  between  Ibag;ue  and  Coni^- 
Copper  occurs  in  the  Eastern  Andes,  nori^  of  Tunja  a-i 
near  Pamplona,  but  it  is  not  worked.  Le^  luis  bcvn  il'^- 
covered  in  various  parts  of  the  Eastern  Anioes,  bot  nnl«  «<• 
mine,  near  Sogamosso,  is  worked  to  any  extent,  ir-^n  - 
coal  are  found  in  the  mountains  bordeririaoa  the  tabkr  la.i*. 
of  Bogoti;  some  attempts  have  been  Xiide  to  work  t^t 
iron-mineS|  and  the  coal  is  used  in  the  enitbies  and  ^^r  tLs 


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8S4 


6  R  A 


mate^  which  Ikvour  vegetation  in  an  astonishing  degree, 
are  very  injurious  to  the  health  of  its  inhahitauts.  It  is 
thinly  peopled,  containing  only  260,000  inhabitants,  and  is 
divided  into  the  four  provinces  of  Cai'tagena,  Mompox,  S. 
Marta,  and  Rio  do  la  Hacha.  The  capital  is  Cartagena. 
[Cartagbna.]  South  of  this  town  is  the  Cienaga  de  Pasa- 
caballos,  a  lagoon,  where  the  canal  (digue)  of  Malhates 
beeins,  which  is  partly  artificial,  and  leads  to  the  Rio  Mag- 
dalena  at  Barancas-nuevas,  a  small  town  with  little  com- 
merce. The  canal  can  only  be  navigated  by  boats  during 
the  season  of  the  heavy  rains.  Mompox,  a  town  on  the 
banks  of  the  Magdalena,  above  its  junction  with  the  Cauca, 
carries  on  a  considerable  commerce,  being  the  depot  for  the 
produce  of  the  table-land  of  Girona,  and  partly  also  of  that 
of  Cucuta.  It  contains  10,000  inhabitants.  Ocaxia  lies  east 
of  the  Rio  Magdalena,  near  the  Sierra  de  Ocaiia;  at  a  con- 
siderable elevation  above  the  level  country  along  the  river, 
and  has  a  healthy  climate,  The  country  about  it  is  well 
cultivated,  and  the  town  has  a  population  of  8000  souls. 
S.  Marta,  east  of  the  Cienaga  de  S.  Marta,  and  not  far  from 
the  Nevado  of  the  same  name,  has  a  good  harbour,  with 
some  commerce,  and  3000  inhabitants.  Ciudad  de  la  Hacha, 
&rther  to  the  east,  has  about  3000  inhabitants,  and  a  small 
and  ill-sheltered  harbour.  Along  the  coast  west  of  this 
town  pearls  were  formerly  fished. 

The  manufacturing  industry  of  New  Granada  is  not  im- 
portant. It  is  limited  to  woollen  and  cotton  stutTs  of  a  coarse 
texture,  only  adaoted  for  the  use  of  the  lower  classes,  and 
mostly  made  by  the  consumers. 

The  commerce  of  New  Granada  was  much  greater  before 
its  independence  than  it  is  now,  a  circumstance  which  is 
chiefly  to  be  attributed  to  the  effects  of  internal  war  during 
a  period  of  neai'ly  ten  years,  and  partly  tQ  the  unsettled 
state  of  its  government  since  the  expulsion  of  the  Spaniards. 
The  greatest  part  of  the  interior  is  unable  to  export  its  pro- 
'  duce  for  want  of  roads  and  oCher  means  of  communication. 
The  tracts  which  border  on  the  sea  being  mostly  covered 
with  swamps  and  morasses,  and  consequently  very  un- 
healthy, endanger  the  life  of  those  who  venture'  to  traverse 
them.  Not  one  of  the  more  healthy  provinces  of  the  republic 
ifi  so  situated  that  it  can  send  its  produce  without  great  ex- 
pense to  any  one  of  its  harbours,  except  the  valley  of  the 
Upper  Magdalena.  The  most  fertile  tract  is  the  valley  of 
the  Upper  Cauca,  but  this  is  everywhere  surrounded  by 
higii  mountains,  and  as  the  river  becomes  unfit  for  naviga- 
tion on  issuing  from  the  valley,  this  district  is  obliged  to 
convey  its  produce  over  one  of  the  two  great  ranges  which 
inclose  it.  Both  however  are  so  exceedingly  steep  as  not  to 
Admit  the  use  ef  beasts  of  burden ;  and  all  merchandise  is 
oarried  pver  on  the  backs  of  men.  The  Western  Andes  being 
equally,  steep  with  the  Central  Andes,  but  much  lower,  the 
pradUfMi  of  the  valley  of.  the  Upper  Cauca  is  now  commonly 
aent  ta  Saji'  Buenaventurai  owing  to  which  circumstance 
this  miserable  place  baa  risen  to  some  importance. 

New  Granada  was  discover«d  by  Alonso  de  Ojeda,  who 
in  1499  sailed  along  the  northern  coast  of  South  America 
to  Cape  de  la  Vela,  and,  in  a  subsequent  voyage,  to  the  Gulf 
of  Darien.  The  first  settlement  was  made  at  S.  Maria  la 
Ant^ua,  on  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  in  1^10.  The  interior  of  the 
country  was  only  conquered  towards  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  by  Benalcazar  and  Ximenes  de  Quesneda, 
who  founded  the  town  of  S.  F6  de  Bogota  in  1546.  The 
Snaniards  continued  in  possession  of  this  country  till  1811, 
when  New  Grranada  proclaimed  its  independence.  Hie  war, 
which  was  the  consequence  of  this  declaration,  continued 
to  devastate  the  different  provinces  of  which  New  Granada 
consists  to  the  year  182K  In  1819,  New  Granada  and  Vene- 
xuela  being  united  into  one  republic,  formed  a  constitution  at 
the  congress  of  Rosario  de  Cucuta  in  182 1,  and  received  into 
the  union  Quito  and  Panama  in  1823.  This  union  was  dis- 
solved in  1831,  and  the  republic  of  Colombia  divided  into 
the  three  repubhcs  o^  Venezuela,  New  Granada,  and  Quito, 
or  Ecuador.  During  their  union  these  oounthes  did  not 
constitute  a  confederation  of  sovereign  states,  li^e  the  United 
States  of  America,  but  had  one  central  governnoient.  We 
are  not  acquaiuted  witli  the  political  changes  which  may 
have  been  introduced  into  it  since  that  event 
J  (Juan  and  Antonio  do  Ulloa;  Humboldt;  MoHien'a 
Travels  through  Colombia;  Leiiers  written  ft-om  Colom- 
bia; Present  State  qf  Colombia;  Hamilton's  Travels 
through  the  Interior  Provinces  of  Columbia  ;  Campaigfis 
and  Cruises  in  Venezuela  and  iVisir  Granada,) 

GRANADILLA,  the  name  applied  in  Brazil  to  the 


fruit  of  the  Fassiflora  quadnagularia,  which  if  •ometlm*.  i 
as  large  as  a  child's  head,  and  contains  in  the  centre  c>:  a 
thick  fleshy  rind  a  large  quantity  of  seeds  sunoundcd  b>  :. 
subacid  pulpy  mucilage.  It  is  much  esteemed  in  tropM  '. 
countries  as  a  pleasant  dessert-fruit,  and  is  occatianalU  v  -  - 
at  the  tables  of  wealthy  persons  in  this  country.  Tlie  Ir  .: 
is  easily  ripened  if  the  plant  is  trained  under  the  gla.!k«  . : 
the  back  of  a  pine-^tove, 

GRAN ATUM.    [?unxca.] 

GRANBY.-JOHN    MANNERS,  commonly   c:CA.' 
Marquis  of  Granby,  eldest  son  of  John,  third  duk«  of  R\». 
land,  was  born  January  2,  1720-21.    Having  etitered   ;• 
army,  he  raised  a  regiment  of  loot  a^  his, own  axi"  . 
in  the  rebellion  of  1745;  was  appointed  Colond  uf  .> 
Horse  Guards  (Blues)  in  1758;    raised  to  the  mrik.    - 
lieutenant- ^eral  in  1759;  and  sent  in  the  «ainc  \ 
as  second  m  command,  under  Lord  Geor^  8ack\  UU . 
the  British  troops  co-operating  with  the  king  of  Pru->  ■* 
Being  present  at  the  battle  of  Minden,  he  xeoeivc<l  t 
thanks  of  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  in  the  fuD 
ing  terms: — '  His  serene  highness  further  orders  it  tu 
declared  to  lieutenant-general  the  marquis  of  GraoVi},  u 
he  is  persuaded  that  if  he  had  had  the  good  fortune  to  L.  - 
had  him  at  tlie  head  of  the  cavalry  of  the  right  Vi'uiz.    : 

Sresenco  would  hare   greatly  contributed    to  make    t 
ecision  of  that  day  more  complete  and  briUiant.*     T  .  . 
however  is  not  so  much  a  compliment  to  I  lie  marqui?  l-  . 
reflection  on  his  superior,  who,  as  is  well  known,  was  acc>  > 
of  reluctance  and  dilatoriness  in  obeying  orders  to  b. 
forward  the  British  cavalry,  and  was  ultimately  broken  . 
his  conduct  on  this  occasion.    On  Lord  G.  Sackvillc*^  r^ 
nation,  the  marquis  was  appointed  to  the  chief  comti 
of  the  British  troops,  which  he  retained  during  the  n  >- 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  and  both  they  and  he  gamed  hu^. 
at  the  battles  of  Warburg,  1 7C0,  of  Kircb-denkcm,  1701.  . 
of  Grabenstein  and  Homburg  in  1762.    After  four  > 
of  warm  service,  he  was  rewarded  with  the  post  of  lu.    ' 
of  the  ordnance,  in  May,  1763,  and  in  August,  17 o6.  •■ 
promoted  to  be  commander-in-chief.      Ho  reai|rntti   \\ 
office  in  January,  1770,  and  died  much  regretted  <»n  * 
19th  of  October  following,  without  succeeding  to  the  d   . 
dom. 

He  appears  to  have  been  a  good  soldier;  brave,  a^t.-. 
generous,  careful  of  his  men,  and  beloved   by    thcT:.  .  . 
valuable  second  in  command,  but  not  possessed  of  i 
qualities  which  make  a  great  general.     His  populartf; 
shown  by  the  frequeht  occurrence  of  his  portrait  a«  a  ^  « 
fur  public-houses,  even  of  late  years,  a  (act  which  at  • 
testifies  in  favour  of  his  personal  qualities,  and  indicator  ' 
low  state  of  our  military  fame  during  the  latter  half  oi 
last  century. 

GRAND  BANK.    [Newfoundland.] 

GRAND  JUNCTION  CANAL.    [Canal.] 

GRAND  JURY.    [Jury.] 

GRAND  SERJEANTY,  one  of  the  antient  Sn^ 
tenures.    The  tenant,  instead  of  rendering  to  the  t    .- 
pure  militasy  aer\k'e,  was  bound  to  perform  m  person  ^c. 
special  honorary  service  to  the  king  himself,  as  to  e^rr* 
banner,  or  to  be  his  butler,  champion,  or  other  offioer  z.\ 
coronation*  It  was  in  most  other  respects  hke  knight  >erv .  • 
Tenure  by  grand  serjeanty  still  exists  so  for  as  r^la?r- 
merely  honorary  services,  but  the  burlhensome  inn  -«  ■ 
were  taken  away  by  the  12  Car.  IL,  c.  24.     {%  Bl.  L  * 
Co.  Lit,) 

GRANDEE.      Grande  ddt  Espaia  is  the  namo  of  t: 
highest  rank  in  the  Spanish  nobility.    The  gFaadecs  *•- 
originally  the  descendants  of  the  great  feudatories  of  ' 
crown,  but  since  the  time  of  Don  Carlos  1.  (Charic-^  V 
of  Germany),  who  ynceremoniously  excluded  them    f. 
the  national  assembly  of  the  Cortes,  it  became  the  frar* 
of  the  Spanish  kings  to  raise  new  men  to  the  rank  ■ 
grandees,  with  the  double  object  of  rewarding  their  Im    .* 
and  at  the  same  time  breaking  down  the  pride  and  .' 
fluence  of  an  order  which  was  to  them  an  iA%ocX  of  jeal  •'.  <  * 
[ConTEs.]    This  occasioned  &  distinction  between  the  . 
and  the  new  grandees,  which  was  marked  by  tbe  eld  <>    • 
addressing  ea^  other  always  in  the  second  person  stng\i   - 
*  tliou,'  without  distinction  of  age  or  official  slaiioo:  m\.  .< 
they  addressed  on  all  occasions  those  of  a  reoent  creetiur.    « 
the  title  of  '  your  excellency,'  which  belongs  to  all  Spar  - 
grandees,  with  studied  puncUliousneia.    Toe  gimdaej  v\.v. 
sidered  tliomselves  as  superior  in  rank  to  aU  the  otbt: 
nobility  of  Eun^lie.  and  only  inferior  to  pfineei  of  ivvi- 


G  R  A 


856 


O  R  A 


render  of  all  its  cbartcr*,  of  which  it  continued  to  bo  de- 
prived until  1688,  when  the  privilegeg  of  all  municipal  cor- 
porations were  restored.  The  governing  charter  is  that  of 
7  Charles  I.  The  regular  annual  income  of  the  corporation 
k  about  400/.:  the  expenditure  in  1832  exceeded  1200/., 
thoueh  the  average  expenditure  appears  to  be  about  500/. 
Since  the  Municipal  Act  the  borough  has  4  aldermen  and 
12  councillors.  ,      ^^.„.        _^ 

The  boundary  of  the  borough  (2  and  3  Wilham  rv., 
cap.  64)  comprises  the  parish  of  Grantliam  (including 
the  townships  of  Spittlegate,  Manthorpe,  with  lattle 
Gonerby  and  Harrowby),  and  that  portion  of  the  parish 
of  Somerby  which  is  contained  between  the  boundary  of 
Grantham  parish  and  High  Dyke.  The  borough  was  first 
represented  in  Parliament  in  the  7th  Edward  IV.,  since 
which  time  it  has  continued  to  return  two  members. 

The  town  is  well  paved  and  is  lighted  with  gas.  The  princi- 
pal public  building  is  the  church,  which  is  a  beautiful  speci- 
men of  the  Gothic  stylo  that  prevailed  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  is  much  admired  for  the  height  and  eleQ;ance 
of  its  spire.    In  the  interior  are  many  curious  monuments, 
for  a  description  of  which  the  reader  is  referred  to  Tumor's 
•  Collection  for  the  History  of  Grantham,'  4to.  Lond.,  1806. 
The  living  is  a  vicarage  averaging  1006/.  per  annum,  in  the 
patronage  of  the  prebendaries  of  the  cathedral  of  Sarum. 
Grantham  is  connected  with  the  Trent  by  a  canal  thirty 
miles  in  length,  which  is  supplied  with  water  by  means  of 
large  reservoirs  constructed  for  the  purpose.    It  was  com- 
menced in  1793,  and  within  five  years  the  sum  of  114,734/. 
had  been  expended  on  the  undertaking.    The  trade  con- 
sists principally  in  malt,  corn,  and  .coal :  there  is  no  manu- 
factory of  importance  except  a  paper-mill.    There  are  five 
fairs  in  the  year  for  sheep  and  cattle,  and  a  weeklv  market 
In  1815  the  annual  value  of  the  real  property  of  the  parish 
was   assessed    at  21,424/.,  and  in   1831    the    population 
amounted  to  7427,  of  which  the  town  contained  4j90  inha- 
bitants.    The    free   grammar-school  of  Grantham    was 
founded  by  Richard  Fox,  bishop  of  Winchester,  in  1528, 
and  subsequently  endowed  by  Henry  VIII.    The  rents  in 
1833  amounted  to  749/.,  which  were  expended  as  follows: — 
The  master  received  1 50/.,  the  usher  1 30/.,  the  writing-roaster 
SO/. ;  59/.  were  expended  in  repairs,  and  330/.  were  paid  as 
txhibitions  to  the  university  of  Cambridge.    It  was  at  this 
gchool  that  Newton  received  his  classical  education  previous 
to  entering  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.   Woolsthorpe,  about 
eight  miles  from  Grantham,  was  his  birth-place.     The 
house,  acoording  to  Dr.   Brewster,  was  repaired  in  1798, 
and  a  tablet  of  white  marble  put  up  to  Newton's  me- 
mory. 

Besides  almshouses  and  several  charitable  bequests  for 
the  reUef  of  the  poor,  there  is  a  charity-school  founded  by 
Mr.  Hurst  and  two  others,  on  the  Laneasterian  system,  sup- 
ported by  subscriptions. 

The  Soke  comprises  the  townships  and  hamlets  of  Bark- 
ston,  Belton,  Colsterworth,  Woolsthorpe,  Denton,  Roch* 
ford,  Easton,  Gonnerby,  Harbaxton,  Londonthorpe,  Great 
Ponton,  and  Sapperton.  The  term  soke,  when  applied  to 
territory,  is  defined  to  be  a  district  wherein  the  power  or 
liberty  to  administer  justice  is  exereised;  and  accordingly 
wc  find  that  the  jurisdiction  of  the  corporation  of  Grant- 
ham extends  over  the  whole  soke,  within  which  the  sheriff 
of  the  county  has  no  authority  whatever. 

iHistory  of  the  County  qf  Lincoln,  4to.  Lond.,  1834; 
Tumor's  Gollectivn ;  Corporation  Reports,  &c) 

GRANVILLE,  a  town  in  France,  in  the  department  of 
Manche.  It  is  on  a  headland  projecting  into  Cancale  Bay, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  little  river  Boscq,  33  miles  from  St.  Lo, 
the  capital  of  the  department  Granvillo  consists  of  the 
upper  town,  and  the  faubourg  or  suburb.  The  upper  town 
is  on  the  summit  of  an  eminence ;  the  streets  are  irregularly 
built,  dirty,  and  paved  with  pebbles :  this  part  is  the  resi- 
dence of  the  civil  and  military  authorities.  The  faubours 
or  suburb  is  built  on  the  south  side  of  the  eminence,  and 
in  the  valley  of  the  Boscq,  bv  which  stream  it  is  divided 
into  two  equal  portions.  The  streets  of  the  faubourg  are 
narrow  and  steep.  The  whole  town  is  surrounded  by  a  wall. 
The  port  of  Granville  is  adapted  for  small  vessels  only, 
and  will  not  contain  more  than  about  sixty ;  yet  the  mari- 
time importance  of  the  place  is  considerable.  Many  vessels 
are  engaged  in  the  coa-fishery  on  the  banks  of  Newfound- 
land and  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence ;  the  coasting  trade  is 
very  actively  carried  on,  and  the  dredging  of  the  Cancale 
oysters  employs  many  bands :  fish  ana  butter  are  salted  in 


great  quantity,  and  trade  is  carried  on  in  com,  eattle, 
timber,  salt,  and  soda.  There  is  one  yearly  fair.  TUm 
environs  of  the  town  are  fertile,  and  the  Islands  ofChaiWfcy, 
whicii  lie  off'  this  part  of  tlie  coast,  contain  quarriea  of  eii- 
cellent  granite.  The  population  in  1831  was  73^0.  Tliere 
are  several  public  omces  and  a  school  of  navifvatioti ;  a 
church,  an  hospital,  baths,  and  one  public  fountain.  Gnu- 
ville  is  tlie  only  fortress  on  the  eoaat  between  CtMrbuurx 
and  St  Malo. 

Granville  is  supposed  to  be  on  or  near  the  atte  of  an 
antient  town  mentioned  in  the  *  Notitia  Imperii,*  iin«lcr  the 
title  of  Grennonum.  The  port  was  fiormed  by  the  Kitylt^U 
when  in  possession  of  Normandie.  In  1695  it  was  buTTH-^ 
by  the  English;  and  in  1793  partially  occupied  ij  tl*t, 
Vendeans,  who  were  however  repuked.  In  1603,  durtric 
the  preparations  of  Bonaparte  for  the  invasioQ  of  Englan*. 
it  was  bombarded  by  an  English  squadron,  but  with  htxlo 

GRANULATION.    [Wound.] 

GRAPE  SHOT  is  an  assemblage,  in  the  Ibrm  of  a 
cvlindrical  column,  of  nine  balls  resting  on  a  circular  pl«t<\ 
through  which  passes  a  pin  serving  as  an  axis.  The  bsUU 
are  contained  in  a  strong  canvas  bag,  and  are  bound  tttf^r- 
ther  on  the  exterior  of  the  latter  by  a  cord  dispoeed  abi*«it 
the  column  in  the  manner  of  a  net. 

The  dimensions  of  a  column,  or  assemblase  of  balls,  and 
the  sizes  of  the  balls  in  the  column,  vuxy  with  the  nature  of 
the  ordnance  from  which  they  are  to  be  discbarired . 
i  according  to  the  present  method  the  grape  shot  are  adapi<«l 
to  6,  9,  12,  18,  24,  and  32-pounder  guns,  but  their  wcrtghi^ 
are  rather  greater  than  those  of  the  usual  shot  which  o»r- 
respond  to  each  nature  of  gun. 

A  fire  of  grape  shot  is  on  service  frequently  directed 
against  an  enemy's  troops  when  advancing  in  close  order  ta 
an  attack. 

GRAPE-VINE.    The  grape  is  exclusively  the  ivodor- 
of  Fitis  vinifera.  The  fruit  of  several  other  species  of  viti>. 
natives  of  America,  especially  Vitie  vulpina  and  Labrut'-x, 
possess  some  merit  as  wine-grapes ;  but  they  bear  no  coirr- 
parison  with  the  long  celebrated  varieties  of  the  Ea«i«TP 
species,  and  as  dessert  fruit  thev  have  still  less  claim  t.^ 
merit    It  is  however  not  improbable  that  they  may  ;«< 
become  subservient  in  the  cultivation  of  the  grape-vine.' l'> 
affording  a  hardier  stock  whereon  the  latter  raayf be  graftett 
in  climates  such  as  that  of  Britain,  where  the  soil  is  col«ii  r 
than  that  to  which  the  vine  is  indigenous,  a  circanwtan*  i 
which  has  not  been  hitherto  sufficiently  considered,  but 
which  is  nevertheless  of  very  great  importance.  By  kccpiic 
in  view  its  natural  climate,  as  regards  both  atmoajdieric  nu  \ 
terrestrial  conditions,  the  treatment  of  the  vine  as  an  e\>  ir 
may  be  comprehended  in  a  few  general  and  eomprebenM^c 
rules,  which  will  be  ikr  more  useful  than  the  noxneruu^ 
conflicting  directions  that  are  usually  found  in  boolu  «*n 
the  subject ;  whilst  the  object  of  numerous  othera  will  l« 
brought  more  clearly  within  the  scope  of  general  principlc^w 
From  numerous  testimonies  there  remains  no  doubt  as  t-« 
the  vine  being  a  native  of  Greece,  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  a r  1 
of  Persia.    Sibthorp  found  it  abundantly  in  a  wild  »t.-^v 
throughout  the  Morea ;  Pallas  met  with  it  growing  naton  i  ** 
near  the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas;  Olivier  saw  it  in  ma.t 
parts  of  the  mountains  of  Koordistan ;  Michaux  found  it  aUj 
in  the  woods  of  Mazanderan;  and  on  the  opposite  stdc  «•- 
Persia  a  peculiar  stoneless  variety,  the  Kishmish,  is  in  .•  \ 
probability  a  native  of  that  part  of  the  country  lying  on  tin 
Persian  Gulf.    Still  farther  east,  on  the  northern  sbore^  M 
the  Arabian  Sea,  it  has  been  found  in  Beloochisten.     h 
grows,  in  company  with  the  olive  and  fig,  along  the  ba.«c«>  f 
the  Paropamisan   mountains,  extending  to  Caubulu^Un. 
where,  with  the  apricot  and  peach,  it  seems  as  perfocilt  m 
digenous  as  in  Anatolia  ana  Karamania,  and  in  t  bt<»«  i: 
grows  wild  in  the  heart  of  the  forests.    In  Armenia  ii  a 
known  to  abound ;  and  as  '.  Noah  began  to  be  an  hu^Laud- 
man,  and  planted  a  vineyard,*  it  may  be  inferred  tl^. 
this  took  place  not  hx  from  Ararat,  and  that  be  futn.d 
the  plants,  of  course  indigenous,  at   no  great   dtstan  . 
Armenia,   from  its  geographical  position  and   mountain 
ous  surface,  must  possess  an  exceedingly  varied  elimari : 
but  it  is  only  the  lower  slopes  and  \-^leyB  on  the  m}v\\\ 
side  of  the  mountains  that  the  vine  can  be  sttpno£«<l 
inhabit ;  the  mountains  serving  both  for  shelter  mmi  t 
wnds  blowing  from  the  cold  regions,  and  for  rewrbcrtt 
ing  the  rays  of  the  sun.    The  wines  of  ijjtnenia  are  Mhi  i  «• 
be  poor;  a  warmer  countiy  must  therefore  be  looked  lu  i  ; 


OR  A 


358 


O  R  A 


healthy  foliage,  insteadof  heing  disfigured  hy  the  red  spider, 
which  a  di7  atmosphera  tends  to  encourtige. 

The  atmospheric  cjnditions  necessary  for  the  perfect 
growth  of  the  vine  have  now  heen  explained,  both  as  regards 
temperature  and  moisture ;  and  the  deviations  most  likely 
to  occur  in  the  practice  of  cultivation  have  likewise  been 
pointed  out. 

The  next  point  is  the  terrestrial  condition  of  the  vine  in 
natural  circumstances.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  data 
at  present  obtainable  for  this  purpose  are  not  so  exact  as 
could  he  wished ;  nevertheless,  it  is  nrobable  that  what  do 
exist  are  so  near  the  truth,  that  the  aeductions  will  be  suf- 
ficiently correct  for  practical  application. 

It  is  known  that  the  mean  temperature  of  the  earth 
differs  little  from  that  of  the  atmosphere  above  it ;  there- 
fore the  most  favourable  climate  of  ttie  vine,  about  Tat  35°, 
will  have  a  mean  terrestrial  temperature  of  67^  In  spring, 
when  vegetation  begins  in  the  vme,  it  may  be  estimated  at 
not  lower  than  60**.  By  the  time  the  bloom  expands  it  will 
have  reached  70^,  or  nearly  so ;  and  80®  will  certainly  be 
withifi  tho  limits  of  its  summer  temperature.  It  has  been 
shown  that  in  forcing  th6  vine  in  this  country  the  atmo- 
spheric temperature  of  the  above  climate  is  pretty  closely 
imitated :  let  us  now  compare  that  of  the  soils.  The  mean 
temperature  of  the  earth  m  the  climate  of  London  is  about 
51^  from  which  that  of  spring-water  differs  little  through- 
out the  year.  Ih  winter,  when  early  forcing  of  the  vine  is 
commenced,  the  border  in  which  the  roots  are  extended 
will  sometimes  be  below  40°,  and  if  we  even  say  45**,  whilst 
the  vine  has  its  branches  and  blossoms  in  a  temperature  of 
75°,  still  we  have  a  disparity  of  30°!  These  conditions  are 
not  by  any  means  transient,  for  the  earth  retains  its  state 
of  winter  cold  till  late  in  the  spring.  In  summer,  from  the 
greater  length  of  the  days  at  this  season  than  in  more 
southern  latitudes,  the  earth  acquires  a  tolerably  high  and 
nearer  correspondiiijij  temperature ;  but  before  this  occurs 
the  crop  of  grapes  has  received  checks  which  more  favour- 
able circumstances  cannot  remedy. 

To  this  disparity  of  temperature  between  the  root  and 
the  top  of  the  vine  may  be  certainly  ascribed  thfe  bad  set- 
ting, spotting,  and  shnvelling  of  gr^^cs.  There  is  another 
evil  which  may  perhaps  be  mistaken  for  the  contrary ;  when 
the  shoots  are  in  a  well-regulated  warm  and  moist  tempe- 
rature, they  will  become  bearded  with  rootlets  feeding  on 
the  genial  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  house ;  and 
they  do  increase  the  growth  of  the  shoots  above  them  con- 
siderably for  a  time,  as  will  appear  evident  from  the  shoots 
being  thicker  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom ;  but  these 
aijrial  roots  prove  a  deceitful  source  of  nourishment,  for 
they  wither  when  the  weather  becomes  dry,  and  the  roots 
are  not  prepared  to  supply  the  deficiency.  Shrivelling  of 
the  hemes  is  one  bad  consequence  likely  to  ensue ;  it  is 
therefore  better  to  pinrh  them  off  as  they,  appear,  and  let 
the  sap  endeavour  to  find  its  way  to  the  roots.  Had  the 
latter  been  in  a  genial  soil  and  temperature,  the  vine  would 
not  have  shown  such  a  disposition  to  emit  roots  above  the 
ground,  therefore  the  remedy  is  to  be  sought  in  a  reforma- 
tion of  the  border. 

In  the  formation  of  the  vine-borders,  all  agree  that  they 
should  be  effectually  drained.  Draining  may  be  badly  per- 
formed with  much  labour  and  plenty  of  materials;  for 
instance,  it  is  of  no  use  to  run  a  drain  in  one  direction  when 
the  communication  of  land-springs,  or  the  gradual  soaking 
from  such,  is  not  completely  cut  off  in  others.  The  latter 
should  bo  provided  for  in  t'he  first  instance  by  a  drain  all 
round  the  site  of  the  border,  and  deeper  than  the  lowest 
roots  of  the  vine.  A  good  bed  of  stony  materials  should 
then  be  laid  all  over  previous  to  the  soil  being  placed  upon 
it ;  and  if  these  materials  were  made  to  rest  on  a  layer  of 
composition,  such  as  is  now  very  generally  used  for  a  bed 
for  the  foundation  of  walls  (composed  of  powdered  un- 
slacked  lime  and  gravel,  worked  together  with  water  on  the 
spot),  the  bed  would  thus  be  rendered  perfectly  secure  from 
any  inllux  of  water,  either  by  the  sides  or  bottom,  the 
communication  with  regard  to  the  former  being  intersected 
by  the  surrounding  main  drain,  and  the  bottom  rendered 
completely  impervious  by  the  stratum  of  concrele.  When 
the  latter  is  dry,  or  set,  as  it  is  technically  expressed,  the 
stratum  of  stones,  to  the  depth  of  at  least  six  or  eight 
inches,  may  be  laid  on.  Some  dried  heath,  or  tough  turf 
with  the  green  side  downwards,  should  be  laid  over  the 
stones  to  prevent  the  soil  from  nuxing  with  them.  Should 
the  depth  of  drainage  here  recommended  be  greater  than 


that  for  which  a  proper  declivity  ota  be  oblibed,  a  tank 
roust  be  formed  at  some  convenient  distance,  and  kt*: 
below  the  level  of  the  drainage  by  oecasioinil  pumpihi;.  )/ 
land-springs  fkll  into  the  surrounding  drain  of  the  U>r'ir  * 
so  as  to  render  this  process  by  any  means  tedious,  the  dni£ 
mast  be  built  close,  excepting  immediately  above  the  )t'.<i 
of  the  c^oncrete  basement  of  the  border,  where  openinj^  n{ 
dry  brickwork  should  be  made  opposite  the  stratum  of  kf^ 
stones. 

The  natttre  of  the  soil  of  which  the  border  is  now  Xn  it 
composed  should  consist  chiefly  of  rich  fresh,  or  ma<ir 
loam  (which  should  be  strong  yet  friable,  so  as  to  be  ai  t.. 
times  pervious  to  water),  a  portion  o   rotten  dung,  ».:.♦• 
lime,  or  other  calcareous  sabstance,  stieh  as  shell Uf- 
old  lime-rubbfsh,  and,  by  all  means,  bone-dust,  than  «1.  • 
nothing  is  better.    Tlie  whole  should  be  well  mixetl.  it . 
the  dung  more  especially  should  not  remain  in  tnasv*;  '  r 
if  the  roots  should  find  it  so,  they  will,  in  the  dm  in<>ta: 
strike  readily  into  it,  but  after  two  or  three  years  it  Ixt'-.r/-. 
inert,  if  not  vitiated,  and  is  thus  productive  of  injury  to  >:. 
parts  solely  in  contact  vrith  it.    A  soft  muddy  send  is  «•<"< 
times  found  in  the  beds  of  rivers,  in  which  the  vine  thr..« 
very  well ;  a  portion  of  such  may  be  mixed  with  the  r  *^ 
position  of  vine-borders  when  it  has  been  proved  to  co  ,:;r 
no  deleterious  ingredients.    The  depth  of  soil  wImt  f'« 
put  in  need  not  exceed  three  feet,  so  that  when  setk-.  ' 
will  be  about  two  and  a  half;  and  its  surface  shouM  «'  > 
a  little  from  the  front  wall  towards  the  walk;  and  f*-  :: 
that  it  is  isolated  from  water  existing  in  the  earth  by  ib  •. 
age  and  other  means  above  described,  it  should  r.>  t  t: 
raised  too  high  ;  otherwise,  from  the  requisite  top-dn'^i .;. 
the  borders  assume  in  the  course  of  several  yean  tht-  a- 
pcarancc  of  art  embankment.  The  vines  must  not  be  pLp- 1 
deep.    A  furrow  should  be  drawn  six  inches  deen.  ai  n*  : 
angles  from  the  wall,  to  the  distance  of  two  or  thrt^  !i^ 
at  this  distance  the  root,  after  being  turned  out  of  the  »  • 
should  be  placed,  and  the  stem  or  shoot  laid  alotiL*  :  ■ 
bottom  of  the  furrow,  and  carefully  introduced  at  tk  i  {':  • 
ing  left  in  the  front  wall  for  its  reception.    The  p<'n..  t  <• 
shoot  thus  buried  will  emit  a  nnmber  of  vigorom  r  • 
near  the  surface ;  and  such  as  are  found  so  situatcil  •-. 
to  be  on  all  occasions  preserved  and  cherished  in  tins  t 
paratively  cold  climate. 

The  vines  being  nlanted  in  a  border  of  suitable  si  •!.  ^ 
posing  on  a  thorougnly  drained  bottom,  and  their  f*;'* 
troduccd  into  a  perfectly  naturnl  temperatnre,  prc<i/    : 
that  the  directions  given  in  this  respect  have  been  att    : 
to,  it  is  next  to  be  inqnired,  whether  the  roots  ar  i-. : 
correspondingly  natural  condition?  Although  the  ar.»' 
cannot  be  given  absolutely  in  the  affirmative,  yet  a  i   • 
derable  approximation  to  a  natural  state  of  things  wiil  l  /. 
been  effected :  firstly,  by  cutting  off  the  land-sprii;^r  f ' 
the  cooling  effects  resulting  from  their  SI*'  or  52**  ofti:.. 
rature  (perhaps  lower  than  this  in  the  end  of  wintfn,  - 
Condly,  by  having  rendered  the  soil  of  the  border  pen.  ■• 
and  resting  it  on  a  stratum  completely  so ;  the  corix^vi 
of  which  is  that  the  fu^t  warm  rains  will  readily  di?".: ! 
and  communicate  their  temperature  to  the  soil  limn."  ' 
from  top  to  bottom,  whence  the  superabundance  will  :• 
subterraneously  through  the  channels  provided  for  li.- 
purpose,  and  thus  give  place  to  the  suocessi\-ely  ».»n: 
rains  of  the  advancing  season.    Hence,  in  May  or  Ju?^-  ' 
rain  should  fall  at  60^  we  shall  have  the  bottom  d  '. . 
border  at  that  temperature,  instead  of  52".  This  ac(n: 
win  not  be  lost  upon  the  vine,  and  the  latter  will  c\ 
still  more  beneficial  effects  from  the  same  salutary  ca 
proportion  to  the  increasing  temperature  of  the  succn  :  - 
months;  and  when  with  this  is  conjoined  the  direct  ifT 
of  the  sun's  rays  on  the  border,  heightened  also  by  iLt'  r« 
verberation  from  tlie  glass  roof,  the  condition  of' the  i  ' 
of  the  vine  thus  circumstanced  will  be  tolerably  natui- 
the  summer  season. 

Precautions  of  this  kind  are  however  of  little  effort .:.  r 
gard  to  the  early  period  of  forcing,  when  the  borders  .»r 
posed  to  the  chilling  effects  of  Sost,  snow,  and  c^lil  [  • 
These  must  be  guarded  against  by  other  means.    ^Vl' 
either  frost  or  snow  has  taken  possession  of  the  surfi'^    f 
the  border  neither  of  them  should  be  buried  in  it,  uih^iv  • 
a  very  great  proportion  of  heat  will  be  abstracted  fivih  i  • 
soil  before  they  are  thawed.    Even  the  descent  of  r-    * 
httle  above  freezing  will  have  very  deleterious  effects.  I*    ' ' 
any  circumstances  the  border  should  bo  covered  vir.i .  • 
dung;  and  if  the  latter  could  be  more  eff^ctutUf  prot(^^^ 


;>!• 


luy. 


6  R  A 


aao 


6  R  A 


extends  nearly  always,  in  hofh  one  and  the  other  sex,  as  fiir 
as  the  origin  of  the  posterior  feet  The  thoracic  branchiw 
generally  amount  to  seren  on  each  side.  The  epimere  of 
the  last  thoracic  ring  is  nearly  as  much  developed  as  that  of 
the  prece^ng  ring,  and  concurs  to  form  the  vault  of  the 
tlanks;  thus  the  superior,  or  epimerean  cellule  of  this 
penultimate  ring  does  not  cover  the  cellule  which  corres- 
ponds to  the  posterior  foot,  as  is  the  case  in  the  Gecar- 
dm'ant. 

Habits. — The  greater  numhers  of  the  trihe,  as  far  as  the 
manners  of  the  crustaceans  composing  it  are  known,  live 
on  the  shore,  or  on  the  rocks  which  herder  the  coasts ;  they 
are  very  timorous,  and  run  away  with  much  swiftness. 

M.  Milne  Edwards,  who  gives  the  ahove  definition  and 
account  of  the  GrapsoTdiaus,  divides  the  trihe  into  seven 
genera,  vis. : — 

Sesarma.    (Say.) 

Carapace  Quadrilateral,  nearly  equilateral  generally,  and 
Very  much  elevated  in  front ;  front o-orhital  herder  occu- 
pying its  whole  width ;  lateral  herders  straight,  and  pos- 
terior herder  very  long.  Front  nearly  always  suddenly 
hent  down  and  its  length  very  considerable,  exceeding  half 
of  the  transversal  diameter  of  the  carapace.  Eyes  large  and 
of  moderate  length ;  orbits  inclining  to  oval,  with  gene- 
rallv  at  their  external  angle  a  large  ^p,  which  is  continued 
with  a  horizontal  gutter  situated  immediately  below  the 
lateral  border  of  the  carapace,  a  character  found  in  Ma- 
erophthalmus,  hut  which  does  not  exist  in  the  majority 
of  the  Grapsoidians ;  lower  border  of  the  orbit  horizon- 
tal and  directed  forwards:  a  very  strong  tooth  is  directed  to- 
wards the  front  from  its  internal  part.  Antennary  pits 
transversely  oval,  and  the  space  which  separates  them  ge- 
nerally very  large.  Basilary  joint  of  the  external  antennm 
more  or  less  cordiform,  giving  insertion  to  the  succeeding 
joint  in  a  notch  situated  in  the  middle  of  its  internal  border; 
its  width  is  considerable,  although  the  front  exceeds  it  late- 
mil  y.  Epistome  very  short  and  projecting,  like  all  the  sur- 
rounding parts ;  it  is  continued  with  the  inferior  orbitary 
border,  and  below  that  border  there  is  a  horizontal  gutter 
which  terminates  at  the  angle  of  the  buccal  frame ;  there 
are  also  other  furrows  under  the  pterygostomian  regions 
the  surface  of  which  is  granulous  or  reticulated ;  it  is  gene- 
rally divided  into  small  squares  of  great  regularity,  ana  this 
character  alone  would  sumce  to  distinguish  the  greater  part 
of  the  species  of  Sesarma  from  nearly  all  the  other  Cfata- 
metopes.  The  disposition  of  the  external  jatD-feet  is  also 
very  remarkable;  tor  there  is  always  a  wide  lozenge-shaped 
space  between  them,  and  their  third  joint  longer  than  it  is 
wide,  and  longer  than  the  second,  is  rather  oval,  and  but 
little  or  not  at  all  truncated  anteriorly.  It  is  also  to  be 
noted  that  there  exists  on  the  surfiice  of  this  lamellar  por- 
tion of  the  external  jaw-feet  a  projecting  line  or  crest  which 
is  carried  obliquelv  from  its  external  and  nosterior  angle  to  its 
interior  (anterior  r)  and  internal  angle ;  tnis  crest  is  generally 
furnished  with  hair,  and  there  is  a  deep  furrow  near  its  ex- 
ternal border.  The  sternal  plastron  is  generally  convex 
from  behind  forwards,  and  in  the  male  the  anterior  portion 
of  the  cavity  which  receives  the  abdomen  is  rounded  and 
surrounded  with  a  small  border.  The  anterior  feet  of  the 
male  are  nearlv  always  much  longer  than  those  of  the 
second  pair,  ana  terminated  by  a  strong  and  convex  hand. 
Sometimes  it  is  the  same  with  the /enude.  The  feet  of  the 
second  pair  are  shorter  than  those  of  the  third,  and  ter- 
minate, like  all  the  succeeding  feet,  by  a  large  roundcMl 
styliform  joint  which  is  more  or  less  distinctly  canaliculated, 
generally  downy,  and  almost  always  completely  devoid  of 
spines.  The  second  ring  of  the  abdomen  is  in  general 
nearly  linear,  and  the  last  is  much  more  narrow  at  its 
base  than  the  penultimate  ring,  so  that  at  this  point  the 
abdomen  is  abruptly  narrowed.  In  ihe/emale  the  last  joint 
of  the  abdomen  is  very  small,  and  in  general  lodged  almost 
entirely  in  a  notch  of  the  preceding  ring. 

Geographical  Distribution, — ^The  genus  is  found  upon 
the  coasts  of  America,  Africa,  and  Asia. 

Mr.  Say,  who  first  separated  these  crustaceans  under 
the  generic  name  Sesarma,  aftecwards  reunited  them  to 
Grapsus ;  but  M.  Milne  Edwards,  who  has  entered  into 
the  details  of  the  construction  of  Sesarma  above  given,  in 
order  to  point  out  its  distinctions,  is  of  opinion  that  it  ought 
lo  be  distinguished,  and  to  he  considered  as  constituting 
the  type  of  a  rather  numerous  genus,  which  the  latter 
dividm  into  the  following  sections: — 


A.  Species  whose  carapace  is  4ti  \&ui  u  wide  ss  it  a 
long,  and  but  little  or  not  at  all  narrowed  paUtMh 

:     a.  Lateral  borders  of  the  carapace  araied  wiUi  uj  .- 
I         three  teeth  (comprising  the  external  orUuil  b..,. .. 
Body  ver}'  thick,  especially  before. 

Example,  Sesarma  tetragOTut  {Cancer  ietragonut  ^  t^  • 
Cancer  fascicularis,  Herhst ;  Otypode  tetrafona,  Olo.*- 
Grapsus  tetragonus,  Latreille).  Leugtii  28  lines.  L^C'i-  • 
Indian  Ocean. 

a  a.  Lateral  borders  presenting  no  tooth  bchihil  :. 
angle  of  the  external  orbit.    (Body  depreued.) 

Example,  Sesarma  quadrata  {Cancer  quadratu$,  Fiir 
Ocffpode  plicata,  Bosc.).    Length  8  lines.    Locality,  •,:.. 
neighbourhood  of  Pondicherry. 

B.  Species  whose  carapace  is  much  longer  than  it  is «. 
and  strongly  narrowed  backwards. 

Example,   Sesarma   Pisonii   {Arata  pinima  of  P  . 
Leneth  8  lines.    Locality,  the  Antilles.    M.  Milne  }< 
wards  says  that  Latreille  has  confounded  this  sp<x'ii>  'a. 
Grapsus  cruentatus.    M.  Milne  Edwards  is  also  of  o|> : 
that  Grapsus  Husardii  (Desmarest)  and  Cancer  Hhj ,'. 
(Hcrbst)  belong  to  this  genus. 

Cyclograpsus.    (M.  Edwards.) 

Body  much  less  flattened  than  in  Grapsus  aud  vAcr. ' 
transversal  diameter  of  the  carapace  much  exceedc: 
lonsth.  I^vnt  inclined  but  far  from  being  vertical,  b.. 
borders  of  the  shell  elevated,  delicate,  and  very  much  rur-. 
and  its  lateral  walls  forming  ordinarily  a  nearly  » r . . 
angle  with  its  upper  surface.    Eyes  nothing  remarL '  .< 
orbits  directed  forwards  and  presenting  almost  slway»  U  . 
their  external  angle  a  wide  and  deep  notch,  which,  ^  i 
Sesarma,  is  contiiiued  backwards  with  a  transversal  ^.  . 
hollowed  out  in  the  pterygostomian  regions  of  the  cara;  i 
below  its  lateral  boraer.    Antennary  pits  much  less  mr  • 
than  in  Grapsus,  and  the  basilary  joint  of  the  exttrna!  j 
tennee  much  less  wide.    Exiemai  jaw-feet  much  rt-* . 
bling  those  of  Grapsus :  their  third  joint  shorter  than  t. 
second,  wide  as  it  is  long,  enlarged  anteriorly  and  str  ■. 
truncated  at  its  anterior  border ;  a  small  projcctin;:  .: 
piliferous  crest  runs  obliquely  from  the  anterior  and :;. 
rior  angle  of  this  joint  to  the  posterior  and  ^external »  . 
of  the  preceding  joint,  so  as  to  form  with  that  of  the  ^ ,  • 
site  side  a  triangle,  the  base  of  which  is  backwards . 
external  appendage  of  these  jaw-feet  nearly  reaches  t 
anterior  boraer  of  the  third  joint  of  their  stem,  and  Mr. 
nates  by  a  multiarticulate  appendage.    Feet  of  neari. : 
same  form  and  disposition  as  in  Grapsus,  except  tbjt  i 
tarsus  is  not  so  large,  and  has  no  spines. 

Geological  Distribution  of  the  genus,  the  seas  of  A>:-  - 
clusively  (M.  Edwards). 

M.  Milne  Edwards  divides  the  genus  into  the  follt>>  : 
sections : — 

A.  Species  having  the  lateral  border  of  the  car.:.. 
entire. 

a.  A  deep  gutter  springing  from  the  external  o:bii^.t 
and  directed  forwar£. 

Example,   Cyclograpsus  punctatus.    Lengib,  IJ  1-  * 
Locality,  the  Indian  Ocean. 

a  a.  No  well  marked  post-orbital  gutter. 

Example,  Cyclograpsus  integer  {Grapsus  iatesfr,  L 
treille).    Length,  4  lines.    Locality,  Brazil. 

B.  Species  the  lateral  border  of  whose  carajace  i^  •' 
tated. 

b.  External  orbitol  gap  but  little  marked.    Orb::^  <! 
rected  forward. 

Example,   Cyclograpsus   quadridentatus*     I^ngtli,  !• 
lines.    Locality,  N  ew  Holland. 

b  b.  External  orbital  gap  very  wide.  Orbits  very  »Vr. . 

Example,   Cyclograpsus    Latreillii    {Grapsus  rr  ^ 
Latreille).   Length,  4  hues.    Locality,  the  Isle  of  Fi  j:  iv 

Pseudograpsus.    (M.  Edwards.) 
M.  Milne  Edwards  observes  that  one  of  the  chan.<  • 
pointed  out  with  reason  by  M.  Latreille  as  distiugfi ' 
the  natural  groups  of  Grapsus  and  Plagusia  n  (he  h-*^  • 
the  external  jaw-feet  narrow  and  notched  on  their  uiu> 
border,  so  that  these  organs,  instead  of  closing  the  H'  - 
completely,  leave  between  them  a  ^'aoant  loieng^-^'^''^ ' 


G  H  A  » 

Cateabf  eivu  the  fbUowingaaoount  of  the  habits  of  thia 

Bpecica  under  the  name  of  Paffurug  maculatui,  the  Rtd- 
moUted  crab: — 'These  crdba  inhabit  the  rocks  hanging 
over  the  sea  \  they  are  the  nimblest  of  all  olhcr  crabs ;  \\iey 
run  with  surprising  agility  along  Iha  upright  side  of  a  rock, 
and  even  under  rocks  that  hang  horizontally  over  the  sea ; 
this  they  are  often  necessitated  to  do  for  escaping  the 
assaulta  of  rapacious  birds  which  pursue  them.  These 
crabs,  so  fhr  as  I  could  obscrvo,  never  go  to  land,  hut  Tre- 
<|Uent  iDually  those  parts  of  the  promontories  and  islands  of 
tvcka  in  and  near  the  sea,  where,  by  the  continual  and 
Tiolcut  agitation  of  the  waves  against  the  rocks,  they 
always  wet,  continually  receiving  the  spray  of  the  sea,  which 
alien  washes  them  into  it;  but  they  instantly  return  ti 
rock  again.  Dot  being  able  to  live  under  water,  and  ye 
quiring  more  of  that  element  than  any  of  the  crustaceous 
kinds  that  are  not  fish.' 

M.  Milne  Edwards  remarks  that  MM.  Quoy  and  Gai- 
mard  brought  from  the  Sandwich  Islands  a  Grapsui  which 
bears  a  strong  analogy  to  Grapsut  pictiu,  but  which,  it 
appears  Jo  hitn,  ought  to  he  distinguished  ttom  it,  on 
account  of  the  great  number  of  little  conical  haira  disposed 
in  small  transversal  ranks  on  the  branchial  and  stomachal 
regions,  the  greater  extent  of  tho  fhjnt,  and  some  other 
characters;  but  as  he  had  not  examined  mora  than  one  in- 
dividual in  a  bad  sUle  of  preservation,  and  as  Grapsus 
pictut  presents  considerable  individual  differences,  he 
cannot  pronounce  on  the  distinction  decidedly,  but  notes 
the  fact  on  account  of  its  interest  in  regard  of  loologieal 
geography.  He  observes  that  in  the  collection  of  the  Paris 
museum  oe  has  desienaled  this  cniitacean  under  the  name 
of  Grapnit  nidU,  ana  that  it  it  probably  tho  species  figured 
bvHM.  Quay  and  Goimard  under  ihenameof  tbePainfed 
Orapstis.    {Voyage de  M.  F^eydnet,  pi.  76,  flg.  !.) 

B.  Third  joint  of  the  external  jaw-feet  as  wide  as  it  is 
long,  and  dilated  outwards  towards  the  anterior  angle. 

Example,  GropfUf  variut  {Canire  Madri?  Rondelel; 
Cancer  marmoratus,  Fabriciui ;  Grapsut  variut,  Latreille), 
Length  about  eighteen  lines.  Clolour  violaceous-red,  varie- 
gated with  small  irregular  yellowiahilains.  Loculily,  tho 
rocky  parts  of  the  coasts  of  Bretagne,  Italy,  &c.  (very 
common). - 

'  Nautilograpsus.    (M.  Edwards.) 

Differing  but  little  from  Graptvs.  Carapace,  instead  of 
being;  wider  than  it  is  long  and  nearly  flat,  as  in  Graptus, 
longer  than  it  is  large,  and  convex  above.  Btgiona  not 
distinct  Front  advanced,  lamellar,  and  simply  inchned. 
Lateral  borders  curved  and  long.  Internal  border  of  the 
second  joint  of  the  jaw-feet  nearly  straight,  and  the  third 
joint  even  longer  than  in  Graptut  varius,  but  nearly  of  the 
same  form.  Ftet  much  shatter  than  in  Grupiuf.  The  in- 
tromissive  organs  of  ihe  male  travor«e  a  simple  notch  of 
the  border  of  the  sternal  plastron.  For  the  rest  resemh! 
the  Grapti  of  the  second  division. 

Geographical  Distribution.— "the  single  species  kni,..,. 
is  found  En  all  latitudes  and  met  with  fur  at  sea,  often 
floating  on  Jueut  natans,  or  on  large  marine  animals. 

Example,  Nauiilograptut  mintSut  {Canceliut  marinus 
juui/raf u,  Slaaiie ;  rurtfe-Crai,  Browne ;  Cancer  minulut, 
Fibricius ;  Grapsut  minulut,  latreille ;  Grapsut  cinereut. 
Say;  Grapse  unit,  Lamarck. — Gal.  du  Afitr.)  Length 
fVom  4  to  8  linos,  TOrying  much  in  colour.  M.  Milne 
Edwards  saj-a  that  he  sees  no  suIBcient  reason  for  distin- 
guishing this  species  from  Graptus  tetludinum,  Roux. 
Plagusia.     (Latreille.) 

Reiembling  Graptut  generally,  but  distinguished  at  once 
by  a  singular  disposition  of  the  internal  antenna;  not  met 
with  in  any  other  bracbyurous  decnpud,  accotding  to  M. 
Milne  Edwards.  These  organs,  instead  of  being  bent  back 
under  the  front,  are  each  lodged  in  a  deep  notch  in  this 
part,  BO  as  always  to  be  uncovered  superiorly.  Carapace 
broad  and  flattened,  its  anterior  border  occupying  only 
one-half  of  its  width,  which  is  most  extended  towards  the 
level  of  the  last  pair  of  feet  but  one.  Portion  of  the  Jront 
between  the  antennary  piu  triangular  and  curved  down- 
wards. Eyes  short  ond  largo;  orbits  directed  forwards  and 
upwards,  and  separated  from  the  antennary  pits.  Internal 
tmlennm  vertical ;  extemrU  antenna-  occupying  the  internal 
angle  of  the  orbit,  and  nearlv  of  the  same  form  as  in 
Grt^tnu.  Anterior  border  of  the  bu(xtU  frame  very  pro- 
jecting, and  continuous  with  the  lower  orbital  border,  llie 
txUmai  jaw-feet  doM  tiie  month  completely,  and  tie  not 


2  a  R  A 

notched  within  as  in  Ora^tta ;  they  are  in  fbrm  genrraT?) 
very  nearly  the  same  as  in  Ihe  Crabt  ond  Portuniu  :  i)  i- 
third  joint  is  much  shorter  than  the  prcccdinir  (me.  ri<-ar  v 
square,  and  notched  at  its  anterior  and  inlernal  angl<;  !■  r 
the  insertion  of  Ihe  succeeding  joint.  Btermtm  very  ■:■' 
and  deeply  notched  backwards  fur  the  reception  of  i'. 
abdomen.  Anterior  feet  generally  moderate  in  Ibc  ir.  ■  - 
and  small  in  tho  female;  cbws  ordinarily  with  a  ■!<-'  ''- 
shaped  termination;  succeeding  feet  disposedai  in  Grrrj  •:■•: 
sometimes  Ihe  third,  sometimes  the  fourth  pair  I'lri/  •■ 
Ihcy  are  in  geneial  ciliated  on  the  superior  bonier,  ««■!  (■  • 
tarsus  is  always  armed  with  strong  spines.  Ab-lnmrn  oi.  I 
Branekite  as  in  Gra/jsnl. 

Geographical  Distribution. — Pla^asia  belong*  more  j-  r- 
ticularly  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  :s  found  tnm  the  L'  ;-- 
of  Good  Hope  to  Chill.    (M.  Edwards.) 

A.  Species  havinz  the  suiicrior  border  of  the  ciijlii  I-.-; 
feet  armed  with  teeth  nearly  thronghutit  its  lcn;;ili. 

Examplo,  Ptagutia  clavimana  (Cancer  planitn-'-n. 
Herbst).  Length  rather  more  than  an  inch:  anlc)'t.iii.i:L 
malo  ring  of  the  abdomen  soldered  to  tho  prcrediii:i  i.  j 
in  both  sexea      Locatily,  New  Holland,  Vautconi.  >... 


PlajuUi  datiauni. 

B.  Species  whose  four  last  pair  of  feet  are  not  an. .  : 
above  with  more  than  a  single  tooth  placed  nrai  i;.- 
extremity  of  tho  upper  border  of  thcit  Ibird  joinL 

Example,  Plagusia  depressa  {Cancfr  dejTtstui.  Hit'  >■ ; 
Grapsut  drprestiit,  Latreille;    Plagiisia  tnanacaliil^.  L: 
marck;    Plagutia  depressa,   Latreille).     Locality,  Ii,  :. 
Ocean,  Seas  of  China,  New  Guinea,  8tc. 

M.  Mihie  Edwards  obsen-es  that  the  speciAc  niii.i'  ; 
thisP/^tinaisbodlychoBcn,  inasmuch  as  it  is  lessflaiit  - .  . 
than  the  greater  part  of  the  species.  He  is  also  of  oy- 
that  Plagusia depretsa of  Sn-y  (Acad. Philad.,iom.i..  p  [■ 
appears  to  be  nearer  to  Pl<igutia  squamosa  than  the  sj- ■-  i 
here  mentioned,  but  he  thinks  that  it  ought  probablv  lu  tv 
dislinijuished  from  it. 

VarutiB.    (M.  Edwards.) 

Cnrapace  very  much  depressed  and  nearly  qntdrila!.-.: 
but  the  lateral  borders  arched.  Frtrnl  wide,  sirsigfai,  ii  : 
IrenchanL  Orfti'l*  approaching  to  oval ;  a  flasur«  on  i!-- .: 
superior  border,  their  external  angle  very  salient,  •  ■! 
hardly  any  inferior  hurder.  Internal  antenia  bent  h^.-i  i 
little  oblt(iuely  oulwnrds,  and  Ihcir  pits  completely  scinrj-  1 
from  the  orbils  by  the  basilaryjoint  of  the  externa]  ■nu-n-  i 
which  joins  the  front,  and  presents  nothing  ivmarka.  ■■ 
Epslome  larger  Ihon  it  is  in  the  greater  part  of  the  C:  :- 
soidians,  and  external  jaw  feet  nearly  joining  if  ti .  ■ 
internal  border  is  nearly  Mraight,  and  the  ihiH  joint,  t.  -'■ 
much  ddaled  externally,  carries  the  following  joint  tow^  -K 
the  middle  of  its  anterior  border,  which  a  lery  larcri"  ;  -  i 
notched.  Anterior  feet  large;  and  the  sncccwdiiig  t^,- 
instead  of  terminating  by  a  large  and  cylindrical  or  si\  - 
furm  tarsus,  03  in  the  other  GrapsoVdians,  with  llw..ir  l"  .■ 
joint  wide,  flattened,  ciliated  on  the  edges,  and  lanci.vij\- 
Abdiimen  of  tho  male  with  seven  distinct  joints. 

Example  (sole  species  known),  Paruna  litlerola  (Cfl"T- 
litteraluf,  Fabricius;  Graptut  litleratut,  BoscL  LoctUti-. 
Indian  Ocean.  -' 


G  R  A 


364 


G  R  A 


meaiioWi  and  spreading  tliem  over  the  surface  of  the  land 
to  be  laid  down,  alter  it  has  been  ploughed  and  prepared  in 
the  same  manner  as  it  would  be  to  receive  the  seed.  The 
turf  of  the  old  meadow  is  taken  up  with  a  peculiar  instru- 
ment in  strips  two  inches  wide,  and  these  strips  are  cut 
across  so  as  to  form  little  square  pieces,  which  are  spread 
over  the  ground,  leaving  about  five  or  six  inches  of  interval 
between  every  two  pieces.  The  heavy  roller  presses  them 
into  the  ground.  These  tufts  soon  spread  and  fill  up  all 
the  intervals  with  a  complete  old  sward.  This  is  a  very 
effectual  and  certain  method  of  producing  a  permanent 
pasture.  Some  attention  is  required  to  prevent  weeds  in 
the  intervals  between  the  tufts  at  first:  by  going  over  the 
field  with  a  narrow  hoe  all  weeds  may  be  easily  kept  down ; 
and  the  roots  and  tillers  of  the  grass  soon  fill  up  the  vacant 
spaces. 

The  fertility  produced  by  grass  which  is  fed  by  cattle 
and  sheep  has  given  rise  to  the  practice  of  converting 
arable  land  to  pasture  for  a  certain  time  in  order  to  recruit 
ite  strength.  The  old  notion  was  that  the  land  had  rest, 
which  by  a  confusion  of  ideas  was  associated  with  the  rest 
of  the  labourers  and  the  horses.  Ploughing  was  called 
working  the  land ;  and  some  men  talked  of  working  out 
the  heart  of  the  land  by  ploughing.  That  the  ploughing  of 
land  does  not  diminish  the  productive  power  of  all  soils  that 
are  fit  for  cultivation  will  be  readily  allowed.  The  sea  sand 
no  doubt,  where  a  few  bents  have  taken  root,  would  not  be 
improved  by  being  stirred ;  neither  would  very  light  soils 
under  a  burning  sun :  but  in  our  moist  climate  there  is 
seldom  any  danger  of  over-ploughing.  Tlie  land,  by  be- 
ing in  grass,  has  much  vegetable  matter  added  to  it  from 
the  fibres  of  the  roots  whicn  die  and  decay,  as  well  as  from 
the  other  parts  of  the  grass,  which  draw  nourishment  from 
the  atmosphere  and  impart  it  to  the  roots.  Thus  in  time 
an  accumulation  of  humus  is  formed ;  and  when  the  land 
is  ploughed  the  rotting  of  the  sward  greatly  increases  it. 
Every  species  of  plant  thrives  well  in  this  improved  soil ; 
and  the  vigour  of  the  growth  is  ascribed  to  the  recruiting 
effects  of  rest,  by  a  fancied  analogy  with  the  animal  muscle, 
which  is  invigorated  by  occasional  inaction. 

But  setting  aside  theory,  it  is  well  known  that  land 
which  has  been  some  years  in  grass  is  improved  in  fertility. 
The  convertible  system  of  husbandry  takes  advantage  of 
this  fact ;  and  all  its  art  consists  in  reproducing  a  good  pas- 
ture without  loss  of  time,  after  having  reaped  the  benefit  of 
the  fertility  imparted  to  the  land  during  three  or  four  years 
when  it  was  in  grass.  Good  pasture  is  very  profitable ;  so 
are  good  crops :  by  making  the  one  subservient  to  the  other, 
the  farmer  who  adopts  the  convertible  system  is  enabled  to 
pay  higher  rents,  and  still  have  a  better  profit  than  those 
who  adhere  to  a  simple  rotation  of  annual  crops. 

When  an  arable  field  is  sown  with  the  seeds  of  grasses 
and  other  plants  which  give  herbage  for  cattle  it  is  called 
an  artificial  meadow,  and  the  various  plants  which  are 
raised  are  all  called  artificial  grasses,  although  many  of 
them  have  no  botanical  title  to  the  name  of  grass,  such  as 
clover,  saintfoin,  lucem,  and  many  others,  which  produce 
the  be»t  pastures  and  the  finest  hay. 

In  laying  down  a  field  to  grass  for  a  very  few  years  the 
mode  of  proceeding  is  somewhat  different  from  that  which 
is  recommended  for  producing  a  permanent  pasture.  Clover 
in  this  case  is  always  a  principal  plant,  both  the  red  and 
the  white ;  these  with  annual  or  perennial  rye  grass  are 
sown  with  a  crop  of  corn  in  spring,  and  begin  to  show  them- 
selves before  harvest.  The  grasses  are  often  mown  the  first 
year  after  they  are  sown,  on  account  of  the  abundance  and 
value  of  the  red  clover,  but  the  best  farmers  recommend 
the  depasturing  them  with  sheep,  to  strengthen  the  roots 
and  increase  the  bulk.  Various  circumstances,  such  as  a 
greater  demand  f<Nr  clover  hay,  or  for  fat  cattle,  may  make 
mowing  or  feeding  most  profitable ;  but  when  there  is  not 
a  decided  advantage  in  making  hay,  feeding  should  always 
be  preferred.  At  all  events  the  great  object  of  the  farmer 
should  be  to  have  his  land  in  good  heart  and  tilth,  and  fi'ee 
from  weeds,  when  the  grass  is  sown.  If  his  grass  is  good 
he  b  certain  of  good  crops  after  it  with  little  trouble  or 
manure. 

The  seeds  usually  sown  on  an  acre,  when  the  land  is  laid 
down  to  erass,  are  as  follows  : — ^Red  clover  12  lb.,  white 
6  lb.,  trefod  4  lb.,  rib  grass  2  lb.,  and  2  pecks  of  Pacey's  rye 
grass.  Sometimes  cockfoot  grass  (Dactylis  glomerata)  and 
cow  ^ass  (Trifulium  medium)  are  added.  This  is  for  a 
field  uitendcd  to  remain  four  or  five  yean  in  grass.' 


The  introduction  of  artificial  meadows,  in  disfricU  wlicrr 
the  soil  seemed  not  well  adapted  fur  pasture,  han  ^cuW 
increased  the  number  of  cattle  and  sheep  reared  snd  fi.. 
tened,  and  has  caused  greater  attention  to  be  paid  to  t  r 
means  of  improving  the  breeds  of  both.  Thus  a  duu^^ 
advantage  has  arisen:  the  public  is  benefited  by  an  nt 
creased  supply,  and  the  farmer  is  rewarded  by  an  addiuuL 
source  of  profit 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  large  towns  there  ore  id3l\ 
meadows,  wliich,  without  being  irrigated,  are  mowo  e\  i  * 
year,  and  only  fed  between  hay  harvest  and  the  next  ntnr ,; 
These  require  frequent  manuring  to  keep  them  in  hvn . 
and  with  this  assistance  they  produce  great  crops  of  luf 
every  year.     The  management  of  this  grass  land  i^v.,, 
understood  in  Middlesex.      Sometimes  (he  meadovk  3-i 
manured  with  stable  dung  which  has  been  laid  in  a  bnf 
for  some  time,  and  been  turned  over  to  rot  it  etjualh 
This  is  put  on  soon  after  the  hay  is  cut,  and  the  raiiiv « i 
July  wash  the  dung  into  the  ground;  but  if  a  ver}*  dn  xr>\ 
hot  summer  follows,  little  benefit  is  produced  by  tbe  in:,. 
which  is  dried  up,  and  most  of  the  juices  evapor&teil   \ 
better  method  is  to  make  a  compost  with  earth  sod  xht; 
and,  where  it  can  be  easily  obtained,  with  chalk,  or  tbe  i 
mortar  of  buildings  pulled  down.    The  best  earth  in  iL.- 
which  contains  most  vegetable  matter;   and  as  mam  -' 
these  meadows  are  on  a  stiff  clay  soil,  which  requiriy*  l^  ^« 
kept  drv  by  open  drains  and  water  furrows,  tbe  soil  L: 
out  of  these  and  carted  to  a  comer  of  the  meadow  trnu 
an  excellent  foundation  for  the  compost.    It  issomcux-* 
useful  to  plough  furrows  at  intervals  to  take  08"  tbe  su^^-- 
fiuous  surface-water  in  winter;  the  earth  thus  niorJ  n 
the  plough  is  excellent  to  mix  in   the  compost;  haTtnr 
been  turned  over  with  dung,  sweepings  of  streets,  or  w 
other  manure,  so  as  to  form  a  uniform  mass,  it  is  sfm*!! 
over  the  land  in  winter ;  and  in  spring  a  bush-bam>«  ^ 
drawn  over  the  meadow,  and  it  is  rolled  with  a  hear 
roller.    All  this  compost  is  soon  washed  into  the  group<i 
and  invigorates  the  roots  of  the  grass.    It  is  better  to  put 
on  a  slight  coating  of  this  compost  every  year  than  to  pu 
a  greater  portion  of  manure  every  three  or  four  yean»  as  a 
the  practice  of  some  farmers.    When  grass  land  is  let  u  3 
tenant,  it  requires  some  attention,  and  particular  condti*  * 
in  the  lease,  to  prevent  the  meadows  being  deteriorated  I  • 
continual    mowing    without   sufficient   manuring,  ^uy- 
might  be  the  case  near  the  expiration  of  the  Icuse.   I>  >■ 
very  common  to  insist,  by  a  claube,  on  a  cart-load  of  ^t  I  - 
dung  being  bought  for  every  load  of  hay  which  is  made  :u.J 
not  consumed  on  the  premises.      Sometimes  the  tenant  • 
bound  to  feed  the  lana  in  alternate  years ;  but  if  hor^ .: 
heavy  cattle  should  be  taken  in,  especially  in  spriog  iJ 
autumn,  they  may  do  more  harm  by  their  treading,  >»!< ' 
the  ground  is  soft,  than  would  have  been  done  bytjk.\ 
off  a  crop  of  hay.    When  the  proprietor  of  meadows  re».d^« 
near  them,  he  often  finds  it  most  profitable  to  keep  then  1 
hand,  and  sell  the  crop  when  it  is  fit  to  be  mown.   lo  il^^* 
case  he  must  be  careful  to  manure  them  sufficiently,  ur  I:* 

Erofits  will  soon  diminish  rapidly.  The  grazing  of  auu 
as  generally  been  a  more  profitable  occuoation  tl>J'^ 
simply  tilling  tlie  land.  The  capital  requirea  is  cun>i'it-> 
able,  out  the  current  expenses  are  not  great  Tbe  gnit^ 
is  not  subject  to  such  total  failures  as  the  farmer  of  aial"' 
land  is  in  his  crops.  With  a  little  experience  and  prudeD<>'. 
he  can  always  reckon  on  a  certain  return.  An  acre  oip'^^ 
grazing  land,  worth  40s,  rent,  is  supposed  to  produce  iw  lt> 
of  meat  in  the  year.  If  this  is  worth  6d  a  pound,  tit- 
gross  produce  is  5/.  per  acre.  The  expenses  will  not  cXix^^'J 
lOs.  per  acre,  so  that  here  is  a  net  profit  of  8/.  lOi.  per  a  •• 
with  little  or  no  risk ;  few  arable  farms  will  average  tb.* 
net  profit.  By  uniting  the  raising  of  corn  and  the  graiui; 
of  cattle  and  sheep,  the  greatest  profit  is  probably  obumt^.. 
and  this  is  the  great  argument  in  favour  of  tbe  convedil/''' 
system  of  h  usbandry . 

GRASSE,  a  town  in  France,  in  the  department  of  W. 
is  situated  on  the  slope  of  a  hiU  which  commands  a  n  ui; 
abounding  with  odoriferous  plants,  whose  flowers  aff^' 
nourishment  to  large  swarms  of  bees,  and  tbe  extracti  i^°> 
them  furnish  the  inhabitants  with  the  means  of  oan""'" 
turing  the  liqueurs,  scented  soaps,  and  essences*  ia  *^^^ 
their  chief  trade  consists.  The  streeU  of  the  lo«n  «* 
narrow,  steep,  and  winding;  but  the  houses  are  ioWr^^\ 
well  built :  the  place  is  insupportably  hot  in  .«"»"r 
There  is  a  pubhc  walk,  and  one  handsome  founUin.  i^ 
population  in  1831  was  7552  for  the  town,  or  12,716  Jar 


G  R  A 

%hile  commune.  Betide  Ifae  nrtidea  of  perfumery  noticed 
nliuve,  they  inanuracture  Icalher,  silk,  and  tinon  yarn. 
Tlii-re  arc  llirue  yearly  fairs.  The  neighbourhood  produces 
olives  (from  wliicli  excellenl  oil  is  expressed  and  exported). 
oranges,  Icmoiit.  and  figs.  Marble  and  jasper  are  quarried 
iu  the  neighbourhood. 

Grasse  ia  the  capital  of  an  Krrondiuement :  il  pouea. 

hi;;h- school,  a  small  seminary  for  the  priesthood,  a  small 
public  library,  an  a);ricultural  societr,  three  bospitats,  an 
i:\ctinnee,  and  some  public  offices.  Before  the  Revolution 
itvas  the  seat  of  a  biiDopric,  transferred  here  from  Antibea 
in  the  year  12i>0. 

The  anrondiuement  of  Gruw  contain*  8  cantons  and  63 
cunmunes:  it  had  in  m31  a  population  of  63,488. 

GRATELUTIA,  a  eenus  of  conchifers  established  hy 
M.  Charles  Desmoulina  for  a  fossil  bivalve  which  bad  been 
cunfuunded  by  M.  de  Boalerot  with  the  genua  Donax,  under 
Die  name  of  Donax  irregvlani.  But  one  species,  Grate- 
lupia  donaci/brmit,  wtks  known  (from  Bordeaux,  Miocene 
formation  ofLjell),  till  Mr.  Lea  discovered  a  second  in  the 
Claiborne  terliary  (Eocene  of  Lyell),  which  he  baa  named 
Gralelupia  Mottlintii,  after  the  founder  of  the  genus. 
Uiam.  1  inch.  Length  1-4,  Breultb  1-9. 

Gmeric  Character. — lintma/ unknown.  Shell  subtrigo- 
nil,  «j It i valve,  regular,  nearly  equiUleraC  a  little  attenuated 
at  its  posterior  part,  and  presenting'  at  ihe  postero- inferior 
bunler  a  slight  ninuosily.  Umbonet  very  small,  projecting 
but  lillle,  and  hardly  inclined  forwards.  Hinge  conaisling 
of  three  cardinal  divergent  teeth  in  each  valve,  and  of  from 
Ibcee  to  six  cordini-ierial  teeth  converging  towards  tlietr 
mmmils,  lamellar,  with  their  edges  finely  dentilated,  and 
iiiualed a  little  behind  the  summit,  under  the  ligament;  a 
■ingle  lateral  anterior  tooth  under  the  lunulo  in  the  left 
valvf,  corresponding  with  a  pit  similarly  situated  in  the 
rij;ht  vuh'e;  external  ligament  ton^,  ccnvex,  overpassinK 
llie  serial  teeth.  Muteuiar  impreuiime  nearly  equal,  oval, 
united  by  a  pallial  impression  largely  and  very  deeply  exca- 
vuled  backwarda. 

Tile  genus  waa  named  by  M.  C.  Desmoulins  after  Dr. 
Crateloup. 


GRATIA'NUS,  AUGUSTUS,  eldest  son  of  Valenlinian 
I.,  succeeded  after  his  fatlier's  death,  a.d.  3?5,  to  a  share  of 
llw  Western  Empire,  having  for  his  lot  Oaul,  Spain,  and 
Britain;  his  brother  Valenlinian  11„  then  an  infant  five 
vdrs  old,  had  Italy,  lllyricum,  and  Africa,  under  the 
gunrdionship  however  of  Gratianus,  who  was  therefore  in 
tcnliiy  ruler  of  all  the  West.  His  uncle  Valeni  had  the 
Bmpire  of  the  East.  Gratianus  began  his  reign  hy  punish- 
in;;  se^-erely  various  pncfects  and  other  officers  who  had 
'->Tiimitted  acts  of  oppression  and  cruelly  during  hia  father's 
'eign.  At  the  same  time,  through  some  Insidious  charges. 
Count  Thcodosius,fatherofTheodosius  the  Great,  and  one 
of  the  most  illustrious  men  of  hU  age,  was  beheaded  at 
CnrtlLage,  In  the  year  378  Val ens  perished  in  the  battle  of 
Ad rianople  against  the  Goths,  and  Gratianus,  who  was  has- 
tening to  his  assistance,  was  hardly  able  to  save  Constanti- 
uuplc  fVom  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  In  conse- 
luenco  of  the  death  of  his  uncle,  Gratianus,  finding  himself 
™eT  of  the  whole  Roman  empire  during  the  minority  of 
Ins  brother  Valenlinian,  called  to  him  young  Tfaeodosiua, 
"hn  had  distinguished  himself  in  the  Roman  armies,  but 
'"n  retired  into  Spain  after  hta  father's  death.  Gratianus 
>ei)t  him  against  tne  Sarmatiana,  who  had  crossed  the  Da- 
nube to  join  the  Goths.  Thoodosius  defeated  them  com- 
pletely, and  drove  the  remainder  beyond  that  river.  Gra- 
utnus  then  appointed  him  bis  coUe^ue  (in  January,  379), 


15  G  R  A 

a  choice  wise  and  disinterested  In  the  former,  equally  rre- 
ditable  to  both,  and  fortunate  for  the  empire,  and  gave  him 
the  provincea  of  the  East.  Gratianus  returned  to  Italy,  and 
resided  some  time  at  Milan,  where  he  became  intimate  with 
Bishop  Ambrose.  He  was  obliged  however  soon  afierto  hasten 
to  lllyricum  to  the  assiatanre  of  Tlieodosiua,  and  he  re- 
pelled the  Goth*,  who  were  threatening  Thrace.  From 
thence  he  was  obliged  to  hasten  to  the  banks  of  the  Rhine 
to  fight  the  Alcmanni  and  other  barbarians.  Having  re- 
turned to  Milan  in  the  year  391,  he  had  to  defend  the  fron- 
tiers of  Italy  from  other  tribes  who  were  advancing  on  tlie 
aide  of  RhEBlia,  end  he  ordered  fresh  levies  of  men  and 
horses  for  the  purpose.  Gratianus  enacted  several  wise 
laws:  by  one  of  them  he  checked  mendicity,  which  bad 
spread  to  an  alarming  extent  in  Italy;  and  he  ordered 
all  beggars  to  be  arrested,  and,  if  slaves  by  condition,  to  be 
given  up  as  such  to  those  who  denounced  them;  if  freemen, 
to  be  employed  in  cultivating  the  land.  He  also  showed 
himself  disposed  to  tolerance  towards  the  various  sects 
which  divided  Christianity  ;  but  he  displayed  a  stern  deter- 
mination against  the  remains  of  the  Heathen  worship.  At 
Rome  he  overthrew  the  altar  of  Victory,  which,  continued  to 
exist;  he  confiscated  the  property  attached  to  it,  as  well  as 
all  Ihe  property  heloneing  to  the  other  priests  and  the  Ves- 
tals. He  also  refuseiTto  assume  Ihe  title  and  the  Insignia  of 
Pontifex  Maximus,adiznily  till  then  considered  as  annexed 
to  that  of  emperor.  These  measures  gave  a  final  blow  to 
the  old  worship  of  the  empire ;  and  although  the  senators, 
who  for  Ihe  most  part  were  still  attached  to  it,  sent  him  a 
deputation,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Symmachus,  they 
could  not  obtain  any  mitigation  of  his  decrees. 

Under  the  consulship  of  Merabaudus  end  Saturninus, 
D.  383,  a  certain  Maximus  revolted  in  Britain,  and  was 
proclaimed  emperor  by  Ihe  soldiers,  to  whom  he  promised 
to  re-establish  the  temples  and  the  old  religion  of  the  em- 
pire. He  invaded  Gaul,  where  be  found  numerous  parti- 
sans. Gratianus,  who  was  then,  according  to  some,  on  tho 
Rhine,  advanced  to  meet  him,  but  was  forsaken  by  moat  of 
his  troops,  and  obliged  to  hasten  towards  Italy.  Orosius 
and  others  however  slate  that  the  emperor  received  the  nuns 
of  the  revolt  while  in  Italy,  and  that  he  hurriud  across  tlio 
Alps  with  a  small  retinue  as  far  as  L^on.  All  however 
agree  in  saying  that  he  was  seized  at  Lyon  and  put  to  death 
by  the  partisans  of  Maximus,  St-  Ambrose,  who  ventured 
from  Milan  to  the  camp  of  Maximus  to  beg  the  body  of  liis 
imperial  friend,  was  refused ;  but  same  time  afterwards  lUu 
remains  of  Gratianus  were  transferred  to  Milan,  where  ihcy 
were  interred.  He  was  little  more  than  2i  years  of  agi;, 
and  had  reigned  about  eight  years.  The  historians  agree 
in  praising  him  fur  his  justice  and  kindness,  and  his  zeal 
for  tho  public  good ;  and  Ammianus  MarccUinus,  who  is 
not  liable  to  Iho  charge  of  partiality  towardi  the  Cbii:itians 
adds,  that  had  he  tiied  longer,  he  would  have  rivalled  the 
best  emperors  of  aoL^cnt  Rome. 


Biitlili  UuKDiB.    ActiulSiH.    Gold.    Wai|U,  BJl  mlM. 

GRATIA'NUS.  a  Benedictine  monk  of  the  twcinh  cen- 
iT.  a  native  of  Tuscany,  according  to  some,  and  resident 
at  Bologna.  He  is  chiefly  known  for  bis  '  Clollection  of  the 
Canons,  or  Decrelals,  of  the  Church,'  which  occupied  him 
during  twenty-four  years,  and  which  be  published  at  Rome 
about  the  middle  of  the  twellUt  century.  The  collection, 
which  has  become  known  by  tho  name  of  '  Derretum  Gra- 
tiani,'  was  first  printed  at  Maini,  in  (bliu.  1472,  and 
forms  part  of  tne  'Corpus  Juria  CanonicL'  [Canon 
Law.]  Gratianus  improved  on  the  colleelorB  of  Decretals 
who  bad  preceded  him,  especially  laidorus  Mercalor,  who 
hod  heaped  up  in  discriminate!  v  and  without  order  a  num- 
ber of  deciiiions  and  canons,  which  were  often  discordant. 
Gratianus  ranged  them  in  order,  and  distributed  them 
under  distinct  heads,  endeavouring  to  explain  the  obscu- 
rities atul  reconcile  the  contradictions  which  appeared  in 
some  of  them.  But  he  retained  at  the  same  time,  through 
want  of  autlientic  authorities  and  of  enlightened  criticism, 
many  apocryplud  canons,  and  many  .erroneous  textual  ie«d- 


G  R  A 


tlDO 


GR  A 


ings :  lie  appears  indeed  to  have  felt  his  own  deficiencies,  for 
he  honestly  cautions  his  readers  not  to  place  implicit  faith 
in  his  writings,  hut  to  scan  them  hy  the  light  of  reason  and 
hy  the  test  of  moral  evidence.  (Decret.  Vistinciio,  ix.,  ch. 
3-5.) 

As  a  proof  of  his  honesty,  and  that,  whatever  may  have 
hoen  the  effect  of  his  authority,  he  had  no  intention  to 
fialter  the  pi*etensions  of  the  Roman  see,  one  has  only  to 
read  his  *  Distinctio,'  IxiiL,  ch.  22,  23,  and  25,  in  which  he 
says  that  the  election  of  the  pope  is  suhordinate  to  the  will 
of  the  emperor,  as  well  as  tnat  of  the  hishops  is  to  the 
choice  of  the  various  sovereigns ;  while  in  ch.  34  he  even 
asserts  that  the  clergy  and  the  people  ought  to  participate 
in  the  election  of  their  respective  bishops.  And  yet  in  an- 
other place,  'Distinctio/  x.,  ch.  1,  &c.,  he  asserts  as  a 
fundamental  axiom  that  the  imperial  laws  oujjht  to  yield  to 
the  ecclesiastical  canons,  without  distinguisning  between 
the  canons  which  concern  matters  of  dogma  and  those  which 
relate  mei*cly  to  discipline  or  jurisoiction.  The  Abbe 
Fleury,  in  his  *  Troisieme  Discours  sur  THistoire  Ecclesias- 
tique,'  says  that  'Gi-atianus,  besides  so  consolidating  the  au- 
thority of  the  false  decretals,  that  for  three  centuries  after  no 
other  canons  wore  referred  to  but  those  of  his  collection, 
went  even  farther  in  extending  the  authority  of  the  pope, 
hy  maintaining  that  he  was  not  himself  subject  to  the 
canons ;  an  arbitrary  assertion  destitute  of  evidence,  but 
which  contributed  to  establish  in  the  Latin,  or  Western, 
church  a  confused  notion  that  the  authority  of  the  pope 
was  without  bounds.  Gratianus  also  maintained,  upon 
apocryphal  or  mutilated  authority,  that  clergymen  are  not 
subject  to  secular  jurisdiction.  This  principle  is  illustrated 
in  a  celebrated  answer  of  Innocent  III.  to  tlie  Eastern  em- 
peror, in  which  that  pope  contends  that  the  temporal  sove- 
reign has  the  jurisdiction  of  the  sword  over  those  who 
bear  a  sword,  that  is  to  say,  over  laymen  only,  as  no  one 
can  be  the  judge  of  the  servants  of  another.' 

The  grosser  errors  and  the  apocrypha  of  the  •  Decretum  * 
were  corrected  and  expurgated  in  an  improved  edition  exe- 
cuted by  order  of  Gregory  XIII.,  1582;  but  still  many 
assertions  favourable  to  the  absolute  supremacy  as  well  as 
to  the  temporal  authority  of  the  popes  were  allowed  to  re- 
main in  it,  as  being  sanctioned  by  ages,  though  contrary  to 
the  antient  discipline  of  the  church.  These  are  what  are 
st}  led  in  France  and  other  countries  north  of  the  Alps  the 
ultramontane  doctrines  of  the  Roman  Curia.  Antonius  Au- 
gustinus  has  written  a  treatise,  *  De  EmendationeGratiaui,' 
which  forms  a  useful  supplement  to  the  *  Decretum.* 

GllATTAN,  HENRY,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  the  year 
1 750.  His  father,  a  barrister  and  a  Protestant,  was  recorder 
of  Dublin  and  also  its  representative  in  the  Irish  parliament. 
Young  G rattan  entered,  at  the  usual  age,  as  a  fellow-com- 
moner, at  Trinity  College,  Dublin ;  and  having  here  dis- 
tinguished himself  considerably,  he  proceeded  to  London, 
after  taking  his  degree,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  terms 
at  the  Middle  Temple,  and  of  studying  law.  He  was  called 
to  the  Irish  bar  in  1772.  In  1775  he  was  returned  to  the 
Irisli  parliament,  under  Lord  Charlemont's  auspices,  as 
representative  of  the  borough  of  Charlemont. 

In  parliament  he  at  once  joined  the  ranks  of  opposition. 
Exerting  his  nervous  eloquence  in  the  cause  of  his  counti7's 
independence,  he  in  a  very  short  time  gained  to  himself  the 
admiration  and  love,  while  he  contributed  not  a  little  to 
swell  the  enthusiasm,  of  the  Irish  nation.  At  this  period 
Ireland  had  to  complain,  not  only  of  the  dependent  state  of 
her  legislature  and  courts  of  justice,  but  also  of  giievous 
commercial  restrictions :  and  one  of  the  first  great  fruits  of 
Grnttan's  zeal  and  eloquence  was  the  partial  throwing  open 
of  Irish  commerce.  Subsequently,  in  1780,  he  obtained 
from  the  Irish  parliament  the  memorable  resolution  *  that 
the  King's  most  excellent  Majesty  and  the  Lords  and 
Commons  of  Ireland  are  the  only  power  competent  to  make 
laws  to  bind  Ireland.'  The  peroration  of  the  speech  in 
which  he  moved  this  resolution  is  a  noble  specimen  of  his 
eloquence.  •  I  will  not  be  answered  by  a  public  lie  in  the 
shape  of  an  amendment ;  neither,  speaking  for  the  sub- 
jects' freedom,  am  I  to  hear  of  fiiction.  I  wish  for  nothing 
but  to  breathe,  in  this  our  land,  in  common  with  my  fel- 
low-subjects, the  air  of  liberty.  I  have  no  ambition,  unless 
it  be  the  ambition  to  break  your  chain,  and  contemplate 
your  glory.  I  never  will  be  satisfied  so  long  as  the  meanest 
eottager  in  Ireland  has  a  link  of  the  British  chain  clanking 
to  his  rags.  He  may  be  naked ;  he  shall  not  be  in  iron.  And 
I  do  see  the  time  is  at  hand,  the  spirit  is  gone  fbrth,  the 


declaration  is  planted :  and  though  great  men  ihould  3^<a 
tatize,  yet  the  cause  will  live;  and  though  the  pi.U/ 
speaker  should  die,  yet  the  immortal  fire  shall  outlast  t;  - 
organ  which  conveyed  it,  and  the  breath  of  liberty,  Ukv  *. 
word  of  the  holy  man,  will  not  die  with  the  prophet,  but  >u. 
vive  him.' 

Such  was  the  pitch  of  popularity  to  which  GratLiii  ' 
now  attained,  that  it  was  proposed  in  the  Irish  paiLu:i. . 
to  vote  him  the  sum  of  100,000/^  '  as  a  testimuny  <.i  • 
national  gratitude  for  great  national  services.*    The .  . 
was  afterwards  /educed  in  committee,  at  the  ex)in  v>  . 
stance  of  Grattan's  own  friends,  to  50,000/. ;  and  Um  . . 
Grattan  received.      In  consequence  of  the  declaiu  ...j 
rights  of  the  Irish  parliament,  a  negotiation  was  bct  oi  t  * 
for  the  repeal  of  the  act  (Gth  of  George  I.)  by  «huii 
British  legislature  declared  its  right  to  bind  In.*la.  i 
British  statutes.    'When  the  repeal  of  this  act  wss  W  .. 
forward  in  England,  Mr.  Flood  contended  in  the  In^:l ,  - 
liament  that  the  simple  repeal  of  a  declaratory  act,  hi- 
6th  of  George  I.,  would  not  involve  a  renunciuiiun  '•; 
right;  and  after  moving  some  other  resolutions  ^hvn  \r- 
plied  dissatisfaction  with  a  simple  repeal  of  the  art, 
which  were  successively  uegatived  without  t  divUion,  i    i 
last  moved  for  leave  to  bring  in  a  bill  for  declartiu  •> 
exclusive  right  of  the  Irish  parliament  to  make  b)«    < 
Ireland.      Grattan  differed  from  the  view  takea  h  K: 
Flood,  and  contended  that  the  simple  repeal  of  the  a^'i  ..• 
a  suiTicient  security  for  the  independence  of  Ireland.    '. 
Flood's  bill  was  thrown  out  by  a  large  majonty.    F.: 
though  the  opinion  of  the  Irish  House  of  Comtui  n^  -  > 
with  Grattan,  the  sympathies  of  the  Irish  natiou  vero  -  ■ 
Mr.  Flood.      A  belief  gained  ground,  and  was  mtiiM    • 
couraged  by  Mr.  Flood's  acrimonious  attacks,  thai  hu .... 
received  his  reward,  Grattan  had  ceased  to  be  a  yr. 
and  he  now  for  a  time  undeseri'edly  loit  much  of  lib  h  . 
earned  popularity. 

His  opposition  however,  in  1 785,  to  the  propositi  n.s : 
garding  tne  trade  between  Great  Britain  and  Irclan<l,  m 
by  Mr.  Orde  in  the  Irish  parliament,  and  ever  since « 
known  as  Orde's  Propositions,  restored  him  to  his  lust ; '  - 
in  the  affections  of  his  countrymen.    One  of  the<^>  }•' ; 
sitions  was  to  the  effect  that  the  Irish  parliament  ^1 
from  time  to  time  adopt  and  enact  all  such  sets  of  * 
British  parliament  as  should  relate  to  the  regulaiici. 
management  of   her  commerce.      The  Irish   parl.i:. 
would  thus  have  been  placed  so  far  in  a  state  of  c<>il;. 
dependence;  but  owing  principally  to  Grattan's  cfl<r- 
opposition,  the  measure  was  relinquished.    And  he  ^v-. ' 
to  secure  a  continuance  of  his  now  regained  popuhr.^  • 
the  introduction  of  a  measure  for  getting  rid  of  tithes,  v 
was  however  rejected.     Occupy mg  moreover  the  l"    ~ 
place  in  the  Whig  Club  which  then  existed  in  l)^ 
Grattan  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  public  declaration  t'r :. 
members  that  they  would  never  accept  office  uudir     • 
administration  which  would  not  concede  certain  mr^ 
tending  to  increase  purity  of  election  and  minisii'n.il 
sponsibility.    In  1 790  Grattan  was  returned  to  parhai..' 
for  Dublin. 

In  the  parliament  which  now  met,  the  question  of  T  ■ 
lie  Emancipation  being  raised,  Grattan  appeared  "f  f- '  - 
as  the  friend  of  religious  liberty.     He  thereby  offvn  '^ 
new  constituents.    There  is  no  doubt  that  the  courv '« > 
he  took  upon  this  question  would  have  prevcnttfl  li;* 
election,  had  he  desired  it ;  but  finding  hira>elf  un. '' 
stem  that  movement  which,  originating  with  the  r 
Lord  Fitzwilliam,  terminated  in  the  rebeUion  of  I*-'*  ^ 
voluntarily  retired  from  parliament.      He  was  at\r*« 
returned  for  Wicklow,  for  the  express  nurpose  of  I'H'^  - 
the  Union.    The  Union  was  carried,  ana  in  1805  he  t".!' 
the  Imperial  parliament  as  member  for  the  boroi^.- 
Malton.     The  next  year  he  was  returned  for  Dublin,  r  ^ 
ser\dng  in  his  new  position  the  reputation  which  h' 
befbre  acquired  for  eloquence,  he  also  adhered  intl'*^    "^ 
to  those  principles  of  toleration  and  popular  govemmt  n*  : 
which  in  Ireland  he  had  been  the  champion.     He  1  ^t 
opportunitT  of  advocating  the  Catholic  claims.    He  nsn 
said  indeed  to  have  died  m  the  cause  of  Catholic  Bman>  - 
tion.    He  had  undertaken  to  present  a  petition  fN"'  < 
Irish  Catholics,  and  to  support  it  in  parliament,  noJ^  •  • 
standing  the  remonstrances  of  his  fViends  that  the  exert  ^ 
would  bo  mcompatihle  with  his  declining  health.  'I  *"  -. ; 
be  happy,*  he  replied  to  those  remonstrances,  *  to  die  «*  »"•* 
discfaai^  of  my  duty.*    He  had  scarcely  arrired  va  Lou^^'^ 


G  R  A 


368 


G  R  A 


about  40  miles,  joins  tho  Vorder  Rhein  near  Reichenau. 
The  Splugen  road  runs  alongr  this  ^'alley.  3.  The  valley  of 
Davos,  or  of  the  Albula,  which  is  another  affluent  of  the 
Rhine,  whicli  issues  out  of  a  small  lake  called  Gross  See, 
Bear  the  centre  of  the  canton,  and  flows  first  south-west 
and  then  north-west,  and  after  a  course  of  about  40  miles 
joins  the  H inter  Rhein  near  Tusis.  4.  The  Pnlttigau,  or 
valley  of  the  Lanquart,  a  stream  that  rises  at  the  foot  of  the 
PizLinnard,  in  the  cl\ain  which  bounds  Engadin  to  the  north, 
flows  north-west  for  about  30  miles,  and  enters  the  Rhine 
near  Mayenfeld.  5.  The  vall^  of  the  Inn,  or  Engadin. 
[Engadin.]  6.  The  Munster  Thai,  a  small  valley  east  of 
Engadin,  the  waters  of  which  flow  into  theEtsch,or  Adige. 
7.  The  Val  Poschiavo,  south  of  Mount  Bemina,  the  waters 
of  which  run  into  the  Adda.  8.  The  Val  Bregaglia,  south 
of  the  Maloya  and  Septimer,  through  which  flows  the  river 
Maira,  whicn,  after  passing  by  Chiavenna,  enters  the  lake 
of  Como  at  its  northern  extremity.  9.  Val  Misocco,  a  con- 
siderable valley  south  of  Mount  Bernhardin,  through  which 
flows  the  Moesa,  an  affluent  of  the  Ticino.  1 0.  val  Ca- 
lanca,  west  of  Val  Misocco,  and  the  waters  of  which  run  into 
the  Moesa.  All  these  principal  valleys  give  access  to  many 
smaller  transverse  valleys,  some  of  them  between  5000  and 
6000  feet  above  the  sea.  Kasthofer,  in  his  '  Voyage  dans 
les  petits  Cantons,  et  dans  les  Alpes  Rhetiennes,*  gives  a 
detailed  account  of  the  rural  economy  of  these  secluded 
Alpine  districts. 

The  population  of  the  canton  of  the  Grisons  is  reckoned 
by  the  latest  authorities  at  about  96,000,  of  whom  one-third 
speak  German,  and  the  rest  speak  the  Romansch  and 
Ladin  dialects,  except  those  of  the  valleys  south  of  the 
Alps,  who  speak  a  Lombard  dialect  of  the  Italian.  One- 
third  of  the  whole  are  Catholics,  and  tho  rest  Protestants 
of  the  Helvetic  communion.  The  productions  of  the  soil 
are  extremely  varied,  according  to  the  elevation  of  the 
ground  and  the  aspect  of  the  respective  valleys.  Some 
enjoy  almost  an  Italian  climate,  and  the  vine,  wheat, 
maize,  and  the  fig  and  the  almond  thrive  in  them,  whilst 
others  produce  with  difficulty  scanty  crops  of  barley  and 
rye.  Hemp  and  flax  are  largely  cultivated,  as  well  as 
potatoes,  turnips,  carrots,  and  other  roots.  A  considerable 
part  of  the  canton  is  occupied  by  pastures  and  forests. 
There  are  about  100,000  head  of  large  cattle,  as  many 
sheep,  70,000  goats,  and  a  large  quantity  of  pigs,  but  few 
horses.  Cattle  and  cheese  are  exported  to  the  Italian 
mfU'kets.  The  mountains  are  inhabited  by  a  vast  quantity 
of  game,  besides  bears,  wolves,  lynxes,  and  wild  cats. 
Trout  and  salmon  are  found  in  the  rivers. 

The  canton  of  the  Grisons  is  a  confederation  of  little  re- 
publics, a  Switzerland  in  miniature.  It  is  divided  into 
twenty-five  jurisdictions ;  each  jurisdiction  appoints  its  own 
magistrates,  and  makes  its  own  laws  and  local  regulations, 
by  the  consent  of  three* fourths  of  its  citizens,  that  is  to  say, 
of  all  men  above  seventeen  years  of  age,  and  appoints  two 
or  more  deputies  to  the  Great  Council,  which  is  the  legis- 
lative body  for  the  whole,  and  which  again  sends  deputies 
to  the  annual  Swiss  diet  to  represent  the  canton.  But  the 
laws  enacted  by  the  Great  Council  are  subject  to  the  appro- 
bation  of  the  various  jurisdictions.  The  Little  Council  of 
three  members  is  entrusted  with  the  execution  of  the  laws, 
and  with  the  measures  for  general  security.  The^  is  an 
upper  court  for  the  whole  canton,  which  hears  the  appeals 
from  the  local  courts  upon  matters  of  a  certain  importance. 
The  militia  of  the  canton,  consisting  of  all  the  men  able  to 
bear  arms,  amounts  to  about  20,000  men. 

The  principal  town  of  the  canton  is  Coire  (Chur  in 
German),  known  by  the  name  of  Curia  Rh»torum  in  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries  of  our  eera.  It  is  a  double  town, 
consisting  of  the  upper  city  surrounded  by  walls,  which 
is  the  residence  of  the  bishop  and  canons,  and  has  a  semi- 
nary and  one  or  two  convents,  and  about  250  inhabitants, 
and  the  lower  to\vn.  which  has  about  350  houses  and  4500 
inhabitants,  almost  all  Protestants,  sorao  fine  public  and 
private  buildings,  several  schools,  a  library,  and  a  cabinet 
of  natural  history.  The  situation  of  Coire,  on  the  high  road 
from  Eastern  Switzerland  into  Italy,  renders  its  transit  com- 
merce very  active,  and  several  thriving  commercial  houses 
are  found  in  it.  The  neighbourhood  of  Coire,  in  a  fertile 
valley  watered  by  the  Plessur,  about  a  mile  from  the  right 
bank  of  the  Rhine,  and  at  the  entrance  of  the  hiehlands  of 
the  Grisons,  is  extremely  ?  nmantic.  Angelica  Kauffmann 
was  born  at  Coire  in  1741.  The  canton  has  no  other  town 
of  any  importance. 


The  origin  of  the  confederacy  of  the  Grifons  dates  fratn  tha 

beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  the  chief  inlubitatiS 

of  various  communes  in  the  valleys  of  the  Upper  Rhini\ 

weary  of  the  cruelties  and  oppressions  of  their  feudal  lunU^ 

assembled  in  a  forest  near  the  village  of  Trons,  and  tbirf 

entered  into  a  solemn  compact  to  defend  each  other's  p^. 

perty  and  persons,  and  to  obli^  their  lords  to  reftpeet  th* 

same.     The  abbot  of  Disontis  willingly  agreed  to  ti:* 

compact ;  the  counts  of  Werdenberg,  Sax,  and  the  Wr 

of  Rhszuns  followed  his  example,  and  in  the  montb  <.; 

May,  1424,  they  all  repaired  to  the  village  of  Trom,  a:  ( 

there  under  a  large  maple* tree  swore,  in  the  name  of  i:  r 

Holy  Trinity,  to  observe  the  conditions  of  the  leagucy  «}r. . 

was  called  the  Grey  League, ' Graubund  *  from  their  U.',^* 

dressed  in  grey  smock-frocks.    The  maple- tree  of  Tmns  «■  i:l 

existed  at  the  end  of  the  last  ocntuiy,  when  itira»  fcii<-l 

during  the  French  invasion.     The  valleys  of  Lower  Rbai'  i. 

near  Coire,  also  formed  themselves  into  another  league  vh'. 

the  consent  of  the  bishon  of  Coire,  and  this  Icoi^e  v:i 

called  Caddea,  *  Casa  Dei,'  '  the  House  of  God,'  liern'i. 

those  communes  were  mostly  subject  to  the  epucopnl  v^- 

A  third  league  was  formed  in  1436,  after  the  extinction  •' 

the  house  of  Toggenburg,  among  the  communei  of  EaM< 

Rhstia  in  the  valleys  of  the  Albula  and  the  Unqm:. 

and  this  w^  called  the  League  of  the  Ten  Juh»dic!\  « 

of  which  Davos  was  the  chief  place.    The  three  lc;i.  ■  > 

entered  into  a  federal  compact,  and  also  fonnetl  nn  )> 

liance  with  the  Swiss  cantons.    They  bravely  dv\*'vu , 

their  liberties  against  the  Emperor  MaximilisQ  1..  ■*• 

afterwards,   in   the  seventeenth  century,  against  r<^ 

nand  II.  with  the  assistance  of  Louis  XIII.  of  Fnr.- 

[Valtelina.]    When,  in  1798,  the  French  armies  in\avl 

Switzerland,  and  overturned  its  antient  confederation.  ". 

Grisons  kept  aloof,  and,  being  threatened  by  the  Kr>  v 

with  invasion,  they  rose  in  a  mass,  and  called  in  ibe  A*  • 

trians  from  the  Tyrol  to  their  assistance.  In  1 799  their  r  -  < 

try  was  devastated  by  the  French,  who  drove  away  the  A  - 

trians,  and  were  themselves  driven  away  again  b>  H': 

Russians  under  Suwarrow.    At  length,  by  the  Act  of  M 

diation,  under  Bonaparte,  in  1803,  the  Urisons  hocjnu  . 

canton  of  the  new  Helvetic  Confederation,  which  thor  In  : 

continued  to  be  ever  since.    An  interesting  desmpi  •  ' 

the  Grisons  country  is  given   by  Dandolo,  LetUr^ 

Cantone  dei  Grigiom,  Milan,  1829. 

GRAUDENZ:    [Mariknwkrdeb-] 

GRAUN,  CARL  HEINRICH,  a  German  cmf^^^r  ' 
great  celebrity  during  part  of  the  last  centuiy,  and  kn; 
tnei»ter,  or  director  of  music,  to  Frederick  II.  of  Pr-i' 
was  born  in  Saxony  in  1 701.     As  a  boy  he  was  cnten-1  : 
the  school  of  La  Sainte  Croix,  at  Dresden,  where  tho  her  ' 
of  his  soprano  voice  soon  procured  him  the  situatn^i 
state  singer.    This  voice  afterwards  changed  into  si" 
tenor  of  no  great  power,  but  of  excellent  qtinlity.   H' 
studied  composition  under  Schmidt,  kapellmeister  at  I)  - 
den,  and  leaving  the  school  iji  1 720  he  comnicnred  <^> 
posing  for  the  church.    In  1725  he  succeeded  Ha^H'  - 
principal  tenor  in  the  opera  at  Brunswick,  but  not  *{ 
approving  the  airs  allotted  to  him,  he  wrote  one  for  \>  " 
self,  which  so  much  pleased  the  coiut  that  he  was  imi)' 
diately  appointed  composer  to  the  opera.    Subeequentiv  * 
entered  into  the  service  of  the  prince  royal  of  Prussia  (>^»' 
wards  Frederick  the  Great),  for  whom  he  ooniHKcd  a^'i 
sang  cantatas,  &c.    These  were  very  numerous.  »ni  '- 
satisfactory  to  the  royal  dilettante,  that  Graun's  mkrj  *^* 
augmentea  from  a  small  pittance  to  two  thousand  cr  ^<  * 
per  annum.    He  died  in  1759,  in  the  service  of  FrM**^"*- 
who  was  so  much  attached  to  him  that  he  wept  «^' 
the  death  of  his  favourite  was  announced.    This  event,  V' 
Bumey  pleasantly  remarks, 

•  Prew  iroi  teara  Jown  Plato's  clicrkt ' 

Graun  was  a  most  voluminous  composer,  and  w»n*  ' 
his  works  perhaps  deserved  at  the  time  the  enwm' 
lavished  on  them ;  but  of  these  few  are  now  known,  r 
in  Gtirmany.     His  operas,  which  are  numerous,  art  o 
fbrgotten.     His  short  oratorio.  Der  Tod  Jesu  (The  /'•  ' 
of  Christ),  possesses  very  considerable  merit ;  but  h>  ^^  ^ 
will  1ms  transmitted  to  posterity  by  his  Te  Deum^  a  w-'^^ 
invention,  beauty,  and  grandeur. 

GRAUWACKE  (or  Gn»ywaekc  as  it  is  often  written 
English  works  on  geology),  a  German  term  apphe<l  *'>'*' 
of  the  antient  stratified  rocks,  which  has  been  with  ♦"'J^ 
unwillingness  admitted  by  English  geol(^i8ts,  either  in  t-' 


G  R  A 


370 


GR  A 


jurists,  who  were  often  consulted  by  the  senate,  and 
whose  '  Responsa*  form  a  roost  important  part  of  the 
Roman  law.  He  also  treats  of  the  modem  jurists  who 
lived  after  the  restoration  of  the  Roman  law  in  the  West, 
beginning  from  Irnerius,  or  Vamerius,  a  professor  of  Bo« 
logna  in  the  eleventh  century,  who,  at  the  desire  of  the 
Countess  Mathilda,  revived  the  knowledge  of  the  Justinian 
Code  many  years  before  the  reported  discovery  of  the  Pan- 
dects by  the  Pisans  at  Amalfl,  end  passing  in  review  those 
who  followed  in  successive  ages  down  to  his  oikh  time. 
The  publication  of  the  'Originum  Juris  Civilis'  attracted 
universal  attention  throughout.  Europe,  and  Montesquieu 
and  other  competent  judges  have  bestowed  praise  on  the 
manner  in  which  the  author  handles  his  subjects,  and  the 
many  luminous  principles  and  happv  definitions  contained 
in  the  work.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Leips itf,  3  vols. 
4tOn  1737.  It  has  been  transUted  into  French  under 
the  title  of '  Bsprit  des  Lois  Romaines,'  Paris,  1 766.  Ora- 
vina  wrote  also,  1, '  De  Romano  Imperiu  liber  singularis,* 
an  inferior  performance,  in  which  the  author  seems  intent 
on  flattering  the  vanity  of  the  modern  Romans ;  8.  *  Delia 
Region  Poetica,'  being  a  treatise  on  the  art  of  poetry ;  3.  *  In- 
stitutiones  C^noniea?  published  at  Turin  after  his  death ; 
besides  several  very  inferior  tragedies,  some  orations,  and 
other  opuscula:  among  others,  a  curious  dialogue  between 
casuistry  and  heresy,  whom  he  represents  as  two  sisters 
bent  upon  sapping  the  foundations  of  Christianity,  the 
latter  oy  attacking  faith,  and  the  former  by  destroying 
charity.  Fabbroni  published  a  biography  ot  Gravina.  (Ck>r- 
ntani,  Secoli  delta  LeUeratura  lUUiana,  art.  *  Gravina.') 

GRAVITATION,  Section  I.— On  the  Rules  J^  col- 
culatinsAttraction^  or,  the  Law  qf  Gravitation, 

(I.)  The  principle  upon  which  the  motions  of  the  earth, 
moon,  and  planets  are  calculated  is  this :  Every  particle  of 
matter  attracts  every  other  particle,  lliat  is,  if  there  were 
a  single  body  alone,  and  at  rest,  then,  if  a  second  body  were 
brought  near  it,  the  first  body  would  immediately  begin  to 
move  towards  the  second  bod  v.  Just  in  the  same  manner, 
if  a  needle  is  at  rest  on  a  table,  and  if  a  magnet  is  brought 
near  it,  the  needle  immediately  begins  to  move  towards  the 
magnet,  and  we  say  that  the  magnet  attracts  the  needle. 
But  magnetic  attraction  belongs  only  to  certain  bodies: 
whereas  the  attraction  of  which  we  speak  here  belongs  to 
all  bodies  of  every  kind:  metals,  eartlis,  fluids,  and  even  the 
air  and  gases  are  equally  subject  to  its  influence. 

(2.)  The  most  remarkable  experiments  which  prove  that 
bodies  attract  each  other  are  a  set  of  experiments  made  at 
the  end  of  the  last  century  by  Mr.  Cavendish.  Small 
leaden  balls  were  supnorted  on  the  ends  of  a  rod  which  was 
suspended  at  the  miaale  by  a  slender  wire ;  and  when  large 
leaaen  balls  were  brought  near  to  them,  it  was  found  that 
the  wire  was  immediatelv  twisted  by  the  motion  of  the 
balls.  But  the  results  of  this  experiment  are  striking,  prin- 
cipally because  they  are  unusual;  the  ordinary  force  of 
gravity  serves  quite  as  well  to  prove  ttie  existence  of  some 
such  power.  For  when  we  consider  that  the  earth  is  round, 
and  tnat,  on  all  parts  of  it,  bodies,  as  soon  as  they  are  at 
liberty,  fall  in  directions  perpendicular  to  its  surface,  (and 
therefore  fall  in  opposite  aireotions  at  the  places  which  are 
diametrically  opposite,)  we  are  compelled  to  allow  that  there 
is  a  force  such  as  we  call  attraction,  either  directed  to  the 
centre  of  the  earth,  or  produced  by  a  great  number  of  small 
forces,  directed  to  all  the  different  particles  composing  the 
earth.  The  peculiar  value  of  Cavendish's  experiment  con- 
sists in  showing  that  there  is  a  small  force  directed  to  every 
different  particle  of  the  earth. 

(3.)  But  it  is  necessary  to  state  distinctly  the  rules  by 
which  this  attraction  is  regulated,  and  by  which  it  may  be 
calculated ;  or  (as  it  is  technically  called)  the  law  qf  grain- 
tation*  Before  we  can  do  this,  we  must  determine  which 
of  the  effects  of  attraction  we  choose  to  take  as  its  measure. 
For  there  are  two  distinct  effects :  one  is  the  pressure  which 
it  produces  upon  any  obstacle  that  keeps  the  body  at  rest ; 
the  other  is  the  space  through  which  it  draws  the  body  in  a 
certain  time,  if  the  obstacle  is  removed  and  the  body  set  at 
liberty.  Thus,  to  take  the  ordinary  force  of  gravitv  as  an 
instance :  we  might  measure  it  by  the  pressure  which  is 
produced  on  the  Band  by  a  lump  of  lead  held  in  the  hand ; 
or  we  might  measure  it  by  the  number  of  inches  through 
which  the  lump  of  lead  would  fall  in  a  second  of  time  after 
the  hand  is  opened  (as  the  pro&bure  and  full  are  both  occa- 
sioned by  gravity).  But  there  is  this  difference  between  the 
two  measures:  if  we  adopted  the  first,  since  a  large  lump  of 


lead  weighs  more  than  a  small  one^  we  sWndd  lod  t^. 
ferent  measure  by  the  use  of  every  different  piece  of  Iw) : 
whereas,  if  we  adopt  the  second,  sinoe  it  is  well  flsiibli»b«i 
by  careftil  and  accurate  experiments  that  large  and  loiii 
lumps  of  lead,  stones,  and  even  feathers,  fell  through  iht 
same  number  of  inches  in  a  second  of  time,  (when  the  n^ 
sistance  of  the  air,  &o.,  is  removed,)  we  shiitt  get  the  u:  i 
measure  for  gravity,  whatever  body  we  suppose  subject  l*  ... 
influence.  The  consistence  and  simplicity  of  the  measun 
thus  obtained  incline  us  to  adopt  it  in  every  other  caw:  i.. 
thus  we  shall  say.  Attraction  is  measured  by  the  i;ir 
through  which  it  draws  a  body  in  one  second  qf  time  iy--* 
the  bSiy  is  set  at  liberty. 

(4.)  Whenever  we  speak,  therefore,  of  calculsting  tttn- 
tion,  it  must  be  understood  to  mean  calculating  the  nun  <: 
of  inches,  or  feet,  through  which  the  attraotion  dravi  a  I. . 
in  one  second  of  time. 

(5.)  Now  the  first  rule  is  this!  'The  attrtotion  of' - 
body  upon  another  body  does  not  depend  on  themss^uf  l. 
body  which  is  attracted,  but  is  the  same  whatever  be  t'^ 
mass  of  the  body  so  attracted,  if  the  distances  are  the  lain 

(6.)  Thus  Jupiter  attracts  the  sun,  and  Jupiter  attri  :• 
the  earth  also ;  but  though  the  sun's  mass  is  three  bur.'}:-*. 
thousand  times  as  ^eat  as  the  earth's,  yet  the  attnciwr 
Jupiter  on  the  sun  is  exactly  equal  to  his  attrsctioo  out! 
earth,  when  the  sun  and  the  earth  are  equally  distaat  t*.* 
Jupiter.    In  other  words,  (the  attraotion  bemf  neucn. 
in  conformity  with  tho  definition  above,)  when  the  sun  • 
the  earth  are  at  equal  distances  from  Jupiter,  thesttnrL . 
of  Jupiter  draws  the  sun  through  as  many  inches,  «]>:• 
of  an  inch,  in  one  second  of  time  as  it  draws  the  eartb  i: 
the  same  time. 

(7.)  The  second  rule  is  this:  'Attraction  ispropom 
to  the  mass  of  the  body  which  attracts,  if  the  disitnco 
different  attracting  bodies  be  the  same.' 

(8.)  Thus,  suppose  that  the  aun  and  Jupiter  srestf,. 
distances  from  Saturn ;  the  sun  is  about  a  thouMDil  i"  > 
as  big  as  Jupiter ;  then  whatever  be  the  number  of  w  * 
through  which  Jupiter  draws  Saturn  in  one  second  of  tn. 
the  sun  draws  Saturn  in  the  same  time  through  s  thou^ 
tiroes  that  number  of  inches, 

(9.)  The  third  rule  is  this:  *If  the  same  attracting b>:t 
act  upon  several  bodies  at  different  distanoes,  the  attr»ct>  • 
are  inversely  proportionid  to  the  square  of  the  distaooeiti 
the  attracting  body.' 

(10.)  Thus  the  earth  aUraeta  the  sun,  and  the  esrtb .  • 
attracts  the  moon ;  but  the  sun  is  four  htmdred  tiDi«  • 
far  off  as  the  moon,  and  therefore,  the  earth's  altracu. 
the  sun  is  only  iijbevth  part  of  its  attraction  on  tbc  tb  • 
or,  as  the  earth's  attraction  draws  the  moon  throuKb «'  - 
^th  of  an  inch  in  one  second  of  time,  the  earth^s  stm  t 
draws  the  sun  through  svioiitb  of  an  inch  in  one  le  ■ 
of  time.    In  like  manner,  supposing  Saturn  ten  tiD«>  • 
far  from  the  sun  as  the  earth  ia,  the  sun's  sttractioo    • 
Saturn  is  only  one  hundredth  part  of  his  attiietioD  \tt  • 
earth, 

(11.)  The  same  rule  holds  in  comparing  the  sttm'  ' 
which  one  body  exerts  upon  another,  when,  from  voav . 
different  paths,  and  with  different  degrees  of  swifinc'o.  t. 
distance  is  altered.    Thus  Mars,  in  Uie  spring  of  1^;^ '  "*•' 
twice  as  fer  from  the  earth  as  in  the  autumn  of  <'  • 
therefore,  in  the  spring  of  1833,  the  earth's  attrtctt :. 
Mars  was  only  one-fourth  of  its  attraction  on  Man  l^  - 
autumn  of  1632.    Jupiter  is  three  times  as  near  to  Siw  ' 
when  they  are  on  the  same  side  of  the  sun  as  when  tb..t  ■' 
jii  opposite  sides ;  therefore,  Jupiter's  attraction  on  Sn- 
and  Saturn's  attraotion  on  Jupiter,  are  nine  times  i^  • 
when  they  are  on  the  same  side  of  the  sun  than  when  t*^ 
are  on  opposite  sides. 

(19.)  The  reader  may  ask.  How  is  all  this  kno«o  i   - 
true ?    The  best  answer  is,  perhaps,  the  foUowing:  W^'  - 
that  the  force  which  the  earth  exerts  upon  the  moon  i'*'* 
the  same  proportion  to  gravity  on  the  earths  surft»  «'^ 
it  ought  to  bear  in  conformity  with  the  rule  just  gi>eo.  ^^ 
the  motions  of  the  planets,  calculations  are  made,  vbu  u  ^'• 
founded  upon  these  laws,  and  which  will  enable  U4  w  • ' 
diet  their  places  with  considerable  accuracy,  if  the  hv'  ' 
true,  but  which  would  be  much  in  error  if  the  la«*  '*' 
false.    The  accuracy  of  astronomical  observatioDS  i*  c'ar.  ■ 
to  a  degree  that  can  scarcely  be  imagined;  and  b)  d:>  •  * 
of  these  we  can  every  day  compare  the  ohaervedjpbce^' " 
planet  with  the  place  which  was  oaloulated  befowlan^  *** 
cording  to  the  law  of  gravitation.     It  is  foond  thai  ^ 


G  R  A 


372 


GR  A 


H^.3. 


If  the  body  describe  a  parabola  or  hyperbola,  the  sua  is 
in  the  focus. 

(19.)  The  planets  describe  ellipses  which  are  very  little 
flattened,  ana  differ  very  little  from  circles.  Three  or  four 
comets  describe  very  long  ellipses;  and  nearly  all  the 
others  that  have  been  observed  are  found  to  move  in  curves 
which  cannot  be  distinguished  from  parabolas.  There  is 
reason  to  think  that  two  or  three  comets  which  have  been 
observed  move  in  hyperbolas.  But  as  we  do  not  propose, 
in  this  treatise,  to  enter  into  a  discussion  on  the  motions  of 
comets,  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  the  consideration  of 
motion  in  an  ellipse. 

(20.)  Everything  that  has  been  said  respecting  the 
motion  of  a  planet,  or  body  of  any  kind,  round  the  sun,  in 
consequence  of  the  sun's  attraction  according  to  the  law  of 
gravitation,  applies  equally  well  to  the  motion  of  a  satellite 
about  a  planet,  since  the  planet  attracts  with  a  force  follow- 
ing the  same  law  (though  smaller)  as  the  attraction  of  the 
Buo.  Thus  the  moon  describes  an  ellipse  round  the  earth, 
the  earth  being  the  focus  of  the  ellipse ;  Jupiter*s  satellites 
describe  each  an  ellipse  about  Jupiter,  and  Jupiter  is  in 
one  focus  of  each  of  those  ellipses ;  the  same  is  true  of  the 
satellites  ofSatum  and  Uranus. 

(21 .)  In  stating  the  suppositions  on  which  the  calculations 
of  orbits  are  made,  we  have  spoken  of  a  force  of  attraction, 
and  a  force  by  which  a  planet  is  projected.  But  the  reader 
must  observe  that  the  nature  of  these  forces  is  wholly 
different.  The  force  of  attraction  is  one  which  acts  con- 
stantly and  steadily  without  a  moment's  intermission  (as 
we  know  that  gravity  to  the  earth  is  always  acting) :  the 
force  by  which  the  body  is  projected  is  one  which  we  suppose 
to  be  necessary  at  some  past  time  to  account  for  the  planet's 
motion,  but  which  acts  no  more.  The  planets  are  in  motion, 
and  it  is  of  no  consequence  to  our  inquiry  how  they  received 
this  motion,  but  it  is  convenient,  for  the  purposes  of  cal- 
culation, to  suppose  that,  at  some  time,  they  received  an 
impulse  of  the  same  kind  as  that  which  a  stone  receives 
when  thrown  from  the  hand ;  and  this  is  the  whole  mean- 
ing of  the  term  *  projectile  force.' 

(22.)  From  the  same  considerations  it  will  appear  that, 
if  in  any  future  investigations  we  should  wish  to  ascertain 
what  is  the  orbit  described  by  a  planet  after  it  leaves  a 
certain  point  where  the  velocity  and  direction  of  its  motion 
are  known,  we  may  suppose  the  planet  to  be  projected  from 
that  point  with  that  velocity  and  in  that  direction.  For  it 
is  unimportant  by  what  means  the  planet  acquires  its  ve- 
locity, provided  it  has  such  a  velocity  there. 

(23.)  We  shall  now  allude  to  one  of  the  points  which, 
upon  a  cursory  view,  has  always  appeared  one  of  the  greatest 
difficulties  in  the  theory  of  elliptic  revolution,  but  which, 
when  duly  considered,  will  be  found  to  be  one  of  the  most 
shnple  and  natural  consequences  of  the  law  of  gravitation. 

(24.)  The  force  of  attraction,  we  have  said,  is  inversely 
proportional  to  the  square  of  the  distance,  and  is  therefore 

Sreatest  when  the  distance  is  least.  It  would  seem  then,  at 
rst  sight,  that  when  a  planet  has  approached  most  nearly 
to  the  sun,  as  the  sun*s  attraction  is  Uien  greater  than  at 
any  other  time,  the  planet  must  inevitably  fall  to  the  sun. 
But  we  assert  that  the  planet  begins  then  to  recede  from 
the  sun,  and  that  it  attains  at  length  as  great  a  distance  as 
before,  and  goes  on  continually  retracing  the  same  orbit 
How  is  this  receding  from  the  sun  to  be  accounted  for? 

(25.)  The  explanation  depends  on  the  increase  of  velocity 
M  the  planet  approaches  to  the  point  where  its  distance 
from  the  sun  is  least,  and  on  the  considerations  by  which 
we  determine  the  form  of  the  curve  which  a  certain  attract- 
mg  force  will  cause  a  planet  to  describe.  In  explaining  the 
motion  of  a  stone  thrown  from  the  hand,  to  which  the  mo- 
toon  of  a  planet  for  a  very  small  time  is  exactly  similar,  we 
have  seen  that  the  deflection  of  the  stone  from  the  straight 
line  in  which  it  began  to  move  is  exactly  equal  to  the  space 
through  which  gravity  could  have  made  it  iall  in  the  same 
time  from  rest,  whatever  were  the  velocitv  which  it  was 
thrown.  Consequently,  when  the  stone  it      own  with  very 


great  velocity,  it  will  have  gone  a  grMt  distaim  bef^rc^  .t 
is  much  deflected  from  the  straight  Jine^  and  thenfatt  a% 
path  will  be  very  little  curved ;  a  iSiet  familiar  to  tbe  c\p^ 
rience  of  every  one.  The  same  tbing  holds  with  regaro  ii 
the  motion  of  a  planet ;  and  thus  the  curvature  of  uiy  \  j\ 
of  the  orbit  whicn  a  planet  describes  will  not  depend  um'n 
upon  the  force  of  the  sun's  attraction,  but  will  alio  dtpc':. 
on  the  velocity  with  which  the  planet  is  moving,  l^^ 
greater  is  tlie  veloci^  of  the  planet  at  any  point  of  its  crbr 
Uie  less  will  the  orbit  be  curved  at  that  part  Nov  if  v 
refbr  to>^.  3,  we  shall  see  that,  supposmg  tbe  (lUnr!  *. 
have  passed  the  point  C  with  so  small  a  velocity  thai  ti. 
attraction  of  the  sun  bends  its  path  very  much,  and  a.-  - 
it  immediately  to  begin  to  approach  towards  the  tun:  .«■ 
sun's  attraction  will  necessarilv  increase  its  velocity  l^  : 
moves  through  D,  E,  and  F.  For  the  sun's  attnctirr f--. 
on  the  planet,  when  the  planet  is  at  D,  is  acting  in  tbi  •. 
rection  D  S,  and  it  is  plain  that  (on  account  of  the  «i... 
inclination  of  D  E  to  D  S)  the  force  pulling  in  tbe  dl^vt  : 
D  S  helps  the  planet  along  in  its  path  D  K,  and  then  v 
increases  its  velocity.  Just  as  when  a  ball  rolls  dt)«. ; 
sloping  bank,  the  force  of  gravity  (whose  directioa  b  s^: 
much  inclined  to  the  bank)  helps  the  ball  down  the  Ul 
and  thereby  increases  its  velocity.  In  this  manner,  tbt  «!• 
locity  of  the  planet  will  be  continuallv  incmunir  a>  i 
planet  passes  through  D,  E,  and  F ;  ana  though  the  t.-  • 
attractive  force  (on  account  of  the  planet's  nearness)  i*  k:. 
much  increased,  and  tends,  therefore,  to  make  the  «r  *. 
more  curved,  yet  the  velocity  ia  so  much  increaied  tltl  • 
that  account,  the  orbit  is  not  more  curved  thin  W'  r 
Upon  making  the  calculation  more  accurately,  it  is  f >  . 
that  the  planet,  after  leaving  C»  approaches  to  the  tun  bj  ;. 
and  more  rapidly  for  about  a  quarter  of  its  time  of  as. 
tion ;  then  for  about  a  quarter  of  its  time  of  re\'oIutjti: 
velocity  of  its  approach  is  constantly  diminishing:  ku- 
half  the  periodic  time  after  leaving  (X  the  planet  ih  no  \> 
approaching  to  the  sun ;  and  its  velocity  is  so  great,  %m 
curvature  of  the  orbit  in  consequence  so  small  (U->r..' 
fact,  exactly  the  same  as  at  C,)  that  it  begins  u  re 
After  this  it  recedes  from  the  sun  by  exactly  the  taioi 
grees  by  which  it  before  approached  it 

(26.)  The  same  sort  of  reasoning  will  sbov  vby.vu 
the  planet  reaches  its  greatest  distance,  where  tht  u.' 
attraction  is  least,  it  does  not  altogether  fly  off.   As  u^ 
planet  passes  along  H,  K,  A,  the  6un*s  attraction  (vbirr>  • 
always  directed  to  the  sun)  retards  the  planet  in  ii»or 
just  as  the  force  of  gravity  retards  a  ball  which  is  U)"- 
up  a  hill ;  and  when  it  has  reached  C,  its  velocity  n  <-t 
tremely  small ;  and,  therefore,  though  the  sun's  stua-t 
at  C  is  small,  yet  the  deflection  which  it  nroduces  la  j- 
planet's  motion  is  (on  account  of  the  planet's  sk'vt  ^■ 
there)  sufficient  to  make  its  path  very  much  eurrei  ^< 
the  planet  approaches  the  sun,  and  goes  over  tbe  mm  s- 
bit  as  before. 

(27.)  The  following  terms  will  occur  perpetusU)  u^^'^ 
rest  of  this  article,  and  it  is  therefore  desirable  lo  e\.  t- 
them  now. 

Let  S  and  H,^.  4,  betheibeitfleaof  theellipwAEBD 


fig'^ 


:♦.  <• 


«( 


draw  the  line  AB  through  S  and  H ;  take  C  the  m' 
point  between  S  and  H,  and  draw  DCE  perpendiouUr  < 
A  C  B.    Let  S  be  that  focus  which  is  the  phu»  of  the  < 
(if  we  are  speaking  of  a  planet's  oibit,)  or  the  plsce  uf ' 
planet,  (if  we  are  speaking  of  a  satellite's  orbit). 

Then  A  B  is  called  the  major  ortt  of  the  ellipse. 

C  is  the  centre, 

A  C  or  C  B  is  the  semi-major  axif.  This  is  «}"*'  ' 
length  to  S  D ;  it  is  sometimes  called  tbe  nitftn  f^^"' ' 
because  it  is  half-way  between  AS  (which  is  the  plst'*'' 
smallest  distance  from  S)  and  BS  (which  is  the  pUr^  ' 
greatest  distance  from  S). 

DEisthe  minor  axie,  and  DCorCB  theieM'«i«^ 
am* 


6  R  A 


374 


G  R  A 


distances  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  because  they  both  reyolve 
round  the  sun ;  it  applies  in  comparing  the  periodic  times 
and  mean  distances  of  Jupiter's  third  and  fourth  satellites, 
because  they  both  revolve  round  Jupiter ;  but  it  would  not 
apply  in  comparing  the  periodic  time  and  mean  distance  of 
Saturn  revolving  round  the  sun  with  that  of  Jupiter's  third 
satellite  revolving  round  Jupiter. 

(38.)  In  comparing  the  orbits  described  by  different  pla- 
nets, or  satellites,  round  different  centres  of  force,  theory 
gives  us  the  following  law : — ^The  cubes  of  the  mean  dis- 
tances are  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  products  of  the 
mass  by  the  square  of  the  periodic  time.  Thus,  for  instance, 
the  mean  distance  of  Jupiter*s  fourth  satellite  from  Jupiter 
is  1178560  miles;  its  periodic  time  round  Jupiter  is 
16*68877  days;  the  mean  distance  of  the  earth  from  the 
sun  is  93726900  miles ;  its  periodic  time  round  the  sun  is 
365*2564  days;  also  the  mass  of  Jupiter  is  i^th  the  sun*s 
mass.  The  cubes  of  the  mean  distances  are  respectively 
1637029(12  ciphers),  and  823365(18  ciphers);  the  products 
of  the  squares  of  the  times  by  the  masses  are  respectively 
0'265252  and  133412 ;  and  these  numbers  are  in  the  same 
proportion  as  1637029(12  ciphers),  and  823365  (18  ciphers). 

(39.)  The  three  rules— that  planets  move  in  ellipses,  that 
the  radius  vector  in  each  orbit  passes  over  areas  propor- 
tional to  the  times,  and  that  the  squares  of  the  periodic 
limes  are  proportional  to  the  cubes  of  the  mean  distances, — 
are  commonly  called  Kepler's  ktws.  They  were  discovered 
by  Kepler  from  observation,  before  the  theory  of  gravitation 
was  invented ;  they  were  first  explained  from  the  theory  by 
Newton,  about  a.d.  1660. 

(40.)  The  last  of  these  is  not  strictly  true,  unless  we  sup- 
pose that  the  central  body  is  absolutely  immovable.  This 
nowever  is  evidently  inconsistent  with  the  principles  which 
we  have  laid  down  in  Section  I.  In  considering  the  motion, 
for  instance,  of  Jupiter  round  the  sun,  it  is  necessary  to  con- 
sider that,  while  the  sun  attracts  Jupiter,  Jupiter  is  also 
attracting  the  sun.  But  the  planets  are  so  small  in  com- 
parison with  the  sun  (the  largest  of  them»  Jupiter,  having 
less  tiian  one-thousandth  part  of  the  matter  contained  in 
the  sun),  that  in  common  illustrations  there  is  no  need  to 
take  this  consideration  into  account  For  nice  astronomi- 
cal purposes  it  is  taken  into  account  in  the  folbwing  man- 
ner : — ^The  motion  which  the  attraction  of  Jupiter  produces 
in  the  sun  is  less  than  the  motion  which  the  attraction  of 
the  sun  produces  in  Jupiter,  in  the  same  proportion  in 
which  Jupiter  is  smaller  than  the  sun.  If  the  sim  and  Ju- 
piter were  allowed  to  approach  one  another,  their  rate  of 
approach  would  be  the  sum  of  the  motions  of  the  sun  and 
Jupiter,  and  would  therefore  be  greater  than  their  rate  of 
approach,  if  the  sun  were  not  moveable,  in  the  same  pro- 
portion in  which  the  sum  of  the  masses  of  the  sun  and  Ju- 
piter is  greater  than  the  sun*s  mass ;  that  is,  the  rate  of 
approach  of  the  sun  and  Jupiter,  both  being  free,  is  the 
same  as  the  rate  of  approach  would  be  if  the  sun  were  fixed, 
provided  the  sun*8  mass  were  increased  by  adding  Jupiter's 
mass  to  it  Consequently,  in  comparing  the  orbits  de- 
Scribed  by  different  planets  round  the  sun,  we  must  use  the 
rule  just  laid  down,  supposing  the  central  force  to  be  the 
attraction  of  a  mass  equcd  to  tne  sum  of  the  sun  and  the 
planet :  and  thus  we  get  a  proportion  which  is  rigorously 
true :  lor  different  planets,  or  even  for  different  bodies  re- 
volving round  different  centres  of  force,  the  cubes  of  the 
mean  distances  are  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  products 
of  the  square  of  the  periodic  time  by  the  sum  of  the  masses 
of  the  attracting  and  attracted  body. 

Sbctioi^  m.-^-Genefid  Notions  qf  Periurbaiion;   and 
Perturbation  of  the  Elements  of  Orbits, 

(41.)  We  have  spoken  of  the  motion  of  two  bodies  (as  the 
sun  and  a  planet)  as  if  no  other  attracting  body  existed. 
But,  as  we  have  stated  in  Section  I.,  every  planet  and  every 
satellite  attracts  the  sun  and  every  other  planet  and  satellite. 
It  is  plain  now  that,  &s  each  planet  is  attracted  very  differ- 
ently at  different  times  by  the  other  planets  whose  position 
is  perpetually  varying,  the  motion  is  no  longer  the  same  as 
if  It  was  only  attracted  bv  the  sun.  The  planets  therefore 
d(\  not  move  exactly  in  ellipses ;  the  radius  vector  of  each 
planet  does  not  pass  over  areas  exactly  proportional  to  the 
times ;  and  the  proportion  of  the  cube  of  the  mean  distance 
to  the  product  of  the  square  of  the  periodic  time  by  the  sum 
of  the  masses  of  the  sun  and  the  planet,  is  not  strictly  the 
same  for  all.  Still  the  disturbing  forces  of  the  other  pla- 
nets are  so  tmsHH  in  comparison  with  the  attraction  of  the 


sun,  that  these  laws  are  very  nearly  troa;  and  (csrept  for 
our  moon  and  the  other  satellites)  it  is  only  by  aeeurale  ob- 
servation, continued  for  some  years,  that  the  effeoU  of  per 
turbation  can  be  made  sensible. 

(42.)  The  investigation  of  the  efilects  of  the  disturbing 
forces  will  consist  of  two  parts:  the  examination  into  \\m 
effects  of  disturbing  forces  generally  upon  the  Aotioo  of  % 
planet,  and  the  examination  into  the  kind  of  disturb:::  j 
force  which  the  attraction  of  another  planet  produeea.  W  •- 
shall  commenoe  with  the  former ;  we  shall  suppose  that  ^ 
planet  is  revolving  round  the  sun,  Uie  sun  bemg  flxod«  i  . 
supposition  made  only  for  present  convenience,)  aod  that 
some  force  acts  on  the  planet  without  acting  on  the  sun.  <  a. 
restriction  introduced  only  for  conTenienca»  aod  which  w « 
shall  hereafter  ^et  rid  of). 

(43.)  The  prmciple  upon  which  we  shall  explain   t>.> 
effect  of  this  force  is  that  known  to  mathematiciaiia  by  ihf 
name  of  variation  qf  elements*    The  planet  as  we  ha\  > 
said,  describes  some  curve  which  is  not  atrietly  an  ellii*^, 
or,  indeed,  any  regularly  formed  curve.    It  will  not  evrsi 
describe  the  same  curve  in  successive  revolutk>QS.     Yrt  i:« 
motion  may  be  represented  by  supposing  it  to  have  ino«i<i^^. 
in  an  ellipse,  provided  we  suppose  the  elements   of  tl-. 
ellipse  to  have  been  perpetually  altering.    It  is  plain  th^ 
by  this  contrivance  any  motion  whatever  may  be  refirv^ 
sented.    By  altering  the  mcyor  axis,  the  excentricity,  as4 
the  longitude  of  perihelion,  we  may  in  many  different  w«>- 
make  an  ellipse  that  will  pass  through  any  place  of  Tin 
planet;  and  by  altering  them  in  some  particular  ptoportiims 
we  may,  in  several  ways,  make  an  ellipse  in  whieb  i  .i 
direction  of  motion  at  the  place  of  the  planet  shall  be  \l*. 
same  as  the  direction  of  the  planet's  motion.     But  there  :« 
only  one  ellipse  which  will  pass  exactlv  through  a  place  « ( 
the  planet  in  which  the  airection  of  the  motion  at  th.£ 
place  shall  be  exactly  the  same  as  the  directioa  uf  \U 
planet's  motion,  and  in  which  the  velocity  (in  order  Uist  a 
body  may  revolve  in  that  ellipse  round  the  sun)  will  lie  tH 
same  as  the  planet's  real  velocity.    The  dimensions  %iA 
position  of  this  ellipse  may  be  conceived  as  follows:  if  •x 
any  instant  we  suppose  the  disturbing  force  to  cease,  ajiJ 
conceive  the  planet  to  be  as  it  were  projected  with  the  Tel> 
city  which  it  nappens  to  have  at  that  instant  the  sttrscS/m 
of  the  sun  or  central  body  will  cause  it  to  describe  vu 
ellipse  of  which  we  are  speaking.   We  shall  in  future  mea* 
tion  this  bv  the  name  of  the  instantaneous  ellipee. 

(44.)  If  the  disturbing  force  ceases,  the  planet  eontino^ 
to  revolve  in  the  same  ellipse^  and  the  permanent  ell;^'*^ 
coincides  with  the  instantaneous  ellipse  corresponding  t' 
the  instant  when  the  disturbing  force  ceases. 

(45.)  If  the  disturbing  force  continues  to  act,  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  instantaneous  ellipse  are  continually  efasngir.^-: 
but  in  the  course  of  a  single  revolution,  (even  for  our  muc^r*.  • 
the  dimensions  alter  so  Tittle,  that  the  motion  in  the  u>- 
stantaneous  ellipse  corresponding  to  any  instant  during  \h^\ 
revolution  will  very  nearly  agree  «ith  the  real  moCion  duro)^ 
that  revolution. 

We  shall  now  consider  the  effects  of  particular  Ibrces  \n 
altering  the  elementSi 

(46.)   (I.)  Suppose  that  the  disturbing  force  is  alwns 
directed  to  the  central  body.    The  effect  of  this  would  li- 
nearly the  same  as  if  the  attraction,  or  the  mass  of  ti« 
central  body,  was  increased.    The  result  of  this  oo  thr 
dimensions  of  the  orbit  wiU  be  different  according  tu  tic 
part  of  the  orbit  where  it  begins  to  act  and  mu}  far 
gathered  from  the  cases  to  be  mentioned  separatel}  hen.- 
after,  (we  do  not  insist  on  it  at  present,  as  thei«  is  r.. 
instance  in  the  planetary  system  of  such  sodden  uam- 
mencement  of  force).    But  at  aU  events  the  reU*   n 
between  the  mean  distance  and  the  periodic  time  will  :   . 
be  the  same  as  before ;  the  time  will  be  less  for  the  ^ar:.- 
mean  distance,  or  the  mean  distance  greater  for  t* 
same  periodic  time,  than  if  the  disturbing  force  dul  r 
act  (38.)    If  the  disturbing  force  is  alwaj-s  directed  ::  •• 
the  central  body,  the  effect  will  be  exactly  oppcisitc.    1 ' 
the   disturbing  force  does  not  alter,  except  \\i\U  t'.^ 
planet's  distance,  the  planet  will  at  every  successi\t<  v~ 
volution  describe  an  orbit  of  the  same  siie.     Fbr«  as  « 
have  stated  (29.),  the  radius  vector  will  in  equal  uu  j* 
pass  over  equal  areas;  and  mathematicians  have  }irT-.-i 
that  if  the  variation  of  force  depends  only  on  tut*  <i  ■ 
tance.  the  velocity  of  the  planet  will  depend  only  oa 
the  distance;  and  the  oonsidetalioQ  imok  delenuiu» 


G  R  A 


376 


G  R  A 


disturbing  force  directed  to  the  central  body  before  and 
after  passing  the  perihelion,  is  to  make  the  line  of  apses 
progress.* 

(51.)  In  the  same  manner  it  will  be  seen,  that  the  effect 
of  a  disturbing  force,  directed  from  the  central  body  before 
and  after  passing  the  perihelion,  is  to  make  the  line  of  apses 
regress. 

(52.)  The  motion  of  the  planet^  subject  to  such  forces  as 
we  have  mentioned,  would  be  nearly  the  same  as  if  it  was 
revolving  in  an  elliptic  orbit,  and  this  elliptic  orbit  was  at 
the  same  time  revolving  round  its  focus,  turning  in  the 
same  direction  as  that  in  which  the  planet  goes  round,  and 
always  carrying  it  on  its  circumference.  And  this  is  the 
easiest  way  of  representing  to  the  mind  the  general  effect 
of  this  motion ;  the  physical  cause  is  to  be  sought  in  such 
explanations  as  that  above. 

<53.)   (VI.)   Suppose  a  disturbing  force  directed  to  the 
centre,  to  act  upon  the  planet  when  it  is  near  aphelion. 
As  the  planet  is  going  towards  aphelion  it  is  receding 
from  the  sun.    The  effect  of  the  disturbing  force  is  to 
diminish  the  rate  of  recess  from  the  sun ;  and,  therefore, 
to  increase  the  inclination  of  the  planet*s  path  to  the 
radius  vector.     The  aphelion  is  the  place  where  the 
planet's  path  is  perpendicular  to  the  raalus  vector.    The 
effect  of  the  disturbing  force,  then,  which  increases  the 
inclination  of  the  planet's  path  to  the  radius  vector,  will 
be  to  make  that  path  perpendicular  to  the  radius  vector 
sooner  than  if  the  disturbing  force  had  not  acted.    That 
is,  the  planet  will  be  at  aphelion  sooner  than  it  would 
have  been    if  no  disturbing  force    had    acted.     The 
aphelion  has,  as  it  were,  gone  backwards  to  meet  the 
planet.    If  the  disturbing  force  should  entirely  cease, 
the  planet  will  move  in  an  elliptic  orbit,  of  which  this 
new  aphelion  would  be  the  permanent  aphelion.    The 
line  passing  through  the  aphelion  has,  therefore,  twisted 
in  a  direction  opposite  to  tne  planet's  motion,  or  the  line 
of  apses  has  regressed,    Afler  passing  aphelion,  if  the 
disturbing  force  still  continues  to  act,  the  planet's  ap- 
proach to  the  sun  will  be  quickened  by  the  disturbing 
force,  and,  therefore,  after  some  time,  the  planet'3  rate 
of  approach  will  be  gi-eaier  than  that  corresponding,  in 
an  undisturbed  orbit,  to  its  actual  distance  from  aphe- 
lion, and  will  be  equal  to  that  corresponding  in  an 
undistiurbed  orbit  to  a  greater  distance  from  aphelion. 
If,  now,  the  disturbing  force  ceases,  the  planet,  moving 
as  if  it  came  in  an  undisturbed  orbit  from  an  imaginary 
aphelion,  will  continue  to  move  as  if  it  came  from  that 
imaginary  aphelion ;  and  that  imaerinary  aphelion  having 
been  at  a  greater  distance  behind  the  planet  than  the 
real  aphelion,  its  place  will  be  represented  by  saying  that 
the  line  of  apses  has  still  regressed.    The  effect,  then,  of 
a  disturbing  force  directed  to  the  central  body,  before  and 
after  passing  aphelion,  is  to  make  the  line  of  apses  regress. 

(54.)  In  the  same  manner  it  will  be  seen,  that  the  effect 
of  a  disturbing  force,  directed  from  the  central  body,  before 
and  after  passing  the  aphelion,  is  to  make  the  line  of  apses 
progress. 

(55.)  (VII.)  Since  a  disturbing  force,  directed  to  the  central 
body,  or  one  directed  from  the  central  body,  produces 
opposite  effects  with  regard  to  the  motion  of  the  line  of 
apses,  according  as  it  acts  near  perihelion  or  near  aphe- 
lion, it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  tnere  must  be  some  place 
between  perihelion  and  aphelion,  where  the  disturbing 
force,  directed  to  the  central  body,  will  produce  no  effect 
on  the  position  of  the  line  of  apses.  It  is  found  by  ac- 
curate investigation,  that  this  point  is  the  place  where 
the  radius  vector  is  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  apse8.t 

*  Thia  mult,  and  thow  which  follow  immediotelr,  may  be  inferred  ftom  the 
oon^truetion  In  Newton'*  *  Piincipia.'  bode  i.,  lect.  3.  prop.  xtU.    If  we  aseame 
(us  we  euppwe  in  all  theie  InveatiKations)  the  exeentndty  to  be  imall.  the 
Ing^foroe  directed  to  the  sun  will  not  Mnsiblv  alter  the  planet's  Telodty, 


disturbing  force  directed  to  the  sun  will  not  Mnsibly  alter  the  planet's  Telodty, 
but  will  chanse  the  direction  of  its  path  at  P,  the  pkce  of  action,  (in  Newton^s 
fliPire);  Uie  length  of  PU.  therefore.  wfU  not  be  altered,  (since  thai  length 
^ A.  ^»i V.  __i__.^  X  ^...  ...  .,.  ^  tiered,  the  position  of 

eqoBl  to  the  supplenient  of 

^  .  ...    .      — ..         -  positions ef  P,  aiulobserTing 

thai  the  immedUte  effect  of  a  disturbing  force  directed  to  the  centre  is  to 
hicrea&e  the  rate  of  approach,  or  to  diminUh  the  rate  of  reosding.  and  that  the 
effect  of  a  force  directed  ftom  the  centre  is  the  opiiosito.  alltte  oaeei  in  the 
text  wiU  be  Mlv  explained. 

t  To  Uie  reacCer  who  Is  fkraOiar  with  Newton*s  '  Prindpia/  sect  8,  the  fol- 
lowing demonst.-aUon  wUl  be  sufflcient:— The  disturbing  ferce«  which  b  en- 
tirt'ly  iu  the  direction  of  the  radios  vector,  wlU  not  alter  the  area  dojcrlbed  In  a 
inron  time,  and,  therefore,  will  not  alter  the  lahu  netum  (to  the  square  root  of 
fch  Ute  area  is  propoitiooal).    But  half  the  iotas  reetesi  of  the  undisturbed 
I  b  the  radius  Teotor  at  the  supposed  place  of  action  of  the  disturbing  force 
» that  tediuB  Teeloc  b  supposed  perpenuieuLir  to  the  WMjot  azb).    There*  I 
bair  the  Imu  reetmi  of  the  new  orbU  is  tke  ifdiw  ypttag  it  \h9  peint  in  1 


(56.)  (VIII.)  The  effects  mentioned  abore  an  nettctt  when 
the  excentricity  is  small.  Let  us  compare  the  tvo  orK,*i 
A  C  B  in  /^.  8  and  A  C  B  in  y^p.  9,  m  one  of  ihich  lU 
excentricity  is  great  and  in  the  other  small;  supu^ 
the  disturbing  force  to  act  for  a  short  time  at  the  perils. 

c 


F»tf.  8. 


Fig.O, 


•  'A 


lion  C,  and  to  be  nearly  equal  in  the  two  orbits. »  v ' 

deflect  the  new  path  C  d  from  the  old  orbit  C  B  bv  r;  - 

angles  in  the  two  cases :  with  centre  S  describe  the  nr-i 

Cde.    Then  it  is  evident  that  the  very  exeentric  uriii 

C  B,  in  Jig.  8,  is  widely  separated  from  the  circle  C(/f,«3^. 

therefore,  when  it  is  bent  through  a  given  sagle  to  tie 

position  C  d;  it  will  intersect  the  circle  at  a  point  d  r«( 

distant  from  C.    In  Jig,  9,  on  the  contrary,  the  orlNt  I H 

is  not  widely  senarated  from  the  circle,  and  tbmf  rr 

when  it  is  bent  through  a  given  angle,  its  interwcl:":  t 

will  be  distant  from  C.    Now  the  new  perihelion '-Vw 

be  found,  in  both  cases,  by  bisecting  Cd;  uA  xhmkTv 

its  change  of  position  in  Jig,  8,  where  the  ofbit  i»ier 

exeentric,  is  much  less  than  in  Jig.  9,  where  tbe  tirti- 

tr icity  is  small.    Or  we  may  state  it  thus :— The  site nu  « 

of  the  place  of  perihelion,  or  aphelion,  depends  od  tbe  pn- 

portion  which  the  alteration  in  the  approach  or  reccu  yty 

duced  by  the  disturbing  force  bears  to  the  whole  mrv: 

or  recess;  and  is,  therefore,  greatest  when  the  whole  tf* 

preach  or  recess  is  least;  that  is,  when  the  orbit  is  l;"-- 

exeentric. 

(57.)  (IX.)  To  judge  of  the  effect  which  a  distaibin^;  f  r. 

directed  to  the  sun,  will  produce  on  the  excentncit)  of  • 

planet's  orbit,  let  us  suppose  the  planet  to  have  Ici;  ^ 

perihelion,  and  to  be  moving  towards  aphelion,  and,  '^c- 

sequently,  to  be  receding  from  the  sun.  and  nov  Ic: :.' 

disturbing  force  act  for  a  short  time.    This  will  caun ; 

to  recede  from  the  sun  more  slowly  than  it  would  \n  * 

receded  without  the  action  of  the  disturbing  force;  vA 

consequently,  the  planet,  without  any  material  a]t«n:t  ^ 

in  its  velocity, — and,   therefore,  without  any  maien:' 

alteration  in  the  major  axis  of  its  orbit  (2d.),-*vill  hem  ^ 

ing  in  a  path  more  inclined  to  the  radius  vector  tbao  ' 

the  disturbing  force  had  not  acted.     The  planet  tsi} 

therefore  be  considered  as  projected  from  the  p<^nt  A. 

Jig.  10,  in  the  direction  A  b  instead  of  A  B.  in  «hi'b  ( 

was  moving;   and  therefore  instead  of  describin;;  ''" 

c 

Fig.  10. 


orbit  A  C  6,  in  which  it  was  movin^^  before,  it  vil'-" 

scribe  an  orbit  A  eg,  more  resemblmg  a  ciivle,  (1  >  '^ 

question ;  and,  conitequently.  the  radius  reeUn,  at  the  pelni  la  oor^  >' .' * 
pendieniar  to  the  mi^  axis  In  Um  new  orbit:  but  H  was  m  ta  U|r  u^'*'' ?; 
dibit;  aadfthereforc  the  n^jor  ajwt  in  the  new  eibit  and  1i»  w^^^-^ ''^ 


xcentric  than  before.  The  effect  thetefure  of  a  dis- 
iirbiiig  force  directed  to  the  centre,  whik  a  planet  U 
joving  from  periheliyn  to  ephelion,  is  to  diminish  the 
\.ci'turicity  of  the  orbit. 

iS.)  If  we  suppose  the  plonat  to  be  moving  from  aphelion 
H.-rihchon,  it  i»  appronching  to  the  Bun ;  the  disturbing 
■e  directed  to  the  sun  makes  it  approach  more  rapidly ; 
pnth  is  therefore  less  inrlincd  to  the  radius  veclor  than 
.uuld  have  been  without  the  disturbing  force;  and  this 
i-t  may  l^e  represented  by  supposing  [Jmt  at  E,  /g.  1 1, 
oad  of  gloving  in  the  direction  E  T  in  which  It  was 
>  ing,  the  planet  is  projected  in  the  direction  E/    1n- 


i.ail  thereRtre  of  describing'the  ellipse  E  G  H,  in  which  it 

.i~  mc'vlng  ttefore,  it  will  describe  such  an  cUipiie  as  E  ^  A, 

iiidi  is  more  excenlric  than  the  former.  The  effect  there- 
re  uf  a  disturbing  force  directed  to  the  centre,  while  a. 
iia't  is  moving  from  aphelion  to  perihelion,  is  to  increase 

le  c\<(;nlricily  of  the  orbiL 
(ju.)  In  a  similar  manner  it  will  appear,  that  the  effect 

"  a  ilislurbinj;  force,  directed  from  the  centre,  is  to  increase 

.1'  >:\cc'ntricily  as  the  planet  is  moving  from  perihelion  to 

ilii'iiun,  and  to  diminish  it  as  the  planet  moves  from 
lu'liim  to  perihelion. 

i>.)  (X.)  Let  UB  now  lay  aside  the  consideration  of  a  force 
uiiinj;  In  the  direction  of  the  radius  veclor,  and  consider 
ll.c  eti'ect  of  a  force  acting  perpendicularly  to  the  radius 
lector,  in  the  direction  in  which  the  planet  is  moving. 
And  Qrst,  its  ofT^t  on  Ilie  position  of  Iho  line  of  apsoi. 
'^1.)  If  such  a  force  act  at  one  of  the  apses,  either  pcri- 
lii.n  or  aphelion,  for  a  short  time,  it  is  clear  that  its  ell'cct 
II  1)0  represented  by  supposing  that  the  velocity  at  thul 

r-c  is  suddenly  increaaea,  or  that  the  velocity  with  which 
<'  pl.inei  is  projected  from  ncrihelion  is  greater  than  the 
'■"■iiy  with  which  it  would  have  been  projecled  if  no 
■InrlJing  fiirce  had  acted.     This  will  make  no  diifcrcni-c 

.  iliu  posilionof  Ihe  lino  of  apsca;  for  with  wha!evir 
I'n-itj  the  planet  is  projected,  if  it  is  projected  in  a  direc- 

■  n  perpendicular  to  the  radius  vector,  (which  is  Implied 
iiiir  auppositlon,  that  Ihe  place  where  the  fiircc  acts  was 

I  :i\i<e  in  the  old  orbit,)  the  place  of  pn>jectlon  will  infalli- 
i  ))L-  an  apse  in  the  new  orbii ;  and  the  line  of  upses.  winch 
lilt'  line  drawn  fh>m  that  point  through  the  sun,  will  he 

,■   -iniy  as  before. 

i'.J.J  But  if  the  force  act  for  a  short  lime  before  the 
irii'l  reaches  the  perihelion,  its  principal'  effect  will  be 
jncmisc  its  velocity  ;   the  sun's  attraction  will  therefore 

■■.  •.■  less  power  to  curve  its  path  (2S.) ;  the  new  orbit  will 
.  in  that  part,  exterior  to  the  old  one.     In  yjg-,  12,  we 

Fig.  12. 


iii-t  therefore  suppose  that  the  planet,  after  leaving  A, 
...re  tlie  force  has  acted  lo  accelerate  its  motion,  insleail 
ili.-j  rilling  the  orbit  A  C  G,  proceeds  to  describe  the 
111  Ac  d,  which  at  A  has  the  same  direction  {or  has  tlie 
,iiii>  tangent  A  B)  as  Iho  orbit  A  C  G.  It  is  plain  now 
1  it  r  IS  the  part  nearest  lo  the  sun,  or  <■  is  tlie  perihelion; 
.'I  It  is  evident  hero,  that  Ihe  line  of  apses  has  altered  its 


position   from  S  C  to  S  < 
opposite  lo  the  angular  e 


n  of  the  plan 


a  direction 


'''p!'a!,'''Na 


70S. 


(63.)  If  the  force  act  for  a  short  time  after  the  planet 
has  passed  perihelion,  as  at  D,  in /^.  13,  the  planets 
velocity  is  increased  there,  and  the  path  dcMribed  by  the 
planet  is  D/  instead  of  D  F,  having  the  same  direction  at 

Fig.  13. 


D,  (or  having  the  some  tangent  D  E,)  but  less  curved,  and 
therefore  e.Merior  to  D  F.  If  now  we  conceive  the  planet 
to  have  received  tiie  actual  velocity  with  which  it  is  movine 
in  D/  from  movin({,williout  disturbance  in  an  elliptic  orbit 
e  D/  (which  is  the  orbit  that  it  will  now  proceed  to  de- 
scribe, if  no  dislurliing  force  continues  to  act,)  it  is  evident 
that  the  part  c  D  must  be  described  with  a  ercater  velocity 
tlian  C  D,  inasmuch  as  the  velocity  at  D  fiom  moving  in 
c  D  is  greater  than  the  velocity  frimi  moving  in  C  D  ;  e  D  is 
therefore  less  curved  than  C  D,  and  ihcri'Uirc  exterior  to  it, 
(finee  it  has  the  same  direction  at  D) ;  and  then  the  peri- 
'"■'■■"■  '-— ~-  point  in  the  position  of  c,  and  ihe  " 


\  S  C  to  S 

1  which  the  planet  is 


apses   has  changed  ii 
twi.-itcd  round  in  the  same  u 
moving,  or  has  progresped. 

(64.)  If  the  force  act  for  a  short  lime  before  passing  Ihe 
aphelion,  it  will  be  seen  in  the  same  manner  that  the  line  of 
apses  is  mode  to  progress.  It  is  only  necessary  to  consider 
that  (as  before)  l!ie  new  orbit  has  the  same  direction  at  the 
point  H,  fg.  U,  where  the  foice  has  acted,  as  Iho  old  one. 


Fig.  \4. 


but  is  less  curved,  and  therefore  exterior  to  it;  and  tho 
aphelion,  or  point  most  distant  from  the  sun,  is^  instead  of 
G,  and  the  position  of  llio  line  of  apses  has  shiOed  from 
S  G  to  S  ^.  If  the  forcJj  act  after  the  planet  has  passed  the 
aphelion,  as  ot  K,  fig.  15,  the  orbit  in  which  we  must  con- 
ceive iho  planet  lo  hav  e  come,  in  order  lo  liave  the  increased 


Fig. -I 


velocity,  must  be  g  K  exterior  to  G  K ;  the  point  most  dis- 
tant trota  the  sun  must  be  g  instead  of  G,  and  tlie  line  of 
apaes  must  have  changed  from  S  G  to  S  ^,  or  must  have 
regressed. 

(G5,)  Collecting  these  conclusions*,  we  sec  that,  if  a  '" 
turbin^  force  act  perpendicularly  Ii 
the  direction  in  which  the  planet  Is  m 
the  planet  passes  from  perihelion  I 
line  of  opsca  lo  progress ;  and  its  acl 
passes  from  aphelion  to  perihelion,  i 
gress, 

(66.)  By  similar  reasoning,  if  the  direction  of  the  dis- 
turbing force  is  opposite  to  that  in  which  tho  planet  is 
moving,  its  action,  while  the  planet  passes  from  perihelion 
lo  aphelion,  causes  the  line  of  apses  to  regress,  and  while 


lovhiff,  its  action,  while 
lo  aphelinn,  causes  tho 
while  the  planet 
:i  the  apses  to  re- 


G  R  A 


378 


6  R  A 


the  planet  passes  from  aphelion  to  perihelion  causes  the 
apses  to  progress. 

(67.)  (XL)  For  the  effect  on  the  excentricity :  suppose  the 
disturhing  force,  increasing  the  velocity,  to  act  for  a  short 
time  at  perihelion ;  the  effect  is  the  same  as  if  the  planet 
were  projected  from  perihelion  with  a  greater  velocity 
than  that  which  would  cause  it  to  descrihe  the  old  orhit 
The  sun's  attraction  therefore  will  not  he  able  to  pull  it 
in  into  so  small  a  compass  as  before ;  and  at  the  opposite 
part  of  its  orbit,  that  is,  at  aphelion,  it  will  go  off  to  a 
greater  distance  than  before ;  but  as  it  is  moving  without 
disturbance,  and,  therefore,  in  an  ellipse,  it  will  return  to 
the  same  perihelion.  The  perilielion  distance  therefore 
remaining  the  same,  and  the  anhelion  distance  being  in- 
creased, the  inequality  of  these  distances  is  increased,  and 
the  orbit  therefore  is  made  more  excentric.  Now,  sup- 
pose the  force  increasing  the  velocity  to  act  at  aphelion. 
Just  as  before,  the  sun's  attraction  will  be  unable  to 
make  the  planet  describe  an  orbit  so  small  as  its  old  orbit, 
and  the  distance  at  the  opposite  point  (that  is,  at  perihe- 
lion) will  be  increased;  but  the  planet  will  return  to  the 
same  aphelion  distance  as  before.  Here,  then,  the  in- 
equality of  distances  is  diminished,  and  the  excentricity 
is  diminished. 

(68.)  Thus  we  see  that  a  disturhing  force,  acting  perpen- 
dicularly to  the  radius  vector,  in  the  direction  of  the  planet's 
motion,  increases  the  excentricity  if  it  acts  on  the  planet 
near  perihelion,  and  diminishes  the  excentricity  if  it  acts  on 
the  planet  near  aphelion.  And,  similarly,  if  the  force  acts 
in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  planet's  motion,  it 
diminishes  the  excentricity  by  acting  near  perihelion,  and 
increases  it  by  acting  near  aphelion. 

(69.)  (XII.)  In  all  these  investigations,  it  is  supposed  that 
the  disturbing  force  acts  for  a  very  short  time,  and  then 
ceases.  In  future,  we  shall  have  to  consider  the  effect  of 
forces,  which  act  for  a  long  time,  changing  in  intensity, 
hut  not  ceasing.  To  estimate  their  effect  we  must  sup- 
pose the  long  time  divided  into  a  great  number  of  short 
times ;  we  must  then  infer,  from  the  preceding  theorems, 
how  the  elements  of  the  instantaneoui  ellipse  (43.)  are 
changed  in  each  of  these  short  times  by  the  action  of  the 
force,  which  is  then  disturbing  the  motion ;  and  we  must 
then  recollect,  that  the  instantaneous  ellipse,  at  the  end 

*  of  the  long  time  under  consideration,  will  be  the  same  as 
the  permanent  ellipse  in  which  the  planet  will  move,  if 
the  disturbing  force  then  ceases  to  act  (43.),  and  that  it 
will,  at  all  events,  differ  very  little  from  the  curve  de- 
scribed in  the  next  revolution  of  the  planet,  even  if  the 
disturbing  force  continue  to  act  (41.) 

81CTION  IV, -^On  the  Nature  qf  the  Force  disturbing  a 
Planet  or  Satellite,  produced  by  the  Attraction  of  other 
Bodies, 

(70.)  Having  examined  the  effects  of  disturhing  forces 
upon  the  elements  of  a  planet's  or  satellite's  orbit,  we  have 
now  to  inquire  into  the  kind  of  the  disturbing  force  which 
the  attraction  of  another  body  produces.  The  inquiry  is 
much  simpler  than  might  at  first  sight  be  expected ;  and 
this  simplicity  arises,  in  part,  from  the  circumstance  that 
(as  we  have  mentioned  in  (6.)  )  the  attraction  of  a  planet 
upon  the  sun  is  the  same  as  its  attraction  upon  another 
planet,  when  the  sun  and  the  attracted  planet  are  equally 
distant  from  the  attracting  planet 

'  (71.)  First,  then,  we  have  to  remark,  that  the  disturbing 
force  is  not  the  whole  attraction.  The  sun,  for  instance, 
attracts  the  moon,  and  disturbs  its  elliptic  motion  round 
the  earth ;  yet  the  fwce  which  disturbs  the  moon's  motion 
is  not  the  whole  attraction  of  the  sun  upon  the  moon.  For 
the  effect  of  the  attraction  is  to  move  the  moon  from  the 
place  where  it  would  otherwise  have  been ;  hut  the  sun's 
attraction  upon  the  earth  also  moves  the  earth  from  the 
place  where  it  would  otherwise  have  been ;  and  if  the  al- 
teration of  the  earth's  place  is  exoctly  the  same  as  the  altera- 
tion of  the  moon's  place,  the  relative  situation  of  the  earth 
and  moon  will  be  the  same  as  before.  Thus,  if,  in  fig,  16, 
any  attraction  carries  the  earth  from  E  to  e,  and  carries  l^e 
moon  from  M  to  m,  and  if  £  e  is  equal  and  parallel  to  M  m, 
then  e  m,  which  is  the  distance  of  the  earth  and  moon,  on 
the  supposition  that  the  attraction  acts  on  both,  is  equal  to 
K  M,  which  is  their  distance,  on  the  supposition  that  the 
attraction  acts  on  neither:  and  the  line  e  m,  which  rcpre- 

'^ta  the  diroction  in  whi<»i  tiie  moon  it  seen  from  the  earth, 


J^.  16. 


if  the  attraction  acts  on  hoth,  is  parallel  to  BM,  whirh  r^ 
presents  the  direction  in  which  the  moon  is  seen  fh>ni  tl 
earth,  if  the  attraction  acts  on  neither.  The  distanee  tbiYx* 
fore  of  the  earth  and  moon,  and  the  direction  in  which  the 
moon  is  seen  from  the  earth,  being  unaltered  by  tur  h  i 
force,  their  relative  situation  is  unaltered.  An  attrartvwi, 
therefore,  which  acts  ecjually,  and  in  the  same  directioD.  ^ri 
both  bodies,  does  not  disturb  their  relative  motions. 

From  this  we  draw  the  two  following  important  concus- 
sions : — 

(72.)  Firstly.  A  planet  may  revolve  round  the  sun,  carr>  • 
ing  with  it  a  satellite ;  and  the  satellite  may  revolve  rourv! 
the  planet  in  nearly  the  same  manner  as  if  the  piano: 
was  at  rest  For  the  attraction  of  the  sun  on  the  plane-;  .« 
nearly  the  same  as  the  attraction  of  the  sun  on  tne  satrl 
lite.  It  is  true  that  they  are  not  exactly  the  same,  anr! 
the  effects  of  the  difference  will  soon  form  an  importart 
subject  of  inquiry;  but  they  are,  upon  the  whole,  \<-r% 
nearly  the  same.  The  moon  is  sometimes  nearer  t4>  rK: 
sun  than  the  earth  is,  and  sometimes  fkrther  from  f  bt* 
sun ;  and,  therefore,  the  sun's  attraction  on  the  moon  i« 
sometimes  greater  than  its  attraction  on  the  earth,  ami 
sometimes  less ;  but  upon  the  whole,  the  inequality  cf 
attractions  is  very  small.  It  is  owing  to  this  that  we  m  i j 
consider  a  satellite  as  revolving  round  a  planet  in  xm 
nearly  the  same  manner  (in  respect  of  relattre  motion  \  as 
if  there  existed  no  such  body  as  the  son. 

(73.)  Secondly.  The  force  which  disturbs  the  molioQ  of  \ 
satellite,  or  a  planet,  is  the  difference  of  the  forees  f  mi-i- 
sured,  as  in  (4.),  by  the  spaces  through  which  tbe  fov^ 
draw  the  bodies  respectively)  which  act  on  the  cent r  a. 
and  the  revolving  body.  Thus,  if  the  moon  is  hetwecn  tV: 
sun  and  the  earUi,  and  if  the  sun's  attraction  in  a  oerta* 
time  draws  the  earth  200  inches,  and  in  the  sanae  tic* 
draws  the  moon  201  inches,  then  the  real  disturhing  fv/rr. 
is  the  force  which  would  produce  in  the  moon  a  mcf:i<  » 
of  one  inch  from  the  earth. 

(74.)  In  illustrating  the  second  remark,  we  have  ta):--. 
the  simplest  case  that  can  well  be  imagined.    IC  hovet  rr. 
the  moon  is  in  any  other  situation  with  respect  to  the  earth. 
some  complication  is  introduced.    Not  only  is  the  moi»:/» 
distance  from  the  sun  different  from  the  earth'a  distas  • 
(which  according  to  (9.)  produces  an  inequality  in  the  ai- 
tractions  upon  the  earth  and  moon,)  but  also  the  directioa 
in  which  the  attraction  acts  on  the  earth  ia  different  froc 
the  direction  in  which  it  acts  on  the  moon,  (inasmuch  &« 
the  attraction  always  acts  in  the  direction  of  the  line  dravi 
from  the  attracted  body  to  the  attracting  hody ;  and  tht 
lines  so  drawn  from  the  earth  and  moon  to  the  sua  wte  \z 
different  directions).    The  same  applies  in  every  raq>cct  t  • 
the  perturbation  which  one  planet  produces  in  the  motion 
of  a  second  planet  round  the  sun,  and  which  depends  uji- 
the  difference  in  the  first  planet's  attractions  upon  tbe  ^. 
and  upon  the  second  planet    To  overcome  this  diffictiltf 
we  must  have  recourse  to  geometrical  consideratioas.     ].■ 
flg,  1 7,  let  B,  be  a  body  revolving  about  A,  and  let  C  V 

Fig,\7' 


another  bodv  whose  attraction  disturbs  the  motion  uf  F» 
round  A.    The  attraction  of  C  will  in  a  certain  time  dra« 
A  to  a ;  it  will  in  the  same  time  dmw  B|  to  ^,.   Make  B.  . 
equal  and  parallel  to  Aa ;  then  a  d^  will  be  equal  and  p^ 
rallel  to  A  Bj.    Now  if  the  force  upon  B|  were  such  a»  * 
draw  it  to  (/„  the  motion  of  Bi  round  A  would  not  be  i^*  - 
tiirbed  by  that  force.     But  the  fbroe  upon  B,  11  realh  «t.  -i. 
as  to  draw  it  to  6|.    The  real  disturbing  force  then  ma\  K 
represented  as  a  force  which  draws  the  revoMn^  bod%  Auoi 


G  R  A 


380 


G  R  A 


disturbing  force,  or  the  difference  between  these,  will  be 
j]^,  or  nearly  i^tb  part  of  the  former  attraction  of  the 
earth.  Thus,  on  doubling  the  8un'«  distance,  the  dis- 
turbing force  is  diminished  to  i  part  of  iU  former  value ; 
and  a  similar  proposition  would  be  found  to  be  true  if  the 
sun's  distance  were  altered  in  any  other  proportion. 
(84.)  VIL  Suppose  B  to  have  moved  from  that  part  of  its 
orbit  where  its  distance  from  C  is  equal  to  A's  distance 
from  C,  towards  the  part  where  it  is  between  A  and  C. 
Since  at  the  point  where  B*s  distance  from  C  is  equal  to 
A's  distance  n*om  C,  the  disturbing  force  is  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  radius  vector,  and  directed  towards  A,  and 
since  at  the  point  where  B  is  between  A  and  C,  the  dis- 
turbing force  is  in  the  direction  of  the  radius  vector,  but 
directed  firom  A,  it  is  plain  that  there  is  some  situation 
of  B,  between  these  two  points,  in  which  there  is  no  dis- 
turbing force  at  all  in  the  direction  of  the  radius  vector. 
On  this  we  shall  not  at  present  speak  further :  but  we 
shall  remark  that  there  is  a  disturbing  force  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  radius  vector,  at  every  such  intermediate  point. 
This  will  be  easily  seen  from  the  second  case  of  fig,  17. 
On  going  through  the  reasoning  in  that  place  it  will 
appear  that,  between  the  two  points  that  we  have  men- 
tioned, there  is  always  a  disturbing  force  d,ea  perpendi- 
cular to  the  radius  vector,  and  in  the  same  direction  in 
which  the  body  is  going.  If  now  we  construct  a  similar 
figure  for  the  situation  B,.  fig,  22,  in  which  B  is  moving 

C  a  A 


Fig.  22. 


.-••• 


Fig.  23. 


Bi 


\ 


x"^  "i 


from  the  point  between  C  and  A  to  the  other  point  whose 
distance  from  0  is  equal  to  A's  distance  from  C,  we  shall 
find  that  there  is  a  disturbing  force  rf,  e^  perpendicular 
to  the  radius  vector,  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  in  { 
which  B  is  going.  If  we  construct  a  figure  for  the  situa- 
tion B4,  in  which  B  is  moving  from  the  point  of  equal 
distances  to  the  point  where  B  is  on  the  side  of  A  oppo- 
site to  G,  we  shall  see  that  there  is  a  disturbing  force 
perpendicular  to  the  radius  vector,  in  the  same  direction 
in  which  B  is  going^  and  in  the  same  manner,  for  the 
situation  Bi  in  fig.  17,'where  B  is  moving  from  the  point  on 
the  side  of  A  opposite  C  to  the  next  point  of  equal  dis- 
tances, there  is  a  disturbing  force  perpendicular  to  the 
radius  vector,  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  in  which 
B  is  going. 

(85.)  The  results  of  all  these  cases  may  be  collected  thus. 
The  disturbing  body  being  exterior  to  the  orbit  of  the  re- 
volving body,  there  is  a  disturbing  force  in  the  direction  of 
the  radius  vector  only,  directed  from  the  central  body,  at 
the  points  where  the  revolving  body  is  on  the  same  side  of 
the  central  body  as  the  disturbing  body,  or  on  the  opposite 
side,  (the  force  in  the  former  case  being  the  greater,)  and 
directed  to  the  central  body,  at  each  of  the  places  where 
the  distance  from  the  disturbing  body  is  equal  to  the  dis- 
tance of  the  central  body  from  the  disturbing  body.  The 
force  directed  to  the  central  body  at  the  latter  points,  is 
however  much  less  than  the  force  directed  from  it  at  the 
former.  Between  the  adjacent  pairs  of  these  four  points  ■ 
there  are  four  other  points,  at  which  the  disturbing  force 
in  the  direction  of  the  radius  vector  is  nothing.  But  while 
the  revolving  body  is  moving  from  one  of  the  points,  where 
it  is  on  the  same  side  of  the  central  body  as  the  disturbing 
body,  or  on  the  opposite  side,  to  one  of  the  equidistant 
points,  there  is  always  a  disturbing  force  perpendicular  to 
the  radius  vector  tending  to  retard  it ;  and  while  it  is  moving 
from  one  of  the  equidistant  points  to  one  of  the  points  on 
the  same  side  of  the  central  body  as  the  disturbing  body,  or 
the  opposite,  there  is  a  disturbing  force  perpendicular  to  the 
radius  vector  tending  to  accelerate  it. 

(86.)  VIIL  Now,  let  the  disturbing  body  be  supposed  in- 
terior to  the  orbit  of  the  revolving  body,  (as,  for  instance, 
when  Venus  disturbs  the  motion  of  the  earth).  If  B  is 
in  the  situation  'Buflg.  23,  the  attraction  of  C  draws  A 
strongly  towards  Bi,  and  Bi  strongly  towards  A,  and,  there- 
fore, there  is  a  very  powerful  disturbing  force  drawing 
R.  tn^ards  A.  If  B  is  in  the  situation  Bj,  the  attraction 
Iraws  A  strongly  from  B3,  and  draws  Bj  feebly 


towards  A ;  therefore,  there  is  a  small  disturbing  forc« 
drawing  Bj  from  A.  At  some  intermediate  points  tbc 
disturbing  force  in  the  direction  of  the  radius  vector  t« 
nothing.  With  regard  to  the  disturbing  force  perpendi- 
cular to  the  radius  vector:  if  A  C  is  greater  than  ^  A  B,. 
it  will  be  possible  to  find  two  points,  B,  and  B«.  who*o 
distance  from  C  is  equal  to  the  distance  of  A  from  C.  and 
there  the  disturbing  force  perpendicular  to  the  radtu^ 
vector  is  nothing  (or  the  whole  disturbing  force  is  in  tlac 
direction  of  the  radius  vector).  While  B  moves  from  tl»c 
position  Bi  to  B„  it  will  be  seen  by  such  reasoning  as  tliat 
of  (75.)  and  (84.),  that  the  disturbing  force,  perpendicular 
to  the  radius  vector,  retards  B's  motion ;  while  B  mores 
from  B,  to  B,,  it  accelerates  B*s  motion ;  whQe  B  mu\  c« 
from  Bt  to  B4  it  retards  B's  motion ;  and  while  B  movci 
fi  om  B4  to  Bp  it  accelerates  B's  motion.  But  if  A  C  n 
less  than  ^  A  Bp  there  are  no  such  points,  B,  B«.  as  «^- 
have  spoken  of;  and  the  disturbing  force,  perpendicular 
to  the  radius  vector,  accelerates  B  as  it  moves  from  B,  bj 
B3,  and  retards  B  as  it  moves  from  B^  to  B,. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  apply  these  genera]  principles  to 
particular  cases. 

Section  V.^-Lunar  Theory. 

(87.)  The  distinguishing  feature  in  the  Lunar  Theory  is 
the  general  simplicity  occasioned  by  the  great  distance  «Y 
the  disturbing  oody  (the  sun  alone  producing  any  sensible 
disturbance),  in  proportion  to  the  moon's  distance  from  the 
earth.  The  magnitude  of  the  disturbing  body  renders  (be»c 
disturbances  very  much  more  conspicuous  tnan  any  others 
in  the  solar  system ;  and,  on  this  account,  as  well  as  fl« 
the  accuracy  with  which  they  can  be  observed,  these  dis- 
turbances have,  since  the  invention  of  the  Theory  of  Grsvi- 
tation,  been  considered  the  best  tests  of  the  truth  of  the 
theory. 

Some  of  the  disturbances  are  independ^nt  of  the  exceA* 
tricity  of  the  moon*s  orbit ;  others  depend,  in  a  veiy  re- 
markable manner,  upon  the  excentricity.  We  shall  cvtst- 
mence  with  the  former. 

(88.)  The  general  nature  of  the  disturbing  force  on  the 
moon  may  be  thus  stated.  (See  (77.)  to  (86.).)  When  thv 
moon  is  either  at  the  point  between  the  earth  and  sun.  or 
at  that  opposite  to  the  sun  (both  which  points  are  caDt-d 
syzygies),  the  force  is  entirely  in  the  direction  of  the  radiuv 
vector,  and  directed  from  the  earth.  When  the  moon  i> 
(very  nearly)  in  the  situations  at  which  the  radius  vector  1% 
perpendicular  to  the  line  joining  the  earth  and  sun  (bo^h 
which  points  are  called  quadratures),  the  force  is  entirely 
in  the  direction  of  the  radius  vector,  and  directed  to  the 
earth.  At  certain  intermediate  points  there  is  no  disturb- 
ing force  in  the  direction  of  the  radius  vector.  Except  at 
syzygies  and  quadratures,  there  is  always  a  force  perpendi- 
cular to  the  radius  vector,  such  as  to  retard  the  moon  while 
she  goes  from  syzygy  to  quadrature,  and  to  accelerate  ber 
while  she  goes  from  quadrature  to  syzygy. 

(89.)  I.  As  the  disturbing  force,  in  the  direction  of  the 
radius  vector,  directed  from  the  earth,  is  greater  than 
that  directed  to  the  earth,  we  may  consider  that,  upon 
the  whole,  the  effect  of  the  disturbing  force  is  to  dimini»h 
the  earth's  attraction.  Tlius  the  moon's  mean  di&tancv 
from  the  earth  is  less  (see  (46.) )  than  it  jvould  have  beca 
with  the  same  periodic  time,  if  the  sun  liad  not  disturbr«l 
it  The  force  perpendicular  to  the  radius  vector  some- 
times accelerates  the  moon,  and  sometimes  retards  it,  aii>l, 
therefore,  produces  no  permanent  effect 

(90.)  II.  But  the  sun*s  distance  from  the  earth  is  subject 
to  alteration,  because  the  earth  revolves  in  an  elliptic 
orbit  round  the  sun.  Now,  we  have  seen  (83.)  that  the 
magnitude  of  the  disturbing  force  is  inversely  propurtioDal 
to  the  cube  of  the  sun's  distance ;  and,  consequently,  it  \% 
sensibly  greater  when  the  earth  is  at  periuelion  thtu 
when  at  aphelion.  Therefore,  while  the  earth  moves 
from  perihelion  to  aphelion,  the  disturbing  force  is  cux^ 


G  R  A 


382 


G  R  A 


position  of  the  lino  of  apses  that,  with  these  disturbing 
forces  only,  the  same  kind  of  orbit  may  always  be  described? 
A  very  little  consideration  of  (57.),  (58.),  and  (68.),  will 
show,  that  unless  the  line  of  apses  pass  through  the  sun, 
the  excentricity  will  either  be  increasing  or  diminishing 
from  the  action  of  these  forces.  We  must  assume  there- 
fore, as  our  orbit  is  to  have  the  same  excentricity  at  each 
revolution,  that  the  line  of  apses  passes  through  the  sun. 
But  is  the  perigee  or  the  apogpe  to  be  turned  towards  the 
8uu  ?  To  answer  this  question  we  have  only  to  observe,  that 
the  lines  of  apsea  must  progress  as  fast  as  the  sun  appears 
to  progress,  and  we  must  therefore  choose  that  position  in 
whidi  the  forces  will  cause  progression  of  the  line  of  apses. 
If  the  perigee  be  directed  to  the  sun,  then  the  forces  at  both 
parts  <rf  the  orbit  will,  by  (51.).  (54.),  (65.),  and  (66.),  cause 
the  line  of  apses  to  regress.  This  supposition,  then,  cannot 
be  admitted.  But  if  the  apogee  be  directed  to  the  sun,  the 
forces  at  both  parts  of  the  orbit  will  cause  it  to  progress ; 
and  by  (56.),  ir  a  proper  value  is  given  to  the  excentricity  it 
will  progress  exactly  as  fiwt  as  the  sun  appears  to  progress. 
The  effect,  then,  of  the  diflTerence  of  forces  of  which  we 
have  spoken,  is  to  elongate  the  orbit  towards  the  sun,  and 
to  compress  it  on  ^o  opposite  side.  This  irregularity  is 
called  the  parallactic  inequality. 

We  shall  shortly  show,  that  if  the  moon  revolved  in  such 
an  elliptic  orbit  as  we  have  mentioned,  the  effect  of  the 
other  disturbing  forces  (independent  of  that  discussed  here) 
would  be  to  make  its  line  of  apses  progress  with  a  consider- 
able velocity.  The  force  considered  here,  therefore,  will 
merely  have  to  cause  a  progression  which,  added  to  that 
just  mentioned,  will  equal  the  sun's  apparent  motion  round 
the  earth.  The  excentricity  of  the  ellipse,  in  which  it 
oould  produce  this  smaller  motion,  will  (56.)  be  greater 
than  that  of  the  ellipse  in  which  the  same  force  could  produce 
the  whole  motion.  Thus  the  ma^itude  of  the  parallactic 
inequality  is  considerably  increased  by  the  indirect  effect  of 
the  other  disturbing  forces. 

(95.)  The  magnitude  of  the  forces  concerned  here  is 
about  <rls^h  of  those  concerned  in  (91.),  &c.  ;  but  the  effect 
is  about  <^th  of  their  effect.  This  is  a  striking  instance  of 
the  difference  of  proportions,  in  forces  and  the  effects  that 
they  produce,  depending  on  the  difference  in  their  modes  of 
action.  Tlie  inequality  here  discussed  is  a  very  interesting 
one,  from  the  circumstance  that  it  enables  us  to  determine 
with  considerable  accuracy  the  proportion  of  the  sun*s  dis* 
tance  to  the  moon's  distance,  which  none  of  the  others  will 
do,  as  it  is  found  upon  calculation  that  their  magnitude  de< 
pends  upon  nothing  but  the  excentricities  and  the  propor- 
tion of  the  periodic  times,  all  which  are  known  without 
knowing  the  proportion  of  distances. 

(96.)  The  effect  of  this,  it  will  be  readily  understood,  is 
to  be  combined  with  that  already  found.  See  the  Note  to 
()  34.),  The  moon's  orbit  therefore  is  more  flattened  on  the 
side  farthest  from  the  sun,  and  less  flattened  on  the  side 
next  the  sun,  than  we  found  in  (91.)  and  (92.).  The  equa- 
ble description  of  areas  is  scarcely  affected  by  these  forces. 
The  moon's  variation  therefore  is  somewhat  diminished 
near  conjunction,  and  is  somewhat  increased  near  oppo- 
sition. 

.  (97.)  It  will  easily  be  imagined,  that  if  there  is  an  excen- 
tricity in  the  moon's  orbit,  the  effect  of  the  variation  upon 
that  orbit  will  be  almost  exactly  the  same  as  if  there  were 
no  excentricity.*     Thus,  supposing  that  the  orbit  without 

*  As  UiiR  (general  proposition  is  of  considemble  importance,  we  ebftU  point 
out  the  nature  of  Uio  reasouins  by  which  (with  proper  alteration  for  diflferent 
cases),  the  reader  may  satisfy  himself  of  its  correctness*.  The  nnsoa  why,  in 
Jilf*  29,  the  mooa  cannot  describe  the  circle  l)i .  I>a.  Us,  64.  though  it  touches 
ut  13i  and  Bj,  and  the  reason  tliat  it  will  describe  the  oval  Bj,  B9,  Ba,  H^,  is, 

Fig.  29. 


that  the  di.iturhing  forer>  mak««sthc  fnrcesAtBi  and  B3  less  than  thev  would 
othpri«ise  have  bceu,  aud  greater  at  B^  and  n4  than  they  would  otherwise  have 
been ;  aud  the  veluctty  is,  by  Uiat  part  of  the  force  perpendiculat  to  the  radius 
vector,  m.ide  le»s  at  Bs  tlian  it  woidd  othcrwiw  have  been.  So  that,  unless  we 
suppi>9ed  it  moviug  at  Bi  with  a  greater  velocity  than  it  would  have  ho^l  undis> 
tuibcd  in  the  circle  Bi.  03,  Bg,  b\,  tlie  groat  curvature  produced  by  the  groat 
force  and  diminished  velocity  at  Bs  woukl  liave  brought  it  much  noan>r  to  A 
tliau  the  point  Bs  :  but  with  this  l«rge  velocity  at  Bi,  it  will  go  out  farther  at 
1)9,  aud  then  the  great  curvature  may  make  it  {kiss  oxartly  Umnigh  Bj.  In 
hkm  maaoer,  in/ff.  90,  If  the  Telocity  at  Bi  viera  not  greotcr  tluin  it  would 


the  disturbing  force  had  such  a  form  as  the  dark  line  in  jlr. 
28,  it  will,  with  the  disturbing  force,  have  such  a  fono  li 

Fig.  28. 


the  dotted  line  in  that  figure.    The  same  mo»t  be  un! 
stood  in  many  other  cases  of  different  iuequalitiei  vL- 
affect  the  motion  of  the  same  body. 

(98.)  IV.  We  now  proceed  with  the  disturbance* dcpenl- 
on  the  excentricity :  and  first  with  the  moliou  of  «: 
moon's  perigee.  In  the  first  place,  sunpose  that  tho  - 
rigee  is  on  the  same  side  as  the  sun.  While  the  idi»'' 
near  B,,/^.  31.  that  is,  near  perigee,  the  disturbing  J : 
is  directed  from  A;  and  consequently  by  (51.)  tk* 
of  apses  regresses.    While  the  moon  is  near  B»  th.: . 


Fig.3l. 


D4 


c 


Bfl 


near  apogee,  the  disturbing  force  is  also  directed  (uim  A 
and  consequently  by  (54.)  the  line  of  apses  progmic 
The  question  then  now  is,  which  is  the  greaier,  tk  r 
gress,  when  the  moon  is  near  B,,  or  the  progress.  «bt« 
is  near  B,?    To  answer  this  we  will  recaark,  that  li  . 
disturbing  force  directed  from  A  were  invomely  pr  \ 
tional  to  the  square  of  the  distance  (aad  couMsqucj' 
less  at  Bs  than  at  B^),  it  would  amount  to  exftcUr  > 
same  as  if  the  attraction  of  A  were  altered  in  i  gntri ,» 
portion  ;*  and  in  that  case  B  would  describe  nuod  A  . 
ellipse,  whose  line  of  apses  was  invariable ;  or  tho  pru^r 
sion  produced  at  ^  would  be  equal  to  the  re^rc*- 
produced  at  B).    But  in  fact  the  disturbing  force  9\  ^ 
to  that  at  Bi  in  the  same  proportion  as  ABj  to  AB. 
(82.) ;  and  therefore  the  disturbing  force  at  B| » i^tri'^ 
than  that  at  B,,  and  consequently  much  gwtter  ':. 
that  which  would  produce  a  progression  equal  to  the  • 
gression  produced  at  B, ;  ana  therefore  the  eflwti  if  i 
disturbing  force  at  B,  predominate,  and  the  liac  oi  :- 
progresses.    The  disturbing  force  directed  to  A  in  •• 
neighbourhood  of  B,  and  B^  scarcely  produces  any  • ' 
as  on  one  side  of  each  of  those  points  the  effect  b  o' 
kind,  and  on  the  other  aide  it  is  of  the  opposite  kiod  (-  > 

(99.)  The  disturbing  force  directed  from  A,  thou^b  ■ 

have  bad  undisturbed  in  the  cUlpee  Bi,  h»,  Bs.  &i.  Om  teo*«K<l''~ 
ai  Ba,  produced  by  the  increased  ferca  aod  dimJBiihed  Tvluoty  u-**.  ■ 

Fig.  30. 


have  brouffht  it  much  neater  to  A  than  tlie  point  Bs  I  bet  vtUi  »  i«>«* ' 
at  Bi  it  will  go  out  at  Bj  (iirtlier  tlian  it  «ould  olherarifc  h*\<  *-  '^ 
tlien  the  increased  force  and  diminished  velocity  will  curve  lu t«^r 
that  it  may  touch  tlie  elliptic  orbit  at  Bs  ;  and  »o  on.    T*»*  ••*!!! ';^',. 
in  one  case  as  much  as  iu  the  oilier,  depend*  entirely  nyoa  t!w '»'•'  "^  | 
forces  in  tlie  actual  caae,  fVprn  the  force*,  if  the  moon  were  not  «*«"' " 
•  Tlie  reasoning  in  tho  text  may  be  more  ftdly  slated  thiu:  an- 
ginal aUractivc  force  of  the  earth  there  be  combined  auutijrt  K*^. 
from  the  eartli.  anil  always  bearing  Uie  same  proportkn  to  t«  <*"*  ;  ^ 
attraction,  this  combined  force  may  l)«  considered  ia  ti»o  »«?•     '• 
smaller  attraction,  always  proportional  to  the  original  atti«<^|'^\ 
proportional  to  tlie  square  of  the  distance.    2nd.  A*  ^_^'^'  *• 
wlih  a  force  superadded,  which  may  be  treated  as  a  cUstamM  wp"    ' 
suit  of  the  first  mod^-  of  considemt&m  wiU  be.  that  the  nam  wjJ^,  ^, 
ellipse,  whose  line  of  apses  doen  not  move.    The  result  of  the  •|***V  , 
consideration  will  bo,  Uiat  tho  instantaneous  ellipse  (in  whirh  w  »      _ 
proceed  to  move,  if  the  additional  force  should  cease)  will  *»*'»  •*•  "^. 
regressing,  while  the  moon  is  n«*ar  perigee,  and  progTe**u»*  •  ^  ' 
near  a]K>gee.    Tliere  is  however  no  incongruity  beweea  tb».*teo*^'^ 
line  of  apses  in  the  Orst  mode  of  consideration,  and  the  fi«P»**   ',  . 
the  second i  because  the  line  of  ap?es  of  the  Instoatawoas  JJJJI:. . ,- , 
coud  case  is  an  imaginary  line,  deb^rmined  by  supposing  ***•  "*^"^j., 
cease,  auil  the  moon  to  move  undisturbed.    Al  the  ap«e»  *?*'''!  ij^.    . 
apses  miut  be  the  same  in  both  methods  of  eoufideiatfcJji  **'*V...^,  .^. 
disturbing  force  cease  or  not,  tho  peipendicuUrily  of  the  *!•«<««•*?   ...  ■< 

to  tlic  ratiius  vector  dotermiues  tlie  place  of  an  *y^-  P^V^^'z^m^  r  '• 
moon  moves  from  one  apse  to  tho  other,  the  motJoas  w^the  ""' *  j^^.  - 
secoud  mode  of  consideration  must  be  such  as  to  |«whwe  "•  "^  ^.^  v 
the  position  of  the  line  of  apses  as  in  the  first  mods  «  fj^*!!^  1«#  »v 
Uiey  must  not  have  altered  its  place ;  and  hooce  the  KM*""*" 
mtist  bo  exacUy  equal  to  the  regrenioO  At  iIm  othex  ttat. 


O  R  A 


381 


G  U  A 


indirectly  inereases  the  effect  of  the  farmer  in  the  man- 
ner just  described. 

(108.)  FVom  the  combined  effect  of  these  two  causes,  the 
actual  progression  of  the  line  of  apses  is  nearly  double  of 
what  it  would  have  been  if,  in  different  revolutions  of  the 
moon,  different  parts  of  its  orbit  had  been  equally  subjected 
to  the  disturbing  force  of  the  sun. 

(109.)  The  line  of  apses  upon  the  whole,  therefore,  pro- 
gresses ;  and  (as  calculation  and  observation  agree  in  show- 
ing) with  an  angular  velocity  that  makes  it  (on  the  average) 
desfcribe  3**  in  each  revolution  of  the  moon,  and  that  carries 
it  completely  round  in  nearly  nine  years.  But  as  it  some- 
times progresses  and  sometimes  regresses  for  several  months 
together,  its  motion  is  extremely  irregular.  The  general 
motion  of  the  line  of  apses  has  been  known  from  the  earliest 
ages  of  astronomy. 

(  r  i  0.)  V.  For  the  alteration  of  the  excentricity  of  the  moon's 
orbit :  first,  let  us  consider  the  orbit  in  tne  position  in 
which  the  line  of  apses  passes  through  the  sun,  fig,  31. 
While  the  moon  moves  from  B,  (the  perigee,)  to  H,.  (the 
apogee,)  the  force  in  the  direction  of  the  radius  vector  is 
sometimes  directed  to  the  earth,  and  sometimes  from  the 
earth,  and  therefore,  by  (57.)  and  (59.),  it  sometimes 
diminishes  the  excentricity  and  sometimes  increases  it. 
But  while  the  moon  moves  from  B,  to  Bi,  there  are 
exactly  equal  forces  acting  in  the  same  manner  at  cor- 
responding parts  of  the  half-orbit,  and  these,  by  (58.),  will 
produce  effects  exactly  opposite.  On  the  whole,  there- 
fore, the  disturbing  force  in  the  direction  of  the  radius 
vector  produces  no  effect  on  the  excentricity.  The  force 
perpendicular  to  the  radius  vector  increases  the  moon's 
velocity  when  moving  from  B4  to  Bi,  and  diminishes  it 
when  moving  from  Bi  to  B, ;  in  moving,  therefore,  from 
B4  to  Bi,  the  excentricity  is  increased  (65.),  and  in  moving 
from  Bi  to  B„  it  is  as  much  diminished  (66.).  Similarly 
in  moving  from  B,  to  Bs,  the  excentricity  is  diminished, 
and  in  moving  from  Ba  to  B4,  it  is  as  much  increased. 
This  force,  therefore,  produces  no  effect  on  the  excen- 
tricity. 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  while  the  line  of  apses  passes 
through  the  sun,  the  disturbing  forces  produce  no  effect 
on  the  excentricity  of  the  moon'a,  orbit 

(111.)  When  the  line  of  apses  is  perpendicular  to  the  line 
joining  the  earth  and  sun,  the  same  thing  is  true.  Though 
the  forces  near  perigee  and  near  apogee  are  not  now  the 
same  as  in  the  last  case,  their  effects  on  different  sides  of 
perigee  and  apogee  balance  each  other  in  the  same 
way. 

(112.)  But  if  the  line  of  apses  is  inclined  to  the  line  join- 
ing the  eartli  and  sun,  as  in^.  32,  the  effects  of  the  forces 


Fig.  32 


do  not  balance.  While  the  moon  is  near  B.  and  near  B, 
the  disturbing  force  in  the  radius  vector  is  directed  to  the 
earth ;  at  B4  Uierefore,  (58.),  as  the  moon  is  moving  towards 
perigee,  the  excentricity  is  increased;  and  at  B^  as  the 
moon  is  moving  from  perigee,  the  excentricity  is  diminished. 
From  the  slowness  of  the  motion  at  B*  (which  gives  the 
disturbing  force  more  time  to  produce  its  effects,)  and  the 
greatness  of  the  force,  the  effect  at  B,  will  preponderate, 
and  the  combined  effects  at  B,  and  B«  will  diminish  the 
excentricity.  This  will  appear  from  reasoning  of  the  same 
kind  as  that  in  (98.).  At  Bj  and  B»  the  force  in  the  mdius 
vector  is  directed  from  the  earth :  at  B„  therefore,  by  (59.), 
as  the  moon  is  moving  from  perigee,  the  excentricity  is  in- 
creased, and  at  B,  it  is  diminished:  but  from  the  slowness 
of  the  naotion  atB,  and  the  magnitude  of  the  force,  the  effect 
at  B,  will  preponderate,  and  the  combined  effects  at  B,  and 
B,  will  dimmish  the  excentricity.  On  the  whole,  there- 
fore, the  force  in  the  direction  of  the  radius  vector  dimi- 
nishes the  excentricitv.  The  force  perpendicular  to  the 
radius  vector  retards  the  moon  from  B,  to  B„  but  the  first 
part  of  this  motion  may  be  considered  near  perigee,  and  the 
second  near  apogee,  and,  therefore,  in  the  first  part,  it  dimi- 
nishes the  excentricity,  and  in  the  second  increases  it ;  and 


the  whole  effect  from  B,  to  Bt  is  very  small.    SimiltrK  \\ , 
whole  effect  from  B,  to  64  is  very  sroalL  But  fnim  B,  t.i  i; 
the  force  accelerates  the  moon,  and  therefore,  by  (G*^.).! 
moon  being  near  perigee)  increases  the  excentiicih 
firom  B,  to  %,,  the  force  also  accelerates  the  moon,  ait«l  . 
(68.)  (the  moon  being  near  apogee)  diminishes  the  w 
tricity ;  and  the  effect  is  much*  greater  (from  the  si  >%;.*^ 
of  the  moon  and  the  greatness  of  the  force)  between  B,i 
B,  than  between  B4  and  Bi,  and  therefore  the  cum* 
effect  of  the  forces  in  these  two  quadrants  is  to diiut. • 
the  excentricity. 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  when  the  lineof  ams  ifcin.. 
to  the  line  joining  the  earth  and  sun,  in  such  maoDr  • 
the  moon  passes  the  line  of  apses  befure  passin;;  t!« 
joining  the  earth  and  sun,  the  excentricity  ts  dimin  -L . 
every  revolution  of  the  moon. 

(113.)  In  the  same  manner  it  will  appear  that  if  tbt ' 


Fi£.  33. 


of  apses  is  so  inclined  that  the  moon  passes  the  line  \  \ 
afier  passing  the  line  joining  the  earth  and  sun.  the  c\ 
tricity  is  increased  at  every  revolution  of  the  moon.  H 
the  force  in  the  radius  vector  is  directed  to  the  earth,  v 
moon  moves  from  perigee  and  from  apogee:  andi^il.,<^* 
from  the  earth  as  tne  moon  moves  to  perigee  and  to  ai' . 
which  directions  are  just  opposite  to  those  in  the  ca»ei.r>: 
considered.  Also  the  force  perpendicular  to  the  ndiu*  • 
tor  retards  the  moon  both  near  perigee  and  near  »p  .• 
and  this  is  opposite  to  the  direction  in  the  raM*  a!^ 
considered.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  the  excenthctt)  i- 
creased  at  every  revolution  of  the  moon. 

(114.)  In  every  one  of  these  cases  the  effect  is  exari^ 
same  if  the  sun  be  supposed  on  the  side  of  the  muun'«  • 
opposite  to  that  represented  in  the  figure. 

(115.)  Now  the  eai-th  moves  round  the  sun,  and  tU  - 
therefore  appears  to  move  round  the  earth,  in  the  onlrr  * 
cessively  represented  by  the  jffjg'f.  31,  32.  and  33.  h- 
then ;  when  the  sun  is  in  the  line  of  the  moon's  ap-v 
excentricity  does  not  alter  (110.);  after  this  itdimn  : 
till  the  sun  is  seen  at  right  angles  to  the  lineof  spM^'i  • 
then  it  does  not  alter  (111.):  and  after  this  it  increase 
the  sun  reaches  the  line  of  apses  on  the  other  side.  C' ' 
quently,  the  excentricity  is  greatest  when  the  line  of : ' 
passes  through  the  sun ;  and  is  least  when  the  lint*  of  );- 
is  perpendicular  to  the  line  joining  the  earth  and  ran. 

The  amount  of  this  alteration  in  the  exoentririt)  J 
moon*s  orbit  is  more  than  Jih  of  the  mean  value  of  '^< 
centricity ;  the  excentricity  being  sometimes  incfca**  i 
this  part,  and  sometimes  as  much  diminished;  so  i)i«* 
greatest  and  least  eiccentricities  are  nearly  in  the  pro{» 
of  6  :  4  or  3  :  2. 

(116.)  The  principal  inequalities  in  the  moon'fe  o  - 
may  therefore  be  stated  thus  : 

1st.  The  elliptic  inequality,  or  equation  of  the  centre, 
which  would  exist  if  it  were  not  disturbed. 

*  To  the  resfder  wlio  la  aequiuDt«d  with  Newton's  3rd  MctaOB.  ttrf  K  ' 
demeustiutiun  olVtliis  point  will  be  BufficienL    Four  timet  the  rrfiiu^ 
laUa  rectum  is  equal  to  Uie  mim  of  the  tvciprocaU  of  the  spof^ral  *'-'  F^  \ 
<listancea.    Tlie  effect  of  an  increase  of  wlocity  at  perii^ee  to  •  in^'^*'  F^  " 
is  to  alter  the  area  described  in  a  given  lime  in  the  same  pcopirt**' '" 
fere  to  alter  the  laha  rectum  in  a  oorrespoudiDg  proportkiB.    O'l*- 
increase  of  velocity  at  perigee  in  a  given  proportion  ahrr*  the  rec  \  ("  - 
apogeal  distance  bv  a  given  quantity,  and  therefore  alters  tbr  «{•*<<  •' 
by  aqu.intity  nearly  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  apo^  ^^^  ^' 
therefore  the  ratio  of  the  alteration  of  apugcal  flijianor  to  jpot^*^  • 
which  the  alteration  of  excentririty  depends )  is  nearly  pniwrtjtmal  to '.^ 
distance.    Similarly,  if  the  velocity  at  ajM^co  is  inrivaaM  in  •  r>^co  ;  * 
the  ratio  of  the  alteration  of  pcrigeal  distAUcc  to  periipenl  di«iiu)<V'  ' '  * 
alteration  of  excentricity  depi'uds)  is  nearly  propottiooBl  lu  the  perc^'  ■ 
Thus  if  the  velocity  were  increased  in  the  same  pruportiun  at  p^^- 
apogee,  the  increase  of  excentricity  at  the  Turmer  would  he  crr«tiri 
diminution  at  the  latt(<r.  in  the  proportion  of  apogeal  dbtaxiee  to  •  •'- 
tanee.     But  in  the  case  before  us,  tlie  proportion  of  inrn*ase  jf  »»"* '»   ^ 
greater  at  apotjee  than  at  perigee.    First,  boeaii**-  the  tone  !•  CT«'»*f*    , 
the  same  proportion  as  Uic  distance!.    Second,  brcaiue  the  tint'  i^  ' 
moon  describes  a  given  angle  is  greater,  (.being  in  the  rane  pn'{^  >' 
sqture  of  Uie  distance.)  so  that  the  incna**  of  velocity  is  ««  «1»'*  I ^  I* 
the  cube  of  the  distance.    Tiuid.  because  the  actual  velority  w  l'^- 
▼er-ely  as  the  distance,)  to  that  the  ratio  of  the  inerraas  to  thr  »«*■*•> ' 
proportional  to  the  fourth  power  of  the  distance.    Comhaia^  ^'  >*  ■' ' 
with  that  above,  the  alterations  of  excentricity  in  the  case  *»<*^  '^^" 
bv  the  forces  acting  at  apogee  and  at  perigee,  anp  ia  the  ]ic<f«tt«  «  ^  * 
or  the  apogeal  nad  perifeal  diaUncea  ttsgietiytltf. 


G  R  A 


O  R  A 


and,  therefoie,  the  line  of  apses  must  coincide  with  the  line 
of  conjunction. 

(127.)  If  the  apojove  of  the  first  satellite  were  in  the 
direction  of  the  points  of  conjunction,  the  disturbing  force 
in  the  direction  of  the  radius  vector,  being  directed  from  the 
central  body,  would,  by  (54.),  cause  the  line  of  apses  to 
progress.  Also  the  force  perpendicular  to  the  radius  vector, 
before  the  first  satellite  has  reached  conjunction,  (and  when 
the  second  satellite,  which  moves  more  slowly,  is  nearer  to 
the  point  of  conjunction  than  the  first,)  tends  to  accelerate 
the  first  satellite ;  and  that  which  acts  after  the  satellites 
have  passed  conjunction,  tends  to  retard  the  first  satellite ; 
and  both  these,  by  (65.)  and  (66.),  cause  the  line  of  apses 
to  progress.  But  we  have  assumed,  that  the  line  of  apses 
shall  move  in  the  same  direction  as  the  line  of  conjunction, 
that  is,  shall  regress;  therefore,  the  apojove  of  the  first 
satellite  cannot  be  in  the  direction  of  the  points  of  con* 
junction. 

(128.)  But  if  we  suppose  the  perijove  of  the  first  satellite 
to  be  in  the  direction  of  the  points  of  conjunction,  every 
thing  becomes  consistent.  The  disturbing  force,  in  the 
direction  of  the  radms  vector,  from  the  central  body,  will, 
by  (51.),  cause  the  line  of  apses  to  regress.  The  force  per- 
pendicular to  the  radius  vector,  which  accelerates  the  fii*st 
satellite  before  it  has  reached  conjunction,  that  is,  before  it 
has  reached  the  perijove,  and  retards  it  after  that  time,  will 
also,  by  (65.)  and  (66.),  cause  the  line  of  apses  to  regress. 
Also,  as  in  (56.),  this  regression  will  be  greater  as  the  ex- 
centricity  of  the  orbit  is  less,  because  the  disturbing  force, 
which  acts  here,  does  not  depend  on  the  excentricity.  By 
proper  choice,  therefore,  of  a  value  of  the  excentricity,  we 
can  make  an  orbit,  whose  line  of  apses  will  always  regress 
exactly  as  fast  as  the  line  of  conjunction,  and  will,  therefore, 
always  coincide  with  it;  whose  excentricity,  in  consequence, 
will  never  alter,  by  (59.)  and  (68.);  and  whose  general 
shape,  therefore,  will  be  the  same  at  every  successive  revo- 
lution. 

(129.)  We  shall  mention  hereafter,  that  the  form  of 
Jupiter  is  such  as  would  cause  the  perijove  of  the  first 
satellite,  if  it  were  not  disturbed  by  the  second  satellite,  to 
progress  with  a  velocity  not  depending  upon  the  excentricity 
of  the  orbit.  The  only  alteration  which  this  makes  in  our 
conclusions  is,  that  the  excentricity  of  the  orbit  must  be  so 
chosen,  that  the  perturbation  of  which  we  have  spoken  will 
cause  a  regression  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  progression 
which  Jupiter's  shape  would  occasion,  and  the  regression  of 
the  Une  of  conjunction.  As  this  is  greater  than  the  re- 
gression of  the  line  of  coni  unction  alone,  the  excentricity  of 
the  orbit  must  be  less.  So  that  the  only  effect  of  Jupiter's 
shape  is  to  diminish,  in  some  degree,  the  excentricity  of  the 
orbit. 

(130.)  Now  let  us  inquire  what  must  be  the  form  and 
position  of  the  orbit  of  the  second  satellite.  As  before,  the 
principal  part  of  the  perturbation  is  near  conjunction.  At 
and  near  the  conjunction,  the  disturbing  forco,  in  the 
direction  of  the  radius  vector,  is  directed  to  the  central 
body.  Before  conjunction,  when  the  first  satellite  is  less 
advanced  than  the  second,  the  disturbing  force,  perpen- 
dicular to  the  radius  vector,  retards  the  second,  by  (86.). 
For,  the  periodic  time  of  the  second  being  nearly  double 
that  of  the  first,  the  mean  distances  from  the  planet  will  be 
nearly  in  the  propottion  of  7  to  11,  (as  the  proportion  of  the 
cube  of  7  to  the  cube  of  1 1  is  nearly  the  same  as  the  pro- 
portion of  the  square  of  1  to  the  square  of  2,  see  (34.),) 
and,  therefore,  near  conjunction,  the  distance  of  the  first 
from  the  second  is  less  than  the  distance  of  the  first 
from  the  central  body.  After  conjunction,  the  disturbing 
force  accelerates  the  second  body.  Now,  without  going 
through  several  cases  as  before,  which  the  reader  will  find 
no  trouble  in  doing  for  himself,  we  shall  remark,  at  once, 
that  if  the  apojove  of  the  second  satellite  is  in  the  direction 
of  the  points  of  conjunction,  both  the  disturbing  force,  di- 
rected to  the  central  body  at  apojove,  and  that  perpendi- 
cular to  the  radius  vector,  retarding  it  before  it  reaches 
apojove,  and  accelerating  it  afterwards,  by  (53.),  (65.),  and 
(66.).  will  cause  the  line  of  apses  to  regress ;  and  that,  by 
proper  choice  of  excentricity,  the  regression  of  the  line  of 
apses  may  be  made  exactly  equal  to  the  regression  of  the 
line  of  conjunction. 

(131.)   Our  conclusion,  therefore,  is:  If  two  satellites 

««««ive  round  a  primary,  and  if  the  periodic  time  of  one  is 

ttle  greater  than  double  the  periodic  time  of  the 

and  if  we  assume  that  the  orbits  described  have 


always  the  same  form ;  (that  is,  if  they  have  no  excentn*  -.  > 
independent  of  perturbation;)   then  the  orbits  wiU    i.  : 
sensibly  differ  from  ellipses,  the  lines  of  apses  of  both  orb' 
must  always  coincide  with  the  line  of  oonjunciion&,  ui 
the  perijove  of  the  first  orbit,  and  the  apojove  of  Uie  seruix!. 
must  always  be  turned  towards  the  points  of  conjunct  K-n 
It  appears  also,  that  these  conditions  are  sufiieient,  ina«^ 
much  as  the  rate  of  regress  of  the  lines  of  apses  will  ( «•  r ' 
proper  values  for  the  excentricities)  be  the  same  as  the  r./x^ 
of  regress  of  the  line  of  conjunctions,  and  the  exoentririti*-* 
then  will  not  change.    The  excentricities  of  the  orbiu  m. 
be  greater  as  the  regress  of  the  line  of  oonjunctiuu«  >> 
slower,  or  as  the  proportion  of  the  periodic  times  apprwichf- 
more  exactly  to  tne  proportion  of  1 :  2. 

(132.)  In  the  same  manner  it  would  be  Ibund,  that  if  th- 
periodic  time  of  one  satellite  were  very  little  less  th.^:. 
double  that  of  the  other,  the  lines  of  apses  (in  order  tl-.rk! 
similar  orbits  may  be  traced  out  at  each  revolution)  tn\.^*- 
always  coincide  with  the  line  of  conjunction,  and  t:  • 
apojove  of  the  first  satellite  and  the  penjove  of  the  aecr  r  * 
must  always  be  turned  towards  the  points  of  conjunction, 
and  the  excentricities  of  the  orbits  must  be  greater,  a<  t'r 
proportion  of  the  periodic  times  approaches  more  exact h 
to  the  proportion  of  1:2. 

(133.)  The  same  thing  exactly  would  hold,  if  the  perici:  - 
times  were  very  nearly  in  the  ratio  of  2 : 3,  or  of  3 :  4,  A:«*. 
but  these  suppositions  do  not  apply  to  Jupiter's  satellttc^ 

(134.)  Having  thus  found  the  distortion  produced  by  r>: 
disturbing  force  in  orbits  which  have  no  excentricitr  iiH. 
pendent  of  perturbation,  it  will  easily  be  imagined,  th.- 
the  same  kind  of  distortion  will  be  produced  if  the  orl*  * 
have  an  original  excentricity.    If  we  make,  in  an  ellij't  • 
orbit,  the  same  kind  of  alteration  which  mast  be  mad«*  . 
a  circular  orbit,  in  order  to  form  the  figiu«  fbnnd  above,  v* 
shall  have  nearly  the  orbit  tbat  will  be  described  from 
combined  effects  of  perturbation  and  of  excentricity  in«ic 
pendent  of  perturbation.* 

*  The  troth  of  this  proposition  may  be  shown  more  fully  in  the  UAm** 
manner :— Let  A,  Jig.  35,  bo  the  place  of  the  primary,  A  C  the  Ear  of  nnr 
tlona  of  the  flnt  and  Meond  latellile.  B  D  B  the  ellipUc  orbit,  im  vltkrh  t*  -  - 
■atellito  would  move  if  undiaturbed,  D  \U  peiijore.    SnnpOM  (.to  mmf 
figure)  that  the  attiaction  of  the  second  satellite  acts  only  tor  a  linit«u  •- 
for  instance,  while  the  first  satellite  passes  from  P  lo  11.    Thaa  th*  t^. 
the  inveftigatioaa  from  (122.)  to  (lZi.)i»,  thai  th«  flni saldlite  «m  h»  i  - 


• 


FUg.  35. 


outwards  from  the  orbit  in  which  it  would  have  mored,  so  as  to  dtf^rih^  •  -  •.. 
P  G  H :  and  when  the  distnrbiuf^  force  ceases  at  II.  it  wUl  |wuweii  to  *W«i    - 
an  ellipse.  II  f  6  tf.  similar  to  B  I)  E,  but  with  tliis  diffrreoee.  that  Oft»  p« . 
is  at  d  insitcad  of  D.    Tiie  conclusion,  however,  now  tluU  it  lias  Iw-a  ..- 
obt«iinpd  from  the  rcaiioninf;  above,  may  be  ^t.nte<l  as  the  vesalt  of  iSir  m 
reasonin(( :—  In  couseonenoe  of  the  disturbing  force,  which  has  4f»«vi  t  «- 
satellite  outwards,  without,  upon  the  whole,  altering  iU  veloriiy.  ^^tx^'^  • 
it  before  conjunction,  and  retarding  it  nflcrwards,^  the  satellite  has  tun*  * 
curve,  F  G  H,  external  to  the  ellipse  F  D,  in  which  it  wouhl  hawe  «ia««a  ,    j. 
after  the  disturbing  force  has  coaled  at  H,  the  satellite  (which  Is  bm^  a^  . 
path  inclined  extemidly  from  tlw  oki  orbit)  continues  tu  rrciMie  fmn  *'• 
orbit  till  tlic  diminution  of  velocity  (26.)  allows  its  patli  to  be  so  mnrh  <  ." 
that  at  9  it  begins  tu  approach,  and  at  L  the  new  oibit  inlersact*  \hm  l-VJ  . 
and  after  tliis.  the  path  is  tnelinod  intcroally  from  tlw  old  orbit,  till  iKr  .t.r.   . 
of  velocity  (25.)  makes  its  path  so  little  cur\ed  that  it  approach^  tttr  .> .. 
again,  and  ou^uin  crosses  it  between  d  and  D.     In  like  mannoB.  If.  m  n  a«    • 
the  orbit  B  F  E  have  an  eccentricity  indopemlent  of  peiturballoa,  ^^^^  1**  .* 
being  at  anv  point  D| ,)  nevertheless,  we  may  state  tiiat,  in  consniQrxti^  .* 
disturbing  (brce.  the  satellite  will  move  in  a  cur\-e  FO  H  extOToal  lo  f  E    '  * 
when  the  disturbing  tore*  ceoaes  al  U«  tli«  aatelUto  (which  ia  laotiac ««  «  r 


Bir. 


inclined  externally  fkom  tha  old  orbit)  cootiBoaa  to  raeed*  ftoni  Omiid  **' 
till  the  diminution  of  velocity  (26.)  allows  its  path  to  be  to  mncli  rar\*<  * 
it  begins  lo  approach  at  some  point  e ;  tliat  at  some  pcdat  L,  hesolv  opf«<»-t  ■ 
C,  the  new  orUt  luterseeta  the  old  one ;  and  that,  aftoi  thi^llie  puik  u  mr.*,  4 
internally  fhnn  the  old  orbit,  till  the  incveaso  of  vetoeity  (SB.)  aaake*  tts  ymii- 
so  little  curved  that  it  apnroirhes  the  old  orbit  again,  aiu  afnla  ovmm*  4  « 
tween  F  and  H.    Thna,  the  aHeivUoo  oC  tba  ndhia  imdm,  ^mmu  to  any  p«»i 


G  R  A 


388 


G  R  A 


Fig.  37, 


produced  by  the  attraction  of  the  second  satellite  before  it 
arrives  at  periiove,  when  it  is  near  to  the  orbit  of  the  third 
satellite,  (and  therefore  acts  powerfully,)  and  moves  slowly, 
(and  therefore  acts  for  a  long  time) ;  while  the  acceleration 
after  conjunction  is  produced  by  the  second  satellite  near 
ite  perijove.  when  it  is  far  from  the  orbit  of  the  third  satel- 
lite, (and  therefore  acts  weakly.)  and  moves  rapidly  (and 
therefore  acts  for  a  short  time).    The  retardation  therefore 
exceeds  the  acceleration ;  and  the  conseouence  is,  by  (48.), 
that  the  periodic  time  of  the  third  satellite  is  shortened, 
and  therefore  its  angular  motion  is  quickened ;  and  there- 
fore, at  the  next  conjunction,  it  will  have  gone  further  for- 
ward before  the  second  satellite  can  come  up  with  it,  or  the 
line  of  conjunction  will  be  nearer  to  the  place  of  perijove 
of  the  second  satellite,  depending  on  the  action  of  th6  first. 
In  the  same  manner,  if  we  supposed  the  third  sateUite 
moving  rather  quicker  than  it  ought  in  conformity  with  the 
law,  the  tendency  of  the  forces  would  be  to  accelerate  it,  to 
make  its  periodic  time  longer,  and  thus  to  make  its  angular 
motion  slower.    By  the  same  kind  of  reasoning  it  will  be 
seen  that  there  are  forces  acting  on  the  first  satellite,  pro- 
duced by  the  elliptic  inequality  which  the  third  impresses 
on  the  orbit  of  the  second,  tending  to  accelerate  the  angular 
motion  of  the  first  satellite  in  the  first  case,  and  to  retard 
it  in  the  second.    The  same  reasoning  will  also  show  that 
both  the  first  and  third  satellites  exert  forces  on  the  second, 
tending  to  retard  its  angular  motion  in  the  first  case,  and 
to  accelerate  it  in  the  second.    All  these  actions  tend  to 
preserve  the  law :  in  the  first  case  by  making  the  line  of 
conjunctions  of  the  first  and  second  satellite  regress,  and 
that  of  the  second  and  third  progress,  till  they  coincide ; 
and  in  the  second  case,  by  altering  them  in  the  opposite 
way,  till  they  coincide. 

(143.)  Perhaps  there  is  no  theoretical  permanence  of 
elements  on  winch  we  can  depend  with  so  great  certainty, 
as  on  the  continuance  of  this  law.  The  greatest  and  most 
irregular  perturbations  of  Jupiter  or  of  his  satellites,  pro- 
vided they  come  on  gradually,  will  not  alter  the  relation 
between  tiieir  motions;  the  effect  of  a  resisting  medium 
will  not  alter  it ;  though  each  of  these  causes  would  alter 
the  motions  of  all  the  satellites ;  and  though  similar  causes 
would  wholly  destroy  the  conclusions  which  mathematicians 
have  drawn  as  to  the  stability  of  the  solar  system,  with 
regard  to  the  elements  of  the  planetary  orbits.  The  phy- 
sical explanation  of  this  law  was  first  given  by  Laplace,  in 
A.D.  1784. 

(1 44.)  We  have  terminated  now  the  most  remarkable  part 
of  the  theory  of  these  satellites.  There  are  however  some 
other  points  which  are  worth  attending  to,  partly  for  their 
own  saKe,  and  partly  as  an  introduction  to  the  theory  of  the 
planets. 

(145.)  The  orbit  of  the  third  satellite,  as  we  have  men- 
tioned, has  a  small  excentricity  independent  of  perturba- 
tion. Consequently,  when  the  conjunction  with  the  second 
takes  place  near  the  independent  perijove  of  the  third,  the 
effect  of  the  disturbance  on  the  second  \a  rather  greater  than 
at  any  other  time ;  and  this  produces  an  irregularity  in  the 
excentricity  of  the  second,  and  in  the  motion  of  its  apses, 
depending  on  the  distance  of  the  line  of  conjunction  finom 
the  independent  perijove  of  the  third.  The  departure  from 
uniformity  in  the  angular  motion  of  the  third  also  produces 
a  departure  from  uniformity  in  the  regression  of  the  line  of 
conjunction,  and  this  contributes  to  the  same  irregularity. 

(146.)  The  disturbing  force  in  the  direction  of  tne  radius 
vector,  produced  bv  an  inner  satellite,  is  sometimes  directed 
to  the  central  body  and  sometimes  from  it;  but  on  the 
whole  the  former  exceeds  the  latter.  (86.)  Now  the  princi- 
pal part  of  the  effect  really  takes  place  when  the  satellites 
are  near  conjunction ;  consequently,  when  the  line  of  con- 
junction passes  near  the  independent  perijove  of  the  thiid 
satellite,  the  force  by  which  Uie  third  satellite  \&  urged  to 
the  planet  is  greater  than  at  any  other  time ;  and  as  the 
line  of  conjunction  revolves,  the  force  alternately  increases 


and  diminishes.  This  produces  an  irregularity  in  the  majcf 
axis,  and  consequently  in  the  motion  uf  the  third  fiat«rii4> 
(47.),  depending  on  the  distance  of  the  line  of  conjui»rt»cL 
fix)m  the  perijove  of  the  third. 

(147.)  The  disturbing  force  in  the  direction  of  the  radiui 
vector  produced  by  an  outer  satellite  is  sometimes  directt^l 
to  the  central  body  and  sometimes  from  it;  btU  on  Hu 
whole  the  latter  exceeds  the  former.  (80.)  For  the  reoMjci 
therefore,  in  the  last  article,  there  is  in  the  motion  of  the 
second  satellite  an  irregularity  depending  on  the  distance  o/ 
the  line  of  conjunction  from  the  independent  perijove  -f 
the  tibird,  but  opposite  in  its  nature  to  that  of  the  thiru 
satellite. 

(148.)  Each  of  these  irregularities  in  the  motion  of  ur^ 
of  these  satellites  produces  an  irregularity  in  the  motion  ul 
the  others;  and  thus  the  whole  theory  becomes  \'cr)'  cota 
plicated  when  we  attempt  to  take  the  minute  irregularitxa 
into  account. 

(149.)  The  motion  of  the  fourth  satellite  is  not  related  :. 
the  others  in  the  same  way  in  which  they  are  related  anioTi; 
themselves.  Its  periodic  time  is  to  the  periodic  time  of  tlv 
third  nearly  in  the  proportion  of  7: 3.  Some  of  the  irrcr-J- 
larities  then  which  it  experienoes  and  which  it  occaaioas  ar% 
nearly  similar  to  those  in  the  motions  of  the  planets.  Tbr<«« 
however  are  small:  the  most  important  are  those  dcpen-i 
ing  on  the  changes  in  the  elements  which  require  maiii 
revolutions  of  the  satellites  to  go  through  all  their  varntui 
states,  but  which  nevertheless  have  been  observed  smre 
the  satellites  were  discovered.  We  sliall  proceed  witi 
these. 

(1 50.)  First,  let  us  suppose  that  the  third  satellite  has  no 
excentricity  independent  of  perturbation*  and  that  t'x 
fourth  satellite  has  a  sensible  excentricity,  its  line  of  ap«<;« 
progressing  very  slowly,  in  consequence  principally  of  tU 
shape  of  Jupiter  (so  slowly  as  not  to  have  gone  complct«!T 
round  in  eleven  thousand  revolutions  of  the  sattfUiiel. 
When  each  of  the  satellites  has  revolved  a  few  hundjtd 
times  round  Jupiter,  their  conjunctions  will  have  take*) 
place  almost  indifferently  in  every  part  of  their  orbits^  It 
the  orbit  of  the  fourth  as  well  as  that  of  the  third  had  bo 
independent  ellipticity,  there  would  be  no  remarkable  change 
of  shape  produced  by  perturbation,  as  the  action  of  ooc 
satellite  upon  the  other  would  be  the  same  when  in  ouu- 
junction  in  sdl  the  different  parts  of  the  orbit.  But  the 
orbit  of  the  fourth  being  exceutric,  the  action  of  each  satct- 
lite  on  the  other  is  greatest  when  the  conjunction  happeci 
near  the  perijove  of  the  fourth  satellite.  We  may  con3id«r 
then  that  the  preponderating  force  takes  place  at  thu  put 
of  the  orbits;  and  we  have  to  inquire  what  form  the  orb.; 
of  the  third  satellite  must  have,  to  preserve  the  same  excen- 
tricity at  every  revolution.  It  must  be  remembened  hat 
that  the  effect  of  Jupiter's  shape  is  to  cause  a  more  rap«I 
progress  of  the  line  of  apses  of  the  third  satellite,  if  its  ortii 
be  excentric,  than  of  the  line  of  apses  of  the  fourth. 

(151.)  Considering  then  that  the  preponderating  force  to 
the  third  satellite  in  the  direction  of  the  radius  vector  a 
directed  from  the  central  body  towards  the  perijove  of  \}jk 
fourth,  and  that  the  preponderating  force  perpendicular  b> 
the  radius  vector  accelerates  it  as  it  approaches  that  port,  uii 
retards  it  afterwards,  it  is  plain  from  (51.),  (65.).  and  466.t, 
that  if  the  perijove  of  the  third  satellite  wen  in  that  posi- 
tion, the  forces  would  cause  the  line  of  apses  to  reigmft; 
and  this  regression,  if  the  excentricity  of  the  thud  be  siiuil 
mav  be  considerable  (though  the  preponderance  of  foirc 
which  causes  it  is  extremely  small),  and  may  ovcrc«>CDe  ^o 
much  of  the  progression  caused  by  Jupiter's  shape,  as  xo 
make  the  real  motion  of  the  line  of  apses  as  nearlv  ecus]  ^» 
we  please  to  the  motion  of  the  line  of  apses  of  the  fourth. 
But  the  motion  of  the  line  of  apses  of  the  fourth  will  ix^J 
be  affected  (though  very  little)  by  the  greater  action  of  \\»i 
third  satellite  on  it  at  the  same  place ;  and  the  part  in  tie 
radius  vector  being  directed  at  its  perijove  to  the  centxil 
body,  and  the  part  perpendicular  to  the  radius  vector  re- 
tarding it  before  it  reaches  the  perijove,  and  acceleraung  .t 
afterwards,  will  cause  a  small  increase  of  pn^ression  of  ii» 
apse.    The  state  of  things  will  be  permanent,  so  fiu  as  de- 
pends on  these  forces,  when  the  mcreased  progmswQ  of 
the  apse  of  the  fourUi  satellite  is  equal  to  the  duninisbcd 
progression  of  the  apse  of  the  third ;  and  thus  the  progre»- 
sion  of  the  apse  of  the  fourth  will  be  somewhat  incxvLed, 
and  the  third  satellite's  orbit  will  have  a  compression  con«- 
spending  in  direction  to  the  per^ove  of  the  fourth,  and  an 
elongation  in  the  same  direction  as  the  i^^qjoro  of  the 


G  R  A 


890 


G  R  A 


sensible  ;  and  those  in  particular  which  alter  the  mean  dis- 
tance and  the  periodic  time  may  produce  in  time  an  effect 
on  the  longitude  of  the  planet  (49.),  very  much  more  con- 
spicuous than  that  in  the  alteration  of  the  orbit's  dimen- 
sions.' 

(162.)  In  this  consideration  is  contained  the  whole  ge- 
neral theory  of  those  inequalities  known  by  the  name  of 
inequalities  qf  long  period.  They  are  the  only  ones  de- 
pending on  the  excentricities  (besides  those  similar  to  the 
moon's  evection)  which  ever  become  important. 

(163.)  To  enter  more  minutely  into  the  explanation,  let 
us  take  the  instance  of  the  long  inequality  of  Jupiter  and 
Saturn:  the  most  remarkable  for  its  magnitude,  and  for 
the  length  of  time  in  which  the  forces  act  in  the  same  man- 
ner, as  well  as  for  the  difficulty  which  it  had  given  to  as- 
tronomers before  it  was  explained  by  theory,  that  has  been 
noticed  since  the  first  explanation  of  the  Moon's  irregulari- 
ties. 

(164.)  The  periodic  times  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  are 
very  nearly  in  the  proportion  of  2  to  5,  (the  periodic  times 
being  4332  days,  17  hours,  and  10,759 days,  5  hours,)orthe 
number  of  degrees  of  longitude  that  they  will  describe  in 
the  same  time,  omitting  all  notice  of  their  excentricities, 
will  be  in  the  proportion  of  5  to  2  nearly.  Suppose,  now, 
that  they  were  exactly  in  the  proportion  of  2  to  5 ;  and 
su|)pose  that  Jupiter  and  Saturn  started  from  conjunction ; 
when  Saturn  has  described  240  degrees,  Jupiter  will  have 
described  600  degrees  (as  these  numbers  are  in  the  pro- 
portion of  2  to  5) :  but  as  360  degrees  are  the  circum- 
ference, Jupiter  will  have  gone  once-round,  and  will  be- 
sides have  described  240  degrees.  It  will,  therefore,  again 
be  in  conjunction  with  Saturn.  When  Saturn  has  a^in 
described  240  degrees,  that  is,  when  Saturn  has  described 
in  all  480  degrees,  or  has  gone  once  round  and  has  described 
120  degrees  tnoro,  Jupiter  will  have  described  1200  degrees, 
or  will  nave  gone  three  times  round  and  described  120  de- 
grees more,  and,  therefore,  will  again  be  in  conjunction 
with  Saturn.  When  Saturn  has  again  described  240  de- 
grees, that  is,  when  it  has  gone  exactly  twice  round,  Jupi- 
ter will  have  gone  exactly  five  times  round,  and  they  will 
again  be  in  conjunction.  So  that,  if  the  periodic  times 
were  exactly  in  the  proportion  of  2  to  5,  there  would  be  a 
continual  succession  of  conjunctions  at  the  points  whose 
longitudes  exceeded  the  longitude  of  the  first  place  of  con- 
junction by  240',  120%  0°,  240%  120%  0%  &o.  Thus,  in  fig. 
38,  if  Bi  is  the  place  of  Jupiter  at  first,  and  C|  that  of  Sa- 


Fig.  38. 


turn,  Jupiter  will  have  gone  quite  round,  and  also  as  far  in 
the  next  revolution  as  B^  while  Saturn  has  described  part 
of  a  revolution  only  to  (3,:  then  Jupiter  will  again  have 
gone  quite  round,  and  also  as  far  in  the  next  revolution  as 
Bs,  while  Saturn  has  described  part  of  a  revolution  to  C, : 
then  Jupiter  will  have  performed  a  whole  revolution,  and 
part  of  another  to  6.,  while  Saturn  has  performed  part  of  a 
revolution  to  Ci :  ana  then  the  same  order  of  conjunctions 
will  go  on  again.  If,  then,  the  periodic  times  were  exactly 
in  the  proportion  of  2  to  5,  the  conjunctions  would  con- 
tinually take  place  in  the  same  three  points  of  the  orbits. 
This  conclusion  will  not  be  altered  by  supposing  the  orbits 
excentric :  for  though  the  places  of  conjunction  may  then 
be  somewhat  altered,  the  conjunctions,  after  the  third,  (when 
Saturn  has  gone  round  exactly  twice,  and  Jupiter  exactly 
five  times,)  will  go  on  in  the  same  order,  and  happen  at  the 
same  places  as  l^foie. 

(165.)  But  the  oeriodic  times  are  not  exactly  in  the  pro- 
portion of  2  to  5,  but  much  more  nearly  in  the  proportion 
of  29 :  72.  This  alters  the  distance  of  the  places  of  con- 
junction. We  must  now  suppose  Saturn  to  move  through 
2 4 2°' 7 9,  and  Jupiter  (by  the  proportion  just  mentioned) 
will  then  have  moved  through  602**- 79,  or  through  a  whole 
circumference  and  242**' 79,  and  they  will  be  in  conjunction 
again.  The  next  conjunction  will  take  place  when  Saturn 
MS  moved  through  double  this  angle,  or  485°'S8,  or  when 


Saturn  has  performed  a  whole  revolution,  and  Mi^-i"  •  ' 
the  next  revolution:  and  the  following  conjunction   v.    ; 
take  place  when  Saturn  has  moved  through  72S''*3r. 
wheu  Saturn  has  gone  ivnce  round,  and  has  deseriljcd  h'  *;: 
more.    Now,  then,  the  same  order  of  conjunctions  will  i 
go  on  again  at  the  same  places  as  before,  but  the  next  th.*>> 
after  this  will  be  shifted  8^-37  before  the  former  placo,  ♦J 
three  following  the  last-mentioned  three  will  be  ar- 
shifted  8''-37,  and  so  on.    The  places  of  successive  conjutt 
tion,  in  fig.  38,  will  be  at  B|  C„  6,  c^  b^  e^  b^  c«,  h^  c^, ' 
Ctt  &c.    The  shifting  of  the  places  of  conjunction  mill  ta^. 
place  in  nearly  the  same  manner,  whether  the  orbii<  •;* 
excentric  or  not. 

(166.)    From  this  the  following  points  are  evident  - — 

First.  In  consequence  of  the  periodic  times  being  ner  *' . 
in  the  proportion  of  2  to  5,  many  successive  conjunct.  •  , 
happen  near  to  three  equidistant  poihts  on  the  orbits. 

Secondly.  In  consequence  of  the  proportion  bein:;  ^ 
exactly  that  of  2  :  5,  but  one  of  rather  less  inequality.  * ' 
points  of  conjunction  shift  forward,  so  that  each  succe^ 
set  of  conjunctions  is  at  points  of  the  orbits  more  advance  1. 
by  8^*37,  than  the  preceding  one. 

(167.)  Let  us  now  inquire  how  long  it  will  be  bcfbre  \ 
conjunctions  happen  at  the  same  parts  of  the  orbits  a«  .: 
first 

This  will  be  when  the  series  of  points  b^  h,^  ^,..  £i. 
extends  to  B,.      For  then  the  series  &«,  &•»  6„,  &r^  r  ^ 
extend  to  Bp  and  the  series  6„  fr^,  b^  &c.,  will  extend  tu  V^, 
The  time  necessary  for  this  will  be  gathered  from  the  c  * 
sideration,  that  in  three  conjunctions  the  points  jhq  ^hif\  * 
S'^'S? :  and  that  the  noints  must  shift  120°  from  Bf  Kf  - 
they  reach  Bs :  and  tnat  we  may,  therefore,  use  the  prop  r 
tion.  As  8°'37  is  to  3,  so  is  120^  to  43  nearly,  the  number  - . 
coi\j unctions  that  must  have  passed  before  the  point's  i. 
conjunction  are  again  the  same.    And  as  Saturn  adva:^  •  • 
242*79  between  any  conjunction  and  the  next,  he  will. .. 
the  forty-third  conjunction  from  the  first,  have  descn!*- 
10440%  or  29  circumferences;  and  Jupiter,  therefore,   ' -. 
the  proportion  of  their  periodic  times,)  will  have  dc^vriKi 
72  circumferences.    The  time,  then,  in  which  the  cunj  j-  •  - 
tions  return  to  the  same  points  is  twenty-nine  times Situr  .'■ 
periodic  time,  or  seventy-two  tihies  Jupiter's  periodic  t  :.* 
or  about  855  years.* 

(168.)  Now  let  us  examine  into  the  effects  of  thi<  <•  ' 
motion  of  the  points  of  conjunction  upon  the  forces  ik!..- 
one  body  exerts  to  disturb  the  other. 

(169.)  If  the  orbits  had  no  independent  exccntnriti,  : 
would  affect  them  no  further  than  by  the  period iraf  ••.« 
tortion  which  would  take  place  at  every  conjunction.   Tl-  : 
would  be  nothing  in  one  set  of  conjunctions,  more  th.ir.  . 
another,  which  could  affect  the  dimensions  of  the  orbits. 

(170.)  But  if  the  orbits  are  not  circular,  this  is  no  lor  j>: 
true.  It  is  not  the  same  thing  whether  theconiunrt:.  < 
take  place  at  B|  Ci,  B9C9,  and  B,Cs,^.39,  or  at  61  r^.  \  . 


hg.  39. 


and  6g  C).  The  distances  of  the  planets  are  not  ihe  sa'  * 
and  consequently  the  forces  which  they  exert  on  each  ot! 
are  not  the  same;  also  their  velocities  are  difTcrrnt  " 
different  parts  of  their  orbits,  or  at  different  points  of  o>r 
junction,  and  therefore  the  times  during  which  they  ran  a"' 
on  each  other  are  not  the  same.  It  is  true  thaU  m  t> 
figure,  the  distance  at  b^c^  is  less  than  at  B,  C^  while  t**!: 
at  63  Cj  is  greater  than  at  B«C,;  and  thus  there  is  a  par  *' 
compensation  in  the  changes  of  the  effects  prcMlui^l  " 
different  points  of  the  orbit  But  it  can  be  discovered  o-.i« 
by  very  complete  calculations,  whether  the  compensation  .• 
perfect  or  not.  The  calculations  necessary  for  this  pury«>« 
are  probably  the  most  complicated  that  physical  science  hi- 
ever  given  occasion  for;  and  the  reader  must  not  br^ 
expect  the  smallest  account  of  them.  This  onlr  ran  '^ 
stated  as  a  result,  that  in  no  instance  in  the  plaiict^rt 

*  TheM  nunben  «re  ool  quit*  oxaet:  Uie  prov«ttm  of  S9 •  3S  mui  ^m.tu 
qttile  accurate. 


G  R  A 


392 


G  R  A 


mean  or  average  action  of  one  planet  upon  anotlier  in  the 
long  run :  all  the  sensible  departures  from  the  secular  vari- 
ation, produced  by  the  irregularity  of  the  action  of  one  pla- 
net upon  another,  being  supposed  to  be  contained  in  the  in- 
equalities already  discussed. 

(ISO.)  First,  then,  with  regard  to  the  mean  distance  of  a 
planet    If  we  consider  an  exterior  planet  disturbing  an  in- 
terior one,  (as  Saturn  disturbing  Jupiter,)  the  disturbing 
force  in  the  direction  of  the  radius  vector,  by  (77.)f  &c., 
tends  sometimes  to  draw  it  from  the  sun,  sometimes  to  draw 
it  towards  the  sun,  but  the  former  is  the  greater,  and  we 
may  therefore  consider  the  force  as,  upon  the  whole,  dimi- 
nishing the  sun's  attraction.    This,  by  (46.),  alters  the  re- 
lation between  the  periodic  time  and  the  mean  distance,  so 
that  the  mean  distance  is  less  than  it  would  haye  been  with 
the  same  periodic  time,  had  there  been  no  disturbance.    If 
we  consider  an  interior  planet  disturbing  an  exterior  one,  (as 
Jupiter  disturbing  Saturn,)  the  disturbing  force  tending  to 
draw  it  to  the  sun  is  greatest ;  and  here  the  mean  distance 
is  greater  than  it  would  have  been  with  the  same  periodic 
time,  had  there  been  no  disturbance.    But  so  long  as  these 
general  effects  in  the  force  directed  to  the  sun  continue 
unaltered,  the  mean  distances  will  not  alter  (46.),  &c.  Now, 
upon  taking  a  very  long  period,  (as  several  thousand  years,) 
it  is  easy  to  see  that,  if  we  divide  that  period  into  two  or 
three  parts,  the  two  planets  have  in  each  of  those  parts  been 
in  conjunction  indifferently  in  all  parts  of  their  orbits ;  that 
they  have  had  every  possible  relative  position  in  every  part ; 
and  that  (if  we  make  the  periods  long  enough)  the  force 
which  one  planet  has  sustained  in  any  one  point  will  be 
accurately  the  mean  of  all  which  it  would  sustain,  if  we 
estimated  all  those  that  it  could  suffer  from  supposing  the 
other  planet  to  go  with  its  usual  motion  through  the  whole 
of  its  orbit.    As  this  mean  will  be  the  same  for  each  of  the 
periods,  there  will,  in  the  long  run,  be  no  alteration  of  the 
force  in  the  direction  of  the  radius  vector,  and  we  may 
assert  at  once  that  the  mean  distance  cannot  be  altered 
by  it. 

(181.)  But  with  regard  to  the  disturbing  force  acting  per- 
pendicularly to  the  radius  vector,  the  circumstances  are  dif- 
ferent   The  mere  existence  of  such  a  force,  without  varia- 
tion, causes  an  alteration  in  the  mean  distance  (48.) ;  and  it 
is  necessary  to  show  that  the  nature  and  variations  of  the 
force  are  such  that,  in  the  long  run,  the  velocity  of  the  dis- 
turbed planet  is  not  affected  by  it.    For  this  purpose,  in- 
stead of  considering  merely  the  disturbing  force  perpendi- 
cular  to  the  radius  vector,  we  will  consider  separately  the 
whole  force  which  the  disturbing  planet  exerts  on  the  sun, 
and  the  whole  force  which  it  exerts  on  the  disturbed  planet 
Now,  the  foree  which  it  exerts  on  the  sun  tends  to  pull  the 
sun  sometimes  in  one  direction  and  sometimes  in  another, 
but,  on  the  whole,  produces  no  permanent  displacement : 
this  force,  then,  may  at  once  be  neglected.  The  force  which 
one  planet  has  exerted  on  the  other  has  acted  when,  for  any 
arbitrary  position  of  the  disturbing  planet  the  disturbed 
planet  has  been  at  ever^  point  of  its  orbit    Since  the  whole 
acceleration  produced  m  a  long  time  is  the  sum  of  all  the 
accelerations  diminished  by  the  sum  of  all  the  retardations, 
we  may  divide  them  into  groups  as  we  please,  and  sum  each 
group.    Let  us,  then,  group  together  all  the  accelerations 
and  retardations  produced  in  one  position  of  the  disturbing 
planet    The  disturbed  planet  having  been  in  every  small 
part  of  its  orbit  during  a  time  proportional  to  the  time 
which  it  would  occupy  in  passing  tnrough  that  small  part  in 
any  one  revolution,  the  various  accelerations  and  retarda- 
tions will  bear  the  same  proportion  as  if  the  disturbed  planet 
had  made  one  complete  revolution,  and  the  disturbing  planet 
had  been  fixed.    Now,  it  is  a  well-known  theorem  of  me- 
chanics, that  when  a  body  moves  through  any  curve,  acted 
on  by  the  attractions  of  any  fixed  bodies,  its  velocity,  when 
it  reaches  the  point  from  which  it  started,  is  precisely  the 
same  as  when  it  started :  the  accelerationa  and  retardations 
having  exactly  balanced.    Conseouently,  in  the  case  before 
us,  if  the  disturbing  planet  had  oeen  fixed,  and  the  dis- 
turbed planet  had  made  one  complete  revolution,  the  latter 
would,  on  the  whole,  have  been  neither  accelerated  nor  re- 
tarded ;  and,  therefore,  in  the  long  run,  all  the  accelerations 
and  retardations  of  the  disturbed  planet  produced  in  any 
arbitraryposition  of  the  disturbing  planet  will  exactly  ba- 
lance.   The  same  may  be  shown  for  every  position  of  the 
disturbing  planet ;  and  thus,  on  the  whole,  tnere  is  no  alte- 
ration of  velocity.  Since,  then,  in  the  Icng  run,  the  pUnet's 
Telocity  ia  not  altered,  and  since  (180.)  the  force  directed  to 


the  sun  is  not  altered,  the  planet's  mean  dtitafice  viU  r.*<i 

be  altered.    This  reasoning  does  not  prevent  tbc  inm* 

diminution  of  the  velocity  at  particular  parts  uf  the  u.  . 

and  therefore  the  excentricity  and  the  Ime  of  ap^^  w.  . 

vary ;  but  it  shows  that  if  there  is  an  iocceake  at  one  \  c 

there  is  a  diminution  that  balances  it  at  another;  andaiiu. 

point  where  the  orbit  at  the  beginning  of  a  long  time.  a:. 

the  orbit  at  the  end  of  that  time  intersect  (which  will  be . 

mean  distance  nearly,)  the  velocity  will  not  be  alterid. 
Oar  demonstration  supposes  that  the  portions  of  the  eur. 

described  in  different  revolutions,  for  the  same  {Hi)iU(;r. 

the  disturbing  planet  are  parta  of  one  orbitand  therefore  •!  . 

not  take  account  of  the  alteration  in  the  magnitude  of  :ii 

disturbing  force  produced  by  the  alteration  of  place  thl 

that  force  has  previously  caused.    This  has  been  taken  ui. 

account  to  a  certain  degree,  by  several  mathematieianN;iu! 

it  appears,  as  far  as  they  have  gone,  that  this  prgdacti  u 

alteration  in  the  conclusion. 
( 1 82.)  Secondly,  as  to  theplace  of  perihelion,  or  the  {«  n 

tion  of  the  line  of  apses.    The  motijn  of  this  vill  (kpr... 

essentially  on  the  excentricity  of  the  orbit  of  the  di«turi'  . 

planet.     Suppose,  for  instance,  that  the  orbit  of  Venu^i  i.> 

elliptical  ana  the  earth's  orbit  circular ;  as  the  diitan<i 

these  planets  in  conjunction  is  little  more  than  ^tb  o(  li. 

earth's  distance  from  the  sun,  the  ellipticity  of  the  orli:  ' 

Venus  would  bring  that  planet  at  aphelion  so  much  nt-j'*. 

to  the  earth  *s  orbit  that  by  far  the  greatest  effect  v  . . 

take  place  when  in  conjunction  there ;  and  this,  b) « -  . 

would  make  Venus'  line  of  apses  progress.    But  ;f  i 

earth's  orbit  were  more  elliptic  than  that  of  Venus  ib !  .' 
the  earth's  perihelion  were  on  the  same  side  of  the  »ll  » 
the  perihelion  of  Venus,  it  might  happen  that  the  pr.i>  ; 
action  would  take  place  at  perihelion,  and  then,  bv  <.. 
the  line  of  apses  would  regress.    These  effects  wouU  o  r 
nue  to  go  on,  while  the  relative  position  of  the  htir- 
apses,  and  the  proportion  of  the  excentricities,  kuw:.  ^ 
nearly  the  same.    As,  in  the  long  run,  conjunctioqs  ^ 
happen  everywhere,  the  preponderating  effect  v^^ulJ  > 
similar  to  the  greatest  effect ;  and  thus,  the  secular  va*  ' 
of  the  line  of  apses  will  be  conatant  (till  the  position^-  • 
lines  of  apses,  &c.  shall  have  changed  considerabU, 
magnitude  and  direction  will  depend  on  the  exceutr  *   « 
of  both  orbits;  but  if  the  disturbed  planet  is  the  id'*' 
and  if  the  orbit  of  the  other  be  not  excentric,  thehr.. 
apses  will  progress.    The  same  is  true,  if  the  di^t'*' 
planet  is  exterior  (the  greatest  action  being  then  t:  (be  ;«- 
rihelion,  if  the  interior  orbit  have  no  excentiicily,  u><i  ^ 
ing  directed  to  the  sun). 

(183.)  Thirdly,  as  to  the  excentricity.    If  the  orbit  of  .u 
disturbing  planet  were  circular,  the  effect  on  the  ev' 
tricity  produced  by  conjunction  at  the  pbce  vbea  '•• 
orbits  are  nearest  would  be  of  one  kind  before  a^njun< : 
and  of  the  opposite  kind  after  conjunction,  from  thv  ^  * 
turbing  force  in  the  radius  vector,  as  well  as  from  tbtf  >' 
pendicular  to  the  radius  vector ;  and  thus  the  exccntr . 
would  not  be  altered.    The  same  would  happeo  il  b*. 
orbits  were  excentrie,  provided  their  lines  of  aps»  <" ' 
cided.    Thus  it  appears  that  there  is  no  variation  of  elec- 
tricity, except  the  orbit  of  the  disturbing  planet  isexcenL* 
and  its  line  of  apses  does  not  coincide  with  that  of  (be  ur 
turbed  planet.    When  these  conditions  hold,  (as  the)  i 
every  planetary  orbit)  a  general  idea  of  the  effect  ida^  - 
obtained  by  finding  where  the  orbits  approach  i^ciiy^: 
then,  if  we  consider  the  disturbance  of  the  interior  pU:>'« 
since  the  force  draws  it  firom  the  sun,  the  exoentricit}  • 
be  increased  if  it  is  moving  from  perihelion,  or  diinint^^<  • 
if  it  is  moving  towards  perihelion.  For  the  exterior  pU.-^'. 
as  the  force  draws  it  towards  the  sun,  the  condusiou  « >"  •■ 
of  the  opposite  kind.    These  effects  are  constant,  till  u 
excentrieities  and  the  positions  of  the  lines  of  apici  ^-" 
changed  sensibly.    The  place  where  the  force  at  conj^:-' 
tion  produces  the  greatest  effect  on  tho  excentncit)  i- 
not  be  strictly  the  place  where  the  orbits  are  neare^U-" 
probably  will  not  be  far  removed  from  that  place. 

At  the  place  where  the  orbits  approach  neapM^  ^  '■ 
planets  in  general  are  moving  from  peribelioo,  ot  >«^ 
towards  perihelion,  so  that  when  one  exceniriat}  a  -^ 
creased,  tne  other  is  diminished. 

(184.)  For  the  general  stability  of  the  planetaty  f>jti" 
the  positions  of  the  lines  of  apses  are  not  important.'^ 
the  permanency  of  the  major  axes  and  the  exceninf;i'«'>  ^"^ 
of  tiie  greatest  importance.  ITie  conclusion  whirb  ': 
have  mentioned  as  to  the  absenoe  of  aecular  rarutb-s  v. 


OKA 


3M 


(^>R  A 


that  plane,  and  therefore  will  produce  no  disturbing  force 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  orbit.  Proceeding,  then, 
with  the  supposition  that  the  disturbing  body  is  not  in  the 
plane  of  the  orbit ;  and  supposing  fif^.  42  to  be  a  perspec- 
tive view  of  an  orbit  B,  B,  B,  (which,  to  assist  our  ideas, 
may  be  conceived  to  differ  little  from  a  circle)  with  the  dis- 
turbing body  C  out  of  the  plane  of  the  orbit,  let  us  take 


F^.  42. 


three  points  B,  B,  B,,  of  which  B.  ia  at  the  tame  distance 
as  A  fix)m  C,  B,  is  nearer  to  C,  and  B,  farther  fh)m  C  than 
A  is.  Suppose  that  the  attraction  of  G  draws  A  in  a  certain 
small  time  through  the  space  A  a,  and  that  when  the  planet 
is  at  B|,  or  B.,  or  B9,  the  attraction  draws  the  planet  in  the 
same  time  through  Bi  //|,  or  B,  &,»  or  B,  h^  respectively. 
Then  (as  in  (71.)  )  the  attraction  of  C  upon  the  two  bodies 
A  and  B  would  produce  no  disturbance  in  their  relative 
motions,  if  it  drew  them  through  equal  spaces  in  the  same 
direction.  Draw  Bi  </„  Bt  4t  S,  d^  each  equal  and  parallel 
to  A  a ;  then  if  the  attraction  had  drawn  B,  to  di^  there 
would  have  been  no  disturbance,  and  consequently  the  real 
disturbance  at  B|  is  represented  by  a  force  which  would 
have  drawn  the  planet  from  d^  to  61.  Similarly,  the  real 
disturbances  at  B,  and  B^  are  represented  by  forces  which 
would  have  drawn  the  planet  from  d^  to  6,,  and  from  d^  to 
6,  respectively.  Now,  smee  C  B,  is  equal  to  C  A,  the  forces 
or  C  upon  A  and  B|  are  e^ual,  and  therefore  Bj  6|  is  equal 
,  to  A  a,  and  therefore  a6|  is  parallel  to  ABi,  and  therefore 
is  in  the  same  straight  line  with  6,  d, ;  and  conBe()uently  at 
B|  the  whole  disturbing  force  is  parallel  to  the  radms  vector, 
and  there  is  no  part  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  orbit. 
But  at  B,  the  planet  is  nearer  to  C,  the  force  therefore  on 
the  planet  is  greater,  and  B,  6,  is  therefore  greater  than  A  a 
or  B,  d^ ;  also  it  is  more  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  plane 
of  the  orbit  than  B,  d^ ;  and  consequently  h^  is  farther  from 
the  plane  of  the  orbit  than  d^ ;  and  therefore  the  disturbing 
force  d^  h%  is  directed  from  the  plane  of  the  orbit  towards 
the  side  on  which  C  is.  On  the  contrary,  at  Ba  the  planet 
is  farther  from  C ;  the  force  on  the  planet  is  therefore  less : 
and  B,  6,  is  therefore  less  than  A  a  or  Ba  (^ ;  moreover  it  is 
inclined  more  to  the  perpendicular  than  B,  d^  and  eonse- 
auently  b^  is  nearer  to  the  plane  of  the  orbit  than  d^ ;  and 
therefore  the  disturbing  force  d^b^SA  directed  from  the  side 
on  which  C  is.    Thus  we  find, 

(196.)  When  the  central  and  revolving  bodies  are  equally 
distant  firom  the  disturbing  body,  there  is  no  disturbing 
force  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  orbit. 

(197.)  When  the  revolvmg  body  is  nearer  the  disturbing 
body  than  the  central  body  is,  the  disturbing  force  perpen- 
dicular to  the  plane  tends  to  draw  the  revolving  body  out  of 
the  plane  to  that  side  on  which  the  disturbing  body  is. 

(198.)  When  the  revolving  body  i&  farther  from  the  dis- 
turbing body  than  the  central  body  isi  the  disturbing  force 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  tends  to  draw  the  revolving  body 
out  of  the  plane  to  the  side  opposite  the  distiurbing  body. 

We  may  now  apply  these  conclusions  to  the  alteration  of 
the  node  and  inclination  of  the  moon's  orbit  produced  by 
the  sun's  attraction.  The  plane  of  reference  is  here  sup- 
posed to  be  the  plane  of  the  earth's  orbit. 

(199.)  First:  suppose  the  line  of  nodes  of  the  moon's 
orbit  to  be  in  syzygies,  or  to  pass  through  the  sun.  Here 
the  sun  is  in  the  moon's  orbit  produced,  and  therefore,  by 
(189.),  there  is  no  disturbing  force  perpendicular  to  the 
moon's  orbit. 

(200.)  Secondly :  suppose  the  line  of  nodes  to  be  in  qua- 
dratures, or  to  be  perpendicular  to  the  line  drawn  from  the 


Fig,  43. 


l\t  B8 


points,  at  which  the  moon's  distance  ftom  tlie  tnn  is  '^v 
same  as  the  earth's,  are  very  nearly  the  same  as  the  potr  - 
of  quadrature,  or  (in  the  case  before  us)  they  ane  if. 
nearly  the  same  as  the  nodes.    Conseouently,  while  ': 
moon  moves  ftom  B4  through  B|  to  B,,  she  is  nearer  to  '\'. 
sun  tBan  the  earth  is,  and  therefore  the  disturbing  f>:< 
by  (197.),  tends  to  pull  her  downwards  from  the  plan*.* 
her  orbit:  wliile  the  moon  moves  from  B,,  through  B^  - 
B4,  she  is  farther  from  the  sun  than  the  earth  K  and  tif»  r 
fore  the  disturbing  force  tends  (o  pull  her  upward*  fr    . 
the  plane  of  her  orbit.    In  the  ease  before  us,  tnen,  the  ^  * 
turbing  force  is  always  directed  towards  the  plane  of  r  • 
ference.    Oonsequently,  by  (192.),  while  the  moon  lo--.  » 
from  B4  to  Bi,  the  line  of  nodes  is  made  to  regress,  an'I  *  - 
inclination  is  diminished ;  while  the  moon  mores  froru  ^ 
Xti  B,,  the  line  of  nodes  regresses,  and  the  inclination  1^ 
creased ;  while  the  moon  moves  from  B,  to  B,,  the  luiv   ' 
nodes  regresses,  and  the  inclination  is  diminished:    a*  . 
while  the  moon  moves  from  B,  to  B4,  the  line  of  nodes  -  - 
grosses,  and  the  inclination  is  increased.    The  inclinAi- 
therefore,  is  not  sensibly  altered  in  a  whole  revolution,  \ 
the  line  of  nodes  regresses  during  the  whole  of  the  n.  t  - 
lution. 

(201.)  Thirdly:  suppose  the  line  of  nodes  to  be  in  i-w 
a  position  that  the  moon  passes  the  line  of  nodes  iu  ^-^ 
from  quadrature  to  syzygy,  as  in  fig,  44.    Here  the  sui. 
to  be  considered  as  below  the  moon  s  orbit,  and,  tliervf 
while  the  moon  moves  from  B4,  through  B^,  to  B,  the 


'-.: 


Bt 

/^^.  44.   V, 


earth  to  the  sun,  as  xnfig.  43.  The  sun,  in  the  figure,  may 
oe  conslderc<l  ns*  being  bolow  the  plane  of  the  moon's  orbit. 
Also,  the  ttiuon's  distance  from  tne  earth  being  small,  the 


turbing  force  tends  to  pull  her  down  from  the  plane  ^l  '\t 
orbit,  and  while  she  moves  fh)m  B^  through  B^  to  B^  :' 
force  lends  to  pull  her  tip  from  the  plane  of  her  or!    . 
Therefore,  in  goins;  from  B4  to  N,  the  force  pulb  the  n 
from  the  plane  of  reference;  and  causes  thereby  a  p'  - 
gression  of  the  line  of  nodes  and  a  diminution  oi*  th«  . 
clination  (193.);  in  going  from  N  to  the  highest  p^.i't  t\ 
the  force  pulls  the  moon  towards  the  plane  of  refers;  «  . 
and,  therefore,  causes  the  nobles  to  regress,  and  the  v.. 
nation  to  diminish  (192.);  in  going  from  the  highest  p 
O  to  B,,  the  force  still  pulls  the  moon  towards  the  i  Li!.« 
reference ;  and,  therefore,  still  causes  the  nodes  to  Ty%x  - 
but  causes  the  inclination  to  increase.      Thua  wbilo   : 
moon  moves  from  B4  to  N,  the  force  causes  the  line  of  n    '  • 
to  progress,  and  while  she  moves  from  N  to  B,,  it  causes 
line  of  nodes  to  regress;  and,  similarly,  wlule  ah«  m  >*  1 
from  Ba  to  M,  the  force  rn-.ises  the  line  of  nodes  to  ^.  - 
gross;  and  while  she  m^.w^  from  M  to  B4,  it  cau^e«  t 
line  of  nodes  to  regress.    On  the  whole,  thereforts  the  ..   . 
of  nodes  regresses,  but  not  so  rapidly  as  in  the  second  c^-- 
Also,  while  the  moon  moves  from  B4  to  O  the  iochnAi. 
is  diminished,  and  while  she  moves  from  O  to  B,  tht- 
clination  is  increased ;  and,  similarly,  while  she  move->  i-  . . 
Bj  to  P  the  inclination  is  diminished ;  and  while  she  u«  * .  • 
from  P  to  B4  the  inclination  is  increased.     On  the  «  h  .. 
therefore,  the  inclination  is  diminished. 

(202.)  Fourthly :  suppose  the  line  of  nodes  to  be  in  %u  : 
a  position  that  the  moon  passes  it  in  going  from  s>  i}  i.,v  * 
quadrature,  as  in  fig,  45.    Here,  also,  the  sun  ia  below  *  * 


«^.45.  ■' 


plane  of  the  orbit  produced ;  and,  therefore,  from  B4  tc>  P 
the  force  tends  to  pull  the  moon  down  from  her  orbit :  tr 
from  Ba  to  B4  it  tends  to  pull  her  up  fh>m  it.     A«  11.  r  - 
last  case  it  wuuld  be  seen,  that  while  the  moon  mores  fr^  * 
B4  to  M,  the  line  of  nodes  regresses;  while  firom  M  t.>  .< 
the  line  of  nodes  progresses;  while  from  B,  to  N,  ihr 
of  nodes  regresses;  and  while  fh}m  N  toB,,  the  Iim- 
nodes  progresses.     On  the  whole,  therefore,   the   \\xw  . 
nodes  regresses.    Also,  it  will  be  seen,  that  whBe  the  tr 
moves  from  B4toO,  the  inclination  is  diminished;  %it 
from  O  to  Ba,  the  inclination  is  increased ;  while  firora  H. 
P,  the  inclination  is  diminished;  and  while  fVom  P  to  .■ 
the  inclination  is  increased.    On  the  whole,  therefore  i 
inclination  is  increased. 
The  same  reasoning  would  apply,  and  lead  to  the  >«fi'r 


' 


G  II  A 


396 


G  R  A 


Fif.  46 


direction,  or  has  progrefised.  If  tho  motion  of  the  node  on 
Saturn's  orhit  from  J  to  ;  is  regression,  the  motion  of  the 
node  on  the  earth's  orbit  from  E  to  <?  must  be  progression. 

(212.)  There  is  a  remarkable  relation  between  the  inch- 
nations  of  all  the  orbiu  of  the  planelaiy  system  to  a  fixed 
plane,  existing  through  all  their  secular  variations,  similar 
to  that  between  their  excentricities.  The  sum  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  each  mass,  by  the  square  root  of  the  major  axis  of 
its  orbit,  and  by  the  square  of  the  inclination  to  a  fixed 
plane,  is  invariable. 

(213.)  The  disturbance  of  Jupiter's  satellites  in  latitude 

5 resents  circumstances  not  less  worthy  of  remark  than  the 
isturbance  in  longitude.  The  masses  are  so  small,  and 
their  orbits  so  little  inclined  to  each  other,  that  the  small 
inequalities  produced  in  a  revolution  may  be  neglected. 
Even  that  depending  on  the  slow  revolution  of  the  line  of 
conjunctions  of  the  nrst  three  satellites,  so  smaU  is  the  mu- 
tual inclination  of  their  orbits,  does  not  amount  to  a  sensi- 
ble quantity.  We  shall  therefore  consider  only  those  alter- 
ations in  the  position  of  the  planes  of  the  orbits  which  do 
not  vary  sensibly  in  a  small  number  of  revolutions.  For 
this  purpose  we  must  introduce  a  tenn  which  has  not  been 
introduced  before. 

(214.)  If  the  moon  revolved  round  the  earth  in  the  same 
plane  in  which  the  earth  revolves  round  the  Bun«  the  sun's 
attraction  would  never  tend  to  draw  the  moon  out  of  that 
plane.  But  (taking  the  circumstances  as  they  really  exist,) 
the  moon  revolves  round  the  earth  in  a  plane  inclined  to 
the  plane  in  which  the  earth  revolves  round  the  sun ;  and 
the  conseouence,  as  we  have  seen,  is,  that  the  line  of  nodes 
upon  the  latter  plane  regresses,  and  the  inclination  of  the 
orhit  to  the  latter  plane  remains,  on  the  whole,  unaltered. 
The  plane  of  the  earth's  orbit,  then,  may  be  considered  a 
fundamental  plane  to  the  moon's  motion ;  by  which  term 
we  mean  to  express,  that  if  the  moon  moved  in  that  plane, 
the  disturbing  force  would  never  draw  her  out  of  it ;  and 
that  if  she  moved  in  an  orbit  inclined  to  it,  the  orbit  would 
always  be  inclined  at  nearly  the  same  angle  to  that  plane, 
though  its  line  of  nodes  had  sensibly  altered.  The  latter 
condition  will,  in  general,  be  a  consequence  of  the  former. 

(215.)  In  order  to  discover  what  will  be  the  fundamental 
plane  for  one  of  Jupiter's  satellites,  we  must  consider  that, 
besides  the  sun's  attraction,  there  is  another  and  more 
powerful  disturbing  force  acting  on  these  bodies,  namely, 
the  irregularity  of  attraction  produced  by  Jupiter's  flatness. 
Tlie  effect  of  this  (as  we  shall  show)  is  always  to  pull  the 
satellites  towards  the  plane  of  Jupiter's  equator.  If  Jupiter 
were  spherical,  the  only  disturbing  force  would  be  the 
sun  s  attraction,  tending  on  the  whole  to  draw  the  satellite 
owards  the  plane  of  Jupiter's  orbit,  and  that  plane  would 
be  the  fundamental  plane  of  the  satellite.  If  Jupiter  were 
flattened,  and  if  the  sun  did  not  disturb  the  satellite,  tbe 
rregularity  in  Jupiter  s  shape  would  always  tend  to  draw 
the  satellite  towanfs  the  plane  of  his  equator,  and  the  plane 
of  his  equator  would  be  the  fundamental  plane  of  the  satel- 
lite. As  both  causes  exist,  the  position  of  the  actual  fun- 
damental plane  must  be  found  by  the  following  considera- 
tion. We  must  discover  the  position  of  a  plane  fVom  which 
the  sun's  disturbing  force  tends,  on  the  whole,  to  draw  the 
satellite  downwards,  and  the  disturbing  force  depending 
upon  Jupiter's  shape  tends  to  draw  it  upwards  (or  vice 
versd),  by  equal  quantities ;  and  that  plane  will  be  the  Ain- 
damental  plane.  This  plane  must  lie  between  the  planes  of 
Jupiter's  orbit  and  Jupiter's  equator,  because  thus  only  can 
the  disturbing  forces  act  in  opposite  ways,  and  therefore 
balance  each  other :  and  it  must  pass  through  their  inter- 
section, as  otherwise  it  would  at  that  part  be  above  both  or 
below  both,  and  the  forces  depending  on  both  causes  would 
act  the  same  way. 

(216.)  The  disturbing  force  of  the  sun,  as  we  hare  seen 
(82.),  &c.,  is  greater  as  the  satellite  is  more  distant ;  the  dis- 
turbing force  depending  on  Jupiter's  shape  is  then  less,  as 
we  shall  mention  heresdter.  Consequently,  as  the  satellite 
IS  more  distant,  the  effect  of  the  sun's  disturbing  force  is 
much  greater  in  proportion  to  that  depending  on  Jupiter's 
shape    Thaa,  if  there  were  a  single  satellite  at  the  distance 


of  Jupiter's  first  sateUite,  its  fundamental  pluir   wo. 
nearly  coincide  with  tbe  plane  of  Jupiter's  equator ;  il  • 
the  distance  of  Jupiter's  second  sateUite,  its  fundumc: ' 
plane  would  depart  a  little  farther  from  coincidence  t  ' 
the  plane  of  the  equator ;  and  so  on  for  other  di&tanco 
and  if  the  distance  were  very  great,  it  would  nearly  ooior. 
with  the  plane  of  Jupiter's  orbit.    It  then*  Jupiter**  U  : 
satellites  did  not  disturb  each  other,  each  of  tbem  wu* 
have  a  separate  fimdamental  plane,  and  the  position  % 
these  planes  would  depend  only  upon  each  satellite**  d 
tance  from  Jupiter. 

(217.)  In  fact,  the  satellites  do  disturb  each  other.  1 
speaking  of  the  planets  (210.),  we  have  observed  thai  tl 
effect  of  the  attraction  of  one  planet  upon  anotiier,  in  <. 
long  run,  is  to  exert  a  disturbing  force  tending  to  dni 


other  planet  (at  anv  part  of  its  orbit)  towards  the  pUi.c 
the  first  planet's  ornit    The  same  thing  is  true  of  J  up.: 


i' 


satellites.    Now,  though  each  of  them  moves 
an  orbit  inclined  to  its  fundamental  plane,  yet  in  tbe 
run  (when  the  nodes  of  the  orbit  have  regressed  n. 
times  round),  we  may  consider  the  motion  of  each  sat<> 
as  taking  place  in  its  fundamental  plane.    The  qu«»«* 
therefore,  must  now  be  stated  thus.    The  four  aatelhfc«  . 
revolving  in  four  different  fundamental  planes;  and  z 
position  of  each  of  these  planes  is  to  he  determined  In  ' 
consideration  that  the  satellite  in  that  plane  is  dra«(>  ' 
wards  the  plane  of  Jupiter's  orbit  by  the  sun's  di<»tu!tt. 
force,  towards  the  plane  of  Jupiter's  equator  by  the  : 
depending  on  Jupiter's  shape,  and  towaras  the  plane  of  i  * 
of  the  other  three  satellites,  by  the  disturbing  force  {- 
duced  by  each  satellite :  and  these  forces  must  bala:.o- 
the  long  run. 

(218.)  The  determination  of  these  planes  is  not  ver^  •!  ' 
cult,  when  general  algebraical  expressions  have  been  u:^' 
tigated  for  the  magnitude  of  each  of  the  forces.  Tbe  go:i' 
nature  of  the  results  will  be  easily  seen ;  the  several  U- 
mental  planes  will  be  drawn  nearer  together  (that  ot  . 
first  satellite,  that  of  the  second,  and  that  of  the  third  • 
be  drawn  nearer  to  Jupiter's  orbit,  while  that  of  the  tuw: 
will  be  drawn  nearer  to  Jupiter's  equator).  The  four  pi* 
wil  still  pass  through  the  intersection  of  the  plane  uf  J 
piter's  equator  with  that  of  Jupiter's  orbit     Thus,  i- 
conceive  the  eye  to  be  placed  at  a  great  distanoe,  in  t: 
tersection  of  the  planes  of  Jupiter's  orbit  and  Juvi'« 
equator,  and  if  the  dotted  Unes  in  Jig.  47  represent  tln^  - 


Fig.  47. 


pearance  of  the  fundamentsd  planes  which  would  e\i«: 
the  satellites  did  not  disturb  each  other,  then  the  dark  h 
will  represent  the  positions  of  these  planes  as  afltH^c  i 
the  mutual  disturbances.  The  inclination  of  Jupiter's  *^    . 
tor  to  Jupiter's  orbit  is  about  3**  5' ;  aud  so  great  is  the  vf 
of  his  shape,  that  the  fundamental  plane  oithe  first  ^att. 
is  inclined  to  his  equator  by  only  Z";  that  of  the  seo»i.(i  .^^ 
tellite  by  about  1^;  that  of  the  third  by  about  5';  and ::. 
of  the  fourth  by  about  24^'.   Without  mutual  perttiri«^< 
the  inclinations  to  Jupiter's  equator  would  have  been  ^  -• 
2",  20",  4',  and  48'. 

(219.)  Having  considered  the  positions  of  tbe  fur.  . 
mental  planes,  we  shall  now  consider  the  motion  of  a  ^: 
lite,  when  moving  in  an  orbit  inclined  to  its  IVmdAOitf:^.  - 
plane. 

(220.)  The  general  effect  will  be  of  the  same  kind  &«  l 
for  the  moon.    Since  the  disturbing  force  which  then  tr  - 
to  pull  it  from  the  plane  of  its  orbit,  tends  to  pull  it  to«4r> 
the  fundamental  plane  (as,  supposing  the  satellite  to  U   * 
that  side  of  the  mndamental  plane  next  the  plane  uf  J 
piter's  equator,  the  sun's  disturbing  force  towards  J\xy>'*  ■  * 
orbit  is  increased,  that  towards  Jupiter's  equator  is  dij. 
nishcd,  and  so  for  the  others),  the  line  of  nodes  will  rtr  -' 
on  the  fundamental  plane.    The  inclination  on  the  w:^ 
.will  not  be  altered.    That  part  of  the  re|p:«aBion  of  v^ 
nodes  which  depends  on  the  sun's  disturbing  force  wul  ^ 
greater  for  the  distant  satellites  than  for  the  iiesr  one$ ;  h'.i 
that  which  depends  on  the  shape  of  Jupiter  (and  whAc h  l« 
much  more  important)  will  be  greater  for  the  near  satellitts 
than  for  the  distant  ones.  On  uie  whole*  thonfon^  the  lino 


G  R  A 


398 


O  R  A 


U  the  points  D  end  S.  The  attraction  of  the  whole  sphere 
on  the  satellite  B,  as  we  have  remarked,  is  the  same  as  if 
all  the  matter  of  the  sphere  were  collected  at  A.  But  the 
attraction  of  the  part  cut  otf  is  not  the  same  as  if  it  were 
collected  at  A,  inasmuch  as  its  distance  from  B  is  greater, 
and  as  the  direction  of  the  attraction  to  D,  or  to  £,  is  not 
the  same  as  that  to  A.  Thus,  suppose  A  D  is  called  1,  and 
A  6  is  called  10.  Since  the  forces  are  inversely  as  the 
squares  of  the  distances  at  which  the  attracting  mass  is 
situate,  the  attraction  of  the  lump  D,  if  at  the  point  A, 
where  its  distanre  fVom  B  is  10,  may  be  called  ^^ ;  but  if  at 
D,  it  must  be  called  ij^|,  since  the  sauare  of  B  D  is  equal  to 
the  sum  of  the  squares  of  B  A  and  A  D,  that  is,  to  the  sum 
of  100  and  I.  Also  the  direction  of  attraction  is  not  the 
same ;  for,  if  the  attraction  of  D  should  draw  the  satellite 
through  B6,  and  if  6  c  be  drawn  perpendicular  to  AB,  the 
only  effective  approach  to  A  is  the  distance  B  c,  which  is 
less  than  B  6  in  the  proportion  of  B  A  to  B  D,  or  of  10  to 

/J  101 ;  and,  therefore,  the  effective  attraction  of  D,  esti- 
mated by  the  space  through  which  it  draws  the  satellite 

towards  A,  must  be  called .    And  this  is  the 

101  X  VlO) 

whole  effect  which  its  attraction  produces ;  for  though  the 
attraction  of  D  alone  tends  to  draw  the  satellite  above  A  B, 
yet  the  attraction  of  E  will  tend  to  draw  it  as  much  below 
A  B ;  and  thus  the  parts  of  the  force  which  act  perpendi- 
cular to  A  B  will  destroy  each  other.  We  have,  tnen :  the 
attraction  of  the  lump  D,  if  placed  at  A,  would  be  repre- 
sented by  T^.  =  0'01  ;  but  as  placed  at  D,  its  effective  at- 


traction is  represented  by 


10 


=  0*0098518,     The 


101  X  Vioi 

difference  is  O'OOOl  482,  or  nearly  th  of  the  whole  at- 

traction of  D,  and  the  same  ibr  B.  Consequently,  the 
lumps  at  D  and  E  produce  a  smaller  effective  attraction  on 
B  than  if  they  were  collected  at  A ;  but  the  whole  sphere 
produces  the  same  effect  as  if  its  whole  mass  were  collected 
at  A ;  and,  therefore,  the  part  loft  after  cutting  away  the 
lumps  at  D  and  E  produces  a  greater  attraction  than  if  its 
whole  mass  were  collected  at  A. 

(231.)  But  it  is  important  to  inquire,  whether  this  attrac- 
tion is  greater  than  if  the  matter  of  the  spheroid  were 
collected  at  the  centre,  in  the  same  proportion  at  all 
distances  of  the  satellite.  For  this  purpose,  suppose  the 
distance  of  the  satellite  to  be  20.  The  same  reasoning 
would  show,  that  the  attraction  of  the  lump  D,  if  placed  at 

A,  must  now  be  represented  by  jn^'^O'^OSd ;    hut  that,  if 

placed   ort   D,  its  effective  attraction  is  represented   by 
20 

-=r.  =  0*002490653.        Tlie    difference 

401  X  aJ  401 

0-000009347,  or  nearly 


now    IB 


375 


of  the  whole  attraction  of 


iUllUUO 

D.  Consequently  by  removing  the  satellite  to  ivnce  the 
distance  from  A,  the  diflbvence  between  the  effective  at- 
truoiion  of  the  lump  at  A  and  at  D  bears  to  the  whole 
attraction  of  the  lump  at  A  a  proportion  four  times  smaller 
than  before.  And,  therefore,  the  attraction  of  the  spheroid, 
thoii|;h  still  irreater  than  if  its  whole  matter  were  collected 
at  A,  differs  from  that  by  a  quantity,  whose  proportion  to 
the  whole  attraction  is  only  one-fourth  of  what  it  was  befbre. 
If  we  tried  different  distances  in  the  same  manner,  we 
bhould  And,  as  a  general  law,  that  the  proportion  which  the 
difference  (of  the  actual  attraction,  ana  tne  attraction  sup- 
posing all  the  matter  collected  at  the  centre)  bears  to  the 
latter,  diminishes  as  the  square  of  the  distance  fh)m  A 
increases. 

(232.)  The  attraction  of  an  oblate  spheroid  upon  a  sa- 
tellite, or  other  body,  in  the  plane  of  its  equator,  may  there- 
fore, be  stated  thus:— There  is  the  same  force  as  if  all  the 
matter  of  the  spheroid  were  collected  at  its  centre,  and,  be- 
sides this,  there  is  an  additional  force,  depending  upon  the 
oblateness,  whose  proportion  to  the  other  force  diminishes 
as  the  square  of  the  distance  of  the  satellite  is  increased. 

(233.)  Now,  let  us  investigate  the  law  according  to  which 
an  oblate  spheqoid  attracts  a  body,  situate  in  the  direction 
of  its  axis. 

Ptocoeding  in  tba  Muae  mumer  m  befon^  and  nippoaing 


the  dtstaoce  A  B  to  be  10,  the  sttnustion  of  the  lutt| ,  wtairh 

at  A  would  be  represented  by  ili,  wiU  at  D  be  reprdseoted 
by  A*  aod  will  at  £  be  represented  bv  th*  (since  tue  dir 
tances  of  D  and  £  from  B  are  respectively  9  and  1 1).  IIeu», 
if  the  two  equal  lumps,  D  and  £i  were  coUeeted  at  Om 


Bg.  49. 


B 


I 


centre,  their  attraction  on  B  would  be  T55+ .«« 


1 


Ita  the  positions  D  and  E,  the  sum  of  their  attractions  on 


^^H  +  TTl 


0*0206100.    The  difference  ia  0*0006 lOi*. 


by  which  the  attraction  in  the  latter  case  is  the  greater 
Cionsequently,  the  attraction  of  the  lumps  in  the  poaitio!>- 
D  and  £  is  greater  than  if  they  were  collected  at  the  ce;. 
tre  by  nearly  ibths  of  their  whole  attraction ;  but  the  attrac- 
tion of  the  whole  sphere  is  the  same  as  if  all  the  matttfr  ••: 
the  sphere  were  collected  at  the  centre;  therefore,  wLm 
these  parts  are  removed,  they  must  leave  a  mass,  wbi*<c 
attraction  is  less  than  if  its  whole  matter  were  collected  r 
the  centre.  With  regard  to  the  alteration  dependints  o;j 
the  distance  of  B,  it  would  be  found,  on  trial,  to  fcUow  the 
same  law  as  before. 

(234.)  The  attraction  of  a  spheroid  on  a  body  in  the  <!.< 
rection  of  its  axis  may,  therefore,  be  represented,  bv  bu;>- 
posing  the  whole  matter  collected  at  the  centre,  an«{  tht :. 
supposing  the  attraction  to  be  diminished  by  a  force  depend* 
ing  on  the  oblateness,  whose  proportion  to  the  whole  fur^  c 
diminishes  as  the  square  of  the  distance  of  the  body  is  il- 
creased. 

(23d.)  Since  the  attraction  on  a  body,  in  the  plane  of  tU 
equator,  is  greater  than  if  the  mass  of  the  oneroid  were 
collected  at  its  centre,  and  the  attraction  on  a  body  in  t  ^ 
direction  of  the  axis  is  less,  it  will  readily  be  unaerbt.H>I 
that  in  taking  directions,  successively  more  and  muit^  ^  - 
clined  to  the  equator,  on  both  sides,  the  attraolion  suivk> 
sively  diminishes.  And  there  is  one  inclination,  at  «hi< : 
the  attraction  is  exactly  the  same  as  if  the  whole  ma»»  : 
the  spheroid  were  collected  at  its  centre. 

(236.)  Now,  suppose  that  a  satellite  revolves  in  an  urb  ;, 
which  coincides  with  the  plane  of  the  equator,  or  mahc^  a 
small  an^le  with  it;  what  will  be  the  nature  of  its  orbit  ? 
For  this  mvestigation  we  have  only  to  consider,  that  tLi  i. 
is  acting  upon  the  satellite  a  force,  the  same  as  if  all  Or 
matter  of  tho  spheroid  were  collected  at  its  centre,  ui  I 
consequently,  proportional  inversely  to  the  square  of  tL- 
distance,  and  that,  with  this  force  only,  the  satellite  w<>u. 
move  in  an  ellipse,  whose  focus  coincided  with  the  centra    f 
the  spheroid.    But  besides  this,  there  is  a  force  alwa}»  di- 
rected to  the  centre,  depending  on  the  oblateness.     O'u* 
effect  of  it  will  be,  that  the  periodic  time  will  be  sbortrr 
with  the  same  mean  distance,  or  the  mean  distance  givait-: 
with  the  same  periodic  time,  than  if  the  former  were  ti.t 
only  force.  (46.)   Another  effect  will  be,  that  when  irv 
satellite  is  at  its  greatest  distance,  this  force  will  cause  xiw 
line  of  apses  to  regress,  and  when  at  its  smallest  diaianci*. 
this  force  will  cause  the  hne  of  apses  to  progress.  (^0.)  ard 
(53.)*    If  this  force,  at  different  distances,  were  in  the  saiut 
proportion  as  the  other  attractive  foroe,  it  would.  00  ih 
whole,  cause  no  alteration  in  the  position  of  the  Une  of  a}  >v-^ 
(for  it  would  amount  to  the  same  as  increasing  the  ocutr  li 
mass  in  a  certain  proportion,  in  which  case  an  ellipse,  wiii. 
invariable  line  of  apses,  would  be  described;  that  is.  th^ 
regression  at  the  greatest  distance  would  be  equal  to  (b«r 

£  regression  at  the  least  distance.  {3ee  the  note  to  (^>.  ( 
»ut  (231.)  the  proportion  of  this  force  to  the  other  dimini>Lc» 
as  the  distance  is  increased.  Consequently,  the  re(;r«»sio^ 
at  the  greatest  distanee  is  less  than  the  proeression  ai  the* 
least  distance,  and,  therefore^  on  the  whow^  tne  line  of  apsea 
progreswi,    Alsot  Ibo  notni  lbs  iMalUto  ia  to  lb«  plax>ec. 


6  R  A 


400 


G  R  A 


by  which  the  moon  is  sometimes  before  her  mean  place, 
and  sometimes  behind  it.  If  the  earth's  flattening  at  each 
pole  were  more  or  less  than  jfeth  of  the  semi-diameter,  the 
effects  on  the  moon,  both  in  altering  the  position  of  the 
fundamental  plane,  and  in  producing  this  inequality  in  the 
longitude,  would  be  greater  or  less  than  the  quantities  that 
we  have  mentioned;  and  thus  we  are  led  to  the  very  re- 
markable conclusion,  that  by  observing  the  moon  we  can 
discover  the  amount  of  the  earth's  oblateness,  supposing 
the  theory  to  be  true.  Th»  has  been  done ;  and  the  agree- 
ment of  the  result  thus  obtained,  with  that  obtained  from 
direct  measures  of  the  earth,  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
proofs  of  the  correctness  of  the  Theory  of  Universal 
Gravitation. 

GRAVITY,  CENTRE  OF,  is  that  point  at  which  all 
the  weight  of  a  mass  might  be  collected  without  disturbing 
the  equilibrium  of  any  system  of  which  the  mass  forms  a 
part.  Thus  if  a  lever  were  balanced  by  means  of  two  solid 
spheres  of  uniform  density  hung  at  the  ends,  the  equilibrium 
would  still  remain  if  all  the  matter  of  either  of  the  spheres 
could  be  concentrated  at  its  centre.  The  centre  of  the 
sphere  is  then  its  centre  pf  gravity. 

When  a  body  is  suspended  by  a  string,  and  allowed  to 
find  ite  position  of  rest,  the  centre  of  gravity  is  in  the  line 
of  continuation  of  the  string.  If  then  a  body  be  suspended 
successively  at  two  different  points,  and  if  the  lines  in  which 
the  strings  produced  would  cut  through  the  body  can  be 
conveniently  determined,  the  centre  of  gravity  is  the  point 
of  intersection  of  the  two  lines.  This  process  is  very  easy 
in  the  case  of  a  thin  flat  surface,  and  the  approximation  is 
quite  sufficient  for  practical  purposes. 

When  a  surface  (or  a  thin  plate)  is  of  uniform  density, 
the  centres  of  gravity  and  of  figure  [Ckntri]  are  the  same. 
It  is  needless  to  say  where  this  falls  in  the  case  of  a  circle, 
of  a  square  or  other  parallelogram,  or  of  a  regular  oval  figure. 
In  a  triangle  it  is  found  by  joining  the  vertex  and  middle  of 
the  base,  and  cutting  the  intercepted  line  into  three  equal 
parts,  the  nearest  trisecting  point  to  the  base  giving  the 
centre  of  gravity.  In  a  prism  and  cylinder  it  is  the  mid- 
dle point  of  the  line  joinmg  the  centres  of  gravity  of  the 
two  bases.  In  a  cone  or  pyramid  it  is  found  by  joining  the 
vertex  and  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  base,  and  cutting 
the  joining  line  into  four  equal  parts,  the  nearest  of  which 
to  the  base  ends  in  the  centre  of  gravity.  In  a  semicircle 
the  distance  of  the  centre  of  gravity  from  the  centre  is 
about  fourteen  thirty-thirds  of  the  radius  ;  in  a  hemisphere 
this  same  distance  is  five-eighths  of  the  radius. 

The  centre  of  gravity  of  two  bodies  is  found  by  joining 
their  centres  of  gravity,  and  dividing  the  joining  line  so 
that  the  content  of  the  first  may  be  to  that  of  the  second  as 
the  segment  adjoining  the  second  is  to  that  adjoining  the 
first.  By  the  same  rule,  and  by  the  centre  of  two  bodies  thus 
found  and  that  of  a  third,  the  centre  of  three  bodies  may 
be  found,  taking  care  to  use  with  each  centre  the  sum  of  all 
the  contents  of  the  bodies  employed  in  finding  it. 

GRAVITY,  SPECIFIC.    [Specific  Gravity.] 

GRAY,  THOMAS,  was  born  in  Cornhill  on  the  26th  of 
December,  1716.  He  was  the  fifth  among  twelve  children 
of  a  respectable  citizen  and  money-scrivener  in  London, 
and  the  on\y  one  of  the  twelve  who  survived  the  period  of 
infancy. 

Gray  was  sent  to  be  educated  at  Eton,  where  a  maternal 
uncle,  of  the  name  of  Antrobus,  was  one  of  the  assistant 
masters.  It  may  be  mentioned,  that  at  Eton,  and  after- 
wards at  Cambridge,  Gray  was  entirely  supported  by  his 
mother ;  the  father,  who  was  a  selfish,  violent,  and  unprinci- 
pled man,  having  chosen  to  refuse  all  assistance  towards  his 
son's  education.  At  Eton  Gray  made  himself  a  good  das- 
and  here  too  began  that  niendship  with  West  which. 


SIC 


shortly  terminated  by  the  premature  death  of  the  latter,  yet 
forms  one  of  the  most  interesting  features  in  the  history  of 
Gray's  early  manhood.  Horace  Walpole  was  another  of  his 
intimate  associates  at  Eton,  and,  removing  thence  to  Cam- 
bridge at  the  same  time  with  Gray,  continued  to  be  so 
there :  West  went  to  Oxford.  It  was  in  the  autumn  of 
1735  that  Gray  commenced  his  residence  at  Cambridge, 
having  entered  at  Peter  House ;  and  he  continued  to  reside 
till  September,  1738,  when  he  left  without  a  degree.  He 
professed  to  hate  mathematics,  and  college  discipline  was 
irksome  to  him.  '  You  must  know/  he  writes  in  his  second 
year  to  his  friend  West  at  Oxford, '  that  I  do  not  take  de- 
grees, and,  after  this  term,  shall  have  nothing  more  of  col- 
lege impertinences  to  undergo.*    His  time  at  Cambridge 


was  devoted  to  classics,  modem  languages*  and  posUy ;  and 
a  few  Latin  poems  and  English  translations  were  made  by 
him  at  this  period. 

In  the  spring  of  1739  Gray  set  out,  in  company  with 
Horace  Walpole,  and  at  his  request,  on  a  tour  ihrough 
France  and  Italy.  They  passed  the  following  winter  at 
Florence  with  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir)  Horace  Mano,  the  en- 
voy at  that  court;  and  after  visiting  Rome  and  Naples, 
and  seeing  the  remains  of  Herculaneum,  which  had  onU 
been  discovered  the  vear  before,  they  passed  eleven  moatU% 
more  at  Florence.  \Vhile  here  Gray  commenced  bis  Ls«l«:t 
poem  '  De  Principiis  Cogitandi.'  But  the  travelled  after- 
wards quarrelled.  Gray  being,  as  Horace  Walpole  b»*  a, 
'  too  serious  a  companion.'  *  I  had  just  broke  loo«e,*  aai« 
Walpole, '  from  the  restraint  of  the  university,  with  as  muca 
money  as  I  could  spend ;  and  I  was  willing  to  indulge  m«- 
self.  Gray  was  for  antiquities,  &c.,  whdst  I  was  for  pcrf*^ 
tual  balls  and  plays:  the  fault  was  mine.*  {Walpoiutna,  l 
ex.)  Gray  turned  his  steps  homewards,  and  arrived  in 
England  in  September,  1741,  just  in  time  to  be  preseiit  at 
his  father  8  death. 

Gray  had  intended,  on  leaving  Cambridee,  to  devote  him* 
self  to  the  study  of  the  law.  His  travels  iiad  now*  for  tau 
years  and  a  half,  diverted  him  from  this  object ;  and  aftei 
his  father's  death  he  appears  entirely  to  have  given  it  up 
He  went  to  reside  at  Cambridge  for  the  profeMed  piirpik« 
of  taking  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Civil  Law,  but  goou- 
nued  to  reside  there  after  taking  the  degree.  Enjoying  op- 
portunities of  books  which  he  could  not  command  else- 
where, he  devoted  himself  with  much  ardour  to  the  perv»ai 
of  the  classics,  and  at  the  same  time  cultivated  his  muse. 
The  *Ode  to  Spring  '  was  written  in  1742,  and  sent,  lil« 
most  of  his  previous  compositions,  to  West,  who  bowe%fr 
had  died  berore  it  reachea  him ;  and  in  the  autumn  of  the 
same  year  were  written  the  '  Ode  on  a  Distant  Prospect  U 
Eton  College,'  and  the  '  Hymn  to  Adversity.'  The  *  Ele^^ 
in  a  Country  Churchyard '  was  also  commenced  at  this  pe- 
riod, but  not  finished  till  seven  years  afterwarda.  In  iLe 
meanwhile  the  *  Ode  to  Eton  College'  had  been  published 
(being  the  first  of  Gray*s  publications)  in  1747,  and  lu*.«. 
notice  had  been  taken  of  it  The  *  Elegy,'  published  ut 
1 749,  rapidly  obtained  an  extensive  popularity. 

In  March,  1753,  Gray  lost  his  mother,  for  whom  be  hsi 
always  felt  the  strongest  affection,  and  whom,  aceordin^  *.  • 
Mr.  Mason,  he  seldom  afterwards  mentioned  without  a  stc^ 
During  the  three  years  following  Horace  Walpole  observe* 
that  Gray  was  '  in  flower.'  The  *  Ode  on  the  Progrca*  ^ 
Poetry'  and  the  'Bard'  were  then  written.  But  it  ma^ 
during  these  three  years  also  that  a  material  change  for  tSf 
worse  took  place  in  Gray*s  health,  and  that  he  began  to  be 
visited  with  alarming  attacks  of  the  gout,  which  embit- 
tered the  remainder  of  his  days,  and  ultimately  caim^i 
him  off. 

In  1756  Gray  having  experienced  some  inctviktie»  a\ 
Peter  House,  removed,  or  (in  the  technical  phrase)  m- 
grated  to  Pembroke  Hnll.  In  1 757  he  took  nis  two  la>: 
odes  to  London  to  be  published.  They  were  not  emiucmlv 
successful.  But  Gray's  reputation  had  been  already  otA 
blished ;  and  on  the  death  of  Cibber  in  the  same  year  dc 
was  offered  the  laureateship  by  the  Duke  of  Devon^irv, 
which  however  he  refused.  He  applied  himself  noyk  ty 
some  time  to  the  study  of  architecture ;  and  from  Imn  M: 
Bentham  derived  much  valuable  assistance  in  his  veil- 
known '  History  of  Ely.'  In  1765  he  visited  Scotland,  ai»: 
was  there  received  with  many  signs  of  honour.  The  ur;- 
versity  of  Aberdeen  proposed  to  confer  on  him  the  degree  •'' 
Doctor  of  Laws ;  but  he  declined  the  honour,  thinkini^  ih^: 
it  might  appear  a  slight  and  contempt  of  his  own  uni%  s* 
sity,  where  he  says  '  he  passed  so  many  easy  and  bappf 
hours  of  his  life,  where  he  had  once  lived  from  chmcc,  ac/I 
continued  to  do  so  from  obligation.'  In  1768  the  prx4e>s«x- 
ship  of  modern  history  at  Cambridge  became  vacant.  ^u\ 
Grayi  who  on  the  occasion  of  the  preceding  vacancy  b»i 
applied  unsuccessfully,  was  now  appointed  by  tlie  Duke  . .' 
Grafton.  In  the  succeeding  year  the  Duke  of  Gimfton  «u 
elected  chancellor  of  the  university,  and  Gray  wrote  the  x&- 
stallation  ode,  a  poem  which,  considering  the  aubject  ar. ; 
the  occasion,  is  singularly  chaste  and  free  lh>m  flanrry. 
In  the  spring  of  1770  illness  overtook  him,  as  he  was  in- 
jecting a  tour  in  Wales ;  but  recovering,  he  was  able  Su 
effect  the  tour  in  the  autumn.  His  respite  however  « as  but 
a  short  one;  and  having  sufiered  for  some  months  pne\kfu« 
from  a  violent  cough  and  great  deprcaaion  of  apixit^  be  «m 


GR  S 


402 


GR  & 


the  Sodety  fbr  the  Diffiieion  6f  Uaeftil  Knowledge.)  These 
distances  give  an  outline  of  1460  miles;  but  as  the^  coast, 
especially  on  the  western  side,  is  a  succession  of  projecting 
promontories  and  deeply  penetrating  bays,  the  real  coast- 
line probably  exceeds  tnree  times  tliat  amount  In  Sin* 
clair^  '  Statistical  View  of  Scotland'  the  sea-ooast  of  that 
part  of  the  island,  reckoning  the  mainland  only,  is  stated 
to  be  2500  miles.  The  surfiute  of  the  island  is  about  83,827 
square  miles,  of  which  the  northern  part,  called  Scotiand, 
contains  26,014,  and  the  southern,  or  Bngland  and  Wales, 
the  remainder.  Hie  line  by  which  the  two  countries  are 
separated  begins,  on  the  west,  at  the  north-eastern  angle  of 
Solway  Frith,  and  runs  along  the  Esk,  liddel,  and  Kers- 
hope  rivers,  to  a  range  of  mountains  which  suceessivelybear 
the  names  of  the  Lauriston  Hills,  Peel  Fell,  Garter  Fell, 
and  the  Cheviot  Hills.  Up  to  the  last-mentioned  moun- 
tains the  boundary-line  runs  north-east,  but  at  the  Cheviot 
Hills  it  turns  porth-north-west  and  continues  in  that 
direction  to  the  banks  of  the  Tweed,  a  few  miles  above 
Coldstream.  The  remainder  of  the  boundary-line  is  formed 
by  the  course  of  the  Tweed  to  its  mouth,  with  the  excention 
of  the  town  of  Berwick,  which,  though  on  the  nortnem 
bank  of  the  river,  belongs  to  England. 
.  (General  Survey  of  its  Surface  and  Soil, — Though  Great 
Britain  does  not  contain  such  elevated  mountain-ranges  as 
many  parts  of  continental  Europe,  it  probably  exhibits  a 
greater  variety  in  surface  and  soil  than  any  other  European 
country  of  equal  extent.  In  order  to  present  a  general 
view  of  the  surface  of  this  island  we  divide  Scotland,  as 
well  as  England,  into  four  natural  divisions. 

1.  Scotland  north  and  west  of  Glenmore. — Glenmore  is 
a  long  but  comparatively  narrow  valley,  which  extends 
south-west  and  north-east  in  a  straight  line  across  the 
island.  On  the  south-west  it  begins  at  the  island  of  Mull, 
from  whose  eastern  shores  a  wide  gulf  or  sea-loch  runs  N.E., 
and  penetrates  deeply  into  the  mainland.  This  gulf,  which 
is  called  Locli  Linnhe,  and  may  be  considered  as  constituting 
a  part  of  Glenmore,  is  continued  north-eastward  in  Loch  Bil, 
a  oranch  of  Loch  Linnhe.  At  the  point  where  Loch  Eil 
makes  a  sharp  turn  to  the  west,  the  Milley  of  Glenmore  pro- 
perly begins ;  it  terminates  at  Inverness,  on  the  Moray 
Frith.  But  this  frith  may  also  be  considered  as  a  portion 
of  Glenmore,  and  thus  the  valley  will  extend  to  the  Sutors 
of  Cromarty,  which  are  about  112  miles  tcom  the  eastern 
shores  of  Mull.  Of  this  length  52  miles  are  occupied  by 
the  two  arms  of  the  sea,  and  the  c;rcater  part  of  the  inter- 
vening space  by  three  lakes.  Loch  Lochie,  Loch  Oich,  and 
Loch  Ness,  which,  taken  together,  are  more  than  37  miles 
long.  The  dry  land  of  the  valley  consequently  occupies 
only  22  miles  in  length,  and  through  this  space  the  Ciile- 
donian  Canal  is  cut. 

The  country  north  and  west  of  Glenmore  is  the  roost 
sterile  portion  of  the  island,  not  one  five-hundredth  part 
being  fit  for  cultivation.  Nearly  the  whole  of  it  constitutes 
one  enormous  mass  of  rock,  whose  upper  surface  frequently 
extends  in  plains,  but  more  usually  is  covered  with  rocks, 
many  hundred  toet  above  the  general  level  of  the  moun- 
tain-plain. The  level  of  the  plain  varies  between  500  and 
1500  feet  above  the  sea. 

The  northern  part  of  the  plain,  extending;  from  a  line 
joiniqg  Loch  Broom  on  the  west  and  Dornoch  Frith  on  the 
east,  to  the  northern  shores  and  Cape  Wrath,  is  an  ex- 
tensive moor,  an  open  undulating  land  of  rocks  and  bogs, 
on  which  a  few  hills  rise  at  great  distances  from  one  an- 
other. The  highest  summits  occur  on  the  western  side  of 
the  plain,  where  Ben  Mhor  attains  3220,  Ben  Hee  285 8, 
and  Ben  Hope  3061  feet  above  the  sea-level.  Another 
series  of  isolated  hills  occurs  on  the  plain  in  the  parallel  of 
Ben  Hee,  among  which  Ben  Klibreck  is  3164  feet,  and  the 
summit  of  the  Maiden  Paps,  called  Morbhein,  2334  feet 
high.  The  whole  of  the  plain  is  used  as  a  sheep-walk,  and 
is  only  an  indifferent  one  ;  vet  the  tracts  contiguous  to  the 
hills  and  between  them  produce  much  better  pasture  than 
the  reat  plain  which  occupies  the  east  and  the  south  part 
of  the  region.  The  long,  deep,  and  narrow  valleys  by  which 
the  northern  part  of  the  plain  is  intersected  contain  a  few 
acres  of  cultivable  land  along  their  water-courses,  but  the 
valleys  through  which  the  southern  streams  run  off  are 
extremely  narrow,  and  it  is  only  near  their  junction  with 
one  another  or  near  their  influx  into  the  sea  that  cultiva- 
tion is  practicable.  On  the  north  as  well  as  on  the  west 
the  steep  declivities  of  the  table-land  terminate  abruptly  on 
the  coast,  and  no  cultivable  land  occurs  along  the  shore  i 


but  on  the  eastern  coast  a  low  country  eitmda  alon^  *\^ 
shore  iVom  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  in  width,  which  in  ms  ^ 
parts  is  well  cultiMited.  It  extends  fVora  Loch  Fleet  f  u  *  ■  ^ 
Old  of  Caithness.  Along  the  Firth  of  Dornoch  al>o  a  f-  . 
cultivable  spots  occur. 

The  mountain-plain  and  the  ridges  whieh  oonatitutv 
boundary  do  not  extend  over  the  north-eastern  part  of    I  • 
island.    Nearly  four-fifths  of  the  county  of  Ofcitane^i  f '  -i. 
a  plain,  with  an  undulating  surfkce,  which  may  vari  !• 
tween  50  and  200  feet  above  the  sea-level.     Tbe  l  v  • 
tracts  eJong  the  watercourses  are  cultivated,  aniL  t)i" 
not  of  g^eat  fertilitv,  produce  barley,  oata,  and  pcitat    • 
The  higher  tracts  between  the  rivers  are  eovered   « 
moors,  and  are  not  cultivated,  but  many  parts  of  t> 
afford  pasture.    The  most  southern  distrietof  Caithnt-«   < 
eovered  by  mountain-rid^^eSi  which  are  the  moat  ea^?--- 
offsets  of  the  mountain-plain ;  they  contain  the  Maiditi  1^    - 
and  the  Ord  of  Caithness,  which  advances  dose  to  tbc*  - 

The  country  south  of  the  line  joining  Loch  Brcim 
the  Firth  of  Dornoch  also  contains  a  very  small  pcirti"-: 
cultivable  ground.    By  fkr  the  greatest  and  best  portt  : 
the  arable  ground  occurs  along  the  eastern  shore  nu' 
the  two  peninsulas  which  are  formed  by  the  three  fni  • 
Dornoch,  Cromarty,  and  Moray,  and  on  the  lerrl   t 
which  unites  these  peninsulas  to  the  mainland.    Thr  < 
not  very  fertile,  but  it  is  in  a^higher  state  of  cult  i>  at  iuti 
the  low  tract  in  the  county  of  Caithness. 

To  the  west  of  this  comparatively  low  and  level  lan«l  r 
Ben  Wyvis  to  3720  feet  above  the  sea.    It  is  an  e\Trn 
mass  of  rocks,  and  the  whole  region  extending  fo  ihi-  • 
of  it,  to  the  very  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  is  extremely  m 
tainous.  It  consists,  esjiecially  in  its  central  parts,  of  a  »• 
nual  succession  of  lofty  rocks  irregularly  heaped  toevih»T 
scendingin  rapid  slopes  to  the  watercourses,  which  run  m  •' 
and  narrow  ravines.    It  is  bare  of  trees,  and  in  sumv  f. .  * 
especially  about  Loch  Torridon,  almost  destitute  of  \t  _> 
tion.    Grouse  abound  where  heather  is  plentiful :  the  * 
mits  are  bare  and  stony  ;  but  the  greater  part  of  ih:> 
tensive  moorland  afforas  pasture  tor  sheep.    Only  s  *  - 
habitations  of  shepherds  are    met  with,  and.   aV>!.:*  • 
western  shores,  at  the  innermost  recesses  of  the  u  .. 
rous  sea-lochs,  the  huts  of  some  fishermen.  On  thrv  : 
a  few  spots  of  very  limited  extent  are  eultiTated.      Tt.f.  ■• 
the  western  coast  are  several  high  summits,  as  Ke«  <{    « 
3600  feet,  and  Ben  Lair,  3000  feet  above  the  sea-lei^. 

South  of  a  line  drawn  from  the  innermost  comer  oft  - 
marty  Frith  to  Loch  Alsh,  opposite  the  island  of  Sk^r. 
mountain-region  changes  it  character.     Parallel  ridg*--  • 
east  and  west,  and  between  them  lie  valleys  which  f.pi't. 
the  east  to  Loch  Beauley  and  Glenmore,  and  extend  tn 
to  the  western  coast,  from  which  they  are  divided  ly  1;«  . ' 
of  a  dismal  aspect  but  of  no  great  elevation.   The  iec\  wr 
of  the  mountains  which  enclose  the  valleys  are  less  «:r   • 
and  less  sterile,  and  generally  afford  pasture  for  sUv 
sometimes,  as  in  the  lower  part  of  Glen  Garry,  ther  art*  ••- 
vered  with  trees.  The  upper  parts  of  the  valleys  are  onh  m     . 
as  sheep-walks,  but  along  the  lower  course  of  the  river*  U^s . 
tracts  occur  which  are  fit  for  cultivation.  "Hie  mountains  «K 
the  western  coast  howcTer  are  not  superior  in  fertilif\    ■ 
those  fhrther  north.  Glenmore  itself  contains  tracts  of  ari:  •;  • 
ground  only  at  its  extremities,  aiMl  where  it  is  met  br  tr- 
valleys  which  onen  into  it. 

2.  Scotland  ietween  Olenmore  and  the  Orampsanr  .« 
divided  into  two  different  regions  by  the  high  ridge  ttf  •»  - 
Cairn  Gonn  mountains,  or  Northern  Grampians.    (Griv 
piATf  MoufCTAiNs.]    The  country  wcst  of  that  range  c   v 
prebends  the  valleys  of  the  Sney,  Findhom,  Nairn.  .-    ' 
Spean,  and  may  he  considered  as  a  mountain-plain  "^    * 
an  undulating  and  often  a  hilly  surfiice.  The  more  derYt  . 
portion  of  it,  contiguous  to  the  sources  of  the  Spc%  .■    . 
Findhom,  may  be  800  feet  above  the  sea-lev«I,  but  ttii  a:  .. 
the  German  Ocean,  as  well  as  towards  Glenmorv,  u  r— 
dually  sinks  lower,  until  at  a  distance  of  IVtwn  ti^i 
twelve  miles  from  the  German  Ocean  it  may  be  hc-t*. 
400  and  500  feet    Afterwards  it  descends  rapidly  to  » 
tract  of  country  extending  along  the  shores  of  the  »*  1 1.    - 
the  Spey  to  the  Frith  of  Moray.    Towards  the  wi.**t  !i   • 
ever  the  high  and  rocky  country  extends  to  Glenmcw-.  ■ 
which  it  forms  Uie  eastern  boundary.    It  is  only  t-mi-  s 
the  southern  extremity  that  tbe  higli  mountain- wall  t-  ..i- 
terrupted  for  some  miles  by  the  wule^^Uey  of  ibe  l.»a.i 
Spean.    On  the  plain  rise  the  Monagh  Leai^h  Iffonnts-.'^^ 
which  tnveiae  it  {n  its  length  from  pouth^vc^  to  n^.h- 


GRB 


404 


GRB 


^ni  orAf  scire  io  diTersify  the  suriaoe  of  thin  fine  conntry. 
The  greatest  part  of  them  is  under  cultivation,  and  hence 
the  county  of  Fife  is  as  rich  in  Agricultural  produce  as  any 
part  of  Scotland,  East  Lothian  excepted.  A  few  hills  rise 
to  some  height,  as  the  Largo  Law,  near  the  Frith  of  Forth, 
which  \»9i2  feet,  and  the  Normans*  I^w,  on  the  Frith  of 
Tay,  which  is  about  1600  feet  above  the  sea. 

The  region  of  the  Ochill  Hills  and  Strathmore  is  bounded 
on  the  south  by  the  river  Forth.  South  of  this  river 
lies  a  hilly  country,  which  extends  westward  to  the  very 
banks  of  the  Frith  of  Clyde,  but  approaches  the  Frith  of 
Forth  only  within  ten  or  twelve  miles.  The  ridges  which 
extend  over  this  tractgo  by  the  name  of  the  Gampsie  Hills. 
[Camfsib  Hills.]  Iney  are  mostly  covered  with  heath, 
and  contain  a  very  small  portion  of  arable  land. 

The  Campsie  Hills  form  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
plain,  which  extends  between  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde,  and 
occupies  the  whole  space  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Stir- 
lins;  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  Avon,  marking  the  boundary 
between  the  counties  of  Stirling  and  Linlithgow.  It  is 
liowcver  difficult  to  fix  its  termination  towards  the  south, 
where  a  more  hilly  country  joins  it,  and  rises  imperceptibly 
towards  Leven  Seat,  near  the  upper  branches  of  the  river 
Almond,  in  the  south*  western  angle  of  Mid  Lothian.  In  a 
general  description  it  is  perhaps  best  to  extend  it  to  the 
banks  of  the  Almond  up  to  the  Leven  Seat,  and  then  to 
continue  the  line  from  this  point  to  the  river  Clyde  near 
Hamilton.  The  northern  part  of  this  plain,  in  its  central 
parts,  is  only  from  160  to  180  feet  above  the  sea ;  its  surface 
is  onlv  undulating,  and  by  far  the  greatest  part  of  it  ooTored 
with  death  and  moss,  except  where  it  approaches  the  rivers, 
where  the  cultivated  land  occupies  a  larger  portion  of  the 
surface.  The  southern  part  is  rather  hUly,  as  alreuly  ob- 
served ;  and  a  ridge  of  high  hills  stretches  over  the  county 
of  Linlithgow,  south  and  north,  between  Bathgate  and  Lin- 
lithgow. 

4.  Scotland  iouth  of  ths  Plain  between  the  nvere  Clyde 
and  Forth,  or  Southern  Scotland^ — ^This  portion  of  Great 
Britain  contains  an  extensive  mountain-iegion.  On  the 
west  it  advances  to  the  very  shores  of  the  sea,  extending 
over  the  whole  portion  of  Ayrshire  which  is  south  of  the 
river  Ayr.  Its  northern  boundary  follows  the  coufm  of 
that  river  to  the  Haughshaw  Hills,  whence  it  extends  to 
Lanark  on  the  Clyde,  and  ftom  Lanark  to  the  Leven  Seat 
Nearly  the  whole  of  the  county  of  Edinburgh  is  included  in 
it.  On  the  cast  it  proceeds  first  southwardalong  the  boun- 
dary of  that  county,  but  afterwards  enters  the  county  of 
Berwick,  of  which  it  occupies  the  most  western  part,  along 
both  sides  of  tho  river  Lauder,  an  affluent  of  tne  Tweed. 
From  Melrose,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Lauder,  it  runs  south 
by  west  to  the  Wisp  Hill,  in  the  boundary-range  between 
Roxburgh  and  Dumfries.  Here  the  southern  boundary- 
line  begins,  and  stretches  in  a  south-western  direction  across 
the  county  of  Dumfries  to  Cross  Michael,  on  the  Dee  river, 
in  Kirkcudbright  It  then  follows  the  course  of  this  river 
to  Kirkcudbrif^tBay,  where  it  again  comes  close  to  the  sea, 
forming  the  liigh  and  very  bold  coast  on  the  eastern  shores 
of  Wigton  Bav  as  far  as  Creetown.  From  the  innermost 
earner  of  this  bay  it  runs  along  the  Cree  river  to  the  boun- 
d;u>y-lino  of  Ayrshire,  so  that  only  the  county  of  Wigton  is, 
ill  this  part,  excluded  from  it 

This  mountain-region  lies  in  the  direction  of  the  greatest 
width  of  this  part  of  the  island,  that  is,  from  souUi-west  to 
north-cast  But  the  most  considerable  and  extensive  de- 
pression in  it  extends  east  and  west  comprehending  the 
valley  of  the  Tweed  from  Melrose  to  Peebles  and  Lyne,  and 
the  valley  of  the  Clyde  from  Covington  to  Lanark. 

The  highest  summits  and  ridges  occur  to  the  south  of  this 
depression.  In  the  western  district  of  Kirkcudbright  is  the 
Caim  Mttir,  liGOO  feet  high ;  and,  situated  about  six  miles 
north  of  Creetown,  near  the  place  where  the  counties  ef 
Kirkcudbright  Ayr,  and  Dumfries  meet  the  Blacklarg, 
1970  feet  high.  But  tho  Inchest  summits  are  in  the  range 
of  mountains  which  divides  the  waters  that  fall  inioSolway 
Frith  from  those  which  run  to  the  Cl>do  and  Tweed.  The 
I^wthcrs,  between  the  Nith  and  Clyde,  rise  to  3150  feet; 
Queenshcrry  Hill,  at  the  sources  of  tho  Clyde,  to  2269  feet; 
Hartfcll,  neur  tlic  sources  of  the  Tweed,  to  2790  feet;  White 
(4>mb,  a  hi  lie  enbt  of  it,  to  'jr><5  feet;  Ettrick  Pen,  near 
1>  ftcmrt^en  of  th(*  Ettriek,  to  :i270  feet ;  and  Wisp  Hill  to 
J'J^Ofect  The  Ttnto  Hilk  which  lio  rather  isolated  in 
the  vallr>  of  the  Chdo,  attain  the  elevation  of  9260  feet 
TUc  \iilUy»  of  this  rugion  are  rather  narrow ;  the  dedivitiee 


^  ^ 


s 


of  the  momitaiat  fireqnently  tteep,  but 
not  bare,  they  are  covered  with  a  sward  of  fine  cr»«*  .— 
aftbrd  excellent  sheep-pastures.     The  arable  laii.i  .  - 
▼alleys  is  in  general  of  small  extent 

In  the  northern  portion  of  the  mountain-recioo  t! 
land  rises  with  a  more  gentle  slope,  and  not  to  so  ^  -. 
elevation.  The  upper  part  does  not  consiat  uf  elc^r^t—!  • 
mits  or  narrow  nd^^  but  extends  in  9jmcum%  !• 
inclined  plains,  which  are  mostly  covered  vith  l»^*  .. 
mosses,  and  in  some  parts  clothed  with  he«th.     T:-"  - 
elevated  portion  of  this  region  lies  along  the  w^itr^: 
tween  the  rivers  which  fall  into  the  Tweed  and  into  t  ^  » 
of  Forth,  and  its  elevation  may  be  between  boo  iff  i 
feet    The  Muirfoot  Hdls,  between  the  sources  of  ism^ 
Water,  an  affluent  of  the  Tweed,  and  of  the  Ssk,  whr . 
into  the  Frith  of  Forth,  rise  to  I860  fieet  ud  the  L«t«s  «^ 
to  about  1200  feet    On  the  northern  dedivity  mn  »    ^r 
the  Pentland  Hills.  [EoiNBunoB.1    The  moantaiiia  •  • 
include  the  valleys  of  the  Gala  Water  and  the  Lu.* 
bear  more  resemblance  to  those  south  of  the  Tw«v^  • 
rise  higher;  some  summits  probably  attain  an  cW^**. 
more  than  2000  feet  above  the  sea.    Hie  ^nalk^i  «. 
slope  southward  to  the  Tweed  have  a  poor  eotU  «&■!  v^  ■ 
cultivated  tracts  are  numerotis  and  exIenaiTe*  oaur^t :.  . 
the  Gala  Water  and  Lauder,  where  they  are  taare  ^  .. 
tive,  which  is  also  the  case  with  thoee  emboaomed  Sr:* 
the  ridges  of  the  Pentland  Hills  and    Ihosr   ai  -^   . 
southern  shore  of  the  Frith  of  Forth. 

On  the  west  of  the  mountain-region,  bciweca  tbr  '  « 
course  of  the  river  Clyde  and  the  Frith  of  dy^ 
country,  which  may  mther  be  called  a  pUiD«  tbo(af;b  : 
tains  some  ranges  of  hills.    The  Haugnshaw  HiIK  b«:»- 
the  Avon  and  Ayr,  soon  subside  into  a  level  oomntrj  mp  • 
advance  towards  the  west  the  highest  part  ef  w^vr^ 
tween  100  and  160  feet  above  the  sea,  and  r%U^/L  s. 
the  borders  of  Avrshire  and  Renfirew.    Hot  north  ^ji  c^m 
Semple  Loch  ana  Kilbimie  Loch  a  ridge  of  hilla  nsBk « : . 
extendi  over  the  northern  and  western  daauiets  tr 
Glasgow  to  Greenock  and  Cloch  Point  and   thcoiL**  -^ 
the  sea-shore  towards  Ardrossan.    The  highest  part   ' 
hilly  tract  is  the  Mistie  Law,   U58  feet  abtae  i^ 
Though  some  districts  on  the  high  land,  espmsjl?  t  • . 
the  Haughshaw  Hills,  supply  only  indifltim&t  patc.** 
•beep  and  cattle,  a  large  portion  of  this  country  aa  c  *   • 
and  produces  good  crops  of  grain. 

The  county  of  Wigton  constitutes  a  tepnrate  nan.', 
sion,  being  on  the  north  surrounded  by  mountait-x  a 
all  other  sides  by  the  sea.  It  contains  no  moanta«rjL  • . 
on  the  boundary  line  on  the  side  of  Ayrshire.    Tbr  ^  - 
der  is  occuuied  by  hills,  intersected  here  and  then     •  • 
valleys  and  plains  of  moderate  extent    The  hUU  i;    .: 
eastern  shores  of  Luce  Bay  attain  in  their  hichr«K  •z- 
above  1000  feet      Between  Luce  Bay  and   l^*  :    I 
extends  a  low,  sandy,  and  level  plain,  the  toil  cf  • 
only  cultivated  where  it  borders  on  the  hilly  omi<*-^ 
Deo  insula  called  the  Ryans  is  traversed  by  a  r^i^r 
rrom  Corsill  Point  to  the  Mull  of  Galloway,  but  i 
good  portion  of  arable  ground ;  the  highest  hills  r.« 
tween  700  and  800  feet   The  eastern  portm  of  W:.j-. 
cultivated  tracts  along  Wigton  Bay  and  the   nm'* 
but  the  interior  is  mostly  covered  w  ith  noor  ar^  .  • 
yet  in  some  parts  tliere  is  good  pasture  fur  shacit 

We  pass  to  the  countries  to  the  east  aou  »i  « 
of  tho  mountain-region,  which  are  separated  Cr  * 
another  by  a  range  of  mountains  running  wesi  a.  • 
This  range  may  be  considered  as  beginning  on  the  •  • 
the  eastern  border  of  the  mouutain-rcnoo,  with  f('.%- 
(1940  feet),  whence  it  continues  to  the  bo«a4ar» 
Euffland,  which  it  attains  between  Peel  FcO  •.-.':  ■ 
Fell.  Hence  it  extends  noith-eest  along  the  buvia  :.*- 
between  England  and  Scotland  to  the  Che«xH  H 
name  by  ahich  the  whole  range  is  generally  ^^  c 
[Chbviot  Hills.1    This  range  terminate*,  at  a  »i 
tance  from  the  Cheviot  Hills,  in  the  high  land  «a: 
from  Preudwick,  in  Northumberland,  to  Woekr  a.  . 
drum,  between  the  riven  Bream ish  and  Beaa^  e : 
b^  their  union  form  tlie  TiU,  an  afluent  of  the  Tvx^ . 
highest  portion  of  this  range  b  cither  lanr  rurk  or 
with  stones;  but  the  derh\iites  though  ratl^r  «'-   ■ 
generally  clothed  with  a  rich,  closf»,  grecti  vaar 
affords  excellent  pasture  for  the  breed  of  shcvy  *. 
Cheviots. 
The  tract  of  country  between  this  rai^  and  lU  I 


■ 


n 

e 


6  il  £ 


406 


ORE 


t^ift,  which  Ue«  to  tha  we%t  of  the  road  running  from  Lan- 
caster through  Oarstang  to  Preston-on-tlie-Ribble,  is  from 
8  to  1 0  miles  in  width,  and  is  called  the  Fylde.  Its  surface 
is  rather  undulating,  hut  in  many  parts  low  and  occupied 
by  peat-mosses.  Tlie  soil  is  good,  and  on  the  whole  well 
cultivated.  The  tract  between  the  Fylde  and  the  Pennine 
range  is  hilly,  hut  conUins  a  large  portion  of  good  and 
well-GuUivated  land.  Between  the  Ribble  and  the  Mersey, 
and  west  of  the  Pennine  chain,  extends  a  high  tract,  which 
u  encircled  by  a  broad  belt  of  low  and  level  country.  This 
level  tract  runs  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Manchester 
along  the  Irwell  and  Mersey  to  their  confluence,  and  af- 
terwards along  the  northern  banks  of  the  Mersey,  south  of 
Prescot,  past  Liverpool,  west  of  Ormskirk,  and  then  in  a 
north-eastern  direction  to  Preston.  The  soil  is  a  loam  of 
various  quality,  in  some  parts  very  light  and  sandy.  The 
tract  along  the  Mersey  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Warring- 
ton is  one  of  the  most  fertile  parts.  The  high  lands  en- 
closed by  this  level  tract  contain  a  good  deal  of  moor,  but 
they  are  intersected  by  tracts  of  arable  land,  which,  though 
of  moderate  fertility,  are  in  a  high  sUte  of  cultivation. 

South  of  the  Mersey  the  moorlands,  which  skirt  the 
mountains  of  Derbyshire  on  the  west  and  divide  them  from 
the  Plain  of  Cheshire,  are  not  extensive ;  but  at  the  south- 
western extjremity  of  the  Derbyshire  Mountains  occur  the 
moorlands  of  Staffordshire,  which  occupy  the  whole  of  that 
county  north  of  a  line  drawn  from  Newcastle-under-Lyne 
to  Uttoxeter.  Some  districts  of  this  tract  are  covered  with 
fine  herbage,  and  supplv  good  pasture  for  cattle;  others 
consist  principally  of  high  moors  and  peat.  Between  C bea- 
dle and  Oakmoor  there  is  a  great  number  of  rude  heaps  of 
gravel  thrown  together  in  an  irregular  manner,  forming 
sudden  swells  and  deep  narrow  hollows. 

We  pass  to  the  east  of  the  Pennine  range.  The  most 
northern  angle  of  England,  as  far  south  as  the  Coquet 
river,  is  a  veiy  hilly  country,  and  some  of  the  eminences 
are  of  considerable  height  Hebburn  or  Ros  Castle  Hill, 
nearly  due  west  of  North  Sunderland  Point,  is  1024  feet 
high.  Still  there  are  tracts  of  good  arable  ground  amidst 
the  hill8»  which  themselves  afford  pasture  ground.  Towards 
the  Coquet  the  high  ground  extends  in  elevated  plains 
(Alnwick  Moor,  &c.),  which  are  probably  800  feet  above  the 
sea-level  and  eovered  with  heath.  The  Vale  of  the  Coquet  is 
rather  wide,  and  contains  considerable  tracts  which  are  noted 
for  their  fertility  and  the  excellence  of  their  agriculture. 

South  of  the  Coquet  begin  the  xlensive  moorlands 
which  extend  along  the  base  of  the  Pennine  rani^e  through 
the  counties  of  Northumberland,  Durham  and  York,  occu- 
pying nearly  one-third  of  Northumberland,  that  portion  of 
Durham  whieh  lies  west  of  a  line  drawn  between  Allans- 
ford  and  Barnard  Castle,  and  over  Yorkshire,  west  of  Rich- 
mond* Ripley,  Otley,  Halifax,  to  the  Holme  Moss  in  Che- 
shire. The  width  of  these  moorlands  varies  between  10 
and  30  miles;  and  they  are  said  to  be  between  500  and  1000 
feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  northern  districts  are  the 
poorest.  They  are  not  marked  by  any  very  striking  ine- 
qualities of  surfiice,  being  in  general  extensive,  open,  soli- 
tary wastes,  producing  little,  except  heath,  and  affording 
only  a  scanty  subsistence  to  fiocks  of  sheep.  Hie  valleys, 
or  rather  glens,  by  which  they  are  furrowed  contain  very 
small  portions  of  level  ground,  and  that  of  an  inferior  qua- 
lity. In  Yorshire  these  moorlands  are  intersected  by  ex- 
tensive valleys  extending  along  the  numerous  rivers  which 
traverse  it,  and  containing  con.siderable  tracts  of  arable  land. 
Considerable  tracts  of  the  hills  are  eovered  with  a  fine 
sweet  grass,  and  others  with  coarse  grass  (bent) ;  and  where 
heath  prevails  it  is  mostly  mixed  with  grass,  bent,  or  rushes. 

The  country  which  extends  from  the  moorland  to  the 
German  Ocean  has  in  general  a  hilly  character,  and  the 
hilU  in  a  few  places  rise  to  a  considerable  elevation.  Simon- 
side  Hill,  near  the  Vale  of  the  Coquet,  is  14U7  feet  high. 
But  the  hills  do  not  extend  in  regular  ridges,  and  are  sepa- 
rated from  one  another  by  flat  tracts,  which  contain  a  good 
soil,  particularly  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers.  Along 
the  northern  side  of  the  V;de  of  Tyne  the  high  land  rises 
only  to  a  moderate  elevation.  This  vale,  though  not  dis- 
tinguished by  great  fertility,  has  a  good  soil  and  is  of 
considerable  width ;  above  Newcastle  it  is  rich  and  pic- 
turesque. The  country  south  of  the  Vale  of  Tyne  is 
more  hilly  than  that  north  of  it.  Near  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  moorlands  is  Pontop  Pike,  1016  feut,  and 
Brandon  Mount,  875  feet  high.  Towards  the  sea  the  liills 
'row  bwer,  but  Wordeslow  Hill,  between  Durham  and 


Sunderland,  has  an  elevation  of  632  &et  Farther  toath, 
towards  the  Vale  of  the  Tees»  the  hills  are  lets  numerous, 
less  elevated,  and  have  very  gentle  declivities.  Cultivmlion  ex- 
tends over  the  flat  tracts  between  them,  and  even  over  thv.r 
declivities.  The  Valley  of  the  Tees  is  more  cxtciisiTe  thj:« 
any  other  in  England  to  the  north  of  it.  It  extends  along  t  i.e 
river,  from  Barnard  Castle,  where  the  moorlands  terminatr, 
to  its  mouth,  a  distance  of  40  miles*  In  its  widast  part  u  .t 
15  miles  across,  but  above  Darlington  it  ia  rather  nan-"*. 
Its  surface  is  flat  and  the  soil  for  the  most  part  products  *.. 

The  Valley  of  the  Tees  is  only  separated  from  the  V :...:. 
of  York  by  the  slight  elevation  which  occurs  at  some  ti  ^ 
tance  from  the  southern  hank  of  the  Tees  oppoaite  l>±f- 
lington.     From   this  noint  the  Plain  of  York  exte*  . 
southward    in  a    soutu   by  east    direction  to    the    (  •'• 
fluence  of  the  Ouse  and  Trent,  and  to  Doncaater  un  ^i 
Don,  a  distance  of  70  or  80  miles.    It  is  separated  from  .  i  - 
Western  Moorlands  by  a  hilly  tract,  whicn  is  rather  u.r- 
row,  being  perhaps  at  no  place  10  miles  in  width.     If  tii « 
tract  is  included,  the  Vale  of  York  is  from  20  to  more  thi.* 
40  miles  wide,  increasing  in  width  as  it  advanoea  »«>w ' 
The  surface  of  this  plain  is  somewhat  undulating,  and  buit.- 
ciently  diversified  to  give  richness  and  beauty  to  ita  ap{«  ;* 
ance.    It  is  in  generfu  fertile,  and  its  agriculture  is  lu  ;. . 
advanced  state. 

The  eastern  boundary  of  the  Vale  is  formed  by  the  Kas2«. '  \ 
Moors  and  the  Wolds  of  York.    The  Eastern  Moors  occ   .  \ 
the  northern  portion  of  the  county  between  the  Vale  aiid  • 
German  Ocean.    They  extend  west  and  east  about  30  inn  > 
from  Osmotherly,  some  miles  east  of  Northallerton  to  H  .:- 
wood  Dale,  between  Whitby  and  Scarborough,  and  &l     i 
20  miles  north  and  south  between  Gisborough  and  Kuk  -.  • 
Moorside.    They  form  a  rounded  elevated  aurfkce^  abuit  ..: 
on  the  coast  in  bold  clifb.    The  central  part,  whicJi  ib  aU    i 
1000  feet  above   the  sea-level,  contains  Looeehoe    li    . 
1414  feet,  and  Dale  Head  and  Bottom  Head,  farther  «v . 
respectively  1864  and  1485  feet  high.    The  greateat  pan    . 
the  high  ground  is  covered  with  moors  and  mosses  ;  uUp  : 
parts  are  covered  with  loose  rocks.    The  soil  oon^tft^ 
peat-earth,  and  is  generally  covered  with  heath.    It  is  luu : 
sected  by  some  fertile  and  well  cultivated  dalea,  which  cv.  -.• 
tain  some  thousand  acres  of  good  land. 

South  of  the  Eastern  Moonands  is  the  Vale  of  the  Up;-  : 
Derwent,  or  of  Pickering.    Its  form  is  an  imperfect  u\  i.. 
being  35  miles  from  west  to  east  and  10  miles  from  ^n^w 
to  north  where  widest.    Its  area  is  nearly  300  square  tu.. 
From  the  Vale  of  York  it  is  divided  by  the  Hambleton  H  ..• 
(Black  Hambleton  rises  to  1246  feet),  which,  under  the  uii. 
of  the  Howardian  Hills,  continue  in  a  south-aoutb-t.^' 
direction  to  the  very  banks  of  the  Derwent  nearMalton.  -^ 
here  form  the  narrow  valley  in  which  that  place  is  ^u  . 
On  the   other  side  of  the  river   rise  tlie  York  W 
which  farther  east  form  the  south^n  boundary  of  the  \ 
of  Pickering.    The  Vale  of  the  Upper  Derwent  i»  tl 
fore  everywhere   surrounded  by  heights  of  oonsuUr^. 
elevation,  and  has  all  the  appearance  of  a  dried  lake.     I  - 
soil  has  a  considerable  degree  of  fertility,  and  is  ivcU 
tivated. 

The  York  Wolds,  which  form  the  southern  border  of  i 
vale,  occupy  nearly  half  of  the  surface  of  the  count ri   !• 
tween  the  Derwent  and  the  German  Ocean.   Their  «v.^:.  • 
slope  runs  from]Malton  on  the  Derwent  south  by  e&.«'.  . 
Hessle  on  the  Humber ;  and  on  the  east  their  bound;. r^^ 
marked  by  the  road  passing  from  Hessle  to  Beverley  and  I  •. 
field;  from  Driffield  they  extend  eastward  to  tiiridhiu 
and  occupy  the  whole  coast  between  Flamborough  11. 
and  Scarborough.    This  extensive  tract  may  on  an  a\  v:  ^ . 
be  between  200  and  300  feet  above  the  sea:  some  ot   • 
hills  rise  to  more  than  500  feet,  and  a  few  even  to  60 1»  i. 
Wilton  Beacon,  east  by  north  of  York,  is  809  feet  hiuh.     i 
does  not  contain  any  extensive  moor;  the  larger  port  ii 
surface   is  covered  with   grass,  and  cultivated  tracts 
moderate  extent  are  freauent 

To  the  east  of  the  Wolds  extends  Holdcroesa,  a  plaiu  v 
a  low  but  undulating  surface,  whose  greatest  ele\*ativ«ii  ^ 
Dhnlington  Heights  on  the  sea-coast  (146  feel).     In  ^■ 
districts  of  Holderness  there  are  tracts  of  manhy  Ur 
most  of  which  have  been  drained ;  but  in  general  it  I 
very  little  waste  land,  and  may  be  considered  one  of  * 
most  productive  agricultural  districts  in  England.    Ti«   - 
is  strong,  and  produces  heavy  crops  of  wheat  and  1 
and  the  most  luxuriant  pasture,    its  breeds  of  shtxp  . : 
cattle  ace  deservedly  oelebiated.    At  iU  6outh*culrrt 


I  *  - 


I   A- 


G  R  E 


406 


G  R  B 


but  other  difttriclft  are  still  very  imperfectly  recUimed.  The 
most  swampy  tract,  and  that  which  has  caused  thejgreaAest 
expense  in  drainage,  is  known  under  the  name  or  Isle  of 
Ely,  and  belongs  to  the  course  of  the  Ouse,  the  Nen,  and 
the  low  grounds  about  March  and  Wisbeacb.  A  great 
part  of  the  Fens  is  appropriated  to  the  tearing  of  cattle 
and  to  the  dairy,  but  extensive  tracts  are  also  under  the 
plough. 

That  portion  of  the  great  plam  which  lies  to  the  north  of 
the  Fens  comprehends  Lincolnshire  north  of  a  line  drawn 
IVom  Wainfleet  to  Sleaford.  This  tract  is  considerably 
higher  tfaAn  ihe  fen  re^on  south  of  it,  which  is  called  Hol- 
land. On  the  north  the  high  ground  forms  the  banks  of 
the  Hnmber,  from  Winteringham  on  the  west,  to  Great 
Grimsby  on  the  east  From  the  last-mentioned  place  a 
low  belt  of  marshes  extends  along  the  shores  of  the  Uerman 
Ocean,  which  advances  inland  to  Louth  and  Burgh,  and 
varies  in  width  from  three  or  four  to  six  or  seven  miles. 
Along  this  coast  we  find  a  submarine  forest,  visible  as 
ikr  as  the  limits  of  low  water,  or  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
from  the  land.  This  low  tract  is  very  fertile ;  the  high 
land  west  of  it  and  towards  the  north  is  dry,  almost  without 
streams,  and  nearly  covered  with  gorse  or  furze.  Farther 
southward  it  is  lower,  and  much  more  fertile,  but,  in 
general,  is  destitute  of  trees.  The  lowest  and  best  portion 
of  it  is  along  the  banks  of  the  river  Witham. 

East  of  the  Fens,  and  comprehending  the  counties  of 
Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and  Essex,  extends  a  plain,  which  in  its 
northern  districts  is  between  1  GO  and  200  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea  in  the  highest  parts.  Its  surface  is  gently 
undulating,  but  becomes  more  broken  as  we  advance  farther 
north.  The  small  streams  which  drain  this  plain  generally 
lie  several  feet  b^low  the  general  level  of  the  surmoe.  Its 
fertility,  which  towards  the  north  is  but  moderate,  in- 
creases to  the  south,  and  the  soil  in  Essex  is  unrivalled  in 
England  for  its  rich  crops  of  wheat  In  the  northern  dis- 
tricts uncultivated  tracts  of  moderate  extent  are  fremient,  but 
in  the  southern  parts  they  are  rare.  The  southern  ooundary 
of  this  plain  is  marked  by  the  high  ground  which  extends 
from  Epping  Forest  eastward  to  Sreutwood  and  Langdon 
Hill,  ana  then  north-east,  terminating  between  Chelmsford 
and  Maldon. 

7.  England  wuih  of  the  River  Thames  and  the  Briitoi 
CAomttf/T— Towards  the  eastern  extremity  of  this  region 
there  is  an  extensive  tnct  of  high  land,  a  transverse  sec- 
tion of  which  forms  the  lofty  chalk  cliffs  along  the  Straits 
of  Dover,  between  the  South  Foreland  and  Folkstooe. 
From  the  shores  of  the  straits  it  extends  in  a  north-north- 
west direction  to  the  sestuary  of  the  Thames,  where  it  ter- 
minates in  a  moderately  high  coast  between  Reciilver  and 
the  outlet  of  the  East  Swale ;  the  high  land  of  the  island 
of  Tlianet  may  be  considered  as  an  eastern  prolongation  of 
it,  being  separated  onl  v  by  the  comparatively  narrow  de- 
yression  through  which  the  Stour  formerly  discharged  a 
portion  of  its  water  into  the  Thames.  The  eastern  slope  of 
this  high  ground  is  very  gentle,  but  does  not  extend  to  the 
shores  of  iho  sea,  a  level  some  miles  wide  occupying  the 
•pace  between  Peg  well  Bay  and  Deal.  The  greatest  eleva- 
tions occur  near  the  Straits  of  Dover.  Dover  Castle  is  469 
feet,  Folkstone  Turnpike  675  feet,  and  Paddlesworth  Hill, 
Jiorth*west  of  Folkstone,  642  feet  high.  The  surface  of 
this  elevated  tract  may,  on  an  average,  be  about  300  feet 
above  the  sea  in  its  higher  parts ;  but  at  Canterbur}*,  where 
it  is  cut  by  the  valley  of  the  Stour,  it  is  probably  not  so 
much  as  100  feet  Though  the  soil  of  this  tract  is  chalky 
and  dry,  it  has  in  parts  a  considerable  degree  of  fertility, 
and  is  well  cultivated. 

The  high  land  continues  to  the  west  of  the  >*altey  of  the 
Stour,  and  is  several  miles  wide,  with  a  longitudinal  depres- 
sion in  the  middle,  so  as  to  have  the  appearance  of  two 
parallel  ridges.  The  northern  ridge,  which  is  a  continua- 
tion of  the  chalk,  is  the  higher,  and  contains  HoUingboum 
Sution.  616  feet  above  the  sea.  This  high  ground  runs 
Ann  north-west,  and  in  its  depression  lie  the  towns  of  Ash- 
ford,  Charing,  and  Maidstone.  At  Maidstone  the  high 
lands  are  interrupted  by  the  Valley  of  the  Medway.  but  west 
of  it  tliey  appear  again  in  the  same  form,  running  nearly 
duo  west.  In  tkie  loo^tudinal  depression  west  of  the  Medf- 
way  is  Seven -Oaks.  This  deprcMion  becomes  narrower  as 
the  high  lands  approach  the  county  of  Surrey,  and  ceases 
•ntirely  near  Weslerham.  Farther  west  then  is  only  one 
ridge,  which  is  properly  oalled  the  North  Downs.    It  con- 

'niiii  wast  10  OttiUfocd  and  fKnimm.  growing  mitoww 


.•   r 


ir 


as  it  advances  tother  to  the  west,  so  that  betwwa  Cu  }  ' 
and  Famham  it  is  a  mere  ridge,  called  the  He^*  h 
Botley  Hill,  near  Westerham,  the  highest  sumnut 
feet  above  the  sea. 

The  country  between  the  high  lands  north^eaai  ut  M 
stone  and  the  East  Swale  (one  of  the  outlets  of  tba  Mni" 
which  divides  the  island  of  Sheppey  flom  the  majDUr 
a  gently-inclined  plain,  containing  small  depressinsii  . 
before  it  reaches  the  water's  edge  the  high  land  cr^ 
subsides,  and  is  skirted  l^  a  low  and  level  tract    TW  « h 
district  is  of  average  fertility  and  well  culti^wlcd*  it  i, 
almost  entirely  destitute  of  watereoorses.    The  covetr?  '. 
ther  west,  between  the  high  lands  and  the  lower  cmzr^r 
the  Thames,  is  more  diversified  in  its  sarfeee,  ristog  *  -- 
times  to  several  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  especially  « 
of  London,  where  Norwood  is  389  feet  and  Banatoad  t 
mon  576  feet ;  but  the  declivities  of  these  derate 
gentle,  and  between  them  are  extensive  tracts   ^f  ■ 
ground.    The  higher  parts  are  generalW  unculti^atcil  . . 
the^  constitute  only  a  small  portion  of  the  whoU  j  ti^  - 
mamder  is  of  considemble  fertility. 

The  country  between  the  North  Downs  and  the  Etc  ^ 
Channel  is  divided  into  two  venr  unequal  pottacws  It  - 
South  Downs,  which  begin  on  the  shores  of  the  E-.:  -■ 
Channel  in  the  high  promontory  of  Beachy  Head 
feet),  and  run  as  far  as  Bramber,  a  distance  or  t%  m^  v 
a  general  direction  parallel  and  close  to  the  coeec,  «  :  - 
as  fer  west  as  Brighton,  presents  a  line  of  difi  i-^^* 
by  a    longitudinal  section   of   this  chalk  ran^.    T*  . 
breadth  from  north  to  south  is  in  some  parts   €  %    - 
Ditchling  beacon,  about  6  miles  north  of  Bnghton.  .«  •  • 
feet  high.    West  of  Bramber  they  continue  in  the  suav  « 
rection,  but  their  width  decreases  to  3  and  H  mrlaw.  .i 
between  them  and  the  sea  extends  a  1e%el  aadWw  rtr^-  - 
which  grows  wider  as  we  proceed  westward,  vuxfl  r.  t  z. 
sures,  feom  a  point  north  of  Chichester  to  Sebaa  %  '. 
mQes  in  width.    Chanctonbury  Ring,  north  of  Sb  -^.l- 
is  814  feet  and  Rooks  Hill  beacon,  north  of  O    ^« 
702  feet  hi^h.    North-west  of  Chichester  is  Buu«  r  H 
which  attams  an  elevation  of  917  feet ;  and  faeie  the  ^ 
Downs  mav  be  considered  to  terminate.    At  tlL»  ti 
ridge  of  hills  running  north  and  south,  a  little  U>  t^  \  • 
Petcrsfield,  is  called  the  Alton  Hills:  it  tcsminatc^  i.  -■ 
western  extremity  of  the  North  Downs  near  Famhia  .. . 
thus  forms  a  junction  between  the  North  and  So«it5 1»  v  ■ 
Its  hiehest  summit.  Hind  Head,  is  9*23  feat  abn^c  xtr-    w 
Tlie  South  Downs  afford  excellent  sheep-walks,  s^.     . 
plain  of  Chichester,  or  the  low  tract  along  the  aea  -«i  i- 
characterized  by  a  high  degree  of  fertility. 

Between  the  North  and  South  Downs,  and  hmtxklf 
the  Alton  Hills  on  the  west,  extends  the  Weald  .f  k 
Surrey,  and  Sussex.    This  tract  may  be  eoosiArrftl  «. 
plain,  though  there  are  undulating  tracts  in  srvcrmJ  *  «   . 
and  a  few  bills  rise  to  a  considerable  ekvatioo ;  Imt  (i-. 
vat  ions  do  not  constitute  a  continuous  high  laifeL  a.-  ' 
separated  from  one  another  by  extensive  flats.     T-*     • 
est  summits  are  Leith  Hill,  south-west  of  IXarl  jw 
feet  high,  and  Crowborough  Beacon  in  Ashtkiwn  f 
604  feet  high.    The  ]e%''el  parts  of  the  plain  are  f  r    . 
iietween  100  and  200  feet  above  the  sca-levcL    TV  % 
this  extensive    tract,    which    contains    more    thaj* 
square  miles,  is  principally  day,  partly  very  stiff  •ui :. . 
and  partly  of  a  softer  and  wetter  uescriptjon :  in  a^-s-    .  - 
it  is  mixed  with  sand.    It  is  in  a  pretty  good  state  jf    . 
vation,  and  the  pastures  are  rich  and  Inxunant. 

At  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Weald,  and  bca-.  . 
equal  distance  ftoni  the  South  Foreland  and  Beach*  B 
is  Romney  Marsh,  a  low  and  level  tract,  coa 
50,000  acres.  It  has  been  wrested  ftxMn  the 
tected  by  an  embankment  against  tto  invasaofia.  N 
grow  on  this  marsh.  In  some  parts,  cspceiaSt  .lt^ 
sea,  the  soil  is  a  poor  sandy  gravel ;  but  }ry  far  tie  c- 
portion  consists  of  a  soft  da^,  mixed  with  a  gr^^ 
less  portion  of  sea-sand,  whidi  is  ancosaaam!}  :  - 
fertile. 

The  Alton  Hills,  which  extend,  as  alrmdv  .L« 
from  Butser  Hill,  south-west  of  Petcrsfield,  tl*  K. 
and  the  Hog's  Back,  may  be  considered  as  tb»  cost,  : 
dary  of  a  more  elevated  terrace,  which  occafaea  u-  , 
portion  of  the  country  south  of  the  TbanscsL  Wta  * 
and  2**  10'  W.  bng.    It  begins  south  of  Wic<W<f  » 
shot   Heatli,    and    extends    westward   l»    tKs    N. 
PlaiBf  wltwb  oonsUlutei  the  btghest  foitMm  «f 


f  • 


ORB 


410 


ORB 


ve  numerouB  and  considerable,  and  cover  the  whole  tract 
of  country  between  Exeter  and  Bolt  Head,  a  space  at  least 
equal  in  extent  to  that  of  the  principal  mass.  The  hills 
■ometimes  rise  to  a  considerable  elevation,  as  Little  Haldon, 
south-west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Exe,  which  is  815  feet  high, 
and  Furland,  between  Tor-Bay  and  Dartmouth,  wliich 
attains  589  feet.  But  most  of  the  hills  have  a  gentle  slope, 
and,  as  well  as  the  lower  ground,  are  very  fertile,  and  con- 
tain the  most  extensive  orchards  in  England.  The  two 
larger  ofbets  from  Dartmoor  towards  the  north,  one  ter- 
minating east  of  Appledore  and  the  other  in  Hartland 
Point,  are  of  moderate  elevation. 

Dartmoor  is  separated  from  the  mountains  of  Cornwall  by 
the  comparatively  narrow  valley  of  the  river  Tamar.  The 
high  lands  of  Cornwall  extend  in  one  continuous  mass  to 
the  most  western  point  of  England,  the  Land's  End.  The 
most  elevated  portion  of  the  mountain-mass  runs  nearly  in 
the  middle  of  the  peninsula,  and  is  in  many  places  covered 
with  swamps.  Towards  the  north  it  lowers  considerably,  but 
stQl  forms  the  high  and  bold  coast  aloxie  the  Bristol  Chan- 
Bel.  Its  southern  declivity  is  less  rapid,  and  in  this  part 
the  coast  is  indented  by  numerous  bays ;  the  intervals  of 
low  and  shelving  beach  are  more  frequent  along  the  Eng- 
li^  Channel  than  along  the  northern  coast  The  highest 
eminences  of  this  mountain-mass  are,  Brown  Willy,  at  the 
source  of  the  river  Fowey,  1368  feet ;  Caradon  or  Carraton 
Hill,  north  of  Liskeard,  ]  208  feet ;  Kit  HUl,  near  Calling- 
ton,  1067  feet;  and  Hensbarrow Down,  north-west  of  St. 
Austell,  1034  feet  St  Burian  and  Sennen,  both  near  the 
Land's  End,  are  respectively  415  and  387  feet  The  Cape 
itself  is  between  CO  and  100  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The 
soil  of  the  mountainous  districts  is  barren  and  unproductive, 
and  the  heights  are  destitute  of  trees ;  agriculture  is  limited 
to  a  few  of  the  vales,  which  intersect  the  mass,  and  to  some 
low  tracts  near  the  sea,  which  have  a  good  soil,  adapted  to 
the  cultivation  of  grain  and  potatoes,  and  favoured  by  a 
very  moist  and  temperate  climate. 

8.  England  west  (if  the  Great  IVeitem  Vale^  including 
Wales,— DoSa  region,  the  most  rugged  and  mountainous 
part  of  England,  is  intersected,  near  its  central  parts,  by 
two  deep  valleys,  the  upper  extremities  of  which  are  sepa- 
rated by  some  high  lanas  not  more  than  15  miles  across. 
These  are,  the  vidley  of  the  small  river  Dyfi  from  Machyn- 
lleth to  Ciutligan  Bay,  and  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Severn 
from  above  Llanidloes  to  Melverley,  where  the  river  enters 
the  Great  Western  Vale. 

North  Wales,  or  the  country  north  of  this  natural  line, 
eontains  in  its  central  district  a  very  extensive  mass  of  high 
land,  which  occupies  more  than  one-third  of  the  whole.  The 
lowest  tracts  of  this  high  land  are  probably  not  much  less 
than  800  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  the  cold  cUmate, 
which  is  the  consequence  of  such  a  considerable  elevation, 
renders  the  whole  tract  unfit  for  cultivation,  except  in  a 
few  sheltered  places  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers.  But 
even  here  the  thin  and  stony  soil  yields  only  moderate 
crops  of  grain.  This  extensive  country  is  consequently 
chiefly  used  for  pasture. 

Along  the  north-western  edge  of  this  elevated  tract  ex- 
tends the  Snowdon  range,  which  contains  the  lushest 
summits  in  England.  It  begins  near  the  mouth  ot  the 
river  Conwy,  whence  it  runs  south-south-west  to  the  north- 
eastern comer  of  Cardigan  Bay,  a  distance  of  twenty-four 
miles  in  a  straight  line.  The  width  of  the  range  varies 
from  five  to  seven  miles.  From  both  extremities  it  rises 
gradually  towards  the  centre,  where  it  contains  several 
summits  more  than  3000  feet  high ;  the  highest  is  the 
extensive  mountain-mass  known  under  the  name  of  Snow- 
don, whose  highest  pinnacle,  called  Wyddva,  attains  an 
elevation  of  3571  feet  The  greatest  part  of  the  rocks  aro 
bare,  and  it  is  only  in  the  hollows  that  a  coarse  herbage 

Srows,  which  supports  a  hardy  race  ef  sheep  and  cattle 
uring  the  summer. 

A  range  of  high  hills  branches  off  from  this  range  south 
of  the  highest  part  and  runs  to  Caernarvon  Bay,  where  it 
terminates  south  of  Clynnos  in  the  Reival,  which  is  1886 
feet  high.  The  peninsula,  which  extends  between  Caernar- 
von Bay  and  Cardigan  Bay,  and  terminates  at  Cape  Braich- 
Y-PwU,  opposite  the  island  of  Bardsey,  contains  some  high 
hills,  but  it  properly  forms  an  uneven  rocky  plain  here  and 
there  intersected  by  narrow  and  wet  valleys,  and  diversified 
with  conical  hills,  isolated,  or  in  small  groups.  Between 
the  Snowdon  range  and  the  Strait  of  Menai  is  an  extensive 
and  tolerably  level  plain,  but  it  is  not  low,  the  shores  of 


the  strait  being  generally  rocky  and  bold.    The  soA  oonkiftU 
mostly  of  gravel  and  sand ;  its  fertility  is  very  moderate. 

The  highest  portion  of  the  elevated  mountain -re^.<i 
extends  south  of  the  Snowdon  ranee,  comprehondiu^  tr«f 
central  part  and  more  than  half  of  Merionethshire.  O*: 
its  elevated  base  two  series  of  mountain-summita  &re  ^^■ 
tinguishable.  The  more  western,  which  is  about  %ix 
milos  from  Cardigan  Bay,  contains  several  high  pinaarlr* 
as  Rhinog  Fach,  2400  feet  and  Rhinog  Fawr,  2463  fui 
high ;  some  others  rise  stUl  higher.  It  is  divided  h\  tit. 
narrow  valley  of  the  river  Maw  from  another  range,  Whirh 
on  the  south  is  connected  with  the  Berwyn  at  the  Arr^v 
Mowddwy  (2955  feet),  whence  it  extends  north-north -iii>t 
to  Snowdon.  Several  summits  attain  upwards  of  2ovu 
feet ;  the  Arennig,  between  Uyn  Arennig  and  Llyn  Try  vc- 
rin,  is  2809  feet  high.  The  country  enclosed  by  thei« 
ranges  contains  some  fine  picturesque  valleys,  among  «  u-f  U 
are  those  of  Festiniog  and  Dolgelley.  But  Dearl>  tU. 
whole  tract  is  only  fit  for  pasture. 

The  Berwyn  range,  wnich  constitutes  the  south-sou tb 
eastern  boundary  of  the  high  mountain-region,  ti»ver^c» 
the  whole  country  from  the  Great  Western  ViJe  to  Car- 
digan Bay,  beginning  on  the  east  with  the  hills  north  ^  f 
Chirk  Castle,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Dee  and  of  tU 
Ceriog,  and  running  due  west  to  the  Moel  Fem%  which  ;i 
2108  feet  high.  F&m  this  high  summit  the  mountam* 
decline  to  the  south-west  in  which  direction  they  tGnniii.iu 
on  the  ^ores  of  Cardigan  Bay  north  of  Towyo.  Tht:r 
highest  summits  are  Arran  Mowddwy  and  Cader  Idrri. 
[Cadbr  Idris.]  The  lower  decUvities  of  this  ran^  tr.« 
covered  with  fern  or  gorse,  and  the  higher  with  bcati. . 
peat^mosses  are  common. 

The  country  between  the  tributaries  of  the  Upper  Do- 
does not  differ  in  its  general  description  from  the  eHevmiit; 
mountain-region,  except  that  the  hilis  decrease  in  heicL; 
and  in  steepness  as  thev  advance  farther  north.  Stul  ^ 
considerable  number  of  them  attain  the  height  of  l&oo  ft>  \ 
and  upwards  south  of  a  line  drawn  from  Llanrwat  on  xh: 
Conwy  river,  to  Ruthyn  on  the  Clwyd,  and  thenoe  to  Uu.'. 
on  the  Alyn.  The  valleys  towards  this  line  are  wider,  aiid 
contain  a  greater  proportion  of  arable  land.  North  of  tii; 
line  are  the  valleys  of  the  Conwy  and  of  the  Clw>d  rtwr*. 
The  valley  of  the  Conwy  below  lianrwst  rarely  excoed»  -. 
mile  or  a  mile  and  a  half  in  width,  but  it  has  a  oomtar»* 
tively  fertile  soil  and  is  well  cultivated.  The  ralley  of  the 
Clw>'d  is  much  more  extensive,  and  is  noted  for  its  fertiLt> 
[Clwyo.]  Between  these  vall^s  there  is  an  exVais^in 
tract  of  hilly  ground  called  the  Hiraethog Hills,  some  hua- 
mits  of  which  rise  to  more  than  1 000  feet  This  trart  » 
covered  with  heath  or  ling;  the  hollows  and  flats  oonta... 
excellent  peat  The  hilly  tract  which  separates  the  \\\t  -« 
of  the  Clwyd  from  the  wide  sestuary  of  the  Dee  and  t:  \ 
plain  of  Cheshire,  contains  south  of  Caerwys  several  »uq- 
mits  between  1200  and  2000  feet  above  the  sea.  but  Cftrths: 
north  they  are  much  lower.  In  the  extensive  deprcsBioa*  lY 
this  tract  there  is  a  good  portion  of  arable  land  of  consid^- 
able  fertility,  especially  in  the  valley  of  Mold,  on  the  bank- 
of  the  Alyn. 

The  country  extending  from  the  Berwyn  range  as  f  - 
south  as  the  valley  of  the  Severn  is  rather  hiUy  tk.  ^ 
mountainous;  only  a  few  of  its  summits  exoeed  luoo  fr.*. 
in  elevation,  except  near  the  Berwyn  Mountains,  llioi..  . 
the  greatest  portion  of  it  is  only  fit  for  sheep>walk,  i:i . : 
some  tracts  are  quite  useless,  it  still  contains  coosidermb- 
strips  of  arable  land  in  the  valleys  along  the  numcn  • 
rivers  by  which  it  is  drained,  especially  in  that  of  ii 
Vyrnwy,  an  affluent  of  the  Severn. 

The  valley  of  the  Severn  above  Llanidloes  is  narrov,  &r 
only  contains  a  few  patches  of  arable  ground,  but  W\  « 
Llanidloes  it  is  in  general  from  one  to  two  miles  wide,  pr«  't . 
level  and  not  destitute  of  fertility,  though  not  equal  to  ti  • 
valley  of  the  Clwyd.    Its  cultivation  is  improving. 

The  Plinlimmon  range,  which,  beginning  from  the  n>r.- 
limmon  Mountain  at  the  source  of  the  Severn,  runs  lKs-. 
the  southern  side  of  the  valley  of  that  river  in  the  furm  « ' 
an  arc,  and  terminates  on  the  west  of  the  plain  of  8br>(- 
shire  with  the  Breiddin  Hills,  forms  a  natural  boundar . 
between  North  and  South  Wales.    PUnhmmon  Mount  ir 
is  a  mass  of  rocks  of  great  extent,  whose  hii;hest  suzni* 
rises  to  2463  feet.    The  Llandinam Mountains  fiu:t)i«-r  i..> . 
attain  1898  feet;  Long  Mountain,  not  far  from  MiTt. 
mery,is  1330  feet;  and  the  highest  summit  of  the  B.\(  I  \  . 
Hills,  1199  feet  high.    This  range  presents  a  i;rcat  a.   - 


GRE 


412 


G  P  £ 


The  country 'fiontb  of  this  range,  to  Caennarthen  Bay, 
Milford  Haven,  and  St  Bride's  Bay,  presenU  the  appear- 
ance of  an  uneven  plain,  intersected  with  numerous  de- 
tached hills,  or  rocky  eminences,  of  an  irregular  and  coni- 
cal shape.  These  rocky  eminences  rarely  support  even  a 
slight  Vegetation ;  and  except  the  shores  of  Milford  Haven, 
which  are  well  wooded,  the  country  is  almost  destitute  of 
trees.  The  district  south  of  a  line  from  Milford  Haven  to 
Tenby,  on  Caennarthen  Bay,  is  however  superior  in  fertility, 
and  its  surface*  like  the  Plain  of  Glamorgan,  extends  in  an 
undulating,  or  rather  a  level  plain,  and  approaches  that  of 
Glamorgan  also  in  the  richness  of  iU  corn-lands  and  pas- 
tures. Along  the  shores  of  Cardigan  Bay  there  are  some 
narshes,  which  comprise  extensive  tracts  of  excellent  land ; 
others  are  covered  with  sand,  or  are  mere  salt-marshes. 

The  following  table  shows  the  length  of  the  principal 
rivers  of  Great  Britain  and  the  area  drained  by  them  :— 

Length  Extaat 

oftbair  oftha 

Names  of  the  Kivew.                                couwe.  .Basin. 

Mile*.  8q.lfb. 

The  SBstuary  of  the  Humber  receives  the 
drainage  of  about  9000  square  miles, 

^"rhTouse          ....  120  4800 

The  Trent 144  4000 

The  rostuary  itself      ...  40  200 

The  DBstuary  of  the  Wash     .         .         .  ..  5000 
The  estuary  of  the  Thames  receives  the 
drainage  of  about  5500  square  miles, 

The  Thames      ....  200  4800 

TheMedway         ...  55  700 
The  CDstuary  of  the  Severn  receives  the 
drainage  of  about  5900  square  miles, 
viz. '— • 

The  Severn       ....  190  4500 

The  Wye     .         .         .         .         .120  1400 

The  Tiiy,  including  its  »stuary  .         •  150  2400 

The  Tweed 100  1820 

TheSpey 96  1300 

The  Clyde 90  1200 

The  Eden 72  "00 

The  estuary  of  the  Mersey  receives  the 
drainage  of  about  1050  square  miles, 
vii. : — 

The  Mersey,  including  its  nstuary  62  550 

The  Weaver,  falling  into  the  Mersey  55  »  500 

TheTyne 80  950 

The  Tees,  nearly          ....  80  450 

The  North  Dee 70  j  900 

The  Ness,  including  the  Garry           •  60  850 

The  Forth,  exclusive  of  the  Firth           .  60  840 

The  J^ochie  and  Spean      ...  50  530 

TheNith 58  504 

TheFindhorn          ....  80  500 

C/tmo/tf.— Being  situated  nearly  in  the  middle  of  the 
temperate  zone.  Great  Britain  enjoys  the  advanti^es  arising 
from  such  a  geographical  position ;  and  in  addition  to  this 
it  has,  in  common  with  the  greatest  part  of  Western  Eu- 
rope, the  mildness  of  climate  peculiar  to  this  portion  of  the 
j^lobe,  of  which  extraordinary^phenomenon  an  explanation 
IS  given  under  Climate  and  Eurofx. 

The  difference  between  the  climate  of  Great  Britain  and 
the  neighbouring  continent  is  chiefly  due  to  its  insular  posi- 
tion, and  its  being  exposed  to  the  winds  which  blow  across 
the  wide  expanse  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  This  difference 
does  not  atfect  either  the  mean  annual  temperature  of 
the  air,  or  the  quantity  of  rain.  There  is  however  a  dif- 
ference sufficiently  marked,  if  we  consider  the  distribution 
of  heat  and  of  rain  through  the  course  of  the  year.  It 
appears  that  Great  Britain  is  not  subject  to  the  same  de- 
gree of  heat  in  summer,  nor  of  cold  in  winter,  as  the  con- 
tinental countries  lying  in  the  same  parallel.  Now,  as  in 
countries  subject  to  great  vicissitudes  of  heat  and  cold  the 
liuman  frame  is  exposed  to  a  variety  of  diseases  dependent 
on  this  change,  it  is  perhaps  mainly  owing  to  this  greater 
equality  of  its  seasons  that  the  inhabitants  of  this  island 
etijoy  in  general  a  greater  share  of  health  and  attain  a 
greater  age  than  in  most  of  the  continental  countries. 

As  Great  Britain  extends  over  nearly  nine  degrees  of 
latitude,  there  is  some  difference  in  the  mean  annual  tem- 
leraturc  of  ulaces  situated  at  the  extremes  of  the  island. 


and  at  any  great  distance  from  one  another.  London  and 
Wick  in  Caithness  are  probably  about  the  same  eleva.t»jr; 
above  the  sea.  In  London  the  mean  temperature  of  tl-^ 
whole  year  is  50*39^ ;  in  summer  62*32^  in  autumn  51  U'. 
in  winter  39*12^,  and  in  spring  49*76^  At  Wick  the  is«4a 
annual  temperature  is  4G*7^  m  summer  53*77%  in  aututnt 
48*35%  in  wmter  40*35%  and  in  spring  44*41**.  The  south* 
western  part  of  England,  especially  the  peninsula  b«tv«<n 
the  English  and  Bristol  Channels,  hat  a  mn^  mfldf-r  rl- 
mate  than  the  countries  farther  east,  a  fact  sufficient '.% 
marked  by  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  PlymuutlL 
which  is  52*1^.  But  this  observation  cannot  be  extendi 
to  the  whole  western  coast.  At  Glasgow  the  mean  tem|«?ri- 
ture  of  the  whole  year  is  47'75^  and  at  Leith*  acoonbni;:  :-> 
the  statement  of  Dr.  Brewster,  48*36® ;  at  Edinburgh  vlu*  l\ 
is  stated  to  be  about  300  feet  above  the  sea,  it  is  47^  *' 
The  highest  mean  range  of  the  thermometer  may  be  flxi< 
at  about  80%  and  the  lowest  about  10®;  the  caiea  being  rsM* 
in  which  it  exceeds  the  former  and  ftlls  below  the  latUT 
but  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  within  the  latitudes  • .' 
Great  Britain,  it  nearly  every  year  attains  90^«  and  sinks  a« 
low  as  zero.  The  mean  daily  range  varies  oonsiderabty  wtth 
the  seasons,  being  greatest  in  the  summer  months,  wb«r 
the  mid-day  heat  is  from  18®  to  20®  greater  than  the  tnt- 
perature  of  the  air  towards  sun-rise ;  while  in  Deeembcr 
and  January  the  difference  hardly  exceeds  10®  or  11®. 

Westerly  winds  prevail  all  over  the  island.  RenneSl. 
resting  his  inductions  on  former  observations,  (^ves  5*6^  tu 
9  as  me  proportion  between  the  winds  blowing  from  itr 
east  of  the  meridian  and  those  coming  from  the  weaL  Bu 
more  recent  observations  have  reduced  this  propoction  to  » 
to  8.  Easterly  winds  however  prevail  on  the  eastern  sidr 
of  the  island  in  the  spring  and  summer  months.  The\  are 
cold  and  dry,  check  vegetation,  wither  the  bnda»  and  nate- 
rially  affect  the  human  frame,  producing  colds  and  otl«T 
complaints.  In  autumn  the  easterly  winds  are  not  fteauetit, 
but  when  they  blow  they  are  sometimes  accompanied  ««ti 
showers  and  even  long  rains.  The  easterly  winds  blow  coa- 
tinuously  for  some  time :  those  from  the  west  come  on  wx:b 
pufis,  and,  as  it  were«  bv  starts.  The  westerly  winds  arc  gene- 
rally accompanied  with  rain,  and  at  the  same  time  are  tnun 
boisterous,  especially  on  the  north-western  ooast  of  EngianJ, 
and  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  which  is  destitute  of  tiMs, 
chiefly  from  being  exposed  to  the  fury  of  the  westoly  jales. 

The  air  of  Great  Britain  contains  a  greater  quantity  if 
moisture  than  most  other  countries,  which  slM>irs  itael'f  n 
the  frequency  and  duration  of  fogs.  Strabo  lemarks  tbst 
the  sun  §[enerally  shines  only  for  a  few  hours,  and  that  la 
the  morning  and  evening  it  is  hid  in  clouds  or  fogs ;  an  ob- 
servation wnioh  shows  the  correctness  of  his  infonnatiacL 
Farther  it  appears  to  be  a  fact  that  Great  Britain  hu  i 
greater  number  of  rainy  days  than  the  countries  of  conti- 
nental Europe;  but  at  the  same  time  it  must  be  obsencJ 
that  the  quantity  of  rain  does  not  differ  materially  firom  th»: 
in  other  parts  of  Europe.  Tliis  apparent  contradictiijn  t^ 
easily  explained  by  observing,  that  during  the  latter  mootl« 
of  the  year  a  drizzling  rain  is  very  common  in  this  i^Unil 
and  that  it  is  nearly  impossible  to  form  a  true  estimate  -  f 
the  whole  quantity  which  fertilizes  the  soil  and  imparts  *  • 
vegetation  that  freshness  and  lustre  which  are  admirrd  hj 
all  travellers.  It  is  asserted  that  about  two-thiids  of  the 
whole  quantity  of  rain  fklls  on  the  western  side  of  Bngiauo 
but  this  estimate  seems  to  be  somewhat  exaggczated.  Per> 
haps  we  shall  be  nearer  to  the  truth  if  we  state  that  ti« 
proportion  between  the  quantity  of  rain  that  &1U  on  tiv 
eastern  and  western  sides  is  as  3  to  4,  the  mean  annu^ 
Quantity  of  the  former  being  about  24  inclMs,  and  that  of 
the  latter  32  inches.  But  this  proportion  is  not  equal,  i 
distributed  through  the  seasons;  the  rain  which  talU  u 
summer  on  the  eastern  side  constitutes  a  much  larger  fKC> 
tion  of  the  whole  quantity  than  that  which  falls  in  the  sua*. 
season  on  the  western  si<le.  According  to  the  calculatioci* 
of  the  German  meteorologist  Kiimtz,  the  rain  on  the  wain  j 
side  and  eastern  side  respectively  is  distributed  aerom..v< 
to  the  seasons  in  the  following  proportions^  the  whole  quAh- 
tity  on  each  side  being  called  100 : — 

Weitem  Side. 

Winter    .  .  26*4 

Spring     .  .  19'7 

Summer  .  .  23*0 

Autumn  •  •  30*9 


100* 


GAB 


414 


G  R  £ 


NaineofColoByarPi 

iweiiton.               Aiea. 

Fbpolatkm. 

Census. 

Amxuoa. 
North-woit  Territory~Pi! 

Sanare 
InoeBupext*!         liues. 

Land,  Hwiaan'B  Bay 

•        •       ''^S'!!!! 

- 

Lower  Oabada 

.        .        .            78.669 
M.029 

511.917 

1831 

Upper  Canada 

821.909 

1834 

New  Bmniwiek 

:   :   :     m 

72.943 

Nova  Sootia 

ia.848 

1887 

CapeBretoa 

3.125 

18.700 
32.288 

•  • 

Prince  Bdwaid*B  laUnd 

2.131 

1833 

Newtrandland 

85.913 

62.088 

WsiT  Iirmis. 

1 

Anticna           .        • 

400 

85.300 

Barbadoea 

.        .        •                  166 

101.606 

1829 

Dominica        •        • 

,        •                          860 

18.660 

1883 

Grenada          •        • 

164 

25.422 

1834 

Guiana —Denenni  and 
Berbice 

*-*!»«»       }  100.000|« 

74,883 

21.802 

1832 
1827 

Jamaiea          •        . 

.        .              6.400 

802.666 

Slaws. 

MoutMitat     •        • 

.        .        .                   47 

7.245 
9.325 

Nevia     .        •        .        , 

St.  ChrUtopher 

.        .        .                   68 

23.133 

St.  Luda         •        • 

08 

^<'7!1 

1834 

St.  Vincent     • 

180 

27.128 
43.'678 

1831 

ToImm           •        .        t 
Trinidad 

»       •        •        abootSOO 
.       •       .              2.020 

1834 

Virgin  Iilabda 

Baliamaa         •        •        i 

>       •        .            (5.424 

17.888 
8.818 
8.794 

1834 

^                •                •                                          a  • 

liunduraa        •        . 

.        .        .             62.750 

1833 

census  by  Mr.  FinlavBon,  the  following  statemeot  of  (h« 
number  living  at  each  decennary  period  of  t&e  eigbtetnih 
century  has  been  adopted,  upon  nis  authority,  by  Mr.  Rici- 


man:— 


1700 
1710 
1720 
1730 
1740 


Incraasa 
per  Cant. 


5,134,516 
5,066,337 
5,345,351 
5,687,993 
5,829,705 


P«» 


5-50 
6-41 
2-49 


1750 
1760 
1770 
1780 
1790 


6,039,684 
6,479,730 
7,227,S86 
7,814,827 
8,540,738 


lacmM 

.  3-&D 
.  7-23 
.  11  M 

.    8-li 


These  numbers  include  men  employed  in  the  trmy  il4 
navy,  and  seamen  in  the  merchant-service,  and  the  cgm- 
putations  are  made  for  the  middlA  of  each  of  the  )an 
given. 

The  numerical  condition  of  the  population  of  G  •>«( 
Britain  at  each  of  the  four  enumerations  made  during  iit 
present  century,  was  as  under : — 


Population, — ^There  was  no  enumeration  of  the  inha- 
bitants of  this  country  earlier  than  1801.  During  the  pre- 
ceduig  century  many  attempts  were  made  to  form  a  com- 
putation of  the  numbers  in  England  and  Wales,  and  these 
attempts  having  been  revised  after  the  completion  of  the 

The  occupations  of  the  people,  so  far  as  the  same  can  be  shown  in  their  mat  leading  divisions,  and  as  tbey  mr 

found  to  exist  at  the  three  enumerations  of  1811, 1821,  ana  1831,  were  as  follows:^ 


1801. 

18U. 

,    IflSL 

IBl. 

Kumber. 

Kokbet. 

1^ 

14-50 
18-97 
lA-ft 

15-11 

Nomber. 

1805 

lis 

1412 

Nmafarr.   J: 

'it 

England 
W^es     .    . 
Scotland 
Army.  Nary, 
See.     .    . 

8.331«434 

541JM6 

1,599.068 

470.598 

9.538.^ 

611.788 
1305^688 

840.500 

U.261.437 

S,083i456 

819.800 

Total  .    . 

10.942.646 

l2,596j8Q3 

14.391«31 

l6J»i>  .« 

At  the  end  of 

May  in  each 

of  tde  Years 

specified. 

Total  Number 

of 

Families. 

Employed 

AsricaUoxal 
Pursuits. 

Employed 

in  Trade. 

Manufthctnres. 

Sec. 

All  other 
FamilUa. 

( 

Pantesfaaal  Ihopmtlsii. 

TnOm^kc 

AUolhns. 

TuuJ 

England 

(1811 
{1821 
ll831 

2,012,391 
2,346,717 
2,745,336 

697,353 
773,732 
761,348 

923,588 
1,118,295 
1,182,912 

391,450 
454,690 
801,076 

34-7 

33- 

27-7 

45-9 
47-6 
43*1 

19-4 
19*4 
29-8 

ICO 

Wales    . 

(1811 
<1881 
U831 

129,756 
146,706 
166,538 

72,846 
74,225 
73,195 

36,044 
41.680 
44,702 

20,866 
30,801 
48,641 

56*3 
50*6 
43*9 

27-7 
28-5 
26-9 

16-1 
20-9 
29-2 

Scotland 

flSll 
n821 
(1831 

402,068 
447,960 
502,301 

125,799 
130,699 
126,591 

169,417 
190,264 
207,259 

106,552 
126.997 
168,451 

31-3 
29-2 
25-2 

42-1 
42-5 
41-3 

26-6 
88-3 
33-5 

Great  Britain 

fl81l 

1821 
U831 

2,544,215 
2,941,383 
3,414,175 

895,998 
978,656 
961,134 

1,129,049 
1,350,239 
1,434,873 

518,868 

612,488 

1,018,168 

35-2 
33-2 
28-2 

44-4 
45-9 
42- 

80'4 

20-9 
29-8 

no 

190 

m 

On  taking  the  census  in  1831  some  further  particulars  relating  to  the  occupations  of  the  people  were  obtaiDci  u 

follows : — 


Males  20  years  of  age  and  upwards 
Agriculture : — 

Occupiers  employing  labourers 
Occupiers  not  employing  labourers  • 
Labourers  employed  in  agriculture  . 
Employed  in  manufacture,  or  in  making 

machinery 

Retail   trades  or  handicrafts,   either  as 

masters  or  workmen 
Capitalists    bankers,    professional    and 

other  educated  men 
Labourers  employed  in  labour  not  agri- 
cultural   

Other  males  20  years  of  age  and  upwards 
Cexcept  servants)       •         .         ,         . 
Male  servants: — 

20  years  of  ago  and  upwards  . 
Under  20  years  of  age     , 
Female  servants  .... 


Enfland. 


3,199,984 

141,460 

94,883 

744,407 

314,106 

964,177 

179,983 

5b0,950 

189,389 

70,629 

30,777 

518,705 


Wales. 


194,706 

19,728 
19,966 
55,468 

6,218 
43,226 

5,204 

31,571 

11,180 

2,145 

1,179 

42,274 


549,821 

25,887 
53,966 
87,292 

83,993 

152,464 

29,203 

76,191 

34,930 

5,895 

2,599 

109,512 


GieatBritda. 


3,944,511 

187,075 
168,815 
887,167 

404,317 

1,159,867 

214,390 

608,712 

235,499 

78,669 

34,555 

670,491 


6R  B 


416 


6  R  B 


of  population  is  thus  supplied ;  and  if  this  difficulty  were 
got  over,  it  may  readily  be  conceived  that  the  consumption 
of  the  metropolis!  the  centre  of  wealth  and  of  luxury,  would 
not  present  adequate  data  for  ealculatin£  the  consumption 
of  tne  country  at  large.  The  same  difficulty  exists  as  re- 
gards the  production  of  any  of  the  raw  materials  of  manu- 
ncture.  We  know  what  quantity  of  sheep's  wool  is  im- 
ported for  the  use  of  the  spmners  and  weavers,  and  also  the 
quantity  and  value  of  woollen  goods  exported,  but  unless 
we  could  learn  the  weight  of  wool  yielded  by  the  native 
flocks,  no  reasonable  estimate  could  be  formed  with  respect 
to  the  Quantity  of  woollen  manufi&ctures  worn  and  used 
within  the  kingdom.  The  articles  are  so  few  in  respect  of 
which  the  home  production  and  consumption  are  known, 
that  it  would  be  of  little  value  to  state  here  the  little  that  is 
ascertained  upon  that  subject ;  all  that  can  be  done  in  this 


work  is  to  offer  the  little  authentie  iBibnaatioii  tbs  bu 
been  ascertained  under  the  various  heads  to  which  it  m«(f 
immediately  applies. 

Public  Income  and  RtpendUurc—The  public  ineoQi 
and  expenditure  of  this  country,  during  the  fortj-flTe 
years  that  elapsed  between  the  breaking  out  of  the  wir  of 
the  Fr<)nch  revolution  and  1836,  have  been  Qpoa  a  Mtic 
great  beyond  all  former  precedent,  and  such  ss,  wiiixwt  ex- 
perience of  the  ftct,  would  be  pronounced  impoMible  ht 
any  equal  amount  of  population  to  sustam.  The  follovme 
table  exhibits  for  each  year  the  produce  from  taxation,  vA 
the  amount  of  loans,  on  the  one  hand;  and  on  the  other 
hand  it  shows  the  yearly  interest  paid  to  the  public  ocdiinr, 
the  sums  applied  to  the  redemption  of  debt,  and  ths  curitni 
expenditure  of  the  country . — 


INCOME. 

BXPBNDITUKK. 

Yean 

Amovnt  of  RflT«- 

B««  paid  bito  the 

Bxclieqa^r,  the 

turn. 

Amouot  reeeWed 
on  aeeoant  of 
Loam  and  fix- 
chequer  BilU,  be- 
yond the  amount 
redeemed  in  the 
year. 

Total  amount 

railed  for  public 

naee. 

Interest  paid  on 

public  debt, 

funded  and  un* 

funded. 

Burnt  applied  to 
redemption  of 
public  debt  be- 
yond the  amount 
of  loans,  &c.  In 
the  year. 

Cnrre«t  annual 

public  ezpendl- 

tun. 

peeded  ii  u* 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

1792 

19.258,814 

■  ■  ■ 

19,258.814 

9,767,333 

2,421,681 

7,670.109 

19,859.)il 

1793 

19,845,705 

4,877,956 

24,723,661 

9,437,862 

•  •  • 

14,759,208 

24,i9r.o:o 

1794 

20,193,074 

6.998,389 

27,191,463 

9,890.904 

■  ■  • 

17.851,213 

27,74i,Ii: 

1795 

19,883,520 

30,464,831 

50,348.351 

10,810.728 

•  •  • 

37,603,449 

48,4i4.i:: 

1796 

21,454,728 

22,244,982 

43,699.710 

11,841,204 

•  •  • 

30,334.087 

42.I75.'M 

1797 

83,126,940 

30,356.873 

53,483,813 

14,270,616 

•  •  • 

36,469,993 

50.740,<>t'J 

1798 

31,035,363 

16,858,503 

47,893,866 

17,585,518 

•  •  • 

33,541,727 

51,I27..N5 

1799 

35,602,444 

21.714,863 

57,317,307 

.     17,220,983 

•  •  • 

38,403,421 

55.624.4o4 

1800 

34,145,584 

23,030,529 

57.176.113 

17,381,561 

•  •  • 

39,439.706 

56,821.2«>: 

1801 

34,113/146 

27,305.271 

61,418,417 

19,945.624 

•  ■  • 

41.383.555 

6l,329j:? 

1802 

36,368,149 

14,638.254 

51,006,403 

19,855,588 

•  •  • 

29,693,619 

49,549.:>fl: 

1803 

38,609,392 

8,752,761 

47,362,153 

20,699.864 

•  •  • 

28.298,366 

48.998,2 1 

1804 

46,176,492 

14,570,763 

60,747,255 

20,726,772 

•  •  • 

38,649,436 

59,376.J  * 

1805 

50,897,706 

16,849.801 

67,747,507 

22,141,426 

•  •  • 

45,027,892 

67,169.31^ 

1806 

55,796,086 

13,035,344 

71,831,430 

23,000.006 

■  •  • 

45.941.205 

68,941, 'ill 

1807 

59,339,321 

10,432,934 

69,772.255 

23.362,685 

•  •  • 

44,250.357 

67,613,0^- 

1808 

62,998,191 

12,095,044 

75,093,235 

23.158.982 

•  •  • 

49,984,1^ 

73,1 43.('-: 

1809 

63,719,400 

12,298,379 

76.017,779 

24.213,867 

•  •  • 

52,352.146 

76,WM- 

1810 

67,144,542 

7,792,444 

74,936,986 

24,246,946 

•  •  • 

52,618,602 

76.865,:4'« 

1811 

65,173,545 

19,143,953 

84,317,498 

24,977,915 

•  •  • 

58,757,308 

83.733.:::5 

1812 

65,037,850 

24,790.697 

89.828.547 

25,546,508 

•  •  • 

63,210,816 

68,757,^! 

1813 

68,748,363 

39.649,282 

108,397,645 

28.030.239 

•  •  ■ 

77,913,488 

I05,9n;.* 

1814 

71,134,503 

34.563,603 

105.698,106 

30.051,365 

•  •  • 

76.780.895 

106.832.."  ' 

1815 

72,210,512 

20,241,807 

92,452,319 

31,576,074 

•  •  • 

60,704,106 

92,2W.l!" 

1816 

62,264,546 

514,059 

62,778,605 

32,938,751 

•  •  • 

32,231,020 

65.IC&.:- 

1817 

52,055,913 

•  •  • 

52,055,913 

71.436.245 

1,826.814 

22,018.179 

ii^i^Ui^ 

1818 

53,747,795 

•  •  • 

53,747,795 

30,880,244 

1,624,606 

20,843,728 

d3.34SJ'^ 

1819 

52,648,847 

•  •  • 

52,648,847 

30.807,249 

3.163,130 

21,436,130 

55,40Wi'» 

1820 

54,282,958 

•  •  • 

54,282,958 

31,157.846 

1,918,019 

21,381,382 

54.457,.' r 

1821 

55,834,192 

•  •  • 

55,834,192 

31,955.304 

4,104.457 

21.070,825 

57,130.>'. 

1822 

55,663,650 

•  ■  • 

55,663,650 

29.921.493 

2,962,564 

20,826.567 

53,7I0,fi4 

1823 

57,672,999 

•  •  • 

57,672,999 

29,215,905 

5.261.725 

21.746.110 

56.223;  ii 

1824 

59,362,403 

•  •  • 

59,362,403 

29,066.350 

6,456,559 

23,708,252 

59.231.ltl 

1825 

57,273.869 

•  •  • 

57,273,869 

28,060,287 

9,900.725 

23,559,741 

61,520.:^' 

1826 

54,894,989 

•  •  ■ 

54,894,989 

28,076,957 

1.195,531 

25,808,585 

55.0»l,»)rJ 

1827 

54,932,518 

•  •  • 

54,932,518 

28,239.847 

2,023.028 

25.560,446 

55.823.3:21 

1828 

55,187,142 

•  •  • 

55,187,142 

28,095.506 

4.667,965 

21,407,670 

54,171,141 

1829 

50,786,682 

•  •  • 

50,786,682 

29,155,612 

2,760,003 

19,919,522 

6l,83i,l^' 

1830 

50,056,616 

•  •  ■ 

50,056,616 

29,118,858 

1.935.465 

18,024,085 

49,078,101 

1831 

46,424,440 

•  •  • 

46,424,440 

28,341,416 

2.673,858 

18,781,882 

49.797,I5« 

1832 

46.988,755 

333,989 

47,322.744 

28,323,751 

5,696 

18,050,245 

46.379.6'^5 

1833 

46,271,326 

•  •  • 

46,271,326 

28,522.507 

1,023,784 

16,235,735 

45.782.o:i 

1834 

46,425,263 

•  •  • 

46,425.263 

28,504.096 

1,776,378 

16»397,605 

46.678,07) 

1835 

45,893,369 

•  •  • 

45,893,369 

28,514,610 

1,270,050 

15,884.649 

45.669.30^ 

1836 

48.591,180 

•  •  • 

48,591,180 

29,243,598 

1,590,727 

17,258,871 

48,^3,  U 

Pauperism, — ^The  proji^ress  of  pauperism  in  England  and 
Wales,  which,  until  it  was  checked  hy  the  act  passed  for 
the  amendment  of  the  poor  laws  in  1834,  was  proceeding 
at  a  ruinous  rate  of  increase,  is  shown  by  the  following 
statement  of  the  sums  expended  in  parishes  for  the  relief 
of  the  poor,  from  the  middle  of  the  lust  century  to  the 
present  time : — 

Average  of  1743-49-50  £689,971  1812-13  £6.656,105 

1776  1.521.732  1813-14     6,294.584 

Average  of  1 783-84-85  1.912,241  1814-15    5.418.845 

1803  4.077,891  1815-16     5,724,506 


1816-17 
1817-18 
1818-19 
1819-20 
1820-21 
1821-22 
1822-23 
.823-24 
1824-25 
1825-26 
1826-27 


£6,918,217 
7,890,148 
7,531,650 
7,329,594 
6,958,445 
6,358,703 
5,773.096 
5.736,898 
5,786.989 
5.928,501 
6,441,088 


1827-28 

1828-29 

1829-30 

1830-31 

1831-32 

1832-33 

1833-34 

1834-35 

IS36'37 


X6.29^Civ 
6,33i4i«' 

6,829,»<- 
6,79»,8*v 
7,035.r^> 
6,790.*'O 

5.52f.4lJ 

4.;i;/w 
i(M4,:4i 


6  R  E 


418 


ORE 


Statement  of  the  number  and  tonnage  of  veawlB  buUt  and 
registered  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  its  dependencies  in 
Tarious  years  since  1814  - — 


Yeart. 
1814 
18 15 
1816 
1817 
18H 
1819 
18i0 
1821 

I«23 

18i4 
18S5 
1096 
18:27 
18*28 
18S9 
1830 
1831 
1839 
1833 
1834 
1835 
1836 


UbIM  Kingdom 
'  '^wwMloniiB 
Bttrapa. 


Shipt. 

919 
859 
758 
753 
775 
635 
597 
671 
604 

1003 

1131 

911 

857 
734 
750 
760 
769 
728 
806 
916 
709 


TOBI. 

86.07S 
109.903 
84.676 
81.910 
86.911 
88.965 
68.149 
59.489 
61.533 
63.783 
93.919 
194.099 
119.086 
96.038 
90.069 
77,635 
77.411 
85.707 
99.915 

99.171 
109.710 
191.799 

89.636 


CdoBiei. 


ShJM. 

271 
499 
394 
306 
350 
948 
975 
909 
243 
349 
536 
688 
599 
464 
416 
367 
376 
386 
431 
495 
465 
•376 


Tons. 
11.874 

95.687 
39.795 
93.919 
17.45$ 
93.188 
16.440 
15.365 
15.611 
99.240 
50.6fi9 
80.895 
86.554 
68.906 
50.844 
39.937 
89.719 
34.990 
43.397 
59.476 

65.817 
63.930 
49,976 


BtttbhBmpirai 


1183 

1274 
1089 
1059 
1195 


878 

780 

847 

1179 

1539 

171» 
1440 
1391 
1150 
1117 
1136 
1145 
1159 
1931 
1371 
•10B6 


Tout. 

67.949 

198,540 

117.401 

104.4» 

104.366 

119.173 

84.569 

74,847 

67.IU 

86,098 

143,741 

904,994 

906,640 

163.946 

140,913 

116.879 

110,130 

119.997 

136,319 

144,647 

166,597 

184,959 

130,612 


Vessels  belonging  to  the  United  Kingdontnditidepcoa- 
encies : — 


*  The  retorni  ftv  the  eoloidM  not  hmTing  been  all  nedvad  wtien  thia  ma- 
Mont  was  made  np^  th«  numbers  Ibr  1836  eannot  be  aocotately  ilYen,  ud  an 
below  the  trnth. 


Unlled  KlafdoB 
'  ~*Heo«iaae  in 
Bufppe* 


SIdpe. 
SI, MO 
81,869 
28,026 

28!& 

81,997 

21,969 

21,698 

81.838 

21.048 

21,280 

20.701 

20.968 

19,504 

19.o4v 

19.110 

19,174 

19.460 

19.664 

19.689 

19.W6 

20,300 

20,388 


Tone. 
«.414,17i 
8,447,831 
8,504.290 
8.421,354 
8.468.608 
8.461,607 
8.439.029 
8.855,853 
8.316,403 
8,302.867 
8,348.314 
8.328,807 
8,411,461 
8,181,188 
8.193.300 
2, 199. 9o9 
2.201.502 
2,224.366 
2,261.860 
2.271.301 
2.312.356 
2.360,303 
2,319,749 


6,080 
5.211 
6,432 


TM. 


Tone, 

IS 

279.648 
243.638 
821.860 
814.798 
809,664 
204.860 
203.641 
203.899 

«"'-. 
214.876 

224.1 

g, 
.891 
817.641 
830,827 
357.608 
356.209 
363,2/6 
403.745 
423,456 
442.897 


t5,6Bl 
25.316 

».i07 
25.482 

2l.fi4 
25.^ 
94.6tt 
84.5a 

81.625 
83.199 
24,095 
88,463 

23.721 
24.948 
24.496 
24.389 
25,056 
25,611 


•  The  records  of  1819  sad  1813  wese  destroyed  at  the  beialacoT  tb  i  > 
ton*  House. 

t  A  new  Retistrr  Act  (6  Gea  IV.,  c.  110)  eaaie  tnts  opsnllN  tha  yv 
previously  to  that  date  many  'vessels  whieh  had  been  leal  Seai  bat  i*t  i 
were  still  oontinned  in  the  registry,  nu  eridenee  of  their  lots  ktvlsf  brrt  (« 
duced.    The  oresent  Ship  Registry  Act  In  Sme  to  8Bnd4  WflUaalT.t  & 
wMoh  is  in  suMtaaee  the  wumt  an  6  Geo.  IY«  e.UOi 


Statement  of  the  number  and  tonnage  of  Tessels,  British  and  foreign,  that  entered  and  cleared  from  the  ^^< 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  exclusiye  of  the  intercourse  between  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  of  the  coostiog  trkt. 
in  each  year  from  1801  to  I8369  so  fiur  as  the  same  can  be  made  up  fh>m  records  at  the  Custom-House  :^ 


INWARDS. 


British. 


Years. 

1801 

1802 

1803 

1804 

1805 

1806 

1807 

1808 

1809 

1810 

1811 

1814 

1815 

1816 

1817 

1818 

1819 

1820 

1821 

1822 

1823 

1824 

1825 

1826 

1827 

1828 

1829 

1830 

1831 

1832 

1833 

1831 

1835 


Ships. 

4,967 
7.806 
6,264 
4,866 
6,167 
6,211 


6,615 
5.154 

• . 

®'^a 
8.875 

9,744 

11.855 

13,006 

ll.»4 

11.885 

10,810 

11.087 

11.871 
11,733 
13.516 
18.4^ 
13,133 
13,436 
13.659 
13.548 
14.488 
13.372 
13.119 
13.903 
14.895 
14,347 


Tons. 


1,333.006 

1,115,708 

904,^32 

953,250 

904,367 


988.675 
896,001 

1,89«V,248 

1,372.108 

1,415,783 

1,625.181 

1 ,000,^94 

1,809,188 

1,668,060 

1,599.874 

1,664. 18b 

1,740,859 

1,797.820 

2,144,598 

1,950,680 

8,086.898 

8,094,357 

8,184.585 

8,180.048 

2,367,888 

2,185,980 

2.183.814 

2,298,269 

2,448,784 

8,606.473 


Foieis&t 


Shipe. 

6.497 
3,728 
4.254 
4,271 
4,617 
3.793 

4.«7 

1.926 

4.922 

6.876 

3.216 

5.286 

5*314 

8.116 

3.396 

6.238 

4,215 

3.472 

3.261 

3.389 

4.069 

5.653 

6.968 

5.729 

6.046 

4.955 

6.218 

5.359 

6.085 

4.546 

5.505 

5,894 

6,005 

7*i81 


Taos. 

780,165 
480,851 
638,104 
607,899 


TotsL 


612.904 
680,144 
263.65 

1'176, 
687. 180 
599,267 
746,985 
879,465 
445,011 
7€e.457 
542,681 
447.6II 
396.256 
409,151 
682.996 
759.441 
968,138 
694,116 
751,864 
634,620 
10,303 
68,828 
4,605 
,979 
762.085 
833.905 
866,990 


Ships. 

10.484 

11,684 

10,518 

9,136 

9,684 

9.004 


10.637 
12,080 

mImi 

14,194 
12.860 
14,651 
19.244 
16,189 


16,340 
17.386 
80,484 
18,208 
19,179 
18,991 

18,877 
18,907 
20,573 
17,918 
18,624 

81,478 


Tons. 

1.708,749 
1,813,8S6 
1,753,806 
1,518,231 
1,645,133 
1.617,271 


1,697,9«2 
8,072,244 

l,8S9i636 

2,119,093 

1,795,188 

2,070.132 

2.648.851 

8.351.818 

8.115,671 

1.995,530 

8,133,^ 

8.823,856 

2,566,761 

8.102,' 

8,644,746 

2.839.762 

2,728,f 

8,894.1 

8.938,870 

3,241,927 

2,825,969 

2,945.899 

3,132.168 

8.309.724 

3,494,378 


OUTWARDS. 


Yean. 

1801 

1802 

1803 

1804 

1805 

1806 

I8O7 

1808 

1809 

1810 

1811 

1814 

1815 

1816 

I8I7 

1818 

1819 

1820 

1821 

1822 

1823 

1884 

1825 

1826 

1827 

1828 

1889 

1830 

1831 

1832 

1833 

1834 

1836 

1836 


British. 


Shipa 

7.471 
5.683 

4,993 
6.319 
5,219 


5.488 

9,909 

81620 
8.898 
9.044 
10.713 
11,446 
10.250 
10.102 

iS;^ 

9,666 
10,157 
10.848 
10,844 
11.481 
12,248 
12,636 

13,7'^^ 

13. 

13. 

13,639 

13,948 

14,207 


Tons. 


1.177.1  _ 
960.787 
9OC.OO7 
971.496 
899,574 


950.566 
860.682 

1.27i'.958 

1.8>)9,688 

1.340. 

1.658. 

1.716,488 

1.662.338 

1.549.508 

X, 499, 044 

1,539.260 
1.546.976 
1.667.533 
1.793.994 

1,887.682 
2,006,397 
2.063,179 
2. 108. 147 
8.800.731 
8.229,289 
2.244.874 
8,296,326 
2,419.941 

8,531,577 


Fot«|fn. 


Ships. 


3.] 

3.673 

4.093 

3.932 

3.459 

3.846 

1.8)2 

4.530 

6,641 

4l628 

4.701 

2,579 

2.905 

5,899 

3,796 

2,969 

2,626 

2,843 

3,437 

5.026 

6»075 

5,410 

6,714 

4,405 

5.094 

5.156 

6,927 

4,391 

5,250 

6.823 

6.047 

7.048 


Toot. 

4S7!880 
674.420 
687.849 
605.831 
668.170 
631,910 
282.145 
699.750 

1.138.627 
6021941 

440.629 


TbuL 


767.891 
608.118 

S.2S0 
.368 
.051 
651.283 
768,601 
888.827 
9O6.27O 
1,036,129 


Ships. 


10.1 
9.195 
9.076 
9.S1 
6,678 


10.011 
10.610 

13.593 
ll.GS 
13.618 
16.614 
14.045 

13.071 
12.423 

1S.60 
13.l«a 
15.083 
16.923 
16.25» 
17.190 
16.6S3 


Tqw> 

1.«>I 

i.«*: 

l.W.sS* 

i.«r  Jw 
i.4K:.;<< 


1,650  :>  5 
19».:s» 

1.8/4'.J'"J 

i.73J.*«* 

!,«.* 

1.4*' . : 
2.1:' *<■ 

1,9W  -* 

i.w  *^: 

I.110> 

2.4W  '•' 
2.4'><' 
J. 4?'  *' 
2,4U> 

i.e.-.  i  > 
2.;*' «-' 

a.i"<  *' 

3..4"  i- 


tisAa  Titn  eacQ  country  : — 


17  .&M 


iraaa  min  ekon  a 


UTW 

^HDa. 

oouwruES. 

BtUlA 

Fordp. 

RlH>1> 

'l'.'l 

jk'm 

"■fe 

li 

Tom. 

Men. 

1J4 

S'M 

ill 

6,392 

Dtnmiik          .        . 

sr 

6s;-ii 

s.&yj 

1.IH2 

6, MO 

Pruv^n         .         .        . 

tairi'a 

i.e*     6so 

S,91S 

flil 

J3 

57I66! 

3.5int 

»n]Z7^      .     '  .■    '   . 

I»>.t7 

?!«« 

b:« 

Si, 35; 

3,915 

Ft.1.0.         .        .        . 

,,S  ^:i? 

4,(«5!      ».s 

ns 

iSl 

Portugal.  Pmpf  r 

w 

^;g 

'7^^ 

IS 

•■'A 

"         Mn™™'     .  ' 

4,&V- 

au 

h 

ap»lB  Kti  Xh-  Uilrula 

31 

S,50 

s 

9,032 

MA 

2,s;a 

773 

H 

aibralUr      . 

2o.su 

l.tNM 

M 

lulr«,d^leIlAli«,I^ 

353 

3,ft£7 

*^ 

is.m 

731 

B 

ft- 

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lixiiiu  Iilsodi      '    . 

fi.iHL 

Tu,k«,  «^\  Coi.liiiH.tal 

l» 

1,452 

Ml 

28 

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a;. 

Ewd       .        .        . 

TiiiMli.     B«bu7.  ud 

M>™c«   .        .        . 

s« 

10 

S.988 

136 

C<«riorAfiici,,&™M.- 

rocca   to  (ho  Capo  oT 

G«»llluF.     .         . 

li'* 

4S,B71 

E,4» 

10 

Cap.  of  Good  Hop.       . 

fo 

14,910 

E«.«m  CiM.1,  rr..B  llu 

Siaw.'^sr" 

23S 

•1 

C>iu  de  V>nl  [ilaudi    . 

:; 

tt.urlua.     . 

8 

18,S7« 

693 

^('lodia    Co^iUy'i 

»nd  Cojloii 

267 

117,7M 

7.iKJ 

1 

ST* 

t.im 

i'.ua 

'73 

d^oD  Sm,  Hclusivs  ot 

^l^^nWiS.     .  * 

221 

13 

e 

i,wSoi..i;w.ii,    ". 

i«; 

£4.n9» 

i;m9 

"la 

Jisei 

'«7 

N.-z.,uod   .      . 

5M.%3 

■3  [  1:67 

l.vU 

6.93 

3:11 

CilfL.,.ud«ll«P0KlgB 

W„.l|,rtiB.           .       '. 

7S 

is.a"3 

mt 

271 

i;nlt,dSuta>     . 

laj.HM 

6,714 

B79 

2»:o46 

9.6W 

3,S,1i> 

S4L 

£4 

B:! 

aifi 

w,3;ii 

2.bC-' 

1 

s,ii;i; 

e«5 

IWlBJotRludoliPLU* 

7,441 

27 

6,13» 

1 

153 

la 

3,;i9 

rh.W«laFi,i;.ri«    . 

H 

ai.aay 

3,MU 

"«o 

IbI<;i  orCiMOKj,  Itnaj. 

*iuiu«    :    . 

"iTso? 

IIS.OM 

»,5'>« 

1 

110 

» 

Toul 

2,531,577 

144,295 

7.(MS 

l,03S.lZfl 

56,061 

I'.'liwatxon. — Tb«  statistics  of  education  have  hitherto 
.-.'II  wry  im per recily  collected  in  England.  In  May,  1833, 
III  ii'idresa  to  iha  crown  was  voted  by  the  Houmi  of  Coni- 
I'.iiy  for  returns  upon  this  subjei't,  which  slionld  embrace 
I  iiui>U  of  all  descriptions  in  England  and  Wales.  Con- 
.'icrable  care  wm  taken  by  Mr.  Rickman,  of  the  House  of 
oiiiiiiiins,  the  gentleman  who  has   so  well  nianaiied    the 

i{iiilaiiun  returns,  to  obtain  the  fullest  and  most  accurate 
i^».^rE  to  quesliaiu  that  were  circulated  throui^liuut 
T._'l;uid  and  Wales,  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  the 
i-viis  provided  for  inslruction.but  there  m  little  doubt  thut 

L-   ri-tiirn»  obtained  were  exceedingly  inooiiipltie.     They 

'■~.-iil  however  the  best  stalislical  view  we  have  of  this 
i<i«irtant  object,  and  will  be  useful  in  the  absence  of  more 
' 'iimit.>  statements.  Whatever  errors  areeshibiied  in  the 
'.'  ,» iiijr  abslruct  are  ail  on  the  side  of  omission. 

.\-,  ili<;  superintendence  of  education  is  no  part  of  admin- 
I  r-ii  K.n  in  Eiif^land.  there  are  no  means  of  aitcerlaininK  its 
.;.iliiiun  except  by  a  Uborious  collertion  of  scattered  xdA' 
juiaia     Tlie  tea  volumes  of  the  'Quarterly  Journal  of 


Education,    published  by  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of 

Useful  Knowledge,  supply  some  information  on  the  stale  of 
education  in  the  universilies  of  Oxford  and  Carabridge,  and 
the  grammar  and  other  schools  of  England.  The  Reports 
of  the  Commissioners  to  in.(uiro  into  Charities  in  England 
and  Wales,  the  Krat  and  second  volumes  of  the  Central 
Society  of  Education,  the  Reports  of  the  National  School 
Sociely.  of  the  Bniishand  Forcigu  School  Society,  and  those 
uf  various  religious  and  benevolent  eorieties,  wdl  furnish 
much  voluable  irformalion  on  the  sulijeit.  The  conclu- 
sion which,  we  believe,  may  be  faiily  deduced  from  these 
materials  is  ihis:  — that  educaiion,  both  funeral  and  profes- 
sional, is  in  a  condition  below  what  iho  iniercsu  of  tba 
community  require;  that  the  exertions  of  societies  and 
individuals  within  the  present  century  hnvo  done  much  for 
iU  iiiiprovemeni ;  that  the  mi'nns  for  furilicr  impn.vemeni 
are  ample;  and  that  noihinf;  is  uanled  but  a  M.nisier, 
worthy  of  the  tiisk,  to  unite  and  duL-ct  the  ci.eri,'ie»  of  ihe 
nalioit  townrds  the  pi-rl'ccting  uf  this,  tho  most  iujiolluit  of 
all  the  branclius  uf  Admin isttatioa 


G  R  B 


420 


6  R  E 


Infimt  Schools 
Dftily  Schools 


Totel 


SHOLAND. 


2,932 
34.610 


87,139 
1,134,998 


WALES. 


TOTAL 


63 
1,376 


Maintonanee  of  In&nt  and  Daily  Schools :— 

By  Endowment 

By  Subocription 

By  Payments  from  Scholars  . 

By  Stthscription  and  Payment  from  Scholars 

Sunday  Schools 

Maintenance  of  Sunday  Schools  :^ 

By  Endowment 

By  Subscription 

By  Payments  from  Scholars.         .         • 
By  Subseriutions  &  Payments  from  Scholars 

Schools  established  by  Dissenters:— 
Infant  and  Daily  Schools  .         •         •         • 
Sundav  Schools 

Increase  of  Schools  between  1818  and  1833:— 
Infant  and  Daily  Schools.  .  •  • 
Sunday  Schools .         .         .         •         • 

Schools  to  which  lending  Libraries  are  attached 


37,542 


3.914 

2,714 

28,138 

2,776 


1,222,137 


14,929 

544 

13,439 

79 

867 

827 
4,910 

18,997 
9,687 
2,431 


146,121 
1 70,494 
700,672 
204,850 

1,375,719 

37,804 

1,256,468 

4,282 

77,l€5 

48,471 
618,770 

647,034 
974,634 


1,429 


1,866 
52,944 


54,810 


Returns  were  made  to  the  House  of  Commons  by 
the  sheriffs  of  counties  in  Scotland,  showing  the  number 
of  scholars  reoeiTing  instniction  in  the  Scottish  parochial 
schools,  and  the  number  of  schools  not  parochial,  with  the 
number  of  scholars  Uught  therein  in  1825.  These  returns 
embraced  905  out  of  930  parishes,  and  exhibited  the  fol- 
lowing result:— 


Number  of  scholars  in  parodiial  schools 
Schools  not  parochial: — 

Number  of  schools    . 

Number  of  scholars  .       .       .        • 


56,232 

2,402 
101,495 


Further  returns  were  called  for  in  1834,  and  very  vo- 
.uminous  statements  hare  been  presented  to  Parliament  in 
consequence.  The  result  of  these  statements  is  given  in 
the  following  abstract : — 


llakt. 

Children  taught  to  read: — 
Under  5  years  of  age    .      8,584 
From  5  to  15  «'ears      •  126,796 


ToUl 


7,699       16,283 
98,461     225,257 


Total  taught  to  read    135,380    106,160    241.540 

Children  taught  to  write:— 
From  5  to  15  years  of  age  70,683      43,943    114,626 

On  the  state  of  university  and  school  education  in  Soot* 
land  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  Journal  qfEdycatian. 

^riT^.— The  number  and  description  of  the  land-forces 
in  the  service  of  the  country  at  the  beginning  of  1838 
were  ss  follows : — 


^on• 

Gomal*- 

•tolled 

Knnbpr 

Ofllcrra. 

DcwripliMiof 

of  COTM 

Tmaio 

Bttk 

♦ 

Corfw. 

Honas. 

Oflem 

•Ml 

B«ra. 

and  rite. 

ToUl. 

Cavaibt. 

IJfe  UMnU  wkl 

ao]r»l       Honr 

UMnb   . 

s 

•B 

OS 

IM 

1.083 

UOO 

CaTftlry   of     tii« 

Um        .        . 

13 

SfTS 

713 

066 

6,570 

10.157 

IHPAITTST. 

F«>iGMnb 

9 

•• 

tis 

t» 

4.S40 

SJft3 

ft«gim«oU  of  tW 

LiM 

100 

•• 

4313 

6031 

?Bwll7 

OSjMl 

Wmi    ladla  and 

1 

odM    C<itottUl 

r^ftatyU 

s 

100 

317 

403 

6.M 

S.94S 

rmktk  .      . 

w 

nm 

M7 

77** 

OMIO 

100M7 

192 

115 

1,003 

119 

1,899 

27 

1,805 

22 

45 

98 
1,337 

648 

1,598 

33 


2.985 
35.986 


38»97l 


7,643 

8,023 

31,777 

7,367 

173,171 

1,729 

166,909 

1,436 

3,097 

3,351 
131,337 

24,209 
148,763 


4.106 

2,829 

29,141 

2,895 

16^828 

571 

15,244 

101 

912 

925 
6,247 

19.645 

11,285 

2,464 


UZ7t.''Ar 


isxrs4 

l«^4»^--l 

5l.*if 


•71. 241 
l,lt3,»: 


This  force  was  distributed  as  fellows: — 

In  Great  Britain    •  .  24,113  rank  and  ftk. 

Ireland    ....  19,766  • 

Abroad,  ezdusiTe  of  India    .  34,449  «• 

In  India        .        .        .        •  17»288  » 

95,616 

Navy. — ^The  number  of  persons  emptoyed  in  As  tmi 
sen-ice  of  the  public  at  the  same  period  waa« 

Flag-ofBcers  in  commission  and  their  letiane  •  : .  * 

Officers  superintending  dock-yaids                  •  • 

Captains  in  commission          ....  :* 

Commanders  •••.•••  or 

Lieutenants ^^^ 

Masters,  chaplains*  surgeons,  and  pursers  •  *• 

Gunners,  boatswains,  carpenters,  and  enginceis  7  -« 

Mates,  midshipmen,  derks,  &c.  l>v' 

Petty-officers 4.**» 

Seamen Itjt** 

Royal  Marine  corps  9,o  *« 

Total    ....  Sf.o*. 

The  numbers  of  ships  and  vessels  of  war  is  coaiKJw  • 
at  different  periods  dunng  the  war  were — 

February,  1797    •    459,  and  39  stationary  skifa. 
H  1813    .    535»         67  hired  c*»"-~  •——*-^ 

and 
n  1815    .    403»        33  tfoop-slnpa 

arr  shtpa. 

The  number  of  Tessels  bekmgtng  to  the  Birifisii 
the  Ist  of  April.  1838,  was  678,  including  It 
and  26  mail  steam-ressels.    Of  these  tbm  mnt 
sion  2 1 9  vessels  of  all  sises,  induding  42  i 
which  are  employed  as  mail-boata.  Tberoaiv 
mission  48  revenue  vtsscli,  one  of  whieh  is  a 

Gorermnefi/  and  Adwnm$iraiiam. — Tbo 

Eovemment  is  generally  called  a  limited  or 
ereditary  monarchy;  but  this  is  an 
accurate  description.     The  sovereign 
sidered  as  reaidmg  in  three  bodiea  or  e  _ 

and  Commons.    These  three  estates  eonstttnae  Ike 
ment,  and  the  eonenrrenee  of  these  three  Innbe 
of  the  sovereign  power  is  neoesoary  fer 
or  altering  any  law.    The  House  of  ' 
temporal  peers  of  England,  the  elective 
and  Ireland,  the  bishops  of  Bngland. 
spiritual,  who  sit  by  rotation  of  sceso 
Lords  is  also  the  Supreme  Ooort  of  Appeal  Ut 
Britain  and  Ireland. 

Since  the  Union  with  Mand  in  IMI  tin 
mens  hu  compriied  658  ineuihti^  oC 


6RB 


422 


ORB 


*  CambnaQ  Register/  and  tlie '  Cambrian  Quarterly  Maga- 
zine ;'  and  the '  Damhegion,'  consisting  of  Fables  in  the  man- 
ner of  iEsop,  which  were  translated  and  prepared  for  the 
press  by  Mr.  Evan  Evans,  but  have  never  yet  been  printed 
either  in  English  or  in  the  original.  The  most  antient  and 
famous  of  the  existing  Welsh  chronicles  is  that  of  Tysilio, 
who  appears  to  have  flourished  in  the  seventh  century.  It 
is  printed  in  the  original  in  the  '  ArchsBology  of  Wales,'  and 
there  is  also  an  English  translation  of  it  by  the  Rev.  Peter 
Roberts,  8vo.,  Lend.  1810.  The  remains  of  the  antient 
Welsh  laws,  the  most  important  of  which  are  those  enacted 
by  Howel  Dha,  prince  of  South  Wales,  in  the  early  part  of 
the  tenth  century,  have  been  printed  by  Wotton  m  his 

•  Leges  WallicflB,'  fol.,  Lend.  1730.  With  the  exception  of 
a  short  revival  of  the  old  poetic  spirit  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  14th  century,  the  most  remarkable  product  of  which 
was  the  poetry  of  Davyth  ap  Gwilim  (of  which  some  speci- 
mens have  lately  been  presented  in  an  English  dress,  12mo., 
Lond.  1834),  there  has  been  little  literary  cultivation  of  the 
language  of  Wales  since  the  country  became  incorporated 
with  England.  The  Bible  however  and  some  religious 
works  have  been  translated  into  Welsh  in  modem  times. 
In  early  times  the  Welsh  scholars,  as  well  as  their  contem- 
poraries in  other  countries,  wrote  in  Latin ;  but  Wales  can* 
not  enter  into  competition  with  Ireland  either  in  the  num- 
ber of  its  learned  men  in  the  Middle  Ages,  or  in  their  in- 
dividual eminence.  The  most  memorable  of  the  Welsh 
writers  in  Latin  are  the  monkish  chroniclers  Gildas  and 
Nennius,  of  the  seventh  century,  and  Giraldus  Cambrensis 
and  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  who  both  lived  in  the  12th. 

5.  The  Cornish.  The  Cornish  was  a  spoken  language 
little  more  than  a  century  ago,  but  is  believed  to  be  now 
altogether  lost,  with  the  exception  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  and 
the  Creed  (which  are  given  by  Camden),  and  a  short  voca- 
bulary collected  by  Dr.  Borlase  in  his  'Antiquities  of  Corn- 
wall,* folio,  1754  and  1769.  From  these  specimens  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  sister  dialect  of  the  Welsh.  If  any 
literary  compositions  ever  existed  in  Cornish,  they  have 
wholly  perished. 

6.  The  Norse.  This  is  the  name  given  to  the  tongue 
that  used  to  be  spoken  by  the  people  of  the  Orkneys,  and 
that  perhaps  is  not  yet  altogether  extinct  there.  It  is,  or 
was,  a  Gothic  dialect ;  but  we  are  not  aware  that  any  com- 
position in  it  exists,  with  the  exce])tion  of  a  version  of  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  first  given  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  James  Wallace, 
a  clergTcnau  of  these  islands,  in  his  'Account  of  the  Ork- 
neys,* 6\o.f  London,  1 700 ;  and  which  may  also  be  found  in 
Chamberlervne's  *Oratio  Dominica  omnibus  fere  in  Lin- 
guis;'  in  Bishop  Percy's  preface  to  Mallet's  'Northern 
Antiquities;*  in  Pinkerton's  'Inquiry  into  the  (Early)  His- 
tory of  Scotland ;'  in  Sir  Robert  Sibbald's  '  History  of  Fife,' 
notes  to  Cupar — Fife  edition,  8vo.,  1 803 ;  and  elsewhere. 

7.  The  Anglo-Saxon.  If  we  disregard  the  opinion  which 
supposes  a  Teutonic  tongue,  identical  with  or  nearly  resem- 
bling the  Anglo-Saxon,  to  have  been  brought  over  to  the 
soutn  of  Britain  by  the  Belgic  colonists  that  had  settled  in 
the  country  before  the  arrival  of  Ca>sar  [England],  the 
period  during  which  the  Anglo-Saxon  was  the  spoken  lan- 
guage of  that  part  of  the  island,  or  rather  indeed  of  the 
whole  island  from  the  Channel  to  the  Forth,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  stripe  along  the  west  coast,  which  continued 
to  be  occupied  by  the  Welsh  and  other  apparently  cognate 
tribes,  may  be  rudely  defined  as  extending  fVom  the  settle- 
ment of  the  Angles  and  Saxons  about  the  neginning  of  the 
sixth  century  to  the  close  of  the  twelfth.  We  possess  a 
series  of  Anglo-Saxon  literary  compositions  in  prose  and 
verse,  from  at  least  the  latter  part  of  the  seventh  century ; 
and  although  the  earlier  specimens  are  both  scanty  and,  in 
all  probability,  considerably  corrupted,  those  of  later  times 
have  come  down  to  us  in  ample  quantity,  and  to  a  great  ex- 
tent in  perfect  preservation,  llere  we  can  mention  only  the 
names  of  the  principal  writers  in  each  department ;  refer- 
ring the  reader  who  is  desirous  of  more  minute  information 
to  tne  detailed  catalogue  of  Saxon  manuscripts  drawn  up 
by  Humphrey  Wanley,  which  forms  the  third  volume  of 
Hickes's  '  Thesaurus  Linguarum  Septentrionalium,*  fol., 
Oxon.,  1706.  In  Anglo-Saxon  poetry,  the  most  remarkable 
productions  that  have  come  down  to  us  are  the  poem  on 
the  exploits  of  Beowulf  the  Dane,  which  appears  to  be  the 
most  antient  Anglo-Saxon  composition  extant ;  the  Metrical 
Paraphrase  of  various  parts  of  the  Scriptures,  attributed  to 

vriter  of  the  name  of  Caedmon»  who  however  is  of  later 
e  than  the  Goedmon  of  whose  poetry  Bede  has  preserved 


a  short  fragment;  and  the  poem  preserved  in  tiie  8«xoii 
Chronicle  on  the  victory  obtained  by  king  Athelstan  oter 
the  Hiberno- Danish  chieftain  Anlaf,  and  his  ally  Con^TaL- 
tine  king  of  the  Scots,  in  938.  To  these  may  be  added.  \s 
written  in  a  language  still  rather  Saxon  than  Kngluh, 
thoueh  in  the  reign  of  Henry  U.,  Layamon's  truialation  of 
the  French  Brut,  or  chronicle,  of  Wace  of  Jersey;  the  pa- 
raphrase of  the  Gospel  Histories,  entitled  'Ormulam  ;*  and 
even  the  romancer  called  the  '  Geste  of  King  Hon&e,'  al- 
though that  is  often  referred  to  as  the  earliest  English  ro- 
mance. Many  shorter  pieces  of  Anelo-Saxon  poetry  of 
every  age  have  also  been  preserved.  A  manuscript  volume 
of  Anglo-Saxon  p6etry,  which  has  been  preserred  in  the 
cathedral  of  Exeter  since  the  Norman  conquest,  is  under- 
stood to  be  now  preparing  for  publication  by  Mr.  Thorpe, 
the  editor  of  Caedmon's  Paraphrase  of  the  Scriptures. 
The  principal  prose  writings  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  langoairc 
consist  of  the  Saxon  Chronicle,  the  first  part  of  which, 
chiefly  translated  from  Bede,  was  probably  drawn  up  in  the 
tenth  century,  and  which  was  continued  by  a  suooession  of 
contemporary  annalists  to  the  death  of  Stephen  in  1154: 
translations  of  parts  of  the  Scriptures,  honmiet,  lires  vf 
saints,  and  other  theological  compositions,  by  varioos  hand^ : 
the  grammatical  tracts  of  Archbishop  Aelfinc ;  fragments  of 
the  laws  of  various  Saxon  kings  from  Ethelbert  of  Ker.t. 
who  flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  eentury.  lo 
Canute  inclusive,  published  by  Lambard,  1568,  by  Whelor, 
1644,  and  by  Wilkins,  1722,  together  with  numerous  de- 
crees and  canons  of  councils,  charters,  and  other  legal  do- 
cuments, most  of  which  remain  in  manuscript;  and,  ab*^«tr 
all,  the  various  works  attributed  to  king  Alfred,  including 
translations  of  Bede's  Ecclesiastical  History,  of  Boeihius\ 
Treatise  on  the  Consolation  of  Philosophy,  of  a  tract  ..f 
Pope  Gregory  I.,  De  Cura  Pastorali  (on  the  Pa-^tur^ 
Office),  and  of  the  Geography  of  Orosius;  all,  es|>tfcia;.> 
the  Boethius  and  Orosius,  comprising  more  or  less  oh);:nA; 
matter  added  by  the  translator.  Of  the  Anglo-Saxon  au- 
thors who  have  written  in  Latin,  and  whose  works  or  anj 
of  them  have  been  preserved,  the  chief  are  the  venerable 
Bede,  or  Beda,  in  the  seventh  century,  the  author  of  tnv 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  his  own  nation,  and  of  other  worL« 
which  fill  eight  volumes  folio ;  his  contemporaries  Aldhclm. 
abbot  of  Malmsbury,  and  afterwards  bishop  of  Sherbi^irti. 
the  author,  besides  several  prose  treatises*  of  a  rariout 
poem  of  considerable  length  on  the  virtue  of  Virgmit% , 
St.  Boniface,  the  celebrated  missionary  of  Christianitr  U' 
the  Germans,  St.  Cuthbert,  and  Eddius  Stcphanus,  tW  &'j- 
thor  of  a  life  of  Bishop  Wilfrid;  Asser,  the  biographer  i*f 
Alfred,  in  the  tenth  century ;  and  in  the  eleventh  the  his- 
torian Ingulphus,  the  abbot  of  Croyl-.ud,  if  indeed  the  \\i^ 
tory  that  bears  his  name  be  realty  a  composition  of  t>  it 
age,  which  there  seems  to  be  some  reason  to  doubt.  EiJ- 
mer,  and  the  other  Latin  chroniclers  who  wrote  during  th« 
first  century  and  a  half  after  the  Norman  conquest,  iN 
though  some  of  them  were  of  Saxon  descent,  may  m<.  rn 
properly  be  noticed  under  the  next  head  as  English  wri'%*r>. 
Many  laws,  canons  of  councils,  charters,  and  other  put  > 
or  legal  documents,  belonging  to  the  Saxon  penod«  espe- 
cially those  relating  to  the  affairs  of  the  church,  are  al>o  :a 
Latin. 

8.  The  English  language.  We  cannot  here  attempt  any 
detailed  account  of  the  formation  and  progress  of  the  £^  i- 
lish  language  ;  but  we  may  note  the  great  epochs  of  its  h>- 
tory,  from  its  rise  out  of  the  Saxon  in  the  twelfth  oentur}  t . 
its  settlement  into  the  form  in  which  it  now  exists. 

For  the  first  century  after   the  Conquest,  as  alrvo^f 
observed,  the  language  of  the  body  of  the  nation   con- 
tinued to  be  Saxon,  substantially  of  the  same  charantT 
with  that  which  had  for  ages  before  been  spoken  by  therr 
ancestors.    The  transmutation  of  the  Saxon  into  Knglish 
appears  to  have  been  principally  effected  by  the  intermix- 
ture of  the  conquered  people  and  their  conquerors,  whirh 
began  to  take  place  in  the  twelfth  century.     Had  thr 
English  been  left  to  themselves  there  seems    to  be  n 
reason  to  suppose  that  they  would  ever  have  either  aban- 
doned or  corrupted  the  tongue  of  their  fbre&thera.     The 
corruption  of  the  Saxon,  a  language  of  a  pure  Teotoc  c 
lineage  and  character,  and  reflned  to  a  high  de|!re«  of 
grammatical  complication  and  artifice,  into  the  inarticulate 
chaotic  jumble  which  about  this  time  began  to  take  its 
place,  must  have  been  the  work,  not  of  those  to  whi>m  it 
was  vernacular,  but  of  the  foreigners  who,  in  endeavourtui; 
to  speak  it,  naturally  mixed  it  with  the  vocables«and 


G  R  E 


424 


G  R  B 


had  preceded  it  in  the  English  language,  hy  taking  its 
animation  not  so  much  from  imagination  and  sentiment,  as 
from  wit,  levity,  and  a  polished  facility.    Edmund  Waller, 
Sir  Charles  Seclley,  Wentworth  Dillon,  earl  of  Roscommon, 
Charles  Sackville.  earl  of  Dorset,  and  Matthew  Prior,  may 
he  noted  as  the  most  eminent  leaders  in  this  new  style, 
which  however  was  cultivated  hy  a  long  lino  of  their  fol- 
lowers, whose  example  continued  powerfully  to  influence 
our  poetry  down  to  the  close  of  the  last  century.    This 
period  however,  hesides  producing  in  the  drama  the  fervid 
Lee  and  the  pathetic  Otway,  is  also  that  of  the  vigorous 
and  impetuous  Dryden,  certainly  one  of  the  greatest  masters 
of  eloquence  in  rhyme  the  language   has  to  hoast  of. 
Parnell.  Garth.  Addison,  and  Congreve,  are  the  chief  names 
that  fill  up  the  interval  between  Dryden  and  his  gr€»t  suc- 
cessor Pope.    To  these  may  be  added  Pope's  contempo- 
raries.  Gay  and  Swift.    For  two-thirds  of  a  century  after  he 
rose  into  fame.  Pope  was  the  god  of  all  the  imitators. 
Several  poets  of  true  genius,  however,  and  of  more  or  less 
originality,  also  arose  during  this  period,-  the  most  distin- 
guished of  whom  were  Young,  Thomson,  his  countryman 
Blair,  the  author  of  'The  Grave,'  Joseph  and  Thomai 
Warton,  Collins,  Shenstone,  Churchill,  Gray,  Akenside,  Arm- 
strong.  Goldsmith,  Beattie,  Johnson,  Mason,  and  Darwin, 
writers  indeed  of  very  unequal  powers,  as  well  as  exceedingly 
diverse  in  character,  but  each,  even  the  least,  possessing 
something  that  is  unborrowed  and  his  own.    Cowper  how- 
ever has  the  best  title  to  be  regarded  as  the  restorer  among 
us  of  a  more  natural  poetry  than  that  style  which  the 
brilliant  success  of  Pope  had  so  long  established  in  the 
general  opinion  as  the  highest  model.    He  may  be  held  to 
have  been  the  forerunner,  ►  though  by  no  means  the  chief 
leader  or  exciting   example,  of.  the  succession  of  great 
writers  who  within  the  last  hjtlf  century  have  so  remarkably 
revolutionized  our  poetry,  producing  ^something  like  a  re- 
vival   of  its    Elizabethan    spring,    including    Coleridge, 
Shelley,  Keats,  Scott,  Byron,  Crabbe,  and  others  who  still 
live. 

Along  with  the  poets  may  be  enumerated  the  principal 
writers  in  the  department  of  prose  fiction.  This  is  a  field 
that  has  only  been  cultivated  among  us  with  much  success 
in  comparatiTely  recent  times.  Of  the  old  English  prose 
romances,  the  only  one  that  is  now  generally  remembered 
is  the  '  Arcadia '  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  Along  with  that 
perhaps  may  be  mentioned,  as  also  a  sort  of  poem  in  prose, 
which  still  enjoys  great  popularity,  the  *  Pilgrim's  Progress ' 
of  John  Bunyan.  The  principal  modern  English  novelists 
are  Defoe,  Swift,  Richardson,  Fielding,  Smollett,  Sterne, 
Goldsmith,  Moore,  Holeroft,  Mrs.  Radcliffe,  Mrs.  Barbauld, 
Mrs.  Opie,  Miss  Austin,  Maturin,  Scott,  and  various  living 
writers  of  both  sexes. 

English  eloquence,  at  least  in  so  far  as  it  has  been  pre- 
served, is  also  a  part  of  our  literature  that  is  chiefly  of 
modern  growth;  for  although  Sir  Thomas  More,  Lord 
Cliancellor  Bacon,  and  other  eminent  men  of  former  times, 
are  celebrated  for  their  oratorical  powers,  we  possess 
scarcely  any  of  their  harangues  in  the  state  in  which  they 
can  be  conceived  to  have  been  actually  delivered.  Certainly 
of  their  extemporaneous  speaking,  the  only  kind  of  oratory 
that  stands  by  itself  as  a  distinct  thing  from  written  com- 
position, we  have  no  trustworthy  example.  Tlie  specimens 
of  English  oratory  that  have  been  preserved  in  any  tolerably 
satisfactory  form,  hardly  go  back  beyond  the  middle  of  the 
last  century.  From  that  date  however  there  exists  a  volu- 
minous collection  of  the  speeches,  more  or  less  perfectly 
reported,  in  parliament  and  at  the  bar,  of  Burke,  Fox,  the 
younger  Pitt,  Sheridan,  Erskine,  Flood,  Grattan,  Curran, 
Wyndham,  Canning,  and  others.  It  is  remarkable  how 
large  a  proportion  of  these  great  speakers  have  been  natives 
of  Ireland,  and  that  Lord  Erskine  is  the  single  Scotchman 
in  the  list 

In  theology,  metaphysical  and  ethical  disquisition,  politics, 
criticism,  sDsthetics,  and  moral  speculation  generally,  the 
most  eminent  English  writers  are  the  following: — ^in  the 
fourteenth  century,  Wyclif,  the  translator  of  the  jBible,  and 
the  author  of  many  theological  treatises  in  the  mother- 
I  tongue ;  and  Chaucer,  who  translated  Boethius,  and  one  of 
whose  Canterbury  Tales  is  a  moral  discourse  in  prose :  in 
the.  sixteenth,  Sir  Thomas  More,  Sir  Thomas  Slyot,  Sir 
Philip  Sidney,  George  Puttenham  (the  author  of  a  critical 
work  on  the  '  Art  of  Poesie '),  Roger  Ascham,  Bishops 
Latimer,  Jewel,  and  Andrews,  and  the  classic  Hooker:  in 
the  seyenteentb,  BacoDi  Milton,  Dryden,  Cowley,  HobbM, 


Harrington,  Nevile,  Algernon  Sidney,  Chilling  worth,  Oid- 
worth,  Henry  More,  Norris,  Sir  Thomas  Brown.  Jcreuiv 
Taylor,  Barrow,  Thomas  Burnet,  Tillotson,  Leightoii,Riekia'd 
Baxter,  Ix)cke,  and  South :  in  the  eighteenth,  Steele,  Addison. 
Swift,  Mandeville  (author  of  the  Fable  of  the  Baes),  Lori 
Bolingbroke,  Bishops  Berkeley,  Butler,  Sherlock,  Warburtoo, 
Hurd,  Lowth,  and  Cumberland.  Jortin,  Hutcbcson,  Harilt*. 
Lord  Kaimes,  Adam  Smith,  David  Hume,  Burke,  Johnsuii. 
Hawkesworth,  the  unknovvn  author  of  the  *  Letters  of  Ju- 
nius.* Reynolds,  Reid.  and  Paley:  in  the  nineteenth.  Bcn- 
tham,  Ricardo.  Dugald  Stewart,  Mackintosh,  Mill.  Arrhbi- 
shop  Magee,  Malthus,  &c.  To  these  might  be  added  several 
writers  of  letters,  which  have  not  in  all  cases  been  intendtil 
for  the  press;  such  as  Howell,  Lord  Chesterfield,  lM\ 
Mary  Wortley  Montagu,  Horace  Walpole,  Cowper.  hic. 
Many  of  these  letters  however  partake  of  a  historicml,  ti^ 
graphical,  or  otherwise  narratiye  character. 

In  the  great  department  of  history,  although  the  maM 
of  printed  matter  that  exists  in  the  language  is  of  consider- 
able volume,  the  English  works  constructed  on  principii  < 
of  high  art  are,  as  in  all  other  languages,  very  few  in  num- 
ber. If  we  except  some  comparatively  short  pieces  b>  s  • 
Thomas  More,  Lord  Herbert,  Bacon,  Sir  William  Tempi-. 
Swift,  and  a  few  other  older  writers,  our  great  htaiori  --' 
works  of  a  classical  character  will  be  all  comprised  in  t(  * 
following  short  list:— Sir  Walter  Raleigh's*  Uwtory  of  th.- 
World ;'  Lord  Qarendon's  « History  of  the  Grand  K^- 
bcllionr  Hume's  •  HUtory  of  England ;'  Robertson*s  11- 
tories  of  Scotland  and  of  Cliarles  V.;  and  Gibbon's  '  H.* 
tory  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.*  Alo:  j 
with  these  however  may  be  mentioned  the  old  chronicle -% 
as  they  are  commonly  designated,  of  the  fifteenth  and  *:i- 
teenth  centuries,  whose  narrative  is  often  marked  b\  a 
simplicity,  directness,  and  homely  graphic  power,  that  ^-.-  • 
them  a  claim  to  bo  considered  as  forming  an  inte^l  :  **■ 
of  the  national  literature ;  the  chief  of  them  are«  in  chr 
nological  order,  Trevisa,  Caxton,  TaByiin,  Hall,  Graiini 
HoUnshed,  Stow,  and  Speed.  To  these  may  be  added  F-  « . 
the  martyrologist.  Of  later  recorders  of  the  events  of  th.*x 
own  times,  memoir- writers,  anecdote-collectors,  biogTapIier». 
&c.,  the  list  would  be  a  very  long  one;  we  tnay^ment  •  •. 
Fuller,  Strype,  Mrs.  Hutchinson,  Bishop  Burnet,  lUt 
Duchess  of  Marlborough.  Granger,  and  Walpole,  as  am^i.: 
those  most  marked  by  piquancy  or  individuality  of  char:r 
ter.  In  literary  history,  almost  the  only  great  work  » 
possess,  and  even  that  is  unfinished,  is  Warton*s  '  Hi&ti'r^ 
of  English  Poetry.' 

These  classes  will  comprehend  nearly  all  that  can  be  pro- 
perly called  the  literature  of  any  country.    As  fur  vxtf^* 
on  the  mathematical  and  natural  sciences,  on  mcrv  pro- 
fessional subjects,  on  the  srts  of  life,  on  statistics,  ^o^ 
graphy,  topography,  and  antiquities,  and  even  naiTati>«r»  •'. 
voya^  and  travels,  they  are  usually  no  more  any  part  •  * 
the  literature  of  a  language  than  are  our  gnamman  r.. . 
dictionaries,  or  the  statutes  at  large.    With  a  few  nire  c\ 
ceptions,  there  is  nothing  in  such  works  that  connects  th^ 
with  the  language ;  they  are  perfectly  translatable  into  ^.  > 
other  language;   their  value  consists  in  the  informati  r 
they  contain,  and  the  method  according  to  which  it   ^ 
arranged  and  expounded,  and  veiy  little,  if  at  alU  m  tU*  r 
execution  as  pieces  of  writing.    Newton's  *  Principia,'  <r 
instance,  is  precisely  the  same  book  in  Latin  as  in  En.;!.^*. 
and  in  English  as  in  Latin.     Even  such  a  work  as  BUri- 
stone's  'Commentaries,*  in  which  there  is  some  ambiti«>p  it' 
rhetoric,  would  hardly,  in  a  good  translation  into  anotb«.- 
lani^a^e,  lose  any  part  of  any  one  of  the  qualiUo  i. 
which  It  is  held  in  esteem.    Not  so  any  great  work  m  >• 
try,  in  history,  in  eloquence,  or  in  any  departmeDl  of  it- 
belles-lettres:  Homer,  Plato.  Aristophanes,  Demostbt*r. « 
Lucretius,  Livv,  Dante,  Froissart,  Montaigne,  Cerrx.  u^ 
Schiller,  Goethe,  Chaucer,  Spenser,  Shakspeare,  Mi! 
Taylor,  Burke,  are  all  essentially  untransferable   in  tl«  .r 
whole  substance  and  spirit  into  any  other  tongue. 

Nor  do  the  productions  of  those  Englishmen  wba  hi*- 
written  in  Latin  properly  belong  to  English  literatun 
The  only  names  of  writers  of  this  class  therefore  that  i:^^-'. 
be  here  noticed  arc  those  of  some  of  the  anttent  aatioisL. 
historians  or  annalists  who  preceded  those  chroniclers  in  the 
mother-tongue  that  have  been  already  menlioned.  sX 
these  the  principal  are,  in  the  eleventh  and  Iwelftfa  r\*r.:^ 
ries,  Ordericus  Vital  is,  Eadmer,  Florence  o^  Worrk^'^r. 
William  of  Malmes'jury,  Henry  of  Huntingdon,  W-U:l-i 
of  Newbridge,  Simeon  of  Durham,  and  Rt^w  de  ilo«v- 


ORB 


426 


ORB 


Greece  is  usually  divided  by  geoera^ Iters  into  two  parts, 
wliich  are  united  by  the  isthmus  of  Connth.  The  northern 
part  contained  Thbssaly  ;  Epirus  ;  Acarnakia  ;  ^tolia  ; 
tiOCRis,  divided  into  Opuntian  and  Epicnemidian  Locris, 
andOzolian  Locris ;  Doris  [Dorians]  ;  Phocis;  Bceotia; 
Meoaris  ;  and  Attica.  The  southern  part,  called  Pelopon- 
nesus, contained  Lacoiha;  Mxssbnia;  Arcadia;  Elis; 
Argolis  [Argos]  ;  Achaa;  Sicyonia;  andCk>RiNTH.  In 
addition  to  these  states,  we  must  reckon  the  numerous 
Islands  on  the  eastern  and  western  coasts,  which  were  all 
inhabited  by  the  Greek  race. 

Tlie  relaiion  of  the  peninsula  of  Greece  to  the  rest  of 
Europe,  in  a  physical  point  of  view,  is  briefly  indicated  in 

tlie  article  Europe. 

Greece,  in  the  flourishing -periods  of  its  history,  was  in 
all  probability  densely  populated.  According  to  a  cal- 
culation of  Mr.  Clinton  {Fasti  Hell&nici,  vol.  ii.,  p.  386)', 
in  which  he  includes  the  population  of  the  islands  of 
Eub(jea,  Corey ra,  Leucadia,  Ithaca,  Cephallenia,  Zacyn- 
thus,  Cythera.  iE^ina,  and  Salamis,  it  contained  a  popu- 
lation oV  moru  than  3,500,000  inhabitants  from  the  time 
of  the  Persian  wars  to  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
Gieece,  including  the  islands  already  named,  contains 
about  22,231  scjuare  miles;  consequently  there  were  rather 
more  than  157  persons  to  the  square  mile,  a  rate  of  po- 
pulation very  little  inferior  to  that  of  Great  Britain  in 
1821,  which  contained  165  persons  to  the  square  mile.  But 
it  must  be  remarked,  that  though  we  may  admit  the  result 
of  all  the  combined  evidence  to  prove  that  Greece  was 
well  peopled  during  the  period  to  which  Mr.  Clinton's 
estimates  refer,  we  by  no  means  admit  that  his  calculation 
of  positive  numbers  rests  on  a  basis  which,  for  any  country 
or  a«]^e,  can  give  trustworthy  results. 

History.  First  Period : — F^om  the  earliest  times  to  the 
Trojan  tvar. — ^The  people  whom  we  call  Greeks  (the  Hel- 
lenes) were  not  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  country. 
Among  the  names  of  the  many  tribes  which  are  said  to  have 
occupied  the  land  previous  to  the  Hellenes,  the  most  cele- 
brated is  that  of  the  Pblasoi,  who  appear  to  have  been 
settled  in  most  parts  of  Greece,  and  from  whom  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  Greek  population  was  probably  descended. 
The  Cauoones,  Leleges,  and  other  barbarous  tribes,  who 
also  inhabited  Greece,  are  all  regarded  by  a  modern 
writer  (Thirlwall's  History  qf  Greece,  vol.  L,  c.  2,  p.  32-61), 
as  parts  of  the  Pelasgic  nation.  He  remarks  '  that  the 
name  Pelasgians  was  a  ffeneral  one,  like  that  of  Saxons, 
Franks,  or  Alemanni,  and  that  each  of  the  Pelasgian  tribes 
had  also  one  peculiar  to  itself.'  All  these  tribes  how- 
ever were  obliged  to  submit  to  the  power  of  the  Hellenes, 
who  eventually  spread  over  the  greater  part  of  Greece. 
Their  original  seat  was,  according  to  Aristotle  (Meteor.,  i., 
14),  near  Dodona,  in  Epirus,  but  they  first  appeared  in  the 
south  of  Thessaly  about  b.c.  1384,  according  to  the  common 
chronology.  In  accordance  with  the  common  method  of 
the  Greeks,  of  inventing  names  to  account  for  the  oriein 
of  nations,  the  Hellenes  are  represented  as  descended 
from  Hellen,  who  had  three  sons,  Dorus,  Xuthus,  and 
iEolus.  AchiBus  and  Ion  are  represented  as  the  sons  of 
Xuthus ;  and  from  these  four,  Dorus,  iEolus,  AchoDus,  and 
Ion,  the  Dorians,  ^Eolians,  Acbaans,  and  Ionians 
were  descended,  who  formed  the  four  tribes  into  which  the 
Hellenic  nation  was  for  many  centuries  divided,  and  who 
were  distinguished  from  each  other  by  many  peculiarities 
in  language  and  institutions.  At  the  same  time  that 
the  Hellenic  race  was  spreading  itself  over  the  whole  land, 
numerous  colonies  from  the  East  are  said  to  have  settled 
in  Greece,  and  to  their  influence  many  writers  have  attri- 
buted the  civilization  of  the  inhabitants.  Thus  we  read  of 
Egyptian  colonies  in  Argos  and  Attica,  of  a  Phcenician 
colony  at  Thebes  in  Boeotia,  and  of  a  Mysian  colony  led  by 
Pelops,  from  whom  the  southern  part  of  Greece  derived  its 
name  of  Peloponnesus.  The  very  existence  of  these  colo- 
nics has  been  doubted  by  some  writers ;  and  though  the 
evidence  of  each  one  individually  is  perhaps  not  sufficient 
to  satisfy  the  critical  inquirer,  yet  the  uniform  tradition  of 
the  Greeks  authorises  us  in  the  belief  that  Greece  did  in 
early  times  receive  colonies  from  the  East — a  supposition 
which  is  not  in  itself  improbable,  considering  the  proximity 
of  the  Asiatic  coast.  The  time  which  elapsed  from  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  Hellenes  in  Thessaly  to  the  siege  of  Troy 
IS  usually  known  by  the  name  of  the  Heroic  age.  Whatever 
opinion  we  mav  form  of  the  Homeric  poems,  it  can  hardly 
Iw  doablsd  that  they  present  a  correct  picture  of  the 


mumen  and  enstomB  of  the  age  in  whieh  tha  poet  lit«d, 
which,  in  all  probability,  differed  little  ttom  the  manners 
and  customs  of  the  Heroic  age.  The  state  of  society  d^ 
scribed  by  Homer  very  much  resembles  that  which  exi*:!"! 
in  Europe  in  the  Feuaal  ages.  No  great  power  had  y<t 
arisen  in  Greece ;  it  was  divided  into  a  namber  of  soiaj] 
states,  governed  bv  hereditary  chiefs,  whose  pow^  ««« 
limited  by  a  martial  aristocracy.  Piracy  was  an  nooooFaliV 
occupation,  and  war  the  delight  of  noble  souls.  Thucydjiit** 
informs  us  (i.,  4)  that  the  commencement  of  Grectan  en  .1-.- 
zation  is  to  be  dated  fh>m  the  reign  of  Minos  of  Crete,  « f  :■ 
acquired  a  naval  power  and  cleared  the  ifigean  Sea  of  ptrut^-b. 
Among  the  most  celebrated  heroes  of  this  period  were  B«  l- 
lerophon  and  Perseus,  whose  adventures  were  laid  in  fi>i> 
East;  Theseus,  the  king  of  Athens ;  and  Hercules.  Tra- 
dition also  preserved  the  account  of  expeditions  undcrtak*  r. 
by  several  chiefs  united  together,  such  as  that  of  the  Aiw 
nauts,  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes,  and  of  the  si^e  of  Tr^  a  , 
B.C.  1184. 

Second  Period. '^From  the  Siege  qf  Troy  to  the  cn-i- 
mencement  of  the  Persian  Wdrs,  b.c.  500. — ^We  learn  fn-:.. 
Thucydides  (i.,  12)  that  Uie  population  of  Greece  was  m  t 
very  unsettled  state  for  some  time  after  the  Trojan  « -  v 
Of  the  various  migrations  which  appear  to  have  taken  pUr  > . 
the  most  important  in  their  consequences  were  th(»se  of  ti. 
Bcsotians  f^om  Thessaly  into  the  country  afterwards  miU  : 
Bceotia,  and  of  the  Dorians  into  Peloponnesus,  the  former  \ 
the  sixtieth  and  the  latter  in  the  eightieth  year  aiter  U  t 
Trojan  war.  About  the  same  period  the  western  coa>t  «i; 
Asia  Minor  was  colonized  by  the  Greeks.  The  antient  i:.- 
habitants  of  BcBotia,  who  had  been  driven  out  of  tl«.r 
homes  by  the  invasion  of  the  BoBOtians,  together  with  vjr.- 
Cohans,  whence  it  has  acquired  the  name  of  the  MiA.^\ 
migration,  left  Boeotia,  b.c.  1 124,  and  settled  in  Lesbos  %x. . 
the  north-western  corner  of  Asia  Minor.  They  were  fv.1- 
lowed  by  the  Ionians  in  b.  c.  1040»  who,  havini^  b*vi; 
driven  by  the  Achssans  from  their  abode  on  the  Coruith.2.r: 
Gulf,  had  taken  refage  in  Attica,  whence  they  emignir^i 
to  Asia  Minor  and  settled  on  the  Lvdian  coast.  T^e 
south-western  part  of  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  waa  alw  co- 
lonized about  the  same  period  by  Dorians.  The  nuiuli^: 
of  Greek  colonies,  considering  the  extent  of  the  x&<  tbcr 
country,  was  very  great;  and  the  readiness  with  irhtcti  thi 
Greeks  left  their  homes  to  settle  in  foreign  parts  forui^  & 
characteristic  feature  in  their  national  character.  In  :i  • 
seventh  century  before  Christ  the  Greek  colonies  took  m 
other  direction :  Gyrene,  in  Afnca,  was  founded  by  the  r. 
habitants  of  Thera ;  and  the  coasts  of  Sicily  and  the  southvr: 
part  of  Italy  became  studded  with  so  many  Greek  cit^^N 
that  it  acquired  the  surname  of  the  Great,  or  Greats :. 
Greece. 

The  two  states  of  Greece  which  attained  the  ereatest  L.*- 
torical  celebrity  were  Sparta  and  Athens.    The  po'wor    '' 
Athens  was  of  later  growth ;  but  Sparta  had  from  the  \\:' 
of  the  Dorian  conquest  taken  the  lead  amon^  the  Pt 
ponnesian  states,  a  position  which  she  maintained   b}  :: 
conquest  of  the  fertile  country  of  Messenia,  B.C.  6Sb.     lUr 
superiority  was  probably  owing  to  the  nature  of  her  pix 
cal  institutions,  which  are  said  to  have  been  fixed  on  a  Cr 
basis  by  her  celebrated  lawgiver  Lycurqus,  b.c.  884.     A' 
the  head  of  the  polity  were  two  hereditary  chiefit,  but  t:  •  : 
power  was  greatly  limited  by  a  jealous  aristocrvcr.     H-- 
territories  were  also  increased  by  the  conquest  of  Tegca  .  - 
Arcadia.    Athens  only  rose  to  importanco  in  the  centw*- 
preceding  the  Persian  wars ;  but  even  in  this  period  h«  - 

£ower  was  not  more  than  a  match  for  the  little  states  > 
legaris  and  JSgina.    The  city  was  long  harassed  by  in 
testine  commotions,  till  the  time  of  Solon,  b.c.  594,  who  vx» 
chosen  by  his  citizens  to  frame  a  new  constitution  an«!  . 
new  code  of  laws»  to  which  much  of  the  futtue  greatness    : 
Athens  must  be  ascribed. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  kingly  form  of  gov^t  - 
ment  was  prevalent  in  the  Heroic  age.  out  during  the  pt 
riod  that  elapsed  between  the  Trojan  war  and  the  Pers-^:. 
invasion  hereditary  political  power  was  abolished  in  aim  >' 
all  the  Greek  states,  with  the  exception  of  Sparta,  ar«w  « 
republican  form  of  government  established  in  its  >i«a>i 
In  studying  tlie  history  of  the  Greeks  we  must  bear  .u 
mind  that  almost  every  city  formed  an  independent  M  :ti 
and  that,  with  the  exception  of  Athens  and  Sparta,  wh:  *'; 
exacted  obedience  from  the  other  towns  of  Attica  and  tu- 
conia  respectively,  there  was  hardly  any  state  whirh  p»>- 
sessed  more  than  s  tew  miles  of  territory.    FkeqtieuC  var» 


(?  R  E 


42B 


6  R  E 


tttian,  &c. ;  and  lastly,  the  Celtic  languages,  which  appear 
to  belong  to  the  same  family,  though  they  differ  m  some 
respects  from  the  general  character  of  the  other  cognate 
tongues.  The  aflRnity  which  subsists  between  all  these  lan- 
guajjes  is  evident,  not  merely  from  the  number  of  words 
which  are  common  to  them  aU,  hut  also  from  the;  similarity 
of  their  grammatical  forms.  Tlie  same  wordg  are  used  in 
most  of  these  languages  for  the  pronouns,  the  numerals, 
and  the  most  simple  of  the  prepositions.  Tliey  are  distin- 
guished from  those  of  the  Semitic  family  (to  which  the  He- 
brew. Syriac,  Arabic,  Ethiopic,  and  other  kindred  tongues 
belong),  by  a  different  mode  of  inflection,  by  different  words 
♦or  the  numerals,  pronouns,  and  prepositions,  and  W  the 
ver  of  farming  compound  words,  which  are  not  found. 


•tow 


with  the  exception  of  a  few  instances,  in  the  Semitic 

tongues. 

The  Greek  has  existed  as  a  spoken  language  for  at  least 
3000  years,  and  has  been  more  widely  diffused  than  any  other 
tongue,  unless  we  except  the  Arabic  and  English.  It  had 
attained  a  great  degree  of  perfection  in  the  ninth  century 
before  the  Christian  aera;  and  it  was  eventually  spoken  not 
only  in  Greece  and  the  numerous  Grecian  colonies,  but  was 
extended  over  a  large  part  of  Western  Asia  by  the  conauests 
of  Alexander.  The  population  of  Western  Asia  has  always 
been  of  a  very  mixed  kind,  and  in  the  thinly-inhabited  dis- 
tricts the  native  languages,  whatever  they  might  be,  were 
doubtless  preserved,  especially  in  such  mountainous  coun- 
tries as  Armenia  and  Kurdistan ;  but  the  great  number  of 
towns  with  Greek  names,  and  the  scattered  notices  which 
we  find  in  the  Greek  writers,  sufficiently  prove  that,  under 
the  successors  of  Alexander,  the  towns  of  Asia  Minor  and 
of  Syria  contained  a  large  population  who  were  familiar 
with  the  Greek  tongue.  It  is  also  evident  from  the  books 
of  the  New  Testament,  that  the  lower  orders  in  Pales- 
tine could  converse  in  Greek  as  well  as  in  their  native 
Syriac ;  and  many  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  were 
written  in  Greek  by  men  who  had  received  very  little  edu- 
cation. In  Egypt  also,  under  the  Ptolemies,  Greek  became 
the  language  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  townspeople,  and 
was  us€^,  jointly  with  the  native  language,  in  the  business  of 
administration.  The  conquest  of  Greece  by  the  Romans 
tended  still  further  to  the  diffusion  of  the  Greek  language. 
The  embassy  sent  by  the  Athenians  to  Rome  (b.c.  155), 
consisting  of  three  of  the  most  eminent  philosophers  of  the 
age,  tended  to  introduce  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek  lan- 
guage and  literature  among  the  Romans ;  and  though  the 
study  was  condemned  by  Cato  and  manv  others  of  the  old 
school, '  it  soon  became  a  fashion  for  well-educated  Romans 
to  read,  to  speak,  to  translate,  and  even  to  write  in  this  fo- 
reign language.*  Under  the  dominion  of  the  CsBsars  the 
language  and  literature  of  Greece  were  more  extensively  cul- 
tivated than  at  any  other  period.  Greek  was  not  only  taught 
at  Athens  and  Rome,  but  in  every  part  of  the  Roman  em- 

Eire  Greek  philosophers  and  rhetoricians  were  maintained 
y  their  numerous  pupils.  The  university  of  Marseilles  is 
praised  by  Tacitus  {Agric.,  iv.)  as  a  place  distinguished  for 
its  Grecian  refinement  and  provincial  simplicity  of  manners. 
Augustus  CsDsar  was  educated  at  the  university  of  ApoUo- 
nia ;  and  that  of  Tarsus  is  said  by  Strabo  (b.  xiv.,  p.  463, 
Casaubon)  to  have  rivalled  those  of  Athens  and  Alexandria. 
After  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire  and  the  extinction  of 
learning  in  the  West,  the  Greek  literature  and  philosophy 
were  still  cultivated  in  Asia  and  at  Constantinople,  where 
Greek  continued  the  spoken  language  of  the  people  till  the 
city  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  the  fi^eenth  century.  This  is 
usually  considered  as  the  time  at  which  it  ceased  to  be  a 
living  language ;  but  the  best  specimens  of  modem  Greek, 
as  it  is  called,  can  be  read  without  much  difficulty  by  any 
person  acquainted  with  the  Greek  of  Xenophon  and  De- 
mosthenes ;  and  the  resemblance  between  the  antient  and 
modern  language  is  sufficient  to  justify  us  in  considering 
the  Greek  language  as  one  which  has  not  ceased  to  be 
spoken  from  the  time  of  Homer  to  the  present  day. 

The  Greek  language  is  usually  divided  into  four  dialects, 
the  JEohic,  Ionic,  Doric,  and  Attic,  tha  peculiarities  of 
which  are  noticed  in  separate  articles.  The  Boeotian,  Thes- 
salian,  Laconian,  and  Sicilian  dialects  are  only  subdivi- 
sions. The  four  dialects  may  however  be  reduced  to 
two,  the  iEolic  or  Doric,  and  the  Ionic  or  Attic :  the  latter 
originally  spoken  in  the  northern  part  of  Peloponnesus 
and  Attica,  the  former  in  the  other  parts  of  Greece.  Till 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Greeks  generally  wrote  in  that 
dialoct  in  which  they  had  been  brought  up,  and  thus  we 


have  works  in  the  iSoltc,  Ionic,  Dorio,  and  Attic  dialects. 
But  the  number  and  superiority  of  the  Attic  writers  en- 
dually  caused  this  dialect  to  be  adopted  by  Greeks  ub> 
were  not  natives  of  Attica;  and  thus  the  Attic  dialoa, 
somewhat  modified  by  the  peculiarities  of  other  dtalc<*t*. 
was  called  the  common  or  Hellenic  dialed  (17  cou^i).  or  v 
*EXXi}vuc4  ^coXfcroc) ;  in  which  almost  all  Greek  |iroae  writer* 
from  the  time  of  Aristotle  composed  their  works.    Wrif<T> 
in  this  common  dialect  are,  Aristotle,  Theophrastus,  Pol>- 
bins,  Diodorus,  Strabo,  Plutarch,  Dionysius  of  Halicamar 
sus,  Lucian,  ^lian,  Dion  Cassius,  Appian,  and  many  othtr<i ; 
though  some  of  these  writers,  such  as  Lucian,  Am^n. 
in  his  'Anabasis,'  iElian,  &c.,  endeavoured  to  write  in  the 
pure  Attic  dialect,  and  to  avoid  every  phrase  which  wa%  r.ot 
sanctioned  by  some  Attic  writer  such  as  Xenophon  or  Thu 
cydides.    Poetry  however  was  not  written  in  this  00mm  -n 
dialect;  the  peculiarities  of  the  Homeric  dialect  were  lo*.- 
tated  by  all  succeeding  poets ;  and  the  poets  of  the  Atex^a- 
drian  school,  such  as  Apollonius  and  Callimachus,  and  at  & 
later  period  Nicander,  Oppian  and  others,  continued  to  write 
in  the  Homeric  dialect,  or  in  what  they  considered  § ucb. 
which  could  only  be  intelligible  to  those  who  had  rcceiTc: 
a  learned  education.     In  the  countries  where  the  Mart" 
donians  established  themselves  the  Attic  dialect  receiT*'«i 
many  modifications;  and   as  Alexandria  in  Egypt  wjjv 
under  the  Ptolemies,  the  principal  place  where  this  dia]«^: 
was  cultivated,  it  was  called  the  Alexandrine  or  Maoedon^asi 
dialect     The  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old  Testament  «a.< 
written  in  this  dialect ;  but  it  can  hardly  be  considered  as  1 
fair  specimen  of  the  language  spoken  at  Alexandria,  sine* 
the  Jewish  translators  have  introduced  into  the  venion 
many  Hebrew  phrases  and  constructions.    The  NewTests- 
ment  was  written  in  the  same  dialect,  whence  it  haa  pa^»c(i 
with  some  variations  into  the  writings  of  the  fathers,  ini 
has  been  called  Ecclesiastical  Greek.    The  Greek  spokvi 
at  Constantinople  became  more  corrupted,  and  so  mar> 
foreign  words  were  introduced  into  the  language,  that  a 
glossary  is  necessary  for  understanding  the  writers  of  tlje 
Eastern  empire. 

The  study  of  the  Greek  language,  after  being  almost  ctt 
tirely  neglected  in  the  west  of  Europe  for  nearly  a  tbousao  .1 
years,  was  revived  in  the  fifteenth  century  by  the  Gnrc^Lv 
who  were  spread  over  Europe  after  the  taking  of  Constaxi- 
tinople  by  the  Turks.  Some  attention  had  been  paid  li»  it 
in  Italy  in  the  preceding  century;  the  Republic  of  F.-- 
rence  engaged  (a.d.  1360)  Leo  or  Leontius  rilatus  as  pr  v- 
fbssor  of  the  Greek  language.  He  was  succeeded,  after  a 
lapse  of  some  years,  by  Manuel  Chrysoloras  (about  «.  n. 
1400) ;  and  its  study  was  encouraged  at  Rome  bj  Cdidiu  j 
Bessarion,  who  was  a  Greek.  It  is  however  an  error  t« 
suppose  that  Greek  was  unknown  in  western  Europe  and  : 
this  island  until  the  so-called  revival  of  literature,  though  it 
is  true  that  about  the  time  above  mentioned  the  atud^« 
it  began  to  be  prosecuted  with  greater  activity,  and  becjrj- 
so  popular  that  John  Reuchlin  informs  us  that  he  expUn^c*] 
a  play  of  Aristophanes  to  more  than  300  auditors  in  t 
university  of  Ingolstadt.  Of  late  years  the  study  of  the  laji- 
guage  and  the  literature  of  the  Greeks  has  been  pttrsu«.>tl. 
especially  among  the  Germans,  with  great  succesa. 

The  history  of  Greek  literature  maybe  divided  into  thrcf 
periods  :  the  first  extending  from  the  earliest  times  to  v . 
rise  of  Athenian  literature;  the  second  comprisaDg  ti-* 
flourishing  period  of  Athenian  literature;  and  the  tJurl 
comprehending  all  the  writers  from  the  time  of  Alexantic 
to  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks.  An  outliot- 
Athenian  literature  has  already  been  given  [Athxxs  > 
iii.,  p.  17);  and  some  account  of  the  3rd  period  is  t^\^z 
above :  we  shall  therefore  conclude  the  article  with  a  ii-« 
observations  on  its  rise. 

The  Greek  colonies  of  Asia  Minor  appear  to  Liv. 
attained  a  considerable  degree  of  civilization  soon  a/t^r 
their  foundation,  a  circumstance  probably  owing  to  tK-r 
intercourse  with  the  Lydians  ana  other  Asiatic  nati^«iN 
and  to  their  exemption  from  the  political  revolatK-n» 
to  which  the  motlier-country  was  exposed.  It  was  in  tij.- 
Ionian  and  ^olian  cities  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  ihi: 
the  literature  of  Greece  originated;  and  to  the  Gix-vU 
transplanted  into  Asia  we  are  indebted  for  the  earliest  >-ie- 
cimens  we  possess  of  Greek  poetry  and  historical  compel 
tioa.  Whether  we  look  upon  the  *  Biad*  and  'Odv^sBey**»  tlr» 
work  of  one  individual  or  of  many  bards,  it  moat^e  re^aricid 
as  the  composition  of  Asiatic  Greeks*  and  is  a  proof  of  the 
perfection  which  the  language  had  attained  in  the  ninth  or 


6  R  E 


430 


GR  E 


Berl.  1817  ;  Tittmann,  •  Dantellunff  der  Griochiscben 
Staatsverfassungen,*  8vo.,  Leip.  1822;  Manao,  *  Sparta,  ein 
Versuch  2ur  Auf klarung  der  Geschichte  und  Verfassung 
dieses  Staatea,'  3  vols.  8vo.,  Leip.  1800—1805;  Clinton, 

•  Fasti  Hellenici,*  vol.  1,  Oxf.  1834.  The  •  History  of  Greece 
from  the  earliest  times  to  the  death  of  Alexander'  has  been 
written  by  Gillies,  and  with  still  more  industry  by  Mitford. 
Of  the  •  History  of  Greece'  in  the  •  Cabinet  Cyclopaedia'  by  Mr. 
Thirwall,  4  volumes  only  have  yet  appeared.  The  •  History 
of  Greece  from  the  accession  of  Alexander  to  the  Roman 
Conquest*  is  treated  of  by  Dr.  Gast,  4  to.,  Lond.  1 782 ;  and  the 

•  History  of  the  Successors  of  Alexander,'  by  Job.  G.  Droy- 
sen,  Hamburg,  1836,  a  work  which  the  student  will  find 
useful.  Those  who  wish  for  information  in  a  smaller  com- 
pass can  consult  Heeren,  *  Manual  of  Antient  History,'  (p. 
118—313,  Eng.  transl.) ;  Keightley's  •  History  of  Greece;' 
and  the  *  Histoiy  of  Greece'  published  by  the  Society  for 
the  Diffusion  of  fjsefbl  Knowledge,  which  brings  the  his- 
tory down  to  the  Roman  conquest.     See  also,  Heeren's 

•  Sketch  of  the  Political  History  of  Antient  Greece,'  Oxf. 
1829,  Eng.  transl.;  Clinton's  *  Fasti  Hellenici,'  vols.  2  and 
3,  Oxf.  1827—1830;  Bockh,  'Die  Staatshaushaltung  der 
Athener,'  2  vols.  8vo.,  Berl.  1817  ;  translated  into  English, 
2  vols.  8V0.,  Lond.  1828. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  we  possess  no  good  work  on  the 
history  of  the  Greek  colonies.  The  work  ofRaoul  Rochette, 
entitled  '  Histoire  Critique  de  VEstoblissement  des  Colonies 
Grecques,'  4  vols.  8vo.,  Paris,  1816,  is  described  by  Mr. 
Thirlwall  ('  History  of  Greece,'  vol.  ii.,  p.  156.)  as  a  'book 
which  will  be  chiefly  useful  to  his  successor,  as  an  example 
of  almost  all  the  faults  which  he  ought  to  avoid.  At  least 
one  half  of  it  is  a  mass  of  the  dullest  and  most  unpoetical 
fictions,  expanded  into  the  empty  form  of  a  political  history ; 
and  in  the  remainder  we  should  seek  in  vam  for  any  of  the 
facts  which  alone  render  the  subject  interesting.'  There 
are  several  works  on  separate  colonies,  as  Heyne,  •  Prolu- 
siones  XVI.  de  Civitatum  Grsecarum  per  Magnam  Gr»- 
ciam  et  Siciliam  Institutis  et  Legibus.'  Opusada,  vol.  vii. ; 
Briikner,  *  Historia  ReipublicsD  Massiliensium,'  Gbtt.  1826 ; 
Thrige,  'Res  Cyrenensium,'  8vo.,  1828;  Rambach,  *De 
Mileto  ejusque  Coloniis,'  4to.,  1790. 

The  principal  works  on  Grecian  Antiquities,  in  addi- 
tion to  those  that  have  already  been  mentioned,  are, 
Gronovius,  'Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Grwcarum,'  12  vols, 
fol. ;  Petitus, '  De  Legibus  Atticis.'  fol. ;  Potter, '  Arch»o- 
logia  GrsBca,  or  the  Antiquities  of  Greece,'  2  vols.  8vo.  (a 
work  which  we  by  no  means  recommend) ;  Hermann, 
'  Lehrbuch  der  Griechischen  Staatsalterthiimer,*  8vo.,  1831 ; 
Boeekh,  '  Corpus  Inscriptionum  GriDcarum,'  2  vols,  fol., 
Berl.  1828-35. 

/?ff/i^'ofi.— Bryant,  •  New  System  or  Analysis  of  Antient 
Mythology ;'  Sainte  Croix,  *  Recherches  Historiquea  et 
Critiques  sur  les  Mystdres  du  Paganisme,'  sec.  ^  revue  et 
corrigee  par  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  2  voU.  8vo.,  Paris,  1817; 
Creuzer,  *  Symbolik  und  Mythologie  der  alten  Volker  be- 
sonders  der  Griechen,'  fortgesetzt  von  F.  G.  Mono,  6  vols. 
8vo.,  Darmst.  1821 — 4  ;  K.  O.  Miiller,  *  Prolegomena  zu 
ciuer  wissenschafllichen  Mythologie,  8vo.,  Gottin.  1825; 
Buttmann,  *  Mythologus  oder  Abhandlungen  und  Aufsatze 
liber  die  Sagen  der  Griechen,  Romer,  una  Hebraer,'  2  vols. 
8vo.,  Berl.  1828 — 1829 ;  Lobeck,  '  Aglaophamus,  sive  de 
Thoologia)  Mystics  Gnccorum  Causis,  2  vols.  8vo.,  Regiom. 
1830;  Keightley,  'Mythology  of  Antient  Greece  and  Italy,' 
8vo.,  Lond.  1831 ;  Van  Dalen, '  De  Oraculis  veterum  Ethni- 
corum  Dissertationes  Sex,'  Amst.  1 700.  Many  of  the  works 
given  above  under  History  and  Antiquities  contain  informa- 
tion on  Greek  mythology. 

PhUonophy. — Brucker,  'Historia  PhilosophiiD,*  6  vols. 
4to^  Leip.  1767;  Cousin,  'Introduction  IL  1  Histoire  de  la 
Philosopnie,'  8vo.,  1829;  Tennemann,' Geschichte  der  Phi- 
losophic,' 11  vohi.  8V0.,  Leip.  1799— 1829;  Ritter,  'Ges- 
chichte der  Philosophie,'  4  vols.  8vo.,  Hamb.  1829—1834; 
Ast,  '  Grundriss  einer  Geschichte  der  Philoiophie,'  8vo., 
Landshut,  1805. 

Geometry  and  Astronomy,-— The  reader  is  referred  to  the 
articles  AsTROiroMY  and  Gbombtrt  in  this  work. 

Fine  Arte.— Fliny, '  Historia  Naturalis :'  Pausanias,  *  De- 
scrintion  of  Greece.  Pausanias  lived  in  the  second  century 
of  the  Christian  lera ;  his  *  Description  of  Greece'  gives  a 
very  full  account  of  the  works  of  art  which  existed  in  &reece 
at  that  time.  Winckelmann,  '  Geschichte  der  Kunst  des 
Altertfaums,'  4  vols.  8vo*,  Dread. ;  Eckhers  works  on  Nu- 

[ScsBsi.];  &Mche»  'Lwioon  Rei Numannb'  18 


vols.  8vo„  Leips.  1785-1804 ;  Thiersch,  'XJeberdieSpoeliea 
der  bildenden  Kunst  unter  den  Griechen,'  8vo,  Mua^li. ; 
the  article  Civil  ARCHrrBcnniE  in  this  work ;  IL  O.  Mul- 
ler,  'De  Phidisa  Vita  et  Operibus  Commentationes  U^ 
4to.,  Gott.  1827;  K.  O.  Muller,  'Handbuchder  Afcbaolc^M 
und  Kunst,'  8vo.,  BresL  1830;  Spon,  *L'Btat  pfc«*c.t 
d*  Athens,*  Lyon,  1674;  Stuart's  *  Antiquities  of  Athene*  4 
vols,  fbl.,  Lond.  ;  Hamilton,  •  Antiquity  Btnuqur^, 
Grecques,  et  Romaines,'  4  vote,  fol.,  1765— 1775;  Flaunar;, 
'  Lectures  on  Sculpture,'  8vo.,  Lond. ;  Qomtrfim^rt*  dc 
Quincy,  *Lb  Juniter  Olympien,  ou  I'Art  de  la  Scitipturc 
Antique,  consider^  sous  un  nouveau  point  de  vue/  f^I, 
Paris,  1815 ;  Quatremdre  de  Quincy,  'MonumenU  et  Ouv- 
rages  d'Art  Antiques  restitu^  d*apres  les  DeteriplioD*  des 
Ecrivains  Grecs  et  Latins,'  2  vols.  4to.,  Paris*  1829;  Lake, 
'Researches  in  Greece,' 4 to.,  Lond.;  Leake,  'Topo^rvpuv 
of  Athens,'  4to..  Lond. ;  Visconti, '  Memoir  on  the  Sculpture 
of  the  Parthenon ;'  Wilkins,  *  Atheniensia,'  dro.,  Lond  ; 
Brondsted,  *  Voyages  et  Recherches  en  GrAce  ;* '  Specixoois 
of  Antient  Sculpture,  selected  fix)m  different  CoUertiun*  i.i 
Great  Britain,  by  the  Society  of  Dilettanti,'  2  vols,  f^  U 
1809-35;  'Unedited  Antiquities  of  Attica,  by  the  SoorU 
of  Dilettanti,'  4to.,  Lond.  1832 ;  and  the  French  tzm&sU- 
tion  of  the  same  work,  with  notes  bv  Hittorft  lbL»  Fsr^. 
1832;  'Elgin  and  Phigaleian  Marbles,'  2  vols.  limo. 
Lond.,  forming  part  of  the  'Library  of  Enterttininip  Kni>w- 
ledse.' 

Language.-^The  following  list  is  only  intended  to  dircri 
the  attention  of  the  student  to  a  few  of  the  most  aseful 
books  on  the  Greek  language.  Bud»us,  'Cbmmentaru 
Lin^ffi  GrsDCflB,*  fol. ;  Viger,  'De  Grsco  Dictionia  Pr«* 
cipuis  Idiotismis,'  edited  by  Hermann ;  G.  Hermaniu  *  De 
Emendanda  Ratione  Grasco  Grammaticn,'  Svu.,  Le:fu 
1801 ;  G.  Hermann,  'Elementa  Doctrina  Methee,*  6t'U 
Leip.  1816;  Matthia,  'Griechische  Grammatik,*  3  voli. 
8vo.,  Leip.  1836:  this  work  has  been  translated  into  Bn^'- 
Ush  in  2  vols.  8vo.,  by  Blomfield,  and  several  times  eda<*<i 
by  Kenrick:  see  a  notice  of  the  same  work  in  the  '  Jourziaj 
of  Education,*  No.  10,  in  which  the  writer  remarks  *  tka 
the  first -volume,  which  treats  of  etymology,  though  it  a  a 
most  useful  collection  of  facts,  is  ikr  behind  the  philoloirir^ 
knowledge  of  the  present  day.  It  is  not  deflaeat  in  ibc 
facte  of  grammar,  for  these  are  accumulated  almosC  to  pn^ 
fusion ;  but  the  matter  is  often  ill-arranged,  and  the  re- 
marks of  the  author,  instead  of  leading  the  pupil  to  morv 
correct  views  of  language,  are  in  many  inatances  mure 
likely  to  bewilder  him,  and  to  inculcate  erroneous  princ  i- 
pies.  The  second  volume  (with  the  end  of  the  first),  which 
is  on  the  synHix,  is  a  very  different  performanoe  fcom  t}x 
etymological  part,  and  we  believe  wul  stand  the  teat  of  & 
strict  examination.  There  are  indeed  few  scholars  to  whom 
it  will  not  be  useful  for  reference.'  Bemhardy,  *  Wis^ent- 
chaftliche  Syntax  der  Griechischen  Sprache,'  Svo.,  Berl.o. 
1829,  a  valuable  work.  Buttmann  has  published  thret 
grammars:  one  entitled  ' Schulgrammatik,  of  which  tbrf 
is  a  very  bad  translation  in  English;  another, '  Gnech^^cHt 
Grammatik,' of  which  there  are  two  English  translatior.v 
one  published  in  London,  and  the  other,  wliich  is  the  better 
translation,  in  the  United  States ;  and  a  third,  *  AujtfUhrl  •<  \»f 
Griech.  Sprachlehre,'  2  vols.  8vo.,  Berl.  1819 — 27,  which  «• 
not  translated;  see  a  short  notice  of  the  'Griechi^i..- 
Grammatik*  in  the  'Journal  of  Education,*  No.  13,  in 
which  the  writer  observes  '  that  the  "  Ausfuhrliche  Gratc- 
matik  "  is  an  admirable  work  for  the  more  advanced  Gr^*oi 
scholar,  and  should  take  precedence  of  all  yet  exisun^.* 
Buttmann  s  '  Lexilogus  oaer  Bej^trage  sur  Grtechtsi^hen 
Wortererkliirung,  hauptsachlich  fur  Homer  and  Hc«i«Ai/  .: 
vols.  12mo.,  Berl.  1825,  translated  by  Fishlake;  ThiervcK. 
'  Griech.  Grammatik,  vorziiglich  des  Homerischen  Dialecrs* 
8vo.,  Leip.  1828;  the  first  part,  containing  thectymolov*. 
is  translated  into  English  by  the  late  Proreaaor  Sandfcn. 
Kiihner,  '  Ausfiihrliche  Grammatik  der  Griech.  Sprmrbf. 
2  vols.  8vo.,  Hann.  1834 ;  this  is  a  verv  excellent  work ;  th* 
author  has  explained  many  forms  of  the  Greek  languagv  tv 
a  careful  investigation  of  the  other  languages  of  we  ltiu»> 
Germanic  family.  The  student  wiU  obtain  much  velua^i^ 
information  from  Bopp*s  '  Verglcichende  Grammatik  de» 
Sanskrit,  Zend,  Griechischen,  lAteiiiischen,  LitthauiM-!n:r« 
Gothischen,  und  Deutscben,*  of  which  the  first  port  vat  v^^-- 
lished  at  Berlin,  1833;  with  a  notice  of  the  same  mirl  .^ 
the  'Journal  of  Education,*  No.  16,  by  tlie  late  Dr.  VL»*.a ; 
Pott's  '  Etymologische  Forschungen  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  Id- 
do-GermaaiKben  Sprachen;  2  Yok  Qto^  Isiogih  1813—^ 


6  R  E 


432 


GR  IS 


TraveU  in  Northern  Greece,  4  voln.  8vo^  London,  1837, 
has  also  the  boundary-line  marked  upon  it.) 

The  country  south  of  the  above  line,  extending  as  far  as 
the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  forms  the  division  calleu  Northern 
Greece,  and  is  bounded  to  the  west  bv  the  Mediterranean, 
east  by  the  Euripus,  or  Channel  of  Euboea,  and  the  iEgean 
Bca,  and  south  by  the  gulf  of  Corinth.  It  includes  the  an- 
tient  territories  of  Acarnania  and  MtoMa,  which  are  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  'Western  Greece,  and  those  of 
£)oris,  Phocis,  Bccotia,  Attica,  MeG[;ari8,  the  country  of  the 
Locri  Opuntii,  and  the  valley  of  the  Sperchius,  which  con- 
stitute the  division  called  Eastern  Greece.  The  physical 
description  of  the  country  is  found  under  the  heads  Acar- 
nania, iExoLiA,  Attica,  Bceotia,  Phocis,  &c.  The 
country  is  in  great  part  mountainous.  The  principal  range 
is  that  of  CBta,  which,  beginning  on  the  east  on  the  coast  of 
the  channel  of  Eubsa,  runs  nearly  due  west  across  the 
countr}',  joins  the  group  of  Mount  Tymphrestus  in  iEtolia, 
and  is  only  separated  iit3m  the  mountains  of  Acarnania  and 
Epirus  by  the  valley  of  the  Aspropotamos.  Offsets  from 
the  range  of  (Eta  connect  it  on  the  south  with  the  ridge  of 
Parnassus  in  Phocis,  and  with  the  mountains  that  border 
the  northern  coast  of  the  gulf  of  Corinth,  whilst  to  the 
south-east  are  the  ridges  of  Helicon,  Citheeron,  and  Parnes, 
the  last  of  which  separates  Bosotia  from  Attica.  ,  The  area 
of  Northern  Greece  has  been  vaguely  reckoned  at  400 
German  geographical  square  miles,  or  about  8800  English 
square  miles. 

The  country  is  divided,  according  to  a  very  old  municipal 
arrangement,  which  existed  long  before  the  Turkish  eon- 
quest,  into  eparchies,  or  districts,  which  are  subdivided  into 
communes,  or  villages.  Eastern  Greece  has  eleven  epar- 
chies, namely:  Attica,  with  1  town  and  118  villages;  Me- 
Eiris,  I  town  and  12  villages;  Thebais,with  150  villages; 
ibadia,  72  villages;  Talantion,  on  the  coast  opposite 
Euboea,  66  villages ;  Bendeniza,  north-west  of  Talantion, 

34  villages ;  Zeituni,  in  the  valley  of  the  Sperchius,  1  town 
and  29  villages ;  Patrarigno,  66  villages ;  Salona,  near  the 
Corinthian  gulf,  with  32  villages ;  Malandrinos,  south-west 
of  Salona,  16  villages ;  Lidoriki,  in  the  valley  of  the  Upper 
Cephisus,  60  villages.  Western  Greece  has  likewise  11 
eparchies,  namely :  Mesolonghi,  with  1  town  and  2  villages ; 
Anatolioo,  2  .villages ;  Zygos,  20  villages ;  Naupactos,  or 
Lepanto,  with  18  villages  ;  Galaxidi,  a  town  with  a  thriving 
trade;  Baltos,  18  villages;  Vonitza,  11  villages;  Blokhos, 
with  the  town  of  Brakhorion,  and  20  villages ;  Xeromeron, 
with  4  small  towns  and  23  villages ;  Krabara,  with  2  towns 
and  53  villages ;  Apokouron,  26  villages ;  Karpenisi,  4 
towns  and  62  villages.  The  population  is  loosely  estimated 
by  families,,  the  towns  consisting,  on  an  average,  of  300 
families,  and  the  villages  of  50  families.  Eastern  Greece  is 
reckoned  to  contain  32,550  families,  and  Western  Greece 
19,000.  If  families  are  reckoned  at  four  individuals  each, 
which  appears  to  be  the  average  at  present,  the  whole  po- 
pulation of  Northern  Greece  would  be  about  206,000. 

The  second  great  division  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece  is  the 
peninsula  of  the  Peloponnesus,  or  Morea,  the  area  of  which 
IS  nearly  equal  to  that  of  Northern  Greece,  but  is  more 
densely  mhabited,  and  better  cultivated.    It  is  divided  into 

35  eparchies,  namely :  Nauplia,  with  the  town  of  that  name 
and  64  villages ;  Nakhare,  with  the  town  of  Cramidion  and 
3  villages  ;  Argos,  with  3  towns  and  15  villages ;  Agios  Pe- 
tros,  south  of  Argos,  with  15  villages ;  Prastos,  5  villages; 
Corinth,  1  town  and  17  villages,  some  of  them  considerable ; 
Tripolizza,  with  1  town  and  6 1  villages ;  Leontari,  in  the  plain 
of  Megalopolis,  with  1  town  and  53  villages ;  Calabryta, 
north  of  Tripolizza  on  the  borders  of  Achaia,  with  1  town 
and  111  villages;  Carytena,  west  of  Tripolizza,  with  1  town 
and  129  villages;  Phanari,  south  of  the  Alpheus,  with  2 
towns  and  52  villages ;  Androuza,  or  Andritzena,  south  of 
Phanari,  2  towns  and  48  villages ;  Arcadia,  near  the  coast 
on  the  borders  of  Triphylia  and  Messenia,  with  1  town  and 
90  villages ;  Gastouni,  in  the  fine  plain  of  Elis,  with  7 
towns  and  172  villages;  Pyrgos,  south  of  Gastouni, near  the 
mouth  of  the  Alpheus,  1  town  and  9  villages  ;  Vostitza,  in 
Achaia,  with  the  town  of  that  name  and  9  villages ;  Patras, 
1  town  and  1 12  villages.  In  the  south,  Messenia  contains  7 
eparchies,  namely :  Neocastro,  or  Navarin,  with  1  town  and 
1 4  villages ;  Modon,  Itown  and  28  villages ;  Coron,  1  town  and 
56  villages;  Nesion,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Pamisus,  1  town 
and  2  villages;  Calamata,  1  town  and  17  villages;  Micro- 
man  i,  1  town  and  10  villages ;  and  Embelakia,  with  2  towns 
^nd  35  villages.    The  terntory  of  antient  Laoonica^  contains 


the  eparchy  of  Lacedsmon,  with  21  towns  or  burgbs  (Kory- 
opoloo)  and  108  villages;  Moncmbasia,  with  3  towns  and  30 
villages ;  and  in  the  eastern  mountains  are  the  eparchies  of 
Trigonas,Malembris,  Phoukas,and  Kolokytbi,  reckoning  al- 
together about  1 0,000  families.  In  the  mountainsof  We>t  La- 
conica  or  the  Taygetus  ridge  are  the  eparchies  of  Staurop>  ^'  *; 
near  the  borders  of  Calamata,  with  1200  families ;  And  rob}  -u, 
800 families;  Zygos, 1 2 00 families;  Mylea,500 familit-s'an'I 
southernmost  of  all,  in  the  narrow  rocky  peninsula  which  tir* 
minates  atCapeMatapan,  is  the  eparchy  or  district  of  M.uua, 
with  3000  families,  whose  chief  is  styled  Bey.  The  naow 
of  Mainiotes  is  often  given  to  all  the  muuntaineer«  of  Wt-x; 
Laconica,  but  the  inhabitants  of  the  district  of  Maiua  rx  • 
serve  it  for  themselves  exclusively,  calling  their  nei^hbou. » 
by  the  name  of  their  respective  eparchies.  A  descnpUoii  of 
the  physical  geography  of  the  countrv  is  given  under  the 
respective  heads  Achaia,  Arcadia,  Aroolis,  Elis,  L.\co* 
NiCA,  &c.  The  whole  population  of  the  Peloponncsut  ir 
is  reckoned  by  Thiersch  at  108,000  families,  which,  taking 
an  average  of  4  individuals  for  each,  makes  429,000  in  ha- 
bitants, although  the  Commission  of  Statistics  e>tc> 
blished  by  Capodistria  in  1828  estimated  it  only  at  aUjut 
370,000.  Before  the  war  of  Independence  tho  populaiivn 
both  of  the  Peloponnesus  and  of  Northern  Greece  uanniurh 
greater.  Several  eparchies  have  lost  more  than  one-lialf  «<f 
their  numbers  by  aeath  or  emigration ;  and  the  Turkibh  |«>- 
pulation  has  entirely  disappeared. 

The  third  great  division  of  Greece  consists  of  the  i»Ucd« 
in  the  iEgean  Sea,  including  the  Cyclades  and  the  S (ti- 
rades, besides  the  large  island  of  Euboea,  which  ThK^r^rh 
states  to  contain  20,000  inhabitants,  an  estimate  apparent;; 
too  low,  though  it  is  known  that  the  island  has  lost  mo:o 
than  one-half  of  the  population  which  it  had  before  the  rt- 
volution.  [EuBCEA.]  The  other  inhabited  islands  are  di»tr.- 
buted  as  follows : — 1.  The  Western  Sporades,  namely.  H\<lr*, 
with  20,000  inhabitants,  having  lost  the  greater  part  of  .:« 
former  population  by  emigration,  owing  to  tho  losses  ^t.f- 
fered  and  the  sacrifices  made  by  its  merchants  during  t]i« 
war  of  Independence ;  Spezia,  with  18,000;  ifigina,  5^7.: 
Poros,  4464;  Salamis,  1124;  Angistra,  1552.  2.  The 
Northern  Sporades,  namely,  Scopelos,  6515  inhabitant*, 
Khilidromi,  240 ;  Skiathos,  1532;  Skyroa,  1578.  X  TU. 
Northern  Cyclades,  namely,  Andros,  5000  inhabitants ;  Zca. 
3112;  Thermia,  2050,  Tino,  22,000;  Mikoni,  4012  ;  $>ra. 
30,000,  the  most  flourishing  island  of  Greece.  4.  The  rx-tr- 
tral  Cyclades,  namely,  Naxos,  with  10,800  inhabitants ;  pAt^A 
and  Antiparos,  4751 ;  Siphnos,  or  Siphanto,  4431 ;  Senph  **, 
3200;  Milo,  1458;  Kimolos,  420;  Polikandro.  I2C4-. 
Sikino.  1 100  ;  Nio,  21 77 ;  Amorgo,  2567.  5.  The  South«*rn 
Cyclades  i.e.  Santorin,  9656  ;  Anaphi,  643 ;  and  Ast^iuln. 
ivith  951.  Chios,  Samoa,  Lesbos,  and  the  other  i^laiMb 
near  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  still  belong  to  Turkey;  uA 
Crete  has  been  given  to  the  Pacha  of  Egypt. 

The  whole  population  of  the  islands  belonging  to  tt/.- 
kingdom  of  Greece  (which  is  better  ascertained  than  tl.a: 
of  the  continent)  is  reckoned  at  about  176,000,  whiri-. 
added  to  the  206,000  of  Northern  Greece,  and  the  4i9.0<)C 
of  the  Peloponnesus,  gives  a  total  of  81 1,000  for  the  pof^u- 
lation  of  the  whole  kingdom.  Others  reckon  it  »ucb 
lower,  and  not  quite  700,000 ;  but  all  this  seems  to  hf  i 
matter  of  guess.  Thiersch  states  that  the  plains  aloin*  « i 
Greece,  which  are  now  in  great  part  deserted*  could  emj  i  \ 
and  support  500,000  families  of  fresh  cultivators. 

The  three  divisions  of  the  kingdom  are  inhabited  hy  f«>- 

Filiations  differing  in  their  physical  and  moral  charartrr. 
'he  inhabitants  of  Northern  Greece  are  distinguished  hw 
the  name  of  Roumeliotes,  while  those  of  the  Pelopunne^wi 
are  styled  Moreotes,  and  there  is  but  little  sympathy  betWi^  r. 
the  two.  The  Roumeliotes  are  a  military  people *whi>  h:«.  ■ 
maintained  in  the  mountains  of  the  interior  a  sort  of  v:d 
independence,  which  the  Turks  could  never  entirely  subO  w 
Tlieir  manners  and  habits  are  simple,  and  remind  one  « f 
the  primitive  ages  of  Greece.  The  Moreotes,  on  the  cxo 
trary,  with  the  exception  of  Maina,  had  oompleteK  ^ul- 
mitted  to  the  Turkish  yoke ;  and  their  archontes,  or  nriisatrs 
shared  with  the  pachas  and  other  agents  of  the  Pbrtc  tt.f 
spoils  of  their  own  countrymen.  The  Moreotes  hare  not  -a 
general  the  frank  boldness  of  the  Roumeliotes^  although 
they  assume  an  arrogant  tone  when  they  can  do  it  w;tb 
impunity.  In  Roumelia  the  population  of  the  mountaics 
of  Parnassus,  Amnha,  Baltos,  Xeromenoa,  and  other  ir,- 
terior  parts  of  iBtolia,  is  of  Hellenic  .stock ;  but  tlie  pea* 
santiy  of  the  plains  are  chiefly  Valachians»  Bvlgmriaii^  oir 


ORE 


434 


ORB 


ciuUy  in  the  eparchies  of  Patras  and  VostiUa,  and  are  of 
excellent  quality.  This  branch  of  culture  is  susceptible  of 
great  amelioration  and  extension.  The  olives  are  of  good 
quality,  but  the  art  of  pressing  and  refining  the  oil  is 
very  imperfectly  understood,  and  the  oil  is  inferior  to  that 
of  Provence.  Silk  is  made  in  Messenia  and  Laconica, 
and  also  at  Tinos  and  in  other  islands,  but  is  inferior  to  the 
Italian  silk.  Of  fruit-trees,  the  almond,  the  fig,  the  chest- 
nut, the  orange,  and  the  lemon  thrive  the  best.  Homed 
cattle  are  not  numerous,  nor  sufficient  for  the  labours  of  the 
field,  for  which  they  are  almost  exclusively  used,  and  oxen 
are  imported  for  that  purpose  from  Thessaly  and  Asia 
Minor.  There  are  however  numerous  flocks  of  sheep  and 
goats,  which  migrate  to  the  mountains  in  the  spring,  and 
return  to  the  plains  after  the  harvest.  The  produce  of 
wool  is  considerable,  but  of  a  coarse  kind,  and  is  used 
chiefly  for  home  manufacture.  Figs  are  scarce,  except  in 
Ai'cadia,  and  their  flesh  is  not  deemed  wholesome.  The 
only  milk  used  is  that  of  ewes  and  goats,  and  the  butter 
and  cheese  made  of  it  is  very  inferior.  Asses  are  employed 
almost  exclusively  as  beasts  of  burthen ;  the  horses  are  of 
a  Strang  breed,  but  neglected. 

The  fine  forests  with  which  the  mountains  were  once 
clothed  have  been  sadly  wasted,  and  for  the  most  pai*t  en- 
tirely destroyed,  in  great  measure  by  the  carelessness  or 
wanton  rapacity  of  the  inhabitants  themselves,  and  the 
mountains  are  now  naked  and  barren,  and  the  springs 
dried  up  in  consequence.  Forests  however  remain  still  on 
the  Taygetus,  on  Mount  Cronion  and  other  mountains  of 
Arcadia,  on  those  of  Megaris,  on  the  ridges  of  Parnassus 
and  Helicon,  and  on  part  of  the  (Eta  range.  The  pine  is 
the  most  common  timber- tree,  but  fine  oaks  are  found  in 
the  northern  mountains  near  the  borders  of  Thessaly. 

The  commerce  and  navigation  of  Greece  are  centred  in 
the  ports  of  Nauplia,  Mesolonghi,  Patras,  Galaxidi,  and  the 
islands  of  Hydra,  Spesia,  and,  above  all,  Syra,where  a  hand- 
some town  has  risen  since  the  war,  with  churches,  schools, 
hospitals,  docks,  wareliouses,  lazzarettos,  and  companies 
of  insurance,  chiefly  the  work  of  the  emigrants  from  Chios 
and  Psara,  who  escaped  from  the  massacres  of  the  Turks 
in  18*24.  The  number  of  Greek  merchant  vessels  in  1832 
amounted  to  above  1000,  exclusive  of  small  craft,  or  ooast- 
ing-boats.  The  merchants,  generally  speaking,  have  not 
large  capitals,  but  they  assist  each  other,  and  are  also 
assisted  by  their  wealthy  countrymen,  who  are  established 
all  over  the  Levant  and  in  the  ports  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean. The  extensive  line  of  coast  and  the  numerous  is- 
lands supply  a  multitude  of  good  sailors,  active,  hardy, 
and  frugal.  The  principal  traffic  of  the  Greek  vessels  is 
the  carrying  trade  between  the  ports  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Black  Sea. 

The  events  of  ihe  Greek  revolution,  which  began  in  1820, 
and  of  the  war  between  the  Greeks  and  Turks,  which  lasted 
ten  years,  till  the  end  of  1829,  are  well  known  through  the 
works  of  Leake,  Stanhope,  Blaquiere,  and  numerous  others. 
The  Greeks  were  determined  to  shake  off  the  Turkish  yoke, 
and  they  succeeded  in  clearing  the  Morea  of  their  enemies 
and  defeating  them  by  sea.  Tlie  Porte,  unable  to  sub- 
due them,  called  to  its  assistance  the  disciplined  forces  of 
the  pacha  of  Egypt,  which  invaded  the  Peloponnesus,  and 
the  cause  of  Greek  independence  had  again  become  pro- 
blematical, when  the  three  powers.  Great  Britain,  France, 
and  Russia,  resolved  to  put  a  stop  to  this  war  of  extermina- 
tion, which  had  been  cariied  on  for  so  many  years.  The  vic- 
tory of  Navarino  pained  by  the  allied  fleets  in  October,  1827, 
obliirod  the  Egyptian  forces  to  evacuate  the  Morea.  The 
Conference  of  London,  in  March,  1829,  established  the 
principle  of  the  independence  of  Greece  as  a  state,  and  the 
successful  campaign  of  the  same  year  of' the  Russians 
against  the  Turks  induced  the  sultan  to  acknowledge  it  by 
an  article  of  the  treaty  of  Adrianople,  in  September,  1829. 
In  January,  1830,  the  Conference  of  London  settled  the 
total  independence  of  Greece  from  the  Porte,  and  fixed 
Thermopyla)  and  the  Aspropotamos  as  the  frontiers  of 
the  new  state,  which  were  afterwards  extended  in  1832  to 
the  present  boundary  hne,  with  the  consent  of  the  sultan. 
Meantime  the  internal  government  of  Greece  had  under- 
gone many  vicissitudes.  During  their  arduous  struggle 
against  the  Turks  the  Greeks  had  called  together  at  Trcezen 
a  congress  of  deputies  from  the  various  districts,  which  set- 
tled the  basis  of  a  constitution ;  but  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
>revented  the  government  from  assuming  a  fixed  and 
ly  shape.    When  the  independence  of  Greece  was  se- 


cured by  the  interference  of  the  three  allied  powers  tbe 
congress  appointed  Count  John  Capodistria,  a  native  J 
Corfu,  who  had  been  employed  with  distinction  as  a  ^\^]A^r 
matic  agent  of  Russia,  to  be  the  head  of  the  executive  <>;' 
the  new  state  of  Greece,  with  the  title  of  President,  for  s»e\  ^  -i 
years,  and  with  very  extensive  powers.  Capodistria  arn\  t  1 
in  Greece  in  February,  1828,  and  he  set  about  establish -t  .: 
a  central  system  of  bureaucracy  as  in  France  and  Ru^^.i, 
by  which  the  government  was  to  interfere  in  and  reguI.J' 
at  pleasure  all  the  concerns  of  society,  civil,  financial,  r.  ru- 
mercial,  municipal,  and  religious.  Unfortunately  fur  ii  •» 
plan,  the  Greeks,  even  under  Turkish  despotism,  had  K'  :i 
used  to  much  individual  freedom,  and  to  have  the  dirv  • 
tion  of  their  own  municipal,  judicial,  and  commercial  a: 
fairs,  under  the  guidance  of  their  archontes  and  cle'-,:y* 
the  Turks  lived  chiefly  in  the  fortified  towns,  interfei:,! 
but  little  in  the  internal  concerns  of  the  rayaha.  and  i  :;.- 
ploying  the  archontes  themselves  to  exact  whatever  th*-^ 
wanted  from  the  people.  The  result  of  Capodistria's  lu-* 
measures  was  an  insurrection,  which  began  in  Maina  s. -i 
Hydra,  and  soon  extended  to  most  of  tne  islands,  and  i » 
the  warlike  population  of  Roumelia. 

The  complicated  events  of  the  civil  war  are  related  V^ 
Thiersch  in  the  first  volume  of  his  work.    On  the  fith  O.  ' 
her,  1831,  Capodistria  was  murdered  at  Nauplia  in  <\^. 
day,  on  the  threshold  of  the  church  of  St.  Spiridion,  * 
George  and  Constantino  Mauromicali,  the  relatives  ofPCi 
Mauromicali,  the  bey  of  Maina,  whom  the  president  h:. ' 
kept  for  a  long  time  in  prison  without  bringing  him  to  Xx  .' 
[Capodistria.]     His  brother  Augustin  Capodistria  ^ 
ceeded  him  in  the  presidencv,  but  the  civil  war  continu.  .^, 
he  was  obliged  to  resign.    At  last  the  allied  powers  ottt .  -.  : 
the  crown  of  Greece,  which  had  been  refused  by  Pr.r.«  c 
Leopold  of  Saxe  Coburg,  to  the  king  of  Bavaria  for   :..i 
younger  son  Otho,  then  a  minor,  and  the  offer  being  -. 
cepted,  Otho,  accompanied  by  a  council  of  regen^,  ai  • 
body  of  Bavarian  troops,  arrived  at  Nauplia  m  F ebn.  i ' . . 
1 833,  and  was  willingly  acknowledged  by  tbe  Greeks  .< 
their  sovereign.    In  June,  1835,  king  Otho,  being  of  u.  . 
took  the  direction  of  the  afiieiirs  of  state.    The  gpovemrn>    . 
is  a  constitutional  hereditary  monarchy,  with  two  lcgi<^Uir*i* 
houses — a  senate,  and  house  of  representatives.      In  t. 
year  1836  King  Otho  made  a  journey  to  Germany,  «!.•  > 
he  married  Amelia  Maria,  daughter  of  the  grand-duuo  .f 
Oldenburg;  and  in  February,  1837,  he  returned  vitli  L  * 
bride  to  Greece,  and  made  his  entrance  into  Ather.?.  *.r  >: 
capital  of  the  kingdom,  in  the  midst  of  general  acdai/i- 
tions.    It  is  settled  that  the  children  of  th^  marriage  ^l .. . 
be   brought  up  in    the  Greek  communion.      8tncc  ii  •* 
arrival   of  king    Otho  Greece    has   been   coiiipamti>»  . 
Quiet,  bating   some    intrigues  and    dissensions   betw*.*  \ 
tne  Roumeliote  chiefs,  the  Moreote  primates,  and  tlie  i    i 
klepht  Colocotroni.    The  greatest  difficulty  under  uht.i 
the  state  labours  is  want  of  money,  the  revenue  amoun'     z 
to  but  one-half  of  the  expenditure.    The  loans  or  bubMn  •  * 
guaranteed  by  the  allied  powers  have  till  now  made  up  : 
deficiency.    The  sale  of  national  property,  if  judici-^r- ; 
managed,  offers  an  available  resource  for  the  future.    1\  • 
principal  source  of  revenue  is  the  tithes^  the  governni  - 
exacting  one-tenth  of  the  produce  of  all  private  lands,  i.. : 
one-fourth  of  that  of  national  lands.    This  tax  is  sold  c\  ^  > 
year  by  auction  to  contractors  in  the  various  district «^,  v     > 
pay  to  the  government  a  certain  sum  in  money  by  in^i 
ments,  and  collect  the  tax  in  kind  from  the  farmets,  mak .  ;; 
thereby  a  considerable  profit,  which  has  been  estimate*!   •  • 
an  average  at  40  per  cent.    (Thiersch,  vol.  ii.,  sec.  26.)  T 
archontes,  or  prim&tes,  are  generally  the  contractors,  and  t 
system  is  a  fruitful  source  of  oppression.    By  establL^h.  : 
local  collectors,  and  making  a  just  valuation  of  the  lar.  iv 
this  soturce  of  revenue  might  be  doubled  without  detriu}^-  ' 
to  the  agriculturists.    The  other  sources  of  revenue  are  t : « 
customs,  collected  chiefly  at  8yra;   the  leases  of  xv.  .<. 
warehouses,  shops,  and  houses,  belonging  formerly  it>  \.* 
Turks  in  the  fortified  towns,  such  as  M<^on,  Coron,  Mont-: 
basia,  Negropont,  Lepanto,  Acrocorinth.  &c.,  which   .-. 
now  national  property ;  the  sea-salt  pans  and  fisheries.  ^ 
With  regard  to  the  indirect  taxes  upon  markets,  rat*  • 
inns,  shops,  &c.,  they  are  appropriated  to  the  local  expo.] 
ture  of  the  communes. 

The  above  statistical  details  are  given  firomTbiencK  « ' 
was  in  Greece  in  1832 ;  things  may  have  somewhat  al{>  i 
since  that  time;   but  still,  by  all  accounts,  much  rvtna 
to  be  done  in  Greece,  in  order  to  establish  an  ur^«.    * 


G  1?  E 


4n1h 


6  R  B 


ITie  Greek  church  under  the  Turkish  flomimon  has  pre- 
served almost  entirely  its  antient  organization.  It  is  go- 
verned by  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  Alexandria, 
Antioch,  and  Jerusalem,  of  whom  the  first,  as  the  CEcu- 
racnic  patriarch,  presides  over  the  general  synods  of  Con- 
stantinople, which  are  composed  of  the  above-mentioned 
patriarchs,  several  metropolitans  and  bishops,  as  well  as 
twelve  eminent  Greek  laymen.  He  exercises  a  supreme 
ecclesiastical  authority  over  all  the  Greeks  of  the  Ottoman 
empire,  and  is  also  acknowledged  as  the  head  of  their  church 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Austria  and  the  Ionian  islands  who 
profess  the  Greek  religion.  The  other  three  patriarchs, 
whose  dioceses  are  filled  with  Mohammedans,  have  exceed- 
ingly small  flocks.  The  patriarch  of  Alexandria  rules  only 
over  two  churches  at  Cairo.  When  Greece  was  consti- 
tuted an  independent  state  its  president  Capodistria  esta- 
blished a  supreme  ecclesiastical  council,  consisting  of  three 
bishops,  which  declared  itself  independent  of  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople  in  the  administration  of  the  external 
affairs  of  the  church,  but  acknowledged  his  authority  in 
matters  of  fuith.  This  organization  was  confirmed  by  a 
synod  convoked  on  the  accession  of  the  present  king. 

The  Russian  church,  which  now  constitutes  the  most 
important  branch  of  the  Greek  church,  is  noticed  in  the 
article  on  that  country. 

A  complete  catechism  of  the  Greek  church  was  composed 
by  Peter  Mogila,  archbishop  of  Kioff,  who  presented  it  in 
Greek  and  tiatin,  to  the  Greek  synod  assembled  in  1643 
at  J  assy.  The  synod  approved  of  it,  and  sent  it  to  all  the 
Grcek  patriarchs  for  final  confirmation.  But  before  this 
confirmation  was  given  the  author  printed  it  at  Kioff  in 
Polish  and  in  Russo- Polish,  1645.  A  second  edition  of 
it  appeared  at  Lcopol  in  1646,  and  a  third  at  Moscow  in 
1649  in  the  same  Russo- Polish  dialect,  with  the  explana- 
tion of  many  words  in  the  Muscovite  dialect.  The  Greek 
copy  was  published  by  Nicosias  Panagiotes,  chief  dragoman 
of  the  Porte,  in  1662,  at  Amsterdam,  in  order  to  be  distri- 
buted gmtis  among  the  Greeks  of  the  Ottoman  empire.  A 
second  edition  was  also  published  at  Amsterdam  in  1672 
by  order  of  Dionysius,  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and 
it  was  also  printed  at  Bucharest  in  1699.  The  Amsterdam 
edition  was  translated  into  the  Sclavonian  language  at 
Moscow,  and  printed  there  in  1696,  and  it  has  been  re- 
printed many  times  in  Russia.  The  same  edition  of  Am- 
sterdam wns  translated  into  LAtin  by  Laurentius  Normann, 
bishop  of  Gothenburg,  in  Sweden,  and  publislied,  with  the 
Greek  text  and  an  introductory  preface,  at  Leipzig  in  1695. 
A  German  translation  of  the  same  Catechism,  by  Leonard 
Frith,  was  published  at  Berlin  in  1727.  The  Greek  text, 
with  the  Latin  translation  of  Normann,  and  the  German  of 
Frisch,  was  published  at  Breslau  in  1751,  by  Karl  G.  Hof- 
mann,  who  prefixed  to  it  an  historical  notice. 

A  Russian  learned  divine  named  Peter  Alexeyeff,  under- 
took  to  publish  at  Moscow,  in  1781,  the  edition  of  Hofmann, 
with  the  addition  of  the  Sclavonian  translation,  and  with 
some  learned  notes,  but  only  a  part  of  it  was  published,  the 
remainder  bein^  stopped  by  ecclesiastical  authority  on  ac- 
count of  some  bold  remarks  which  the  editor  expressed  in 
his  notes. 

GREEK  MTJSIC.    [Music,  History  of.] 

GREEN.    [Light.] 

GREENE,  MAURICE,  Mus.  Doc,  who  as  a  composer 
of  English  Church  music  is  second  to  none,  and  indeed 
has  scarcely  a  rival,  was  the  son  of  the  Vicar  of  St.  Olave 
.Tewry,  I»iHlon,  and  born  at  the  latter  end  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury. He  received  his  education  in  St.  Paul's  choir,  under 
Brind,  the  organist,  from  whose  instructions,  aided  by  his 
own  strong  i^enius  and  remarkable  industry,  he  profited  so 
well,  that  he  was  elected  organist  of  St.  Dunstan's  in  the 
West  before  he  had  completed  his  twentieth  year.  In 
1718  he  succeeded  his  master  in  the  important  situation  of 
Organist  to  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  On  the  death  of  Dr. 
Croft,  in  1 726,  he  was  appointed  organist  and  composer  to 
the  Chapels-Royal ;  and  in  1736  was  presented  to  the  of- 
fice of  Master  of  His  Majesty's  Band,  on  the  decease  of 
Ecclcs,  a  name  familiar  to  all  who  are  acquainted  with  the 
dramatic  history  of  this  country  during  the  conclusion  of 
the  17th  and  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century.  Pre- 
viously to  the  latter  promotion,  the  degree  of  Doctor  in 
Musjc  was  conferred  on  him  at  Cambridge,  his  exercise  for 
whirh  was  Pope's  Ode  on  St.  Cecilia's  Day,  the  author  hav- 
t  the  request  of  Greene,  made  considerable  altera- 
i  his  poem,  and  added  a  new  stanza.    This,  however, 


forms  no  part  of  tlie  ode  in  any  edition  of  t1i«  poctV  vork«, 
and  seems  indeed  to  have  been  written  ifwt'la  3f# «rrn*. 
The  university  shortly  after  elected  the  composer  Profcs^ur 
of  music,  on  the  deatli  of  Dr.  Tudway. 

Dr.  Greene  took  an  active  part  in  all  musical  affair*,  aivl 
when  Handel  finally  scntled  in  this  country,  the  Bngli^ii 
musician  courted  his  acquaintance  assiduously  ;  but  hav.M,; 
taken  some  ofTence,  he  soon  became  one  of  the  great  uu^- 
ter's  bitterest  enemies.  He  supported  Bonuncini  (the  kjihc 
person  that  is  immortalized  in  SwiiVs  epigram),  wbo  w.i^ 
enabled,  through  the  influence  of  Henrietta,  Duclies«  ^'f 
Marlborough,  and  a  strong  party  of  the  nobilitj,  to  get  cU- 
vated  to  the  rank  of  one  of  Handel's  ephemeral  rit-aU,  ar.i 
introduced  him  at  the  Academy  of  Antient  Music,  vbcrv 
the  Italian  practised  a  deception  which  caused  his  expul- 
sion ;  on  which  Greene  retired. and  established  another  con- 
cert at  the  Devil  Tavern.  Handel,  hearing  of  thi«.  r\- 
claimed,  'De  toctor  Creene  is  gone  to  de  TefelT  Ti*** 
hostility  of  the  angry  Briton  to  the  illustrioua  Gerxnii 
composer  is  accountea  for,  with  some  appearance  of  n^- 
son,  by  Dr.  Burney,  who  says,  '  Handel  was  too  prone  u» 
treat  inferior  artists  with  contempt  What  prorocati  »n 
he  had  received  from  Greene  after  their  first  ocquointan^*. 
when  our  countryman  had  a  due  sense  of  bis  vast  poire I^.  1 
know  not ;  but  for  many  years  of  his  life,  he  never  m* '  ■ 
tioned  him  without  some  injurious  epithet,'  An  enemy  « 
always  a  suspicious  critic;  and  though  it  is  well  knnun 
that  Handel  spoke  disparagingly  of  Greene's  compo^iti  «rt^ 
yet  he  must  secretly  have  entertained  a  high  opinion  :f 
their  merits.  His  sarcasms  were  perhaps  directed  -• 
Greeners  lighter  works :  of  his  church  music  he  eonld  nc^i*: 
have  thought  contemptuously. 

In  1750  Dr.  Greene  came  into  possession  of  a  good  •■^• 
tate  in  Essex,  left  him  by  his  paternal  uncle,  a  serjeant  j*- 
law.  He  then  resolved  to  digest  and  publish  a  coHectiof.  f 
the  best  English  Cathedral  music,  and  in  fire  rears  n:.>  u. 
considerable  progress  in  his  favourite  undertaking:  but  h.« 
health  beginning  to  fail,  he  delivered  his  materials  to  ti  .• 
care  of  his  friend  and  disciple.  Dr.  Bo>xe,  who  complr\  i 
the  work,  and  gave  to  the  world  the  matchless  volumi-*»  -*• 
well-known  to  every  real  amateur  of  classical  £nui*-h 
music.  Dr.  Greene  died  in  1755,  leaving  one  dau;cht' r. 
married  to  Dr.  Michael  Festing,  rector  of  Wyke- Regis.  D-r- 
setshire.  He  was,  as  Dr.  Burney,  who  knew  him,  in  for*  i-* 
us,  in  figure  'much  below  the  common  size,  and  hoii  i*.*. 
misfortune  to  be  deformed;  but  his  address  and  ext<r:  r 
manners  were  those  of  a  man  of  the  world,  mild,  attent.^^. 
and  well-bred.*  He  enjoye<l  the  friendship  of  Bi>b  .< 
Hoadley,  at  whose  table  he  was  always  a  welcome  gta-^: . 
and  his  interest  with  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  of  poiin-  u 
memor}',  was  strong.  Among  his  compositions  arc  %.-:,- 
charming  cantatas  and  songs ;  but  his  mme  is  built  <>t^  r  > 
Forty  AntJiems  for  one,  two^  three,  four t  five ^  sir,  .«-^  *.. 
and  eight  voices,  in  two  folio  volumes.  'These,'  *a>*  i 
writer  in  The  Harmonicon,  *  place  him  at  the  head  of  n. 
list  of  English  Ecclesiastical  composers,  for  they  com ]>..«• 
the  science  and  vigcAir  of  our  earlier  writers,  with  the  nu- 
lody  of  the  best  Italian  masters  who  flourished  in  the  ti-  «t 
half  of  the  18th  century.'  To  Greene  our  catbednU  <^- 
tablishments  owe  a  great  debt  of  gratitude:  his  works  r.  n- 
stitute  a  very  large  portion  of  their  musical  wealth ;  ar  I 
as  the  harmony  heard  in  those  venerable  edifices  attr.i'-T« 
numbers  to  tliem.  Dr.  Greene,  as  well  as  some  few  o*..*  - 
composers  for  our  church,  ought,  in  strict  justice,  lu  i>* 
ranked  not  only  as  skilful  musicians,  but  among  the  y:  *• 
meters  of  the  national  religion. 


GREENFINCH,  one  of  the  English  names  for  the  w.  i 
known  indigenous  Green  Linnet,  Green  GrosbeaK  or  G^-r  ■  v 
Bird;  Veraier  of  the  French ;  Verdone,  Verdero,  Antoti^  «■' 
the  Italians;  Griinflnck,  Gruner Kembeiser,  Grunting, &-^ . 
Groenling  of  the  Dutch  and  Belgians  (NetherlaihU*r> k 
Swenska  of  the  '  Fauna  Suecica;'  r  Gegid,  IMnot  tiv-  • 
of  the  antient  British;  Loxia  Chhriif  Linn.;  l^mgi*  j 
Chloris,  Temm. ;  Coccothrcmstes  Chiorit,  Fleming. 

Varieties. — Pure  white  or  yellowish,  often  variegated  n .:  S 
yellow  and  white. 

I      Geograiphical  DistributiwL — Common  in  almost  all  Eu- 
ropean countries. 

'      Habits,  Fhfxi,  <fc — Haunts  gardens,  hedges,  orchar:*. 
bushy  places,  rarer  in  the  woods.     JKxMf  consisting  prii>  * 

,  pally  of  the  smaller  seeds.     Nest^n  trees  (ivied  geiim.  .  . 

I  bushes,  or  hedges ;  eggs  four  to  sIk,  white,  with  ru>t>  . 

[speckles  at  the" larger  end.     Song  not  disogreeoblc .  :  .t 


(3R  B 


438 


G  R  E 


IVntslamon  CoImw 
PliynianthuB  midiUatns 
Piatylobiuui  fonnovam 

.   .   .         triani^lare 
Fliimbaipo  sapensu 
Pblyi^ala  jppoutifoUa 

.  ,       grnndiflora 

.   .       BpecioM 

.   .       sUpttlaeca 
ProtcA  argcntea 

.  .    cyuarotdes 

.   .    spociosa 
pHoralca  pinnata 
PuUeusa  daplmoidm 

.  .       retusa 

•  .       •timilarU 

.  .       strlcta 


RKododpudroB  ulwrani 
Salvia  tirahamii 
.   .     cluimicdiyoides 
.   .    fiilgens 
Scotlia  dentaUfc 
86Uya  heterophyUa 
Sprvngclla  iDcarnata 
SlAtico  arboraa 
Stylidium  wlnatniii 
,  •        fruticosum 
.   ,*.      junoeum 
.  Swainaooa  albiflora 

.  .         coronUliDfoUa 
Templctonia  retusa 
.  .  .         glatica 
WUmdU  coryiiiboMu 


Greenhouse  plants  are  generallv  turned  out  of  doors  dur^ 
ing  the  summer  months.  They  should  not  be  placed^  in  a 
situation  too  much  shaded,  but  should  be  suflSciently  pro- 
tected from  the  intensity  of  the  mid-day  sun  and  from  high 
winds.  Here  they  must  be  regularly  watered  and  syringed 
twice  every  day  in  dry  weather.  In  the  autumn,  when  the 
least  sign  of  frost  appears,  they  must  be  instantly  remored 
into  the  greenhouse.  This  will  also  be  the  most  convenient 
time  for  cleaning,  top  dressing,  and  shifting  those  which 
require  it. 

GREENLAND  is  an  extensive  island,  situated  between 
Iceland  and  the  continent  of  America.  Its  southern  ex- 
tremity, Cape  Farewell,  is  situated  on  an  island,  69°  49' 
N.  lat.,  and  43°  54'  W.  long.,  consequently  nearly  in  the 
parallel  of  the  southern  extremitv  of  the  Shetland  Islands. 
Its  northern  districts  are  buried  under  masses  of  eternal 
ice.  The  most  northern  point  which  has  been  observed  on 
the  eastern  coast  is  Cape  Gale  Hamkes  Land,  75°  N.  lat, 
and  19°  W.  long.  The  most  northern  comer  of  Baffin's  Bay, 
which  washes  the  western  shores  of  Greenland,  is  Smith 
Sound,  about  78°  N.  lat,  and  76''  W.  long.,  which  may  also 
be  regarded  as  the  boundary  of  that  country.  The  whole 
western  coast-line  has  been  visited  and  mostly  surveyed  by 
British,  Dutch,  and  Danish  seamen.  But  on  the  eastern 
side  the  whole  tract  between  65^  and  69^  has  never  been 
visited,  on  account  of  the  great  accumulation  of  ice  within 
these  limits. 

The  whole  country  may  be  considered  as  one  enormous 
mass  of  rocks.  The  outline  of  this  mass,  forming  the  sea- 
coast,  is  high,  rugged,  and  barren  :  close  to  the  water's 
edge  it  rises  into  tremendous  precipices  and  lofty  moun- 
tains,  crowned  with  inaccessible,  cliffs,  which  may  be 
seen  from  the  sea  at  a  distance  of  60  miles  and  more. 
Though  the  western  coast,  in  its  general  outline,  forms 
nearly  a  straight  line,  trending  north-north-west  and  south- 
south-east,  except  towards  the  southern  extremity,  where 
it  runs  nearly  east,  the  whole  is  indented  by  a  great 
number  of  deep  and  narrow  inlets,  which  extend  a  consi- 
derable distance  inland,  sometimes  a  hundred  miles  and 
more.  Along  these  inlets  or  fiords,  and  on  some  of  the 
numerous  islands  which  line  the  coast  in  all  its  extent, 
occKr  small  patches  or  narrow  strips  of  low  land,  as  well 
as  in  a  few  valleys,  which  are  watered  by  small  brooks.  In 
these  places  alone  vegetation  appears,  but  it  is  nothing  more 
than  grass  and  low  brush-wood. 

The  rocky  mass  which  incloses  these  fiords  and  valleys, 
in  its  average  height  probably  does  not  much  exceed  2000 
feet,  except  in  the  numerous  summits  wliich  are  scattered 
over  it,  and  which  rise  to  5000  feet  and  upwards ;  yet  it  is 
cvei7where  covered  with  eternal  snow  and  ice.  According 
to  the  observations  made  in  Europe,  the  snow-line  in  60^ 
N.  lat.  is  about  4000  feet  above  the  sea;  and  it  sinks  down 
to  the  surface  of  the  globe,  north  of  80° ;  but  these  rules 
cannot  be  applied  to  Greenland,  which  must  be  considered  as 
one  immense  glacier,  and  it  is  a  known  fact,  observed  fre- 
quently in  the  Alps  and  mountains  of  Norway,  that  the  icy 
masses  of  the  glacier  descend  considerably  below  the  snow- 
line. As  in  Switzerland,  the  glacier  frequently  bursts  asun- 
der with  a  tremendous  crash,  and  thus  chasms  are  formed. 
Wiien  ice  of  a  moderate  thickness  covers  the  solid  rock, 
the  chasms  arc  only  a  few  fathoms  deep ;  but  where  the  ice 
has  been  accumulated  to  a  great  depth,  the  chasms  are 
proportionally  large.  In  the  midst  of  the  icy  masses 
here  and  there  rise  some  smooth  rocks  almost  perpendicu- 
larly, so  that  the  snow  cannot  stick  to  them.  These  rocks 
appear  at  a  distance  of  a  dusky-grey  colour,  and  without 
any  sign  of  vegetation,  but  ou  a  nearer  mspection  a  little 
earth  is  found  here  and  there,  on  which  some  hardy  species 
of  heath  grow.  The  outer  edges  of  this  glacier,  which  is 
doubtless  the  most  extensive  on  the  surf^^e  of  the  globe. 


extend  over  the  rocks  which  approach  doie  to  th«  sca-^nwl. 
The  ice  covers  not  only  their  upper  surface,  but  dcaircnd-  ..n 
the  sides  into  the  sea,  where  in  some  places  it  skirt*  th' 
shore  for  many  miles,  and  advances  a  considerable  ♦!•• 
tance  into  it.    The  most  remarkable  of  these  icj  r^  .  ■ 
is  that  which  occurs  on  the  western  coasi  between   ». . 
and  63*  N.  lat.    It  seems  to  form  the  fea-shose  Ibr  nb    • 
20  miles,  and  is  called  by  the  Danish  colonists  the  Ice-Bit  fi  *• 
Many  others  of  similar  extent  occur  on  the  shores  of  thr 
inlets.    When  the  ice  in  such  places  has  accumulate*!  to  a 
vast  extent  and  the  sea  has  washed  away  the  foundation  • 
which  it  rests,  the  enormous  mass  breaks  loose  with  a  tre- 
mendous crash  and  is  carried  into  the  sea,  where  it  fl.  «.t< 
about  as  an  iceberg,  the  marvel  and  the  terror  of  navigat  -r<v 
In  some  places  the  glaciers  rising  on  each  shore  of  an  i: !  * 
unite  across  its  channel,  and  thus  shutting  up  Ibe  v'*-\ 
change  it  into  a  kind  of  salt-water  lake.  Several  pbenomi :  • 
of  th is  kind  are  on  record.  This  seems  to  confirm  the  opir.     . 
of  the  natives,  that  the  masses  of  the  glaciers  are  increai  ^  z 
It  is  even  supposed  that  Greenland  is  traversed  in   all    * 
breadth  by  narrow  straits,  which  divide  it  into  several  LilaifU . 
but  all  such  straits  are  at  present  filled  up  withmasttes  uf  .  >-. 
except  one,  which  occurs  towards  the  southern  extreiii/ 
and  divides  a  group  of  islands  from  the  mainland.     Tl  « 
strait,  called  Prince  Christian's  Sound,  is  about  100  n:     * 
long ;  but  in  many  places  hardly  a  mile  wide.    On  1.  * 
sides  rise  high  and  bold  rocks,  and  it  is  only  in  a  few  pi-  >-> 
that  there  is  low  beach  enough  to  allow  of  a  boat  b-  -. : 
hauled  up. 
The  sea  which  surrounds  Greenland  is  distingui*^!!*'! 

{)eculianties  not  less  remarkable.  A  current,  which  i^  . 
rom  under  the  great  masses  of  ice  enclosing  the  PoU .  r .  • 
southward  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Greenland,  ca^•'^  •  «* 
down  an  immense  bodv  of  heavy  drift  ice.  This  ice  •>'•.-• 
times  occupies  the  whole  extent  of  ocean  between  Grcvi/.  _  -  '. 
and  Iceland,  and  often  forms  a  belt  round  Cape  Fan^w  * 
reaching  from  120  to  160  miles  out  to  sea«  It  i^  rarr  •  .' 
hence  uong  the  western  coast  of  Greenland  northward  ..- 
far  as  Queen  Anne's  Cape,  near  the  Arctic  Circle,  wher*  t: 
passes  to  the  other  side  of  Davis's  Strait,  either  because  ;! 
meets  a  current  running  south  from  Baffin's  Bay,  or  bec:«u«> 
the  Greenland  current  changes  its  direction.  FVom  C<pc 
Walsingham  on  Cumberland  Island  it  is  afterwards  earned 
along  the  shores  of  America  to  Newfoundland,  and  evtn 
farther.  These  masses  of  ioe  frequently  intemtpt  the  com- 
munication. On  the  northern  portion  of  the  eastern  coa»t. 
as  well  as  on  the  southern  of  the  western  coast,  the  eurTcr»t 
runs  along  the  shores;  but  whenever  the  wind  blowii  fn».:i 
the  sea,  it  presses  the  ice  hard  to  the  shore  and  blocVs  ti; 
the  inlets  and  harbours.  During  this  time  the  Dan)-." 
settlements  on  the  south-western  coast  are  inaooesaibU-  :^ 
vessels,  and  the  Danes  are  then  obUged  to  sail  to  tbe  »f  t '.. - • 
men ts  north  of  the  arctic  circle,  where  the  sea  is  free  of  .<^' 
The  situation  of  the  south-eastern  coast  is  different.  Th«  <«; .  -^ 
here  too  the  current  runs  along  shore,  it  sets  in  tfotiTir  . 
the  land,  and  therefore  there  always  exists  the  broad  \>  .: 
of  very  heavy  drift  ice  which  renders  this  coast  entin  v 
inaccessible,  and  has  baffled  the  repeated  attempts  of  ac>  t-  li 
experienced  navigators  to  reach  it  by  sea.  Farther,  it  r 
remarkable  that  the  stream  of  ioe  disappears  entirely,  if .- 
Cape  Farewell  and  along  the  western  coast,  in  the  m<*'i  i> 
of  September,  but  it  always  reappears  towaids  the  eoo  i 
January.  It  is  also  stated  that  the  current  ceeses  dur.  -.• 
these  months. 

Nothing  can  be  said  of  the  climate  of  that  portion  o* .  - 
which  the  glacier  extends ;  we  can  only  speak  of  that  i>t'  •  * 
small  low  tract  inhabited  by  the  natives  and  the  Duitsh  iv 
nists.    In  that  part  the  climate  is  much  less  rigorous^  tr  i" 
might  be  expected  from  its  high  latitude  and  tJie  neu.  - 
bourhood  of  the  immense  gracier.    Graah  observee,  thai   ' 
the  eastern  coast,  south  of  65^  N.  lat,  which  is  eolder  \\\  • 
the  western,  the  thermometer,  in  Febnlary,  1830.  di«l  i,  - 
sink  lower  than  from  4*  to  6**  below  tero  of  Fahrmh*-  ' 
but  as  early  as  the  close  of  August  the  sea  wns  every  n  j  . . 
covered  with  a  crust  of  new  ice,  and  in  the  middle  of  S«-; 
tember  the  ice  on  the  bays  and  firths  was  ftoa  an  n.. ! 
to  two  inches  thick.    The  climate  is  somewhat  milder    i. 
the  western  coast  south  of  the   polar  circle,  but  Csnli  * 
north,  where  the  sun  rises  only  for  a  fbw  minutee*  ^«r  *   ' 
at  all,  the  cold  becomes  extreme,  and  even  ardent  sp.r 
freeze  in  a  room  where  there  is  a  fire.    In  Feliruar>  a* 
March  it  Is  so  intense  that  stones  are  sf^it  and  tlU  «-  \ 
smokes  like  a  Ainnoe.    In  gennnli  hew«««r»  tb»  wmfatr 


G  R  K 


440 


G  R  E 


GREENSHANK  {Totanus),  the  common  name  for  a 
Well-known  wailing  bird,  referred  by  some  ornithologists  to 
the  Godini.9 ;  by  others  to  the  Snipes.  [Scolopacida.] 

GREENSTONE.  Rocks  inwhirh  felspar  is  combined 
vith  hornblende,  or  less  commonly  augitu,  the  mixture 
bein^  evident  and  the  ingredients  distinct,  are  usually 
called  Greenstone.  In  such  rocks  the  felspar  is  usually 
white  or  greenish,  and  less  completely  crystallized  than  in 
sienite;  grains  of  pyrites  frequently  occur;  the  masses 
have  a  rude  prismatic  figure  (Corygills,  Isle  of  Arran) ;  and 
by  decay  show  globular  interior  structure  as  in  basalt. 
[BASikLT.]  If  au^ite  and  hornblende  be  in  effect  the  same 
mineral  generated  under  different  circumstances,  and  hy- 
persthene  be  analogous,  if  not  identical,  it  is  perhaps  pro- 
oable  that  geologists  may  hereafter  be  disposed  to  adopt  a 
suggestion  of  Dr.  MacCulloch,  and  divide  sienites,  gieen- 
stones,  and  basalts  according  to  the  substance  united  with 
felspar,  wliich  is  present  in  all.  We  shall  then  have 
hornblendic  sienite,  greenstone  and  basalt,  augitic  sie- 
nite, greenstone  and  basalt,  hypersthenic  sienite,  greenstone 
and  basalt,  the  distinctions  between  sienite,  greenstone,  and 
basalt  being  chietty  founded  on  the  aggregation  of  the  rock 
and  the  character  of  the  felspar.  Tlie  geological  history  of 
greenstone  is  very  similar  to  that  of  basalt,  and  in  the  same 
tract  of  country  one  quarry  may  give  fine-»ained  basalt  and 
another  distinctly  marked  greenstone.  [Rocks  ;  Basalt  ; 
AuGiTx;  Hornblende.] 

GREENWICH,  a  market-town,  parliamentary  borough, 
and  parish  in  the  hundred  of  Blackheath  and.  county  of 
Kent,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Thames,  five  miles 
oast-south-east  from  London.  The  chief  object  of  interest 
is  the  hospital.  It  occupies  the  site  of  an  old  palace  called 
'Greenwich  Hou»e,'  which  being  in  a  dilapidated  state  at 
the  period  of  the  Restoration  was  ordered  to  be  taken  down 
and  a  new  one  erected  in  its  place.  The  architect  selected 
for  this  new  work  was  Webb,  son-in-law  of  Inigo  Jones, 
under  whose  superintendence  the  present  north-western 
wing  was  built,  and  became  the  occasional  residence  of 
Charles  II.  No  further  progress  towards  completion  was 
however  raatle  till  the  reign  of  William  III.,  whose  wife,  it 
is  said,  having  suggested  the  plan  of  founding  an  asylum 
for  disabled  seamen  belonging  to  the  royal  navy,  it  was  de- 
teimined,  upon  the  recommendiition  of  Sir  Christopher 
Wren,  that  the  unfinished  palace  of  Greenwich  should  be 
enlarged  and  adapted  to  that  purpose.  Tlie  property  was 
forthwith  vested  in  the  hands  of  trustees  and  commissioners 
appointed.  The  sum  of  2000/.  per  annum  was  granted  by 
the  king;  the  commissionei*s  themselves  contributed  nearly 
8000/. ;  and  Sir  Christopher  Wren  undertook  to  superintend 
the  work  without  any  pecuniary  emolument.  Tho  founda- 
tion was  laid  June  3,  1696,  and  the  whole  of  the  super- 
structure then  contemplated  was  finished  within  two  years, 
though  the  hospital  was  not  opened  for  the>  reception  of 
pensioners  until  1 705.  In  the  year  of  the  foundation  an  act 
was  passed,  7  and  6  William  III.,  cap.  21,  by  which  Sd.  per 
month  of  the  wages  of  all  seamen  belonging  to  the  royal 
navy  is  appropriated  to  the  benefit  of  the  institution. 
Since  that  time  large  sums  have  been  bequeathed  by 
benevolent  individuals  for  the  use  of  the  hospital,  and  the 
buildings  have  been  successively  enlarged  and  improved. 
The  whole  now  consists  of  four  quadrangular  piles,  built 
principally  of  Portland  stone,  and  designated  by  the  names 
of  tho  kings  or  queens  in  whose  reigns  thev  were  erected, 
viz.  King  Charles's  building;  on  the  north-west,  Queen 
Anne*s  on  the  north-east.  King  William's  on  the  south- 
west, and  that  of  his  consort  Queen  Mary  on  the  south- 
east. The  two  latter  include  the  Chapel  and  Painted  Hall. 
The  Chapel  was  erected  from  a  design  of  James  Stuart,  and 
is  highly  ornamented.  The  Hall,  a  noble  room  opposite  to 
the  Chapel,  was  painted  by  Sir  James  Thornhill,  and  con- 
tains a  fine  collection  of  paintings,  consisting  of  naval  por- 
traits and  sea-fights.  The  management  of  the  establish- 
ment  is  in  the  hands  of  a  governor,  lieutenant-governor,  two 
chaplains,  and  numerous  other  officers.  The  pensioners,  of 
whom  we  believe  there  are  at  the  present  time  (1838)  nearly 
3000,  receive  their  maintenance,  clothing,  and  lodging,  be- 
sides a  weekly  allowance  for  ^locket  money.  Originally  the 
hospital  was  open  solely  to  seamen  of  the  royal  navy :  but 
by. the  10  Anne,  cap.  27,  it  is  enacted  that  the  seamen  of 
the  merchant  service  shall  contribute  equally  with  those  of 
the  royal  navy ;  and  that  such  of  the  former  as  may  be 
wounded  in  the  defence  of  property  belonging  to  her  ma- 
|esty*s  subjects,   or    othciwise   disaUsd  while    oapluring 


ii»«j«.  » 


u  h- 


vessels  from  an  enemy,  ahall  also  be  admitted  to  the  ben.  f. 
of  the  institution.  The  money  received  from  vi^ilotv  ai 
from  other  sources  is  appropriated  to  the  support  of  a  vK- 
wherein  upwards  of  4000  boys  have  been  educated  firoiu  i ' 
foundation  of  the  establishment  to  the  present  time. 

The  town  is  partially  paved,  lighted  with  ga«,  and  -u 
plied  with  water  from  the  Kent  water-works  at  DtptJu. 
but  the  streets  are  for  the  most  part  narrow,  and  the  li 
mean  and  irregular.  Tho  park,  which  comprises  near  .' 
acres,  is  diversified  with  lawns,  and  well  planted  with  eii 
and  chestnut  trees.  Upon  an  eminence  is  situated  the  ?•  ^ 
observatory,  commonly  called  Flamsteed  House :  utw!  ii 
from  the  meridian  of  this  observatory  that  the  Ion  git 
are  computed  in  all  British  maps. 

About  a  mile  to  the  west  of  Greenwich  is  the  royal  <\  <  -i- 
yard  of  Deptford,  established  by  Henry  VIIL  in  the  f  .i ;  K 
year  of  his  reign,  which  comprises  a  space  of  about  thir:;.- 
one  acres,  wherein  the  ships  of  the  royal  navy  were  f  r- 
merly  built  and  repaired.    The  town  communicates  ^r.;  i 
the  metropolis  by  means  of  a  railway  on  arches  of  br^  ^. 
which  commences  near  London  Bridge.    The  popu1alh<i.    f 
Greenwich  and'  Deptford  in  1831  was  45,939.     Both  tow   . 
are  within  the  diocese  of  Rochester.    Tlie  living  oi  S- 
Mary's,  Greenwich,  is  a  vicarage  worth  1013/.  per  anri>:'  . 
in  the  patronage  of  the  crown ;  and  that  of  St.  Ntch 
Deptford,  is  in  the  gift  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  «i'  h    - 
average  net  income  of  557/.  At  Greenwich  there  are  s<*h* 
for  the  children  of  naval  non-commissioned  officer^    ^ 
sailors,  at  which  about  800  boys  and  200  girls  arc  baxj  <: 
clothed,  fed,  and  instructed.    By  the  provisions  of  ^2  V 
IV.,  c.  45,  Greenwich  was  erected  into  a  parliamentary  }>> 
rouffh,  which  sends  two  members  to  parliament:  tl.e  hr*  « 
of  the  borough  include  the  parishes  of  Deptford,  Wo«>ln    . 
and  a  part  of  Charlton,  and  contained  in  1B31  a  |h>;  u!. 
tion  of  65,917. 

(Hasted*s  History  qf  Kent ;  Se>'mour*8  Topogmfhh 
Survey  of  do. ;  Lysons'  Efwirons  qf  London  ;  Parham'  •  • 
tary  Papers,  &c.) 

GREENWICH  OBSERVATORY.    The  innitutu.t    ' 
the  Royal  Observatory  at  Greenwich  originated,  it  a]  p* .  • 
(Baily's  'Account  of  Kev.  John  Flamsteed,  &c.,'  p.  37. ... 
''Historia  Cnlesiis,'    vol.  iii.,  p.  101),  in   the    fi>tlM\«i  . 
circumstance.    The  extension  of  navigation  in  the  sixt«  -.  *. 
and  seventeenth  centuries  made  it  a  matter  of  great  imp  r 
ance  to  possess  the  means  of  accurately  determinip;;  •' 
longitude  of  a  ship  at  sea.    It  was  remarked  that  this  cut   1 
be  effected,  provided  that  the  motion  of  the  moon  amoxi^:  t 
stars  could  be  exactly  predicted  before  a  ship  left  £nclar 
for  then  if,  at  any  part  of  the  voyage,  the  navigators  ^h*  «    ; 
observe  the  moon  in  any  situation  with  regard  to  the  ii\-  ' 
stars,  the  precise  London  time  ootdd  be  fbund  from  that  .( - 
served  situation.    A  plan  founded  on  this  principle  wa^  y  z  - 
posed  by  a  Frenchman,  named  Lo  Sieur  de  St  Pierre.  * . 
Charles  II.  in  1674,  who  referred  it  to  a  commission  of  rf 
cial  and  scientific  men,  by  one  of  whom  (Sir  Jonas  M>  m 
the  opinion  of  Flamsteed  (already  well  known  aa  %  « .  r\ 
learned  and  enthusiastic  astronomer)  was  taken.  Flamsv  «' 
however  stated  that  the  lunar  tables  were  far  too  muc^i    i 
error  to  make  this  method  practicable :  and  that  even  t;  - 
places  of  the  stars  in  existing  catalogues,  which  must  b<<  *  S 
foundation  for  every  theory  of  the  motions  of  the  moon    .' 
planets,  were  grievously  faulty.     Charles  II.  was  rout 
struck  with  thu  defect,  and  measures  were  tak«i  with.   - 
delay  under  his  auspices  for  adopting  the  cultivation    ^ 
astronomy  as  a  national  object.   The  Observatory  at  Gn^-  - 
wichwas  immediately  built,  and  Flamsteed  was  appom 
Astronomical  Observator  (the  title  still  retained  in  *»ti:     ' 
documents)  by  warrant  under  the  royal  sisn-mannal.  «  - 
a  salanr  of  100/.  per  annum.    The  *  finding  out  tho    - 
much  desired  longitudes  of  places  for  the  perfecting  thr  - 
of  navigation' was  mentioned  in  diis  warrant,  and  alsotn  - 
warrant  for  the  building,  as  the  reason  for  institutin!:  i 
office  ;  and  the  inscription  stiH  existing  above  the  nrt.r 
door  of  the  Observatory  declares  that  it  was  built  for 
benefit  of  astronomy  and  navigation.   No  instruments  h  '- 
ever  were  supplied  by  the  state :  those  used  by  Flam*.*  • 
were  his  own  property  and  partlv  oon.struct^*  by  him^ 
Flamsteed's  residence  at  the  Observatory  oomnieiii>.u 
July,  1676;  but  his  best  instruments  were  not  in  u«  * 
1689.    Hediedin  1719. 

The  history  of  this  remarkable  man,  and  the  tale   ^  .  ^ 
labours,  his  harsh  treatment,  and  his  enthusiasm  whir  • 
tM  him  tbrongh  all,  have^  sinoe  the  publicatkm  of  Mr.  l>.    > 


G  K  I!* 


441 


ORE 


Account,  Attraeted  mucli  attention.    It  is  not  our  intention 
bore  to  allude  further  to  his  personal  history;  but  we  may 
point  out  the  circumstances  which  give  extraordinary  value 
to  his  observations.    His  instruments  and  his  methods  of 
observation  were  much  more  accurate  than  any  which  had 
been  used.     The  attachment  of  telescopes  to  graduated  in- 
strumentH,  and  the  use  of  a  clock  to  note  the  time  at  which 
stars  and  planets  passed  (by  their  apparent  diurnal  motion) 
across  the  middle  of  the  field  of  view  of  the  telescope,  were 
a  prodif^ious  advance,  not  only  in  the  accuracy  of  observa- 
tiDfis,  but  also  in  the  simplicity  of  their  plan.     Preceding 
astrouDmcrs  had  been  obliged  to  rely  entirely  upon  mea- 
sured distances  of  stars  from  each  other  for  the  determina- 
tion of  their  relative  places.  Flamsteed  was  at  first  compelled 
to  use  the  same  metnod  for  a  few  principal  stars,  but  he  was 
aOi'rwards  able  to  avail  himself  of  the  clock  for  the  observa- 
tion of  all  the  smaller  stars  and  the  planets,  as  well  as  for 
those  important  observations  of  the  sun  by  which  the  first 
)><)int  of  Aries  (or  the  intersection  of  the  sun's  apparent  path 
with  the  celestial  equator)  is  determined.    The  '  Historia 
Cd^lostis'  was  not  published  (in  the  form  approved  by  him- 
.^elf)  till  six  years  after  his  death :  it  contains  ~the  observa- 
tions of  every  kind,  just  as  they  were  made;  the  cata- 
loirue,  comprising  (with  some  supplied  by  Mr.  Baily  from 
the  observations)  3310  stars,  whose  places  were  more  accu- 
rate than  anv  determined  in  the  next  50  years,  and  whose 
.^^'1  option  ana  nomenclature  have  served  as  basis  to  every 
raialosrue  since  that  time ;  and  the  places  of  the  sun,  moon, 
nnd  planots,  computed  from  every  observation.    In  regard 
not  only  to  accuracy  of  observation,  and  to  detail  in  publi- 
ration  of  the  methods  of  observing,  but  also  to  steadiness  of 
system  followed  through  many  years  and  to  completeness 
c»f  calculation  of  the  useful  results  deduced  from  the  ob- 
servations, this  work  may  shame  any  other  collection  of 
observations  in  this  or  any  other  country. 

But  though  the  publication  of  the  *  Historia  Coelestis* 
was  somewhat  delayed,  many  of  the  observations  (those  of 
t  he  moon  in  particular)  had  been  doing  important  service  to 
«'*ience.  The  first  edition  of  Newton's  •  Principia'  had  ap- 
peared shortly  before  Flamsteed  had  supplied  himself  with 
t)is  best  instruments;  and  at  Newton's  request  many  of 
Fiamsteed's  observations  of  the  moon,  reduced  as  well  as 
wiLs  then  practicable,  were  communicated  to  him  to  aid  in 
perfecting  the  theory  deduced  from  the  principle  of  univer* 
sal  gravitation.  The  time  at  which  these  observationa  were 
mode  was,  in  fact,  a  most  critical  one :  when  the  most  accu- 
rate observations  that  had  been  made  were  needed  for  the 
support  of  the  most  extensive  philosophical  theory  that  man 
had  invented. 

On  the  death  of  Flamsteed,  Dr.  Halley  (the  most  learned 
tuun,  and  generally  the  most  active  philosopher  of  the  a^e), 
then  in  his  sixty- fourth  year,  was  appointea  to  succeed  hmi. 
No  observations  however  could  be  made,  as  the  whole  of 
Flumsteed*s  instruments  were  taken  away.  But  in  1721  a 
transit  instrument  (similar  ia  its  motion  to  those  of  the 
present  day,  though  different  in  form)  was  mounted,  and 
til  1725  a  very  large  quadrant.  These  were  oonstructed  at 
the  public  expense,  and  are  still  preserved  at  the  Royal 
Observatory.  An  extension  of  the  buildings  was  neces- 
sary for  the  new  instruments.  The  introduction  of  the 
transit  instrument,  and  the  superior  accuracy  of  the  qua* 
clrant,  may  be  conaidered  as  an  advance  in  exactitude  upon 
Flamsteed ;  but  the  observations  were  not  made  with  the 
««ame  order,  and  were  nevei  prepared  for  printing.  An 
«icc<mnt  of  the  manuscript  books  which  exist  may  be  seen 
til  the  '  Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,*  voL  8» 
and  an  account  of  the  instruments  in  vol.  9.  It  appears 
i'vom  these  that  Halley  confined  his  observations  princi- 
pally to  the  moon,  adopting  Flamsteed*s  catalogue  of  stars 
•i:^  the  basis  of  every  determination.  In  Halley's  Tables, 
|Hib1ished  long  after  his  death,  there  is  a  comnarison  of  his 
«jliscrvefl  places  of  the  moon  with  the  places  deduced  from 
I  lis  tables,  from  1722  to  1739;  but  although  some  sections 
4  if  the  work  are  expressly  devoted  to  the  comparison  of  the 
4  ibserved  places  of  the  planets  with  his  tables,  none  of  these 
ure  deduced  from  his  own  observations.  In  fact,  with  the 
•exception  of  two  or  three  trifling  communications  to  the 
Hoyal  Society,  the  whole  of  Bailey's  useful  labour  as  astro- 
vioiner  royal  is  comprised  in  the  comparisons  of  the  moon*8 
place  just  noticed.     He  died  in  1742. 

BnvUey,  Uien  known  as  the  ablest  astronomer  of  the 
*  line,  and  already  famous  for  his  discovery  of  the  aberration 
>l  lisht,  succeeded.    His  other  celebrated  diacoyery«  of  the 
P  C,  No.  713. 


nutation  of  the  earth's  axis,  was  not  quite  eoittpleted  till 
he  had  been  a  few  years  at  Greenwich.  Till  the  year  1749 
ho  had  no  other  instruments  than  those  used  by  Halley 
the  observations  made  with  them  have  not  been  printed; 
nor,  so  far  as  we  are  aware,  do  any  results  appear  to  have 
been  deduced  from  them.  They  appear  from  Professor 
Rigaud's  account  ('Miscellaneous  Works  of  Bradley,'  p.Hii., 
&c.)  to  be  very  numerous.  But  in  1749  a  new  transit,  a 
second  quadrant,  and  the  zenith-sector  formerly  used  by 
Bradley,  were  mounted  at  Greenwich;  and-  from  1750 
begins  the  series  of  obser\'ations  which  is  properly  charac- 
teristic of  this  observatory.  With  small  alteration,  the  same 
account  will  apply  to  all  the  observations  from  1 760  to  the 
present  time.  Regular  observations  (without  a  day's  inter- 
mission, except  from  the  unavoidable  hindrances  of  weather, 
&c.)  of  the  principal  stars,  small  stars,  the  sun,  moon,  and 

Slanets,  made  with  the  transit-instrument  and  clock  for  the 
etermination  of  right  ascension,  and  with  the  quadrants 
(or,  in  later  years,  the  circles)  for  the  determination  of 
north  polar  distances,  have  been  the  distinguishing  employ- 
ment of  this  observatory.  Observations  have  occasionally 
been  made  with  equatoreals  or  instruments  of  a  similar 
class,  for  the  determination  of  the  places  of  comets,  &o. ; 
and  observations  of  the  times  of  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's 
satellites,  the  times  of  occultations  of  stars  by  the  moon, 
&c.,  were  sometimes  made  with  detached  telescopes,  which 
were  incompetent  to  determine  the  place  of  any  object  iu 
the  heavens.  But  these  observations  were  entirely  subor- 
dinate to  those  made  with  the  transit  and  quadrant ;  which, 
from  the  excellence  of  the  instruments,  the  care  taken  in 
their  adjustment,  the  uniformity  in  the  system  of  observa- 
tion, and  the  extreme  regularity  with  which  it  has  been 
fbllowed  for  nearly  a  century,  possess  a  value  to  which  no 
other  observations  have  the  smallest  pretension. 

By  proper  arrangements  with  regard  to  the  assistants, 
the  interval,  elapsing  between  the  termination  of  the  obser- 
vations made  under  the  auspices  of  one  astronomer  royal 
and  the  commencement  of  those  of  his  successor,  has  been 
much  diminished.  Thus  Bradley's  last  observation  was  on 
July  16,  1762,  and  Bliss's  firet  on  August  18,  1762:  Bliss's 
last  on  March  15,  1765,  and  Maskclyne's  first  on  May  7, 
1765;  Maskelyne*s  last  on  December  31,  1810,  and  Pond's 
first  on  January  4,  1811;  Pond's  last  on  September  30, 
1835,  and  the  first  under  the  direction  of  the  present  astro- 
nomer royal,  Mr.  Airy,  on  October  2,  1835.  This  arrange- 
ment has  contributed  much  to  distinguish  the  system  of 
observations  pursued  at  Greenwich  fi'om  that  followed  at 
every  other  observatory. 

Another  point  which  in  the  last  century  distinguished 
this  observatory  from  others,  and  in  which  in  the  present 
century  it  has  been  folio we<l  by  most  modem  observatories, 
is  the  form  in  which  the  observations  have  been  printed. 
Flamsteed  set  the  example  of  printing  the  whole  of  the  ob- 
servations in  a  tabular  form  precisely  as  they  were  made, 
thus  giving  to  any  future  calculator  the  power  of  repeating 
the  whole  of  the  computations  by  which  any  result  was 
deduced  from  them.  Maskelyne  followed  this  plan ;  Brad- 
ley's observations^  in  consequence  of  a  litigation  as  to  the 
right  in  the  manuscripts,  were  not  printed  till  the  present 
century,  when  they  were  arranged  in  a  similar  form ;  and 
the  same  principle  is  still  most  scrupulously  adhered  to. 
For  many  years  past  it  has  been  the  practice  to  publish 
each  year's  observations  as  early  as  possible  in  the  next 
year. 

Besides  regular  observations  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
planets,  Bradley  employed  himself  on  the  observation  of  a 
great  number  of  small  stars.  Shortly  after  the  publication 
of  his  observations,  as  mentioned  above,  the  celebrated 
Prussian  astronomer  Bessel  undertook  to  deduce  from 
them  the  places  of  all  the  stars  observed  by  Bradley,  as 
well  as  the  obliquibr  of  the  ecliptic,  the  position  of  the  first 
point  of  Aries,  the  law  and  amount  of  refraction,  &c.  This 
was  executed  in  a  work  entitled '  Fundamenta  Astronomita,' 
&0.  (in  the  preparation  of  which  Bessel  was  assisted  by  the 
Enffhsh  BoaoxL  of  Longitude  with  a  grant  of  money).  This 
work  is  universally  appealed  to  as  containing  the  most  ac- 
curate information  as  to  the  state  of  the  heavens  and  the 
principal  facts  of  astronomy  in  the  middle  of  the  last  cen- 
tury. The  number  of  stars  in  the  catalogue  deduced  from 
Brsbdley's  observations  is  3222 :  and  the  determinations  of 
the  whole  of  these  possess  very  great  accuracy. 

In  the  short  time  during  which  Bliss  resided  at  the  Ob* 
servatory,  observations  continued  nearly  on  the  sane  phut 

Vol.  XI  —3  L 


Gn  B 


442 


GBK 


ns  .n  f?ra(llcy*s  time,  the  number  of  observations  of  small 
starH  being  somewhat  diminished. 

Maskclync  confined  his  attention,  in  a  great  degree,  to 
thirty- hix  nrincipal  stars.  No  extended  catalogue  of  stars 
could  be  formed  from  his  observations ;  and  in  his  later 
years  the  observation  of  planets  was  much  neglected.  But 
the  sun  and  moon  were  observed  most  regularly ;  and  the 
exclusive  adoption  of  the  principal  stars,  as  above  mentioned, 
gives  a  greater  ?alue  (other  things  being  equally  favourable) 
to  the  determinations  deduced  from  his  observations  than  to 
those  obtained  from  Bradley's,  The  meridional  instruments 
used  by  Maskelyne  were  the  same  as  those  used  by  Bradley 
fn)m  1 750 :  the  quadrant  with  which  observations  on  the 
south  side  of  the  zenith  were  made  appears  to  have  become 
sensibly  deteriorated  by  lone  use,  ana  Maskelyne's  obser- 
vations of  stars  were  not  sufficient  independently  to  ascer- 
tain its  errors:  but  by  comparison  of  Bradley's  and  Pond's 
iibservations.  the  true  places  of  stars  for  Maskelyne's  ob- 
servations have  been  found,  the  errors  of  the  quadrant  have 
been  ascertained,  and  the  obsenations  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
&c.,  can  now  be  corrected  so  as  to  have  the  utmost  practica- 
ble accuracy. 

Shortly  after  Pond's  accession,  a  new  transit  instrument 
was  mounted,  and  a  few  years  later  a  mural  circle  (both 
constructed  by  the  celebrated  Troughton).  After  the  lapse 
of  a  f^w  years  more,  a  second  mural  circle  was  mounted 
(made  by  Jones).  And  these  are  the  principal  instruments 
in  use  at  the  jiresent  day.  Pond  turned  his  attention,  in  a 
great  measure,  to  the  verification  of  the  accuracy  of  the  in- 
struments, and  of  the  methods  of  observing.  For  some 
jears  no  extensive  catalogue  of  stars  was  observed ;  but  the 
number  of  observations  of  the  principal  stars  was  im- 
meusely  multiplied.  The  results  in  ecneral  possess  an 
accuracy  which  before  was  unknown.  A  catalogue  of  more 
than  lUUO  stars  was  however  produced,  comparable  or  supe- 
rior in  accuracy  to  any  other  of  the  same  extent  which  had 
yet  been  published.  The  obsen'alions  of  the  sun  and 
moon  were  continued  in  the  same  incessant  manner,  and 
many  observations  of  the  planets  were  also  made. 

In  the  printed  observations  of  Bradley,  Bliss,  Maskel^e, 
and  Pond  (for  several  years),  no  results  of  the  observations 
were  given,  or  at  least  none  of  the  steps  of  calculation  in- 
termediate between  the  unreduced  observations  and  the 
final  result.  At  the  instance  of  the  Board  of  Visitors 
(appointed  under  the  royal  sign-manual  to  inspect  the  Ob- 
servatory from  time  to  time),  these  have  lately  been  supplied 
for  the  la&t  five  or  six  years  of  Pond's  superintendence  of 
the  Observatory. 

The  present  director  of  the  establishment  has  held  his 
office  ^o  short  a  time,  that  it  is  difficult  to  attach  any 
dnlinct  character  to  his  obsenrations.  It  may  however  be 
stated  that  the  planets  are  observed  with  the  same  regu- 
larity as  tliu  sun  and  moon,  and  that  every  step  of  calcula- 
tion, as  far  as  practicable,  is  printed  in  the  volume  of 
observatious. 

Anotlier  subject,  important  to  navigation,  but  slightly 
connected  with  astronomy,  has  by  degreed  been  ingrafted 
on  the  regular  business  of  the  Observatory.  For  a  lonff 
time  past  it  had  been  remarked  that  if  clocks  or  watches  of 
ereat  excellence  could  be  carried  to  sea,  the  longitude  might 
be  determined  by  them.  In  1766,  Harrison's  plan  of  an 
improved  watch,  or  chronometer,  was  first  tried  at  the  Qb- 
servatory.  From  tliat  time  to  the  present,  there  has  been 
little  intermission  in  the  trials  of  chronometers  of  different 
constructions.  In  1822  chronometer-makers  were  allowed 
to  send  a  certain  number  of  chronometers  each  in  compe- 
tition for  prises,  to  be  adjudged  idfter  a  year's  trial ;  and 
above  sixty  chronometers  nave  sometimes  been  on  trial  at 
once,  requiring  to  be  carefully  rated  every  day.  A  similar 
competition  was  repeated  every  year.  This  system  was 
abandoned  in  1636.  The  manu&cture  of  chronometers 
appears  lo  have  been  greatly  improved  by  these  triaU. 
CUrunometers  having  been  universally  introduced  into  the 
Ro>al  Navy,  the  Royal  Observatory  is  made  the  depOt  for 
them,  and  while  there  they  are  regularly  rated:  the  man- 
n^t  uient  of  the  repain  ii  also  attactied  to  the  buainesa  of 
the  ObM'r%atory. 

From  the  preceding  stattment  it  is  hoped  that  the  reader 
m »}  be  able  to  form  a  general  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  as- 
tr>nornirol  busmen  to  which  the  Royal  Observatory  of 
( trr«n>k  ich  IS  devoted.  It  is  not  to  the  gaxing  at  planets  or 
iiebuljD,  or  to  the  watching  the  appearances  of  the  spots  in 
iba  tun  or  tba  mountaina  in  tha  moon,  with  which  tha  di- 


I.  . 


t -.   « 


r  • 


4Ctf» 


lettante  aatronoflner  is  so  mncb  charmid ;  U  ift  M4  t>  tS 
measures  of  the  relative  positions  and  distarwra  of  4. . 
stars,  or  the  registering  the  present  state  of  the  net .:' 
bodies  which  appear  liable  to  change — meaaorea  a&d  rt  j  • 
ters  of  great  importance,  but  which  poaKsa  a  cbann  i 
ctent  to  persuade  private  observen  to  uodeitaka  tJM 
servations,  and  which  do  not  demand  eKtieose  lURtT 
adjustment  of  the  instruments,  nor  require  much 
afterwards.    But  it  is  to  the  regular  obaerratkm  of  the  « •  . 
moon,  planets,  and  stars  (selected  according  lo  a  fvw:   .• 
arranged  system),  when  they  pass  the  meriwan,  at  w  ha . 
hour  of  the  day  or  night  that  may  happen,  aiwl  m  dm  <:•? 
position ;  observations  which  require  the  moat  vic<^*^^  '^" 
in  regard  to  the  state  of  the  instruments*  and  wnxh  r.* 
such  a  mass  of  calculations  afterwards*  that  the  eftncrr*:   -. 
it^clf  is  in  comparison  a  mere  trifle.     From  these  an  j-- 
duced  the  positions  of  the  various  object^  with  an  arer.rxt 
that  can  be  obtained  in  no  other  way;  and  thry  cas  t. 
be  used  as  bases  to  which  obsen'ations  hy  amasci-r  «» 
tronomers,  with  different  instruments,  can  be  rtCemd. 

In  consequence  of  the  continuity,  the  regnlantr,  sri  *'. 
general  excellence  of  the  Greenwich  observatic«k%  *J 
sun  and  moon,  they  have  been  almost  excluahvly  « 
the  construction  of  the  theory  and  tabka  of  the  wou 
those  bodies.    Indeed  up  to  the  year  1814  there 
servations,  even  detached  ones,  at  other  o^ 
can  be  put  in  competition  with  the  correa 
Greenwich.    Since  that  year,  some  of  the 
the  sun  made  at  Kiuiigsberg  have  been  used  hy  the  G-- 
man  astronomers.    But  the  Greenwich  dbMsrratioc*  U  -: 
moon  are  to  the  present  time  the  only  onea  that  cna  be  •  -. 
for  the  lunar  theories,  and  probably  will  always  he  ti^   . 
ones.    The  observations  of  planets^  as  far  aa  they  ^  L 
also  been  used  in  preference  to  those  of  other 
indeed  for  the  earlier  years  there  are  no  othec»  ta  '; 

The  business  of  the  Observatory,  it  will  have 
marked,  embraces  only  one  branch  of  astiooomj.  zxz. 
that  depending  on  meridional  observations ;  cxclui  -^    . 
part  which  has  been  made  so  important  hy  Ih*  la:>.  ^ 
Sir  W.  Herschel  and  Sir  J.  Heischel.    These  s0e&«  t    • 
httle  doubt  that  this  restriction  is  advanta^eooa.     T^.-  *«. 
retained  is  the  most  laborious,  and  is  also  that  whjLl  -> 
admits  of  being  reduced  to  a  qrttam  working  weil  %.  _.- 
official  superintendence*    There  is  another  iweacs 
nected  witn  the  magnitude  of  the  instrumenta  need  t«     • 
two  Herschels)  which   perhaps  might  not  occv  t.  . 
reader,  but  which  may  \ta  illustrated hy  what  haa  ha^yr  .  . 
at  the  Observatory.    A  20-feet  roilectxttg  te3«»cuf«    H. 
maG;e*s)  was  mounted  at  the  Observatory,  partly  aX  '.2«  - 
sire  of  Mr.  Pond ;  but  we  have  the  best  aiithocU] 
that  the  interruption  in  the  business  of  the 
produced  by  the  parties  of  visitors  who  wwxa 
this  instrument  was  so  ereat»  that  llr.  Pond 
glad  to  have  it  dismantled.    Tha  increasing  ^ 
London  and  of  the  neighbourhood  of  Green  vidr 
it  necessary  now  to  place  tha  admiwion  of 
verv  strict  rules. 

From  the  beginnins;  of  Flamstaed^ 
the  end  of  Maskelyne^  one  assistant  ooljr 
the  Observatory.     During   Pond*s  sopcnAi 
number  was  gradually  increased  lo  six.  With  this  n-i^s.  ■ 
the  observations  can  be  kept  up  without  diftevlxy  «i  .. 
hours  which  are  necessary ;  but  they  are  hardly  »Ifr 
for  completing  the  mass  of  caloulatioBs  which  the  ui^i^'  - 
tions  require,  and  for  carrying  on  tha  latiae.  na  wvL  ^ 
business  of  other  kinds  connected  with  taa  ^vtcraA.. 
chronometers. 

GREGORIAN  CALBNDAR.    [Kalumb.] 

GREGO'RIUS.    [Com srmmoita.  BoKAw.] 

GREGORIUS  CORINTHIUS,  an  archh^hsy  ^    • 
rinth  in  the  12th  centuij^  is  chiefty  knewa  hf  a 
dialecU  ilUpl  iuiXUnnf},  tlw  kteit  aditaao  of  wte 
Gf.  H.  Schafer,  Leipsig.  1811.  Sva 

GREGORY  OF  NAZIANZU8.  om  of  the 
the  church,  was  born  in  the  eariy  part  of  tha  iawurth  tmz. . 
at  Ariansus,  a  viilage  near  the  town  of  Nnctaaaiei  «• 
nadocia,  of  which  town  his  Ihther  was  bJihop.     Be  •-- 
first  at  Casarea  in  Cappadocia»  afterwaids  at  Ak^^ 
and  lastly  at  Athens»  wbera  ha  baoaae  tha  fbe^i  ae.< 
panion  of  Basilius.  mid  where  be  also  aNf  Juliaa,  alWr>  . 
emperor.    At  a  subsequent  period  ha  iooied  fcni   i     < 
bad  retired  to  a  solitude  in  Pontna  ann^g  tha  f*-.^. 
Julian.    [BAaa.]    Whia^   ' 


^. 


-  •- 


w  - 


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G  R  £ 


444 


G  R  B 


concealed  himself;  but  all  was  in  vain,  and  he  was  obliged 
at  last  to  fill  the  pontifical  chair.  Ue  showed  great  zeal  for 
the  reformation  of  the  abuses  and  corruptions  which  had 
crept  into  the  church,  as  well  as  for  the  propagation  of 
Christianity.  He  assisted  Theodolinda,  queen  of  the  Longo- 
bards,  in  converting  that  people  to  the  Catholic  faith.  He 
likewise  sent  missionaries  into  Sardinia,  and  zealously  sup- 
ported the  mission  to  England,  where  the  king  of  Kent  and 
many  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  had  embraced  Christianity.  It 
was  previous  to  his  exaltation  to  the  pontifical  chair,  that 
seeing  one  day  in  the  slave-market  at  Rome  some  Anglo- 
Saxon  children  exposed  for  sale,  and  being  struck  by  their 
comely  appearance,  he  is  said  to  have  exclaime<l :  *  They 
would  be  indeed  not  Angli  but  Angels,  if  they  were  Chris- 
tians,' and  from  that  time  he  engaged  his  predecessor  Pela- 
gius  to  send  missionaries  to  England.  John  the  Abstinent, 
archbishop  of  Constantinople,  having  assumed  the  title 
of  CEtrumenic,  or  Universal  Patriarch,  Greajory  -  wrote  to 
him  in  595  to  induce  him  to  relinquish  a  title  which  gave 
offence  to  his  brethren.  '  You  know  that  the  council  of 
Chalcedon,'  says  he  in  his  letter, '  offered  the  title  of  (Ecu- 
menic to  the  bishop  of  Rome,  but  that  all  my  predecessors 
have  refused  an  assumption  full  of  pride  and  inconsistent 
with  the  antient  discipline.'  Gregory  himself  adopted  the 
denomination  of '  Servus  Sei-vorum  Domini,'  ('  servant  of  the 
servants  of  the  Lord,')  meaning  the  bishops,  an  appellation 
which  the  popes  have  retained,  even  since  their  assump- 
tion of  universal  supremacy.  Gregory  exercised  the  juris- 
diction of  primate  of  Italy,  and  gave  advice  to  the  other 
bishops,  but  not  commands.  He  lived  in  the  most  frugal 
and  simple  style,  although  he  had  at  his  disposal  the  large 
wealth  of  the  Roman  see,  which  he  distributed  to  the  poor. 
He  was  averse  from  persecuting  heretics  and  Jews:  he 
considered  mildness  and  persuasion  as  the  only  means  to 
bring  them  to  Christianity. 

He  has  been  reproached  with  having  written  to  the 
usurper  Phocas,  who  had  miurdcred  the  emperor  Mauritius 
and  had  seized  on  his  crown,  a  letter  in  a  flattering  strain, 
apparently  with  the  view  of  securing  the  protection  of  the 
Eastern  Empire  in  favour  of  Rome,  then  threatened  by  the 
Longobards.  Another  charge  against  Gregory  is,  that  he 
destroyed  some  classical  MSS.,  the  remains  of  the  Imperial 
library  at  Rome ;  but  this  charge  was  made  many  centuries 
after,  aud  does  not  seem  to  rest  upon  clear  evidence.  Gre- 
gory manifested  however  an  aversion  to  the  works  of  the 
Heathen  writers,  especially  those  which  treated  of  mytho- 
logy, and  forbade  their  perusal.  He  wrote  numerous  works, 
which  have  been  collected  and  published  by  the  Benedic- 
tines of  St.  Maur,  4  vols,  fol.,  Paris,  1707.  The  most  im- 
portant are: — 1.  '  Moralium,  libri  xxxiv.';  2.  '  De  Cura 
Saceidotali.'  being  a  pastoral  instruction  on  the  duties  of 
the  parochial  clergy;  3.  his  'Letters,*  in  12  books,  which 
contain  some  interesting  particulars  on  coutem|x>rary  his- 
tory ;  4.  his  '  Dialogues,'  which  contain  many  accounts  of 
miracles,  a  matter  on  which  Gregory  shows  himself  rather 
credulous.  Gregory  died  at  Rome  in  604,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Sabinianus  of  Volaterra. 

GREGORY  II.,  a  native  of  Rome,  succeeded  Constan- 
tino in  the  see  of  Rome,  a.d.  715,  and  was  involved  in 
disputes  first  with  Luitprand,  king  of  the  Longobards, 
agaiust  whom  he  implored  the  assistance  of  Charles  Martel, 
and  afterwards  with  Leo  Isaurus,  on  the  subject  of  image- 
worship,  which  that  emperor  had  proscribed.  He  convoked 
two  councils,  one  against  the  Iconoclasts,  and  another  to 
forbid  marriage  to  persons  who  had  once  entered  the  mo- 
nastic rule.  It  was  under  his  pontificate  that  Boniface 
went  to  preach  Christianity  in  Germany.  Gregory  died  in 
731. 

GREGrORY  III.,  a  native  of  Syria,  succeeded  the  pre- 
ceding, and  continued  the  controversy  with  Leo  Isaurus 
concerning  image- worship.  He  found  himself  likewise 
involved  in  a  dispute  with  the  Longobards,  and  died  in  741. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Zacharias. 

GREGORY  IV.,  a  native  of  Rome,  succeeded  Valentinus, 
A.D.  827.  The  coast  near  Rome  being  exposed  to  incur- 
sions from  the  Saracens  of  Sicily,  Gregory  undertook  to 
build  a  new  town  near  Ostia,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  Gregoriopolis.  Pending  the  quarrel  of  Louis  le  Debon- 
nairo  and  his  revolted  sons,  Gregory  proceeded  to  France 
to  conciliate  matters ;  but  he  drew  upon  himself  the  dis- 
satisfaction of  both  parties,  and  even  of  the  French  bi< 
shops.  He  died  at  Rome,  in  844.  He  was  succeeded  by  I 
Sergius  II.  ' 


GREGORY  v.,  a  German  of  the  name  of  Bruno,  au.l  x 
relative  of  Otho  HI.,  was  elected  pope  through  ihu  mtitic;.«  • 
of  that  emperor,  in  907,  after  the  death  of  John  XV.,  \\  .*    .. 
some  style  XVI.     Gregory  crowned  Otho  at  Rome  a>  « ...- 
peror  and  king  of  Italy.     After  Otho's  departure,  the  pa :  < . 
cian  Crescentius,  who  had  assumed    the   title  uf  i'ou*> 
excited  the  people  against  the  new  pope,  and  drove  biui  • 
of  the  city.     Cresceutius  seems  to  have  aspired  to  m*j\*'i. 
Rome  unuer  a  nominal  allegiance  to  the  Eastern  euijH.  r^ . « 
He  procured  the  election  of  an  anti-pope  in  the  per»<Mi  •  i 
John,  bishop  of  Piacenza,  who  entered  into  hta  >  leu  s :  1. 
in  the  following  year  Olho  and  Gregory  rcturnetl  u  it  !i  . 
army  to  itome,  imprisoned  John,  who  \sa*  cruel  1>    t:;  .  . 
lated,  and  beheaded  Crescentius,  with  twehc  of  h^  p    . 
sans.     In  the  year  after,  February,  99&,  Gregory'  dioi   ^    : 
was  succee<led  by  Sylvester  II. 

GREGORY  VI..  a  native  of  Rome,  succeeded  }U:u^    . 
IX.  after  his  abdication,  A-D.  1044.    [Bexedict  IX.]     1.. 
was  disliked  by  the  Romans,  who,  being  accustomed  v*  * .  - 
licentiousness  and  anarchy  which  had  prevailed  under    i 
disgraceful  pontificate  of  Benedict,  cotild  ill  bear  ti;c  :  - 
tempts  of  the  new  pope  to  enforce  order.    The  eiuji^: 
Henry  IXI.  asssembled  a  council  at  Sutri,  wliich  dxyyt  •.  i 
all  the  three  popes,  Benedict,  Sylvester  III.,  and  Grin.  :• 
A.D.  1046,  and  chose  Clement  U.     Gregory  is  said  to  i .  .• 
willingly  resigned  his  claims,  and  to  ha\e  retired  to  a  ;.. 
nasterv,  where  he  ended  his  days. 

GREGORY  VII.,  Hildebrand  of  Soano,  in  Tuscan} .  n  .> 
of  low  parentage,  and  became  a  monk  in  the  convent  of  C I ...  > 
Having  acquired  a  reputation  for  theological  and  caui^ui.  ~. 
learning,  and  for  strict  regularity  of  conduct,  he  afterv  :i '  .  ^ 
went  to  Rome  with  Bruno,  bishop  of  Toul,  a  relative  of  ^i  *• 
emperor  Henry  III.,  who  was  elected  nope  in  lu49.  uii...  r 
the  name  of  Leo  IX.,  chiefly  through  Hildebrand\  iuflut^-  j. 
From  that  time  the  monk  Hildebrand  became  the  uia.  \- 
spring  of  the  Roman  hierarchy,  and  the  intimate  couiu  «.  .. 
of  Leo,  and  his  successors,  Victor  II.,  Stephen  1X-,  N;t..  • 
las  II.,  and  Alexander  U.      He  was  sent  to  Germany  «. :.  . 
mission  to  the  Imperial  court  by  Stephen  IX.,  aiul  on  i  « 
return  he  defeated  the  faction  which  had  raised  to  the  p^:    . 
throne  Benedict  X.,and  secured  the  election  of  NicLuI;i^  1  i. 
After  the  death  of  Alexander  IL,  in  1073,  Hildebranil  \    • 
unanimously  elected  his  successor  by  the  clergy  and  p«.  •     ^ 
of  Rome,  but  he  did  not  assume  his  title  until  hv  I.  •. 
received  the  approbation  of  the  emperor  Henry  IV  . 
whom  he  despatched  messengers  for  the  purpose.   Tlic  « i^.- 
peror,  pleased  with  this  act  of  deference,  readily  coufir:... 
his  election,  and  Hildebrand  assumed  the  name  of  Gr«.v  i 
VII.     Tlie  great  object  of  Gregory's  ambition  wa$«  a>  ;  . 
expressed  himself  in  a  letter  to  Hughes,  abbot  of  Clun>,  *• 
eflect  a  total  reform  of  the  church,  which  certainly  stu.^i  ..t 
great  need  of  it.     Simony  prevailed  throughout  the  Ciir.< 
ian  world,  aud  sees  were  openly  sold  or  given  by  soverc.^   -> 
to  their  favorites.  The  bishops,  raised  by  such  means,  cui . 
little  for  their  duties  or  their  flocks,  but  much   fur  t!.. 
worldly  advantage  and   pleasures,  sold  the   benefit. Ok  ..: 
their  disposal.     Gregory  determined  to  remove  the  e\t]  '  » 
taking   away  from  the   secular  princes  the  right   ^i*     . 
they  asssumed  of  disposing  of  the  sees  within  their  duui   .• 
ions.     The  emperor  Henry  IV.,  licentious,  ambitious.  .:.. : 
at  war  with  his  revolted  vassals,  and  therefore  contuiui    • 
in  want  of  money,  was  one  of  the  most  culpable  ia  rc>}  v  . 
of  simony.     He  disposed  of  sees  and  benefices  in  fii\i^z 
vicious  or  incapable  men,  and   the  bishops  of  Germ....< 
readily  entered  into  his  views  of  making  the  church  a  n».; 
of  feudal  dependant  on  the  Imperial  will.     Gregory  Ih:^- 
by  admonishing  Henry  -   he  sent  legates  to  Germany,  t    : 
to  little  pui'pose.    His  next  step  was  to  assemble  a  cou: . .; 
at  Rome,  a.d.  1074,  which  anathematized  persons  guiltv    ^ 
simony,  and  ordered  the  deposition  of  those   priests  u  i  ^ 
lived  in  concubinage,  under  which  name  were  also  inclu(:.  < 
those  who  lived  in  a  state  of  matrimony,  and  it  was  detrre^  i 
also  that  no  one  should  be  admitted  to  holy  orders  unle»»  :  o 
made  a  vow  of  celibacy.  This  last  regulation  created  a  urt  ' : 
uproar,  especially  at  Milan,  where  the  custom  of  pncsts  U*  ju 
married  was  still  prevalent,  as  in  the  Eastern  church.    Gr^  - 
gory  summoned  another  council  at  Rome,  aj>.  1 075,  in  whi«*^^ 
for  the  first  time,  kings  and  other  lay  princes  vepe  u  :• 
bidden,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  from  giving  t:  t 
investiture  of  sees  and  abbevs  by  conferring  the  ring  &.:•! 
the  crosier.    This  was  the  beginning  of  the  quarrel  abo.i 
the  investiture  which  distracted  Europe  for  many  yean  al:  r. 
and  which  may  ivero  require  Bome  expluiatioo.     lu  'Me 


G  R  e 


446 


G  R  E 


lending  afKWtolic  legates  to  diflbrent  kingdoms  as  special 
oommissioners  of  the  pope,  with  discretionary  power  over 
the  national  hierarchy,  originated  also  with  Gregory,  and 
oompleted  the  estahlishment  of  absolute  monarchy  in  the 
CShurch  in  lieu  of  its  original  popular  or  representative 
ibrm.  This  doctrine  of  Papal  absolutism  in  matters  of 
discipline  was  by  prescription  and  usage  so  intermixed 
with  the  more  essential  doctrines  of  faitn»  that  it  came  to 
be  considered  as  a  dogma  itself,  and  has  defied  all  the  skill 
of  subsequent  theologians  and  statesmen  to  disentangle  it 
from  the  rest,  while  at  the  same  time  it  has  probably  been 
the  means  of  preserving  the  unity  of  the  Western,  or 
Roman  Church.    [Gratianus.] 

GREGORY  VIU^  Alberto  di  Mora,  a  native  ot  Bene- 
vento,  succeeded  Urban  III.  in  October,  1 167,  and  died  in 
the  following  December,  after  having  sent  letters  of  exhor- 
tation to  the  Christian  princes  in  fkvour  of  a  new  crusade. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Clement  III.  He  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  an  antipope  of  the  name  of  Bourdin,  who 
assumed  the  name  of  Gregory  YIII.  in  the  schism  against 
Gelasius  H.  in  1118,  and  who  is  not  reckoned  in  the  series 
of  legitimate  popes. 

GREGORY  IX.,  Canlinal  Ugolino,  bishop  of  Ostia,  a 
native  of  Anagni,  and  a  relative  of  Innocent  IH.,  whose 
haughty  principles  eoncerning  the  papal  prerogative  he  in- 
herited, succeeded  Honorius  III  in  Harcn,  1227.  He  in- 
sisted on  Fkederick  U.  setting  off  on  a  crusade,  and  as  the 
emperor  dela^d  on  the  pretext  of  illness,  the  pope  excom- 
municated him.  Frederick  however  set  off  for  Palestine, 
where  he  concluded  a  truce  with  the  sultan  of  Egypt,  and 
then  returned  to  Europe,  where  his  dominions  of  Apulia 
had  been  invaded  by  the  Papal  forces.  After  his  landing 
he  had  an  interview  with  Gregory,  who  relieved  him  from 
the  excommunication,  and  Imderick  afterwards  assisted 
the  pope  against  the  people  of  Rome,  who  were  in  a  state  of 
insurrection,  and  had  driven  him  from  their  city.  Frede- 
rick afterwards  discovering  that  the  pope  was  tampering 
with  the  Lombard  cities,  who  were  at  war  with  the  empe- 
ror, came  again  to  an  open  rupture  with  him ;  and  on  Palm 
Sunday  of  the  year  1239  Gr^ry  again  excommunicated 
him,  released  his  subjects  irom  their  allegiance,  and 
preached  a  crusade  against  him.  The  emperor  replied  by  a 
spirited  manifesto  in  his  own  iustification,  which  was  writ- 
ten by  his  learned  chancellor  Pietro  delle  Vigne,  and  copies 
of  it  were  sent  to  the  various  courts  of  Europe.  The  war 
continued  during  that  and  the  following  year  in  Italy  be- 
tween Frederick  and  his  Guibeline  partisans  on  one  side, 
and  the  Guelphs,  with  the  pope  at  their  head,  on  the  other. 
Frederick  took  Benevento  and  threatened  Rome,  where  he 
had  many  partisans.  The  pope  having  convoked  a  coun- 
cil in  1241,  the  emperor  arrested  all  the  prelates  who  were 
on  their  way  to  Rome  by  land,  while  his  fleet,  joined  with 
his  allies  the  Pisana,  attacked  and  defeated  a  Genoese 
squadron,  on  board  of  which  were  many  bishops  and  abbots 
from  France  and  other  parts,  who  were  taken  prisoners. 
In  August  of  that  year  Gregory  died,  after  a  stormy  ponti- 
ficate of  nearly  fourteen  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  Ce- 
lestine  IV. 

GREGORY  X.,  Tebaldo  Visoonti,  a  native  of  Piacenza, 
succeeded  Clement  IV.  in  1271,  after  an  interregnum  of 
nearly  two  years.  He  convoked  a  general  council  at  Lyon 
in  1274,  which  was  very  numerously  attended,  and  in  which 
a  reconciliation  was  effected  with  the  Greek  Churoh,  which 
however  was  of  short  duration  ;  several  refbrms  were  made 
in  matters  of  discipline,  and  among  others  the  mode  of 
election  of  the  popes  by  conclave  was  settled.  Gregory  en- 
deavoured also  to  rouse  the  ardour  of  the  Christian  princes 
for  a  new  crusade,  but  he  failed.  He  died  at  Arezzo  in 
January,  1276. 

GREGORY  XI.,  Pierre  Roger,  a  Frenchman,  son  of 
MViUiam  count  of  Beaufort,  succeeded  Urban  V.  in  1370. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  learning,  and  esteemed  for  his  per- 
sonal character.  At  the  time  of  his  accession  a  papal 
court  had  been  for  nearly  seventy  years  residinff  at  Avignon, 
and  Rome  and  the  rest  of  central  Italy  were  left  a  prey  to 
fkction  and  anarehy.  Grei^ory  resolved  to  transfer  the 
papal  see  back  to  Rome,  which  he  did  in  1377,  to  the  great 
satisfaction  of  the  Italians.  He  fixed  his  residence  in  the 
Vatican  palace ;  that  of  the  Lateran,  which  was  inhabited 
by  the  earlier  popes,  having  become  sadly  deteriorated  dur- 
ing the  Avignon  captivity,  as  the  Italians  styled  the  absence 
of  the  Dones  from  Rome.  Gregory  died  in  1378,  and  was 
aucceeaed  by  Urban  VI.    His  will»  which  is  remarkable 


for  the  frankness  of  his  sentiments,  is  found  in  D^Achen  *< 
'  Spidle^ium.'    Gregory  was  the  first  to  condemn  the  *\lc 
trinesof  Wicliff. 

GREGORY  XU.,  Angelo  Comaro,  a  native  of  Ten.  .. 
was  elected  after  the  death  of  Innocent  VU.,  in  Noveailnr. 
1406,  by  apart  of  the  cardinals  assembled  at  Rome.  T:." 
schism  which  had  divided  the  Western  Church  ever  «»ii.'  t- 
1379,  when  two  popes  were  elected  by  their  respertive  fuc  - 
tions»  still  continued,  and  Benedict,  styled  XUL,  wa«  t\o^ 
the  rival  pope.  [Benedict,  Antifopb.]  The  vun^>u> 
princes  of  £urope  sought  to  put  an  end  to  this  siMc  nf 
things,  and  a  council  assembled  at  Pisa  in  1409  depo^.  I 
both  Gregorv  and  Benedict,  and  chose  Peter  Phtlargu  a 
Candiote,  who  took  the  name  of  Alexander  V.  But  iLu 
other  two  persisted  in  retaining  their  dignity;  and  as  ea'  I. 
had  some  cardinals  and  other  friends  and  supporters  on  I  ^ 
side,  the  Western  Church  had  now  three  popes  instead  •' 
one.  Gregory  kept  his  court  in  the  Friuli.  and  Benedi*  t 
in  Catalonia.  At  last  the  great  council  of  Constance  .u 
1415,  pronounced  again  their  deposition,  and  Gregory  eul- 
mitting  to  it,  he  was  appointed  legate  to  the  Marches  f 
Ancona.  He  died  at  Kecanati*  in  October,  1417»  being  . . 
years  of  age. 

GREGORY  XIII.,  Ugo  Buoncomnagni,  of  Bolugiiv 
succeeded  Pius  V.  in  May  1572,  when  ne  was  70  yests*  •  f 
a^.    He  was  distinguished  for  his  learning,  especial!  t  :r, 
civil  and  canon  law,  and  he  showed  considerable  zeal  f  i 
the  promotion  of  education,  by  establishing  and  endo^  i .  : 
colleges  at  Rome  and  other  towns  of  his  states;  an^;  . 
others  the  Roman  college  which  he  built  in  1582,  after  \U 
design  of  Ammanato,  and  which  is  also  called  the  Gre^'»- 
rian  College.    He  was  also  the  reformer  of  the  Julian  K  . 
lendar,  and  his  reformation,  cidled  the  New  Style,  ha»  U  t  ^t 
gradually  adopted  by  all  the  nations  of  Europe,  except  tl. 
Russians  and  Greeks.    [Kju.BNDJia.]    He  also  cau^-d  : 
new  and  corrected  edition  of  Gratian's  '  Decretum  *  to  K 
published,  with  notes.    [Gratianus.]    Gregory  was  nai «:  • 
rally  of  a  mild  disposition ;  but  being  extremely  zeal     « 
for  the  triumph  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  he,  at  t'.c 
beginniiig  of  his  pontificate,  allowed  public  processions  ar  I 
thanksgivings  at  Rome  when  the  news  of  the  St.  Barthe!c;u} 
arrived  there,  although  he  certainly  had  no  share  in  the  y\'  ' 
The  cardinal  of  Lorraine,  who  was  then  in  that  city,  wjls  \ 
chief  promoter  of  these  unchristian  demonstrations.     Ot'  - 
gory  also,  from  the  same  motive,  was  implicated  in,  or  \: 
least  gave  encouragement  to,  some  plots  against  Queen  Eli- 
zabeth of  England.    He  had  also  disputes  with  Venice  t^ . 
grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  and  other   governments,  on  *.. 
'subject  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  and  discipline.     lu  *' 
last  year  of  his  life  he  bad  the  satisfaction  of  receiving:  <i  i 
emdassy  from  Japan,  where  the  Jesuits  had  made  nuui  r- 
Otts  Christian  proselytes.    He  died  on  the  luth  April,  l  :- 
and  was  succeeded  by  Sixtus  V.,  who  found  full  em;  !mi 
ment  in  clearing  tlie  Campagna  of  the  banditti  wboiu  li  v 
too  easy  disposition  of  his  predecessor  had  allowe<l  to  iu 
crease  in  number  and  boldness  to  an  alarming  extent. 

GREGORY  XIV.,  Nicola  Sfondralo,  of  Cremona,  ^u 
ceeded  Urban  VU.  in  December,  1590,  and  died  un  tL. 
15th  October  of  the  following  year.  Durinjg  his  short  po..- 
tificate  he  showed  great  zeal  for  the  French  league  agnin^t 
Henry  IV^  whom  he  excommunicated.  He  was  suoceedi  . 
by  Innocent  IX. 

GREGORY  XV.,  Alessandro  Ludovisio,  of  Bo1okni.i, 
succeeded  Paul  V.  in  February,  1621.  He  was  a  maii  ••! 
much  information,  and  of  a  mild*  conciliatory  spirit.  Tl  < 
first  thing  he  did  was  to  endeavour  to  put  au  end  to  t!  t 
disturbances  of  ValteUina,  where  the  people,  assisted  hy 
the  Spanish  governor  of  Milan*  had  revolted  against  th< 
Grisons,  and  massacred  all  the  Protestants  in^the  count :> 
After  a  sanguinary  warfiure  between  the  Grisons,  the  Siian- 
ards,  and  the  Austrians,  the  court^lof  France  joined  tb. 
pope,  the  republic  of  Venice^  and  the  duke  of  Savoy,  t.-i 
the  purpose  of  putting  an  end  to  this  state  of  things,  ar.u 
it  was  agreed  amonff  the  various  powers  that  VallelL!.i 
should  be  garrisoned  by  the  papal  troops,  and  that  a  Fcencl^ 
auxiliary  corps  should  be  stationed  in  the  Grisons  to  Fn>- 
tect  them  against  the  Austrians  and  Spaniards,  until  the 
definitive  settlement  of  the  differences.  Aooordinglv 
Orazio  Ludovisio,  the  pope's  brother,  was  sent  to  ValtellLj 
with  about  2000  men,  and  there  was  some  talk  of  placing 
ValteUina  altogether  under  the  see  of  Rome,  or  ffiving  it 
to  the  pope's  &mily,  when  shortly  after  Gregory  died.  Stfa 
July,  1623.    He  was  the  founder  of  the  ooUcee  Ue  Propa- 


ORE 


448 


6  R  E 


Deswuld,  the  chief  town  of  a  circle  of  the  same  name,  which 
is  the  easternmost  part  of  the  head  circle  of  Stralsund  in 
Pomerania.  It  is  situated  ahout  three  miles  from  the 
shores  of  the  Baltic,  on  the  southern  borders  of  a  narrow 
arm  of  the  sea,  called  the  Rickgraben :  in  54**  4'  N.  lat. 
and  13*  35'  E.  lonj^.  It  was  founded  between  the  years 
1231  and  1235,  by  the  monks  of  the  neighbourini;  monas- 
tery of  Eldena,  and  was  at  one  time  strongly  fortified ;  but 
the  ramparts  have  been  converted  into  plantations  and 
walks,  and  none  of  the  defences  now  remain  except  the  old 
wall  round  the  town,  through  which  there  are  three  gates. 
Tlie  streets  are  broad  and  straight ;  there  are  one  suburb, 
three  churches,  an  orphan  asylum,  an  hospital,  and  several 
benevolent  institutions.  The  professors  of  Rostock  having 
sought  an  asylum  here  in  1456,  Wratislaw,  duke  of  Pome- 
rania, was  induced  in  that  year  to  found  the  university  of 
Greii^walde,  the  buildings  of  which  are  the  principal 
embellishment  of  the  town.  Independently  of  lecture- 
rooms,  they  contain  a  handsome  library  of  upwards  of 
32,000  volumes,  cabinets  of  experimental  philosophy,  mo- 
dels, natural  history,  and  zoology,  and  an  anatomical  theatre. 
Behind  the  buildings  is  a  small  botanic-garden.  The  num- 
ber of  professors  is  30,  and  the  students  vary  from  200  to 
250 ;  in  1815,  there  were  55  only.  Greifswalde  has  about  950 
houses  and  9400  inhabitants;  in  1817,  7452.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  court  of  appeal  and  a  consistory,  and  possesses  some 
salt-works,  as  well  as  manufactories  of  oil,  needles,  leather, 
tobacco,  brandy,  candles  and  soap,  &c. 

GREITZ.    [Rkuss.] 

GRENADA,  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  lies  between 
ir  58'  and  12'  20'  N.  lat.  and  between  61**  20'  and  61'  35' 
W.  long. :  its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south  is 
twenty- five  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  twelve.  This 
island  was  discovered  by  Columbus  on  his  third  voyage 
in  1498,  at  which  time  it  was  inhabited  by  Caribs.  It  was 
not  until  a  century  and  a  half  from  the  time  of  the  first 
discovery  that  any  attempt  was  made  for  its  colonization. 
In  the  year  1650,  Du  Parquet,  governor  of  the  island  of 
Martinique,  having  collected  a  bodv  of  200  adventurers, 
landed  on  Grenada,  and  was  receivea  in  a  friendly  manner 
by  the  natives,  who  having  obtained  from  their  visitors  some 
cutlery  and  ornaments  of  little  value  permitted  the  adven- 
turers to  form  a  settlement.  A  fort  was  soon  built  for  the 
protection  of  the  colonists,  who  in  a  very  few  months  after 
their  first  landing  commenced  a  war  of  extermination 
against  the  Caribs,  every  one  of  whom  that  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  French  was  forthwith  murdered.  It  appears 
that  the  conquest  of  this  island  was  considered  in  the  li^ht 
of  a  private  adventure  for  Du  Parquet,  who  subsequently 
sold  it  to  Count  Cerillac  for  30,000  crowns.  It  was  some 
time  before  much  progress  was  made  in  the  settlement  of 
the  colonv,  and  in  1700  there  were  only  three  sugar  planta- 
tions, and  some  indigo-works ;  the  entire  population  con- 
sisting of  251  whites  and  520  negroes.  Cultivation  afier- 
wards  proceeded  more  rapidly,  and  in  1762,  when  the  island 
was  surrendered  on  capitulation  to  the  English,  the  annual 
produce  of  sugar  is  said  to  have  been  165,000  cwt.  By  the 
definitive  treaty  of  Paris  signed  in  February,  1 763,  Grenada 
was  finally  ceded  to  Great  Biitain,  and  a  legislative  council 
and  assembly  were  granted  to  the  inhabitants.  An  nttempt 
was  soon  after  made  on  the  oart  of  the  crown  to  impose  for 
its  benefit  an  export  duty  or  4i  per  cent,  on  the  produce  of 
the  island,  but  this  being  resisted  by  the  colonists  was,  after 
considerable  litigation,  decided  against  the  crown,  in  the 
Court  of  King*  s  Bench,  in  1 774,  by  Lord  Chief- Justice  Mans- 
field. In  1779  the  island  was  taken  by  the  French  under 
Count  D'Estaing,  but  was  restored  at  the  general  peace  in 
1 783,  and  since  that  time  has  remained  in  possession  of  the 
English. 

The  island  is  traversed  throughout  its  whole  length  from 
north  to  south  by  an  irregular  range  of  mountains  rising  in 
some  places  to  the  height  of  more  than  3000  feet  Mount 
St.  Catherine,  near  the  centre  of  the  island,  is  320P  feet 
liigh.  Hills  of  less  elevation  branch  off  from  the  principal 
range  in  a  lateral  direction,  forming  a  succession  of  rich 
and  extensive  valleys,  which  as  they  approach  the  shore 
open  into  level  alluvial  nlains.  On  the  south-east  or  wind- 
ward side  of  the  island  there  is  a  considerable  extent  of  low 
swampy  ground,  the  neighbourhood  of  which  is  very  un- 
healthy, particularly  in  autumn.  Several  small  rivers  rise 
in  the  high  lands.  The  most  considerable  are.  Great  Ba- 
colet,  Antoine,  Duguisne,  Saint  John's,  and  Beau-s^jour. 
Several  hot  chalybeate  and  iulphurous  tprioga  are  met  with 


in  difforent  parts.  In  the  centre  of  the  Maud,  and  1 700 
feet  above  the  sea,  is  a  circular  lake  2)  miles  in  ciirum* 
ference  and  14  feet  deep.  On  the  east  coast,  about  half 
a  mile  from  the  sea,  is  another  lake,  60  acres  in  extent  and 
about  50  feet  deep,  the  surface  being  only  43  feet  abj^e 
the  sea,  with  which  it  has  no  communication :  it  is  believed 
to  be  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano. 

The  soil  consists  principally  of  a  rich  black  or  reddish 
coloiured  mould.  The  fall  of  rain  is  about  65  inches  in  the 
year.  In  the  low  ground  the  heat  is  often  oppressive ;  hue 
on  the  hills  the  atmosphere  is  cool  and  pleasant.  From  a 
register  of  the  temperature  kept  in  the  low  grounds  for  fi-*e 
years,  it  appears  that  the  maximum  heat  was  89^  Fahr.,  the 
minimum  7T*,  and  the  medium  consequently  63^  The 
hottest  season  is  from  June  to  October,  during  which  the 
thermometer  ranges  from  78*  to  88i^ 

The  island  cannot  be  considered  healthy.  In  the  fiAocn 
years  firom  1817  to  1831  the  annual  deaths  among  the  ^%e 
population  averaged  1  in  30,  being  worse  in  this  respect  thaa 
every  other  West  India  colony,  with  the  exception  of  T(*- 
bago,  where  the  mortality  averaged  1  in  24*  The  average 
mortality  of  the  same  class  throughout  the  eolonies  vas 
1  in  36.  In  1794  the  yellow  fever  raged  with  dreadful  %  to 
lence,  people  of  all  classes  and  of  everr  age  being  carricii 
off  by  it.  In  1816,  from  November  till  the  following  Fe- 
bruary, the  fever  raged  so  violently  that  1  in  10  of  the  white 
troops  fell  under  it. 

The  town  of  St.  George  is  situated  on  the  south-west  »i'Ir 
of  the  island,  at  the  foot  of  an  amphitheatre  of  hills  encircl  ini; 
an  extensive  bay.  It  is  a  well-built  town,  and  conlaiuvd  ui 
1 834  a  population  of  3 1 56  persons,  of  whom  210  were  \«  Into. 
1526  were  free  coloured  persons,  and  1420  were  apprentice  v 
The  whole  population  of  the  island  was  in  that  year  i*^,4'j.\ 


VIS. : — 


Whites    . 

Free  coloured  persons 

Apprenticed  labourers 

Total 


Male*. 

490 

1,675 

10,648 


Ffinaleft. 
171 
2,012 
10,426 


Fuul. 
Gbl 

3.6- r 
2i,o;4 


12,813        12,609        *JJ,  U:. 

Tlie  island  tlien  contained  516  horses,  8869  head  oftntiW', 
and  2706  mules  and  asses.  The  exportable  produce  r:\x^  — 

Sugar  .  .  22,738,643  lbs. 

Rum  .        818,619  gallons. 

Molasses  .  •        394,533      „ 

Cotton  .  .        154,834  lbs. 

Cocoa  .  .        410,037    „ 

CoflFee  .  .         21,605    „ 

The  cocoa  of  Grenada  is  the  best  that  is  grown  ui  a:.y 
Knojlish  colony. 

I^he  value  of  imports  in  1 834,  consisting  chiefly  of  Bn:.*h 
manufactured  goods,  was  1 26,776/.,  and  the  exports  amounu^: 
to  207,998/.,  of  which  sum  202,871/.  consisted  of  the  val.* 
of  sugar  shipped  to  Great  Britain. 

GRENADE,  frequently  called  hand-grenade,  is  a  »iuU 
or  hollow  ball  of  iron,  2|  inches  in  diameter,  which,  K  niv. 
charged  with  powder  and  provided  with  a  fuie,  is  Uir»«  t. 
from  the  parapets  into  the  ditch  and  covered-way  «1nr 
occupied  by  the  besiegers;  or  from  the  covered-way  ini.> 
the  trenches,  when  the  latter  approadi  within  26  yvda  yA 
the  crest  of  the  glacis. 

As  soon  as  the  composition  in  the  fuie  is  consumed,  the 
fire  communicates  with  the  powder,  and  the  ball  is  burst  la 
fragments. 

Grenades  were  first  used  in  1594. 

GRENOBLE,  a  city  of  France,  capital  of  the  departmt  m 
of  Isdre.  It  is  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Wxf 
(which  flows  through  the  town, dividing  it  into  two  unisji-x: 

fort  ions),  just  above  the  confluence  of  the  Drac  and  *il  ^ 
sdre,  296  miles  in  a  straight  line  south-8outh«ea%t  of  Pni  . 
or  352  miles  by  the  road  through  Auzerre  and  L\on.  ir. 
45'  1 1'  N.  lat.  and  5**  43  E.  long. 

Grenoble  is  designated  in  the  '  Theodostan  TabW  *.wl 
in  the  '  Notitia  Imperii '  by  the  name  of  Cularo.  In^ri. 
tions  which  have  been  dug  up  speak  of  the  fortification* 
and  the  edifices  within  the  town,  which  were  precte«l  I- 
the  Emperors  Diocletian  and  Maximian,  from  whos^*  .« 
sumed  aesignations  of  Jovius  and  Herculius  two  of  \\tg 
gates  were  named  Porta  Jo  via  and  Porta  Herculca.  Jr 
the  fourth  century  the  name  Gratianopolis  was  given  to  thr 
town,  in  compliment  to  the  Emperor  Gratian ;  and  thi^  nr# 
name  gradually  superseded  the  old  one^  Cularo,  and  wjs 


G  R  E 


450 


G  R  E 


rifthed  des^pi.  Sir  T.  Gresham  vested  his  house  in  Bishop- 
gate-stceet  in  the  same  parties  as  the  Royal  Exchange,  in 
tiust  to  preserve  it  for  the  residence  of^seven  skilful  teachers : 
four,  of  the  sciences  of  divinity,  astronomy,  music,  and  geo- 
metry, to  he  appointed  hy  the  corporation  of  the  city ;  three. 
of  law,  phyaicy  and  rhetoric,  to  he  appointed  by  the  Mercers' 
Company.  A  stipend  of  50/.  was  made  payable  to  each  out 
of  the  rents  of  the  Exchange.  Apartments  were  to  be  as- 
signed '  for  them  and  every  of  them,  there  to  inhabit,  study, 
and  daylie  read  the  severall  lectures :'  and  they  were  re- 
quired to  be  unmarried.  Lady  Ghresham  (whose  life  interest 
was  reserved)  surviving  until  November,  1596,  the  first 
piofessors  were  appointed  in  the  following  year.  It  seems 
doubtfi4*  by  the  words  of  the  will,  whether  the  testator 
did  not  intend  lectures  to  be  read  throughout  the  year ;  but, 
according  to  the  original  directions  .of  the  nrustees,  the  times 
of  lecturing  were  appointed  so  as  nearly  to  coincide  with 
the  law  terms.  For  some  time  the  lectures  are  said  to  have 
been  well  attended.  In  1706  complaints  were  made  that 
tb9  founder's  wishes  were  disregarded,  and  that  the  pro- 
fessors had  become  negligent :  and  fresh  orders  were  issued 
by  the  trustees,  the  execution  of  which  was  partially  re- 
stated, and  with  success,  by  the  professors.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  we  find  eminent  names  among  them,  such 
as  Gunter,  Wren,  Briggs,  Greaves,  Barrow,  Hooke,  Bull, 
Mus.  Doc.,  Sir  William  Petty.  But  in  the  eighteenth  few 
or  no  distinguished  men  appear.  In  1 768  an  end  was  put 
to  the  collegiate  character  of  the  institution.  The  college 
was  sold  to  government  for  the  site  of  a  new  Excise-office, 
the  salaries  of  the  lecturers  raised  to  100/.  as  compensation 
for  the  loss  of  their  lodgings,  and  the  restrictions  as  to  mar- 
riage were  taken  off  by  act  of  parliament.  Since  that  time 
the  leetures  have  been  read  at  the  Royal  Exchange.  During 
many  years  they  fell  into  disrepute  and  neglect  Public 
attention  has  of  late  been  drawn  towards  them ;  and  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  the  increased  and  increasing  teal  of  the  pre- 
sent officers  will  remove  the  slur  which  common  report  has 
long  oast  upon  this  establishment. 

Gresham  College  is  closely  connected  with  the  early  his- 
loffy  of  the  Royal  Society,  which  held  its  meetings  there  for 
the  most  part  from  1660  to  1710.  [Royal  Society.]  It 
escaped  the  fire  of  1666,  and  was  employed  temporarily  as 
an  Exchange^  and  to  furnish  lodgings  for  the  lord  mayor, 
the  Mercers'  Ck>mpanv,  and  other  bodies  belonging  to  the 
city.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  court  of  the  Excise-office, 
on  the  same  spot,  has  again  been  offered  by  government  for 
Ae  same  purpose,  {ireface  to  Ward's  Lives;  Palmer's 
Discoune  on  the  Ore*ham  Fbundation,  1837;  Maitland's 
History  qf  London  brings  the  history  of  the  institution 
Mly  down  to  1755.) 

CRESSET,  JOHN  BAPTISTE  LOUIS,  born  in  1709, 
st  AHttens»  studied  at  a  Jesuit's  college,  and  entered  their 
etder  in  the  1 7th  year  of  his  age.  He  was  after\vards  sent 
le  Park,  idiere  he  completed  his  studies  in  the  College  de 
louis  le  Grand.  He  was  onl^  24  years  old  when  he  wrote 
bis  eelebnCed  comic  poem  entitled  •  Vert-vert.*  which  con- 
fams  the  adventures  of  a  parrot,  and  is  one  of  the  wittiest 
productions  in  the  French  language.*  He  published  soon 
allerwarda  •  LeCardme  Impromptu'  and  *  Le  Lutrin  vivant,' 
two  witty  trifles,  and  also  two  beautiful  epistles  entitled*  La 
Chartreuse,*  and  *  Les  Ombres.'  These  productions  soon 
•equired  great  reputation  for  the  author,  and  he  was  sent 
as  professor  to  the  college  of  Tours ;  but  the  bigoted  sister 
of  an  influential  minister  taking  offence  at  the  light  tone 
of  Ghreiset's  poetry,  accused  him  before  his  superiors,  who, 
bjr  way  of  punishment,  sent  him  to  La  Fldche.  Several  of 
hia  poetical  epistles,  as,  for  insUnce,  *  A^  ma  Muse,'  and 
•  Au  Pdre  Bougeant,'  are  very  well  written ;  but  the  '  Epttre 
ima  Sosur  sur  ma  Convalescence*  may  be  regarded  as  a  mas- 
terpiece. Disliking  his  residence  in  La  Fleche,  he  requested 
his  superiors  to  remove  him  to  some  other  place,  out  on 
meeting  with  a  refusal  he  left  the  order  in  the  26lh  year  of 
his  age,  but  he  always  preserved  a  regard  for  his  old  col- 
leagues, which  is  parucularly  proved  by  his  *  Adieuxaux  Je- 
suits.' He  now  settled  at  Paris,  where  his  wit  and  talents, 
united  with  agreeable  manners  as  well  as  his  literary  repu- 
Intion,  soon  made  him  the  favourite  of  the  best  society.  In 
1 748  he  was  received  a  member  of  the  French  Academy,  but 
he  soon  afterwards  retired  to  his  native  city  Amiens,  where 
be  founded,  with  the  permission  of  the  king,  an  academy ; 
•nd  having  married  he  settled  in  the  vicinity  oif  the  town. 

•It  h»i  l)e«i  twice  tnmdated  into  EusKih  ;  Irt,  hy  T.  O.  Cooper.  UxOkm, 
yjm-f  aa^  dkAr,  by  ^leautor  Geddes,  LUD.,  Loa4oo,  1793. 


In  1774  he  was  chosen  to  oonfcratulate  Louis  XVI.  on  hit 
accession  in  the  name  of  the  French  Academy.  Hie  kiu< 
gave  him  a  patent  of  nobility,  and  Monsieur,  aftsrwari* 
Louis  XVIII.,  nominated  him  historiographer  of  the  orflcr 
of  St.  Laxarus. 

Gresset  died  at  Amiens  in  1777.  Besides  the  productii*ui 
already  mentbned  he  wrote  several  plays  which  have  nut  liet  ;i 
very  successful,  except  his  comedy  'Le  M^hant,*which  wixs 
performed,  for  the  first  time,  in  1 747.  His  tragedy  of*  Ed  \\  m  1 
ni.,'  which  was  performed  only  once»  in  1740,  and  hi«  '  S>  f- 
ney,'  are  both  inferior  productions.  In  his  latter  yeara  Grt>>  ^  t 
became  religiously  disposed,  and  destroyed  some  un|>u-> 
lished  plays  as  well  as  two  new  cantos  of  *  Vert-veru*    11'. 
even  condemned  his  former  productions,  for  which  Volt  ;• 
was  very  angry  with  him.    The  poems  of  Gresset  are  r.i  i 
racterised  by  a  charming  originality,  great  ease,  a  reun.  ; 
humour,  and  a  versification  always  hannonious.     He  c    .  •: 
give  life  and  animation  to  the  most  uninteresting  )>ubj(  >  ^ 
The  best  edition  of  Gresset's  works  is  that  of  Ker;n.4< 
published  at  Paris,  1811,  in  three  volumes. 

GRETRY,  ANDRE'-ERNEST-MODESTB,   a     .. 
justly  celebrated   and    once   most   popular  composer  « 
r  rench  operas,  was  born  at  Li^e  in  1741.    At  the  a. 
four  he  gave  distinct  proofis  of  the  influence  which  rii> ' 
exercised  over  his  excitable  nerves.    At  six  he  was  }*U.    j 
under  a  music-master,  whose  roughness  of  manner-^  >   • 
rendered  it  necessary  that  another  teacher  should  be  f....  I 
for  him,  and  the  second  proved  as  gentle  as  the  other  1... 
been  savage.     A  companv   of   Italian  performers  l>«.     i 
engaged  at  Li6ge,  Gretry,  then  ten  years  old,  was  alluMt.- 1  : 
sing  with  them  in  Uie  operas  of  Fergolesi,  Galuppi,  ^<-  : 
the  bent  and  strength  of  his  eenius  were  proved,  and  !..» 
destiny  was  fixed.    In  his  eignteenth  year  be  set  out  {  x 
Rome,  and  commenced  his  musical  studies  under  Casali. 

During  a  long  residence  in  the  capital  of  the  Pa]Ka  St.-Lt«.5, 
then  a  musical  city,  Gretry  had  constant  opportunit.ci  • ' 
hearing  the  best  works  of  the  first  masters,  which  at  leu. 
inspired  him  with  a  wish  to  try  his  own  powers.     An  «  o-  .- 
aion  soon  presented  itself:  he  was  invited  by  the  mat:  ilt 
of  the  Alberti  theatre  to  set  a  short  opera.  La  Vendtmutr. .  -. 
which  met  with  success  of  the  most  decided  kind.     IK-  ■  .- 
caressed  by  every  order  of  society,  and  had  the  inexprc^v'^*    . 
gratification  of  hearing  his  airs  sung  in  all  the  streets.     I  f  • 
then  went  to  Bologna,  and,  having  stood  the  custoroar}  f .  * 
of  ability,  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  Societd  Fif/ut*^  ■ 
nica.    After  this  he  proceeded  to  Geneva,  and  prodort  u     » 
first  French  opera,  habtlU  et  Gertrude^  which  was  ii,  -. 
ftivourably  received.   There  he  formed  an  acquaintance  >   .^ 
Voltaire,  which  continued  to  the  close  of  the  poet's  lift*. 

M.  Gr6try  settled  finally  in  Paris,  and  immediate!)  c   j- 
menced  that  brilliant  career  which,  as  an  arti&t,  scnr^- 
ever  suffered  the  slightest  interruption.    He  speedily  j< :     ! 
the  society  of  the  literati  of  Paris,  and  with  ManuiXKi  •  . 
intimacy  was  close  and  continued.    Intercour^  of  tiu^  ]^  ... 
sharpened  his  intellect  and  strengthened  his  judgment, 
much  of  his  success  as  a  composer  may  be  attribute  I  > 
that  vigour  of  mind  which  he  in  a  great  measure  ar  |  ...   ! 
by  mixing  with  men  of  lively  imagination,  corrccu  I 
education. 

At  the  period  of  the  Revolution,  Gretry,  then  le  Cti  • 
became,  to  all  appearance,  a  zealous  republican  ;  but  «     * 
to  be  suspected  that  in  this  he  was  more  guided  by  wha*.  ' 
conceived  to  be  good  policy  than  by  natural  inct::;.! 
He  set  some  of  the  revolutionary  songs,  it  is  true;  tli«> . 
as  his  biographer  in  the  Harmonicon  observes,  *  bis  pt''i> 
principles  afterwards  proved  as  pliant  as  those  of  hi>  tru  ..  .-. 
the  SavanSt  and  he  lived  to  accept  the  order  of  the  /«-i-    * 
dHonneur  firom  as  deadly  au  enemy  to  freedom  as  hi^ 
can  name.*    Napoleon  never  liked  him,  and  on  one  *.<   . 
sion  he  was  provoked  to  rebuke  the  desi>otic  and  i\    k 
conqueror  in  a  marked  manner.     Nevertheless,   Ko    --  .< 
made  a  member  of  tlie  French  National  In^utuuv    i  . 
spector  of   the    Conservatoire,  &c     In  private    li'o 
was   as  virtuous    and    amiable   as   unfortunate.     Tl 
lovely  and  accomplished  daughters,   forming   the  «l. 
of  his  family,  fell  victims  to   consumption  as  they  >.  «■ 
cessively  reached  their  fifteenth  year.    He  died  in  2?    ' 
and  was  buried    with  great  pomp  dose  by  DeliUe.  t.  . 
poet.    The  people  of  Li^ge  demanded  as  a  r^bt  to !-  -  ■ 
possession  of  the  heart  of  their  distinguished  country txu 
and  the  matter  underwent  lon^  and  grave  litigation*  *«i. 
terminated  in  fovotir  of  the  claimants. 

Gr^try*8  operas  axe  too  numerous  to  be  all  named  U.<} 


G  R  I 


452 


G  R  I 


on  the  24tli  of  March,  1818.  Owing  to  some  strange  error 
in  Mr.  Orme*s  'Bibliotheca  Biblica,*  the  date  therein  given 
of  his  birth  is  the  year  1644,  according  to  which  he  died, 
not,  as  the  fact  is,  at  the  age  of  67,  but  of  168.  In  early 
childhood  he  was  removed  to,  and  commenced  his  gram- 
matical studies  in,  the  Gymnasium  at  Frankfort-on<t he-Main, 
where  his  father  performed  the  duties  of  a  Lutheran  mi- 
nister and  consistorial  councillor.  From  Frankfort  he  went, 
in  1762,  to  the  university  of  Tiibingen,  and  afterwards  passed 
two  years  at  the  university  of  Halle,  whence  he  removed  to 
that  of  Leipzig.  In  1767  he  returned  to  Halle,  and  took 
the  degree  of  M.A. ;  having,  throughout  a  highly  distin- 
guish^ collegiate  course,  attended  all  the  lectures  of 
the  most  eminent  professors,  and  applied  himself  with  un- 
wearied diligence  to  the  critical  study  of  philology,  moral 
philosophy,  and  especially  to  theological,  biblical,  and  eccle- 
siastical literature,  in  which  he  received,  as  a  pupil,  the 
most  valuable  assistance  from  Semler  and  Emesti.  He  now 
determined  to  devote  himself  wholly  to  a  critical  examina- 
tion of  the  doctrines  and  of  the  Greek  MS.  texts  of  the  New 
Testament;  and  as,  in  his  comprehensive  plan  of  preli- 
minary acquirements,  it  appeared  to  be  a  most  desirable 
object  to  visit  foreign  countries,  in  order  to  acquire  per- 
sonally a  knowledge  of  the  dogmas  of  their  religious  sects, 
and  to  examine  the  contents  of  their  principal  libraries,  he 
commenced,  in  1769,  at  the  age  of  twenty-four,  an  extensive 
literary  tour,  in  which,  after  inspecting  the  treasures  of  the 
learned  institutions  of  Germany  and  Holland,  ho  visited 
and  made  a  sojourn  of  several  months  in  England,  assi- 
duously prosecuting  his  critical  rcsearehes  in  the  libraries  of 
the  Universities,  and  of  the  British  Museum,  chielly  on  his 
favourite  subject  of  the  antient  manuscript  versions  of  the 
New  Testament.  He  next  proceeded  to  visit  the  libraries 
of  Paris,  and  of  other  parts  of  France,  where,  as  he  had 
done  in  Germany,  Holland,  and  England,  he  established 
an  intercourse  with  many  of  the  most  eminent  scholars  and 
divuies;  and  having  at  length  collected  a  large  mass  of 
Taluable  materials,  he  returned  in  1770  to  Frankfort,  for 
the  purpose  of  arranging  them  and  applying  them  to  his 
purpose  of  producing  a  new  emendation  of  the  text  of  the 
Christian  Scriptures.  In  the  following  year  he  obtained  much 
applause  at  the  university  of  Halle,  in  sustaining,  as  an  aca- 
demical exercise,  a  critical  dissertation,  *  De  Codicibus  qua- 
tuor  Evangeliorum  Origenianis,'  in  consequence  of  which 
he  became  theological  lecturer,  and  in  1773  he  was  appointed 
Professor  Extraordinary  of  theology  at  this  University.  The 
preparation  of  his  important  edition  of  the  New  Testament  he 
now  prosecuted  with  great  zeal  and  diligence.  Of  this  va- 
luable work  a  particular  account  is  given  below,  with  a 
notice  of  several  of  the  author's  other  publications.  The 
reputation  he  acquired  at  Halle  in  correcting  and  illustrat- 
ing the  sacred  text  procured  for  him  one  of  the  divinity  pro- 
fessorships at  the  university  of  Jena,  his  acceptance  of  which 
he  signalized  by  the  production  of  several  learned  pro- 
grammes on  subjects  hereafter  named ;  and  on  taking,  in 
1777,  the  degree  of  D.D.,  he  sustained  a  critical  dissertation 
entitled  'Curse  in  historiam  textus  Gra)ci  Epistolarum 
Paulinarum  specimen.*  On  various  other  academical  occa- 
sions he  wrote  several  learned  and  interesting  essays  on 
biblical  subjects;  he  also  was  one  of  the  directors  of  the 
Gazette  of  Jena;  contributed  numerous  articles  to  learned 
periodicals;  and  in  1780  he  was  elected  rector  of  that  uni- 
versity, and  insiM»ctor  of  the  students  from  Weimar  and 
Eisenach ;  and  in  the  following  year  he  was  appointed  eccle- 
siastical councillor  to  the  duke  of  Saxe-Weimar,  was  chosjen 
prelate  and  deputy  of  the  district  of  Jena,  and  was  made  a 
'  member  of  the  states  of  Saxc-Weimar.  In  the  performance 
of  his  academical  duties  he  was  indefatigable,  and  usually 
delivered  three  lectures  daily  on  theological  subjects.  The 
task  of  perfecting  his  edition  of  the  New  Testament  gave 
him  anxious  and  laborious  employment  until  nearly  the 
time  of  his  death ;  and,  besides  his  editorial  laboui*s,  he  was 
actively  engaged  in  the  typographical  arrangements  for  the 
costly  and  beautiful  impression  of  this  work,  completed  in 
1807,  for  which  the  types  were  expressly  founded  by  the 
eminent  printer  Gosclien.  To  this  brief  biographical  sketch 
of  Dr.  Griesbach,  it  may  be  added  that,  at  the  age  of  thirty, 
he  married  Frederica  Juliana,  a  sister  of  Professor  Schiitz, 
The  first  edition  of  Griesbach's  critical  emendation  of  the 
text  of  the  New  Te.'itament  was  published  at  Halle  in 
1774-5,  8vo.,  in  three  successive  parts,  as  manuals  for  the 
students  then  attending  his  course  of  divinity  lectures  at 
Jona.    Some  bibliological  particulars  respecting  this,  and  | 


the  several  subseauent  editions,  are  gi%*en  in  Mr.  HorT*e*^ 
'  Introduction  to  the  Bible.'  Of  the  secMjnd  edition,  th«  fir*t 
volume  appeared  in  1796,  and  the  woond  volume  in  1^.«'7. 
This  fine  impression  was  made  under  the  careful  inftpc^ii-  u 
of  the  professor  himself;  and  in  consequence  of  the  cotit  *4' 
the  paper  having  been  munificently  di^yed  by  the  chut- 
cellor  of  the  university  of  Cambridge,  the  Duke  of  Gnif*^*;'. 
the  volumes  bear  the  imprint  of  BaltB  ei  Londini.  T(»  . 
were  handsomely  reprinted  in  London  in  1609,  and  in  I  *> « * 
In  their  copious  I^tin  prolegomena  are  exhibited  a  cnti<  oi 
history  of  the  printed  text,  a  catalogue  of  all  the  manuMrr)  ;ti » 
from  which  various  readings  are  cited,  an  account  uf  tlitr 
author's  method  of  proceeoing,  and  rules  for  detenu luiii;* 
the  comparative  value  of  various  readings.  Bishop  Mar>li. 
in  his  '  Divinity  Lectures*  (part  ii.,  sec  8),  has  passed  a  hi^'h 
eulogium  on  Dr.  Griesbach,  with  regard  to  this  impona^ut 
work,  declaring  his  diligence  to  be  unremitted,  his  cautivn 
extreme,  and  his  erudition  profound. 

Previous  to  giving  a  particular  account  of  the  eritt'*al 
system  of  Griesbach's  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  it  hu. 
be  convenient  to  name  his  various  other  works,  aevenii  *ii 
which  form  indispensable  portions  of,  or  appendages  to,  the 
elaborate  apparatus  of  Biblical  criticism  presented  pruici- 
pally  in  the  prolegomena  to  his  Now  Testament.  Ncjj^u 
the  whole  of  his  writings  are  in  Latin,  and  all  are  morv  ui 
less  directly  devoted  to  the  elucidation  of  Biblical  subjvr.s 
as  follows :— ^ 

*  Dissertatio  de  Fide  Historica,  ex  ipsa  rerum  quae  nax- 
rantur  natura  judicanda,'  4to.,  1764;  *  Dissertatio  Hi^:. 
Theol.  locos  Theologicos  ex  Leone  M.  Pontifice  Rom;;ii  • 
sistens,*  4to.,  1768 ;  '  Dissertatio  de  Codicibus  qualuor  E\  an- 
geliorum  Origenianis,*  4to.,  1771 ;  *  De  vera  Notioue  Vo?  j- 
buli  Gra^ci,  in  cap.  8,  EpistolGO  ad  Komauos,  I  c*t  i,' 
4to.,  1777;  '  CursB  in  Historiam  Textibi  GiiDci  Ep)<%^>'..i< 
rum  Paulinarum,'  4to.,  1777;  *  Programma  do  Font''' la 
unde  EvangelistsB  suas  de  Resuriectiune  Doiuini  Nir- 
rationes  hauserint,'  1784;  '  Programma  de  Imagiiu'  * 
Judaicis  quibus  Auctor  Epistolse  ad  Hcbrseoa  in  descnbvn  Li 
MessisB  provincia  usus  est,'  4to.,  1792;  '  Anleitung  mu. 
Studieren  der  Popularen  Dogmatik,'  1789  (Intnrdurt:>>: 
to  the  study  of  the  popular  Christian  dogmas).  Thia,  (r'-*j 
the  nature  of  its  object,  became  the  most  popular  ««.!». 
of  the  author;  and  in  ten  years  after  its  pubhc^ition  hil 
passed  through  a  fourtli  edition.  *  Commentarius  Cntu  ^^ 
in  textum  Grsocum  Novi  Testament!.'  1798  and  i^ii , 
'  Commentatio  qu&  Marci  Evangelium  totum  e  MatUian  ; 
Luc»  Commeutariis  decerptum  esse  monstratur,*  4... 
1789  ;  '  Recognita  multihquc  augmcntis  locupletala  inC<*i.^- 
mentationibus  Theolog.,*  1794.  Griesbach's  *  Opu*«i.  4 
Academica'  were  edited  by  the  learned  Jo.  Phil.  GaUt.. 
and  published  in  8vu.  at  Jena,  in  IS'24.  '  Symbols  Cm  ic^l-. 
ad  supplendas  et  corrigendas  variarum  Novi  Tes»laro«M.'. 
Lectionum  Collectiones :  accedit  multorum  Novi  Tu»u- 
menti  Codicum  GrsBcorum  descriptio  et  examen,*  1  luu. 
8vo.,  1785-93.  A  most  important  work,  containing  a  t>.; 
development  of  the  authors  system  of  Biblical  eriltct^:^i 
The  second  volume  contains  a  laborious  coUatiua«  «.  u 
the  Greek  Vulgate,  of  all  the  Quotations  from  the  Nk  < 
Testament  made  by  Origen  and  Clemens  Alexandnii.^. 
'  Synopsis  Evangeliorum  Mattheei,  Marci,  et  Lucv,  u  .a 
cum  iis  Joan n is  rericopis,  quae  Historiam  Passionia  et  R*  • 
surrectionis  Historiam  complectuntur,'  8vo.,  1797.  Bi>L  ;• 
Marsh  recommends  this  synopsis  of  the  three  first  gn-f»'.* 
as  preferable  to  every  other  Harmony.  (Michaells  ^"i'  * 
duc.t  vol.  iii.,  part  2,  p.  47.)  However,  as  some  ui*  \  i- 
transpositions  nave  been  deemed  arbitrary,  and  beveial  ttu- 
portant  passages  have  been  omitted,  the  work  has  bcvt :.» 
the  basis  of  a  more  complete  synopsis  by  De  Welle  ^^  i 
Liicke,  published  in  4lo.  at  Berlin,  in  1818. 

Of  all  modem  critical  editions  of  the  New  Te&Utufit. 
Griesbach's  is  generally  considered  to  be  the  most  eoropl*  v 
and  valuable,  and  consequently  his  text  has  been  taken  a- 1 
standard  by  numerous  other  editors.    His  marginal  r>oto  ^ 
as  forming  a  general  and  correct  index  to  thegt«at  b.«i« 
of  collated  Greek  manuscripts  (about  500),  are  a  Ireaa^u.v 
invaluable  to  the  scholar  and  necessary  to  the   dmi.i.-. 
Every  emendation  is  introduced  on  ouotol  auibonty,  a:  i 
never  on  mere  critical  conjecture ;  ana  a  very  importmni :. : 
vantage,  not  previously  afforded,  is  a  dear  and  pa-..* 
statement  of  the  relative  degree  of  authority  for  each  \ 
ticular  reading.    Adopted  readings  are  distinguished  I*.   • 
different  type ;  those  rejected  are  inserted  in  the  mai  * 
with  appropriate  references,  and  those  not  adsuaiblc  i 


QRl 


454 


G  K  O 


nature ;  bis  corrections  proscribe  tbree  ixnpmiant  passa^ 
(already  named)  affecting  the  doctrinal  integrity  of  the  m- 
spired  text ;  for  a  proof  once  established  of  its  partial  cor- 
ruption in  important  matters  must  involve  its  character  for 
general  fidelity ;  and  the  deservedly  high  character  and 
singular  merit  of  this  learned  edition  must  heighten  appre^ 
hension  and  alarm  at  the  attempts  thus  made  to  undermine 
the  authority  of  the  Received  Text,  for  the  scrupulous  accu- 
racy of  its  execution  must  always  command  respect*  In  ad- 
dition to  the  works  above-mentioned,  reference  has  been  made 
to  the  '  Life  of  Griesbach'  by  Professor  Kothe  (in  Grerman) ; 
to  Hornets  '  Introduction  to  the  Holy  Scriptures/  7th  ed., 
vol.  ii.,  p.  22,  &c. ;  to  Dr.  Seiier*8  '  Biblical  Herroeneutics,' 
pp.  340-360 ;  &c.,  &c. 

GRIMML,  F.  M.  (BARON),  was  bom  at  RatUbon,  1 723, 
of  poor  parents,  who  gave  him  however  an  excellent  educa- 
tion. Having  finisliea  his  studies  he  published  a  tragedy 
called  '  Banise,'  which  proved  a  complete  failure.  He  after- 
wards accompanied  a  voung  Count  Schoenburg  to  Leipzig 
and  to  Paris,  where  ne  became  a  reader  to  the  duke  of 
Saxe-Gotha.  This  place  however  was  more  honourable 
than  lucrative,  and  Grimm  was  in  very  narrow  circum- 
stances when  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  J.  J.  Rousseau, 
which  became  a  close  intimacy,  strengthened  by  the  fondness 
for  music  of  both  of  them.  Rousseau  introduced  him  to 
Baron  Holbach,  Madame  D'Epinay,  and  other  persons  dis- 
tinguished either  by  their  rank  or  talents.  When  Paris  be- 
came divided  between  the  partisans  of  the  French  and  Ita- 
lian music,  Grimm  declared  for  the  latter  and  became  the 
leader  of  the  Coin  de  la  Heine,  a  party  so  called  on  account 
of  their  assembling  in  the  pit,  umler  the  box  uf  the  queen, 
while  the  opposite  party,  assembling  under  the  box  of  the 
king,  was  called  Coin  du  Roi.  Grimm  wrote  on  the  occa- 
sion a  witty  pamphlet,  entitled  *  Le  Petit  Proph6te  de  Boe- 
mischbroda,'  Paris,  1753.  His  opponents  tried  to  answer 
him,  but  were  entirely  beaten  out  of  the  field  by  another 
pamphlet  entitled  '  Lettres  sur  la  Musique  ]'ran9aise.' 
His  antagonists  now  talked  about  banishment  or  the  Bas- 
tile,  but  the  excitement  soon  subsided,  and  the  author  re- 
ceived universal  praise.  On  becoming  secretary  to  Count 
Friesen  he  obtained  still  easier  access  to  the  higher  circles 
of  society,  where  bis  chief  object  was  to  gain  the  favour 
of  the  ladies  by  the  elegance  of  his  conversation,  man- 
ners, and  external  appearance.  His  relations  with  tho 
editors  of  the '  Encyclop^die,*  and  with  many  other  eminent 
individuals  of  France,  as  well  as  his  talents  and  great  tact, 
opened  to  him  a  brilliant  career.  On  the  death  of  Count 
Friesen  he  became  secretary  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  and 
began  also  at  that  time  to  write  for  several  German 
princes  his  literary  bulletins,  which  contained  exceedingly 
clever  analyses  of  all  the  more  important  literary  produc- 
tions of  France. 

In  1776  he  was  nominated  by  the  Duke  6f  Gotha  his  mi- 
nister at  the  French  court  with  the  title  of  baron,  but  this 
circumstance  did  not  interrupt  his  literary  occupations.  He 
left  France  at  the  Revolution,  and  retired  to  Gotha.  In 
1 795  he  was  nominated  by  the  Empress  Catherine  of  Russia 
her  minister  at  Hamburg,  a  post  which  he  occupied  for 
some  time,  until  a  severe  illness,  by  which  he  lost  an  eye, 
compellefl  him  to  resign  it.  He  returned  to  Gotha,  where  he 
died  in  1807.  After  his  death  appeared  his  '  Correspondence 
Litt^raire,  Philosophique,  et  Critique,*  16  vols.,  Paris,  1812; 
another  edition  with  a  supplement,  by  Alexander  Barbier, 
1814  ;  and  a  new  edition,  more  complete  than  either  of  the 
preceding,  was  published  at  Paris,  1829,  in  15  vols. 

GRIMSBY.      [LlNCOLNSHIRK.] 

GRINDELWALD.  [Bern,  vol.  iv.,  p.  302.] 
GRI'SLEA,  a  genus  of  tropical  plants  of  the  natural 
family  of  Lythrariae,  called  Salicariss  bv  some  botanists. 
The  genus  is  characterised  by  having  a  tubular  calyx,  which 
is  from  four-  to  six- toothed ;  the  petals,  four  to  six  in  num- 
ber, are  inserted  between  the  divisions  of  the  calyx ;  the 
stamens,  twice  as  many,  arise  from  the  bottom  of  the  calyx, 
and  have  their  long  filaments  extending  with  the  style  be- 
yond its  tube;  the  capsule  is  superior,  two-celled,  many- 
seeded,  and  covered  bv  the  persistent  calyx.  The  plants  of 
this  genus  consist  of  shrubs,  with  opposite,  very  entire  leaves, 
dotted  on  the  under  surface  with  dark-coloured  glands.  The 
peduncles  are  axillary  and  many-flowered ;  the  flowers  red- 
dish-coloured. The  species  are  not  more  than  three  in  num- 
ber, of  which  one,  G.  secunda,  is  found  in  the  wanner  parts 
of  South  America,  and  the  others  in  India.  Grislea  tomen- 
toM,  the  best  known  and  most  useful  sp^ies,  is  found  in 


the  islandi  of  the  Indian  Octtan,  in  CUna*  and  in , 

part  of  the  continent  of  India,  eepeeially  in  the  jungly  trarta 
at  the  foot  of  its  several  ranges  of  mountaina.  In  aurh 
situations  its  bright  red  calyx,  retaining  its  colour  till  iK^ 
seeds  are  ripe,  gives  the  whole  plant  a  rmry  showy  appcAf- 
ance,  and  points  it  out  to  the  eolleetora  of  its  flowen»  vhi*  h 
form  an  article  of  commerce.  These  are  much  eBi9Ui)t«i 
by  the  natives  of  India  for  dyeing  a  red  colour,  and,  nm^vji 
some  degree  of  astringency,  are  also  employed  in  luditM 
medicine.  The  plant  is  known  by  the  names  of  Z>4<jr»r, 
Dhaee,  &c.,  and  the  flowers  by  that  of  DhaeephooL 

GRISONS.      [GRAUBiiNDTBN.] 

GRIT.  Hard  sandstones  are  called  grits  in  the  north  uf 
England,  and  indeed  many  soft  aan'^stonea  an  so  tenue'i. 
In  particular  districts  some  distinctive  terma  art  applied,  a* 
millstone  grit,  rod  grit,  white  grit,  grindstone  grit,  h^.* . 
Almost  universally  in  the  north  of  England  the  Ifsras  *  fr.«*- 
stone'  belongs  to  such  gritstones  as  w3l  work  eaeily  and  u» 
a  good  face  ;  'calliard*  stones  are  intractable,  cloae-grauic'd. 
almost  flinty  grits;  in  Aldstone  Moor,  Cumbesland,  tt^> 
term  '  hazel '  is  given  to  some  bard  grits ;  at  NewciatW  tii«' 
word  'post'  signifies  a  '  bed,'  and  is  ganeffally  aasociatud 
with  gritstone  rocks. 

In  geology  the  most  remarkable  rocks  to  which  the  W'^i  I 
grit  l&  applied,  are— the  calcareous  grit  (in  which  bo»«-«t  t 
there  is  often  little  of  calcareous  matter),  a  part  of  the  n»A- 
die  oolite  formation;  the  millstone  grit,  whicK  eont.iA.i« 
beds  of  quartz  pebbles,  and  is  altogether  a  OMuae  irregular 'r 
laminated  rdck. 

GROCYN,  WILLIAM,  one  of  the  revivers  of  litetatuir. 
was  born  at  Bristol,  in  1442,  and  received  hie  eftriy  imIuca- 
tion  at  Winchester  School.  He  was  elected  tbeoce  u* 
New  College,  Oxford,  in  1467,  and  in  1479  was  pcescuu^l 
by  the  warden  and  fellows  of  that  society  to  the  rector>  of 
Newton  Longueville,  in  Buckioffhamshire,  In  14^^  \,v 
was  made  a  prebendary  of  Lincdn;  and  in  1488  eftt  ^aa 
upon  his  travels  into  foreign  countries.  His  great  objii  t 
was  to  obtain  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  Greek  langua^»\ 
which  was  then  but  little  cultivated  in  England.  Aeonri- 
ingly  he  went  into  Italy,  where  he  studied  for  aone  tuatv 
under  Demetrius  Chalcondylas,  Politiano,  and  Hemsel^usi 
Barbarus.  He  returned  to  England,  and  fixed  hinasalf  .n 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  in  1491,  where  he  took  tlia  de^«- 
of  B.D.  Here  too  he  publicly  taught  the  Greek  languac^'. 
and  was  the  first  who  mtroduoed  a  better  pronunctatioo  of 
it  than  had  been  before  known  in  England.  The  cuiiif  a- 
tion  of  this  language  however  in  the  university  alamt^i 
many  as  a  dangerous  innovation ;  and  Wood  informs  u<^ 
that  the  members  became  divided  upon  it  into  two  fi^tioov 
distinguished  by  the  appellations  of  Greeks  and  Tro)ar.« 
It  was  at  this  period  that  Erasmus  visited  Oxfofd,  and  rv- 
sided  during  the  greater  part  of  his  stav  thefe  in  Giory  i« 
house.  Erasmus,  who  mentions  him  with  great  and  m^k^-  - ' 
commendation,  calls  him  '  patronua  et  preceptor.'  In  ; .  • 
course  of  his  career  Grocyn  had  one  or  two  other  prrfr 
ments,  and  in  1506  became  master  of  Allhallows  Oil. ^.•. 
at  Maidstone,  in  Kent,  though  he  continued  to  live  xa*^\.' 
at  Oxford.  He  died  at  Maidstone,  in  1519,  of  paUy.  • 
which  he  had  been  seized  a  year  before,  liis  «  11  » 
printed  in  the  Appendix  to  Knight's  'Life  of  Erasiu..- 
A  Latin  epistle  of  Grooyn  to  Aldus  Manulius  ia  preii\'  i 
to  Linacre^s  translation  of  Proclus'  *  De  Sphvra'  ai  th«  e-  u 
'of  the  'Astronomi  Veteres*  of  1499.  The  pnduiti  "  <> 
ascribed  to  him  bv  Bale,  Leland,  and  Tanner  are  not  ext  n.: 
in  print  (Knight's  L\fe  of  Erasmus;  Braasii  £>*•-. 
fol.,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1706,  pp.  95,  294;  Wood's  Aihenm  Oj-  n. 
ed.  Bliss,  i.,  30-32.) 

GRODNO,  a  westeni  province  or  government  of  Rus^.i 
in  Europe,  lying  between  51°  31'  and  54*'  21'  N.  laL.  i    i 
23""  49'  and  26°  44'  E.  long.     It  is  composed  of  a  porti<iu  .  t 
the  grand-duchy  of  J^ithuania  and  other  eastern  parte  of  \i 
kingdom  of  Poland,  which  Russia  wrested  from  it  in  th*- 
year  1 795.    Its  area  has  been  variously  estimated,  but  it  t* 
stated  approximately  by  Schnitxler  at  about  14,700  squ»:  - 
miles,  which  is  a  larger  area  than  that  of  the  kiogdi»o  •*]' 
Hanover.     Its  greatest  length  is  about   173  mi£»  (.* 
versts),  and  its  greatest  breadth  about  180  mdet  (1 80  wtvto 
The  surface  is  a  wide  plain,  and  it  has  numerous  lbr\'>'>« 
particularly  in  tho  north,  and  swampy  lowlanda.    The  a. . 
is  either  a  pure  sand,  or  alluvial  deposit  intermixed  v. 
sand,  and  is  in  general  favourable  to  the  cultivation  of  en  r 
and  feeding  of  cattle.    The  principal  river  is  the  Niemci^ 
which  beoomes  navigable  at  Lititsha  be&re   tt 


G  R  O 


456 


G  RO 


of  Friealand.    It  lies  between  52**  49'  anil  53**  27'  N.  lat,  { 
and  between  6°  14'  and  7**  I'O'  E.  long. :  ite  greatest  length 
from  south-east  to  north-west  is  60  English  miles,  and  itfi 
mean  breadth  about  15  miles:  its  area  is  770  miles. 

The  whole  province  is  a  perfect  level,  intersected  every- 
where by  canals  and  ditches,  and  protected  from  the  sea  by 
dykes.  A  great  proportion  of  the  land  is  marshy,  and  unfit 
for  any  purpose  but  pasturage,  which  however  is  rich,  and 
supports  a  fine  breed  of  cattle.  The  province  is  divided 
into  three  districts,  Oroningen,  Winschoten,  and  Appiu- 
gadam.  The  only  town  of  any  importance  is  the  capital, 
Oroningen. 

The  population  in  1815  was  135,642;  in  1824  it  had  in- 
creased to  153,860,  or  at  the  rate  of  about  1}  per  cent  an- 
nually. The  population  of  the  towns  was  29,741,  and  of 
country  districts  1 24, 1 1 9.  The  births  and  deaths  during  the 
10  years  from  1815  to  1824  inclusive  were— 


BIRTHS. 

{DEATHS. 

Males. 

Femolei. 

Total. 

Males. 

Females. 

Total. 

Towns    a        • 
wonnlrj  •        . 

5,290 
21.249 

5.031 
20.103 

10.321 
41,352 

4.009 
11,752 

3.882 
10.896 

7,891 
22,648 

26,639 

25,134 

51,673 

15,761 

14,778 

30,539 

The  number  of  marriages  in  the  same  10  years  was  1 1,49'i, 
and  of  divorces  37. 

In  1825  there  were  in  the  province  77,244  head  of  cattle, 
22,973  horses,  and  62,844  sheep. 

The  linen  and  woollen  manufactures  are  carried  on  to  a 
small  extent  in  the  province.  A  considerable  number  of 
the  inhabitants  on  the  coast  employ  themselves  in  the 
fisheries,  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  people  are  engaged  in 
husbandry  and  (grazing. 

The  capital,  Groningen,  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of 
the  two  rivers  Hunze  and  Aa;  it  is  a  large,  populous,  and 
well  built  town,  nearly  circular  in  its  form,  and  surrounded 
by  walls  and  a  fosse.  The  great  church  of  St.  Mhrtin, 
which  was  begun  in  1468  and  not  finished  until  1627,  is  a 
very  fine  building  with  a  remarkable  organ.  Groningen 
contains  an  academy,  founded  )n  1614  and  well  endowed, 
which  enjoys  a  good  reputation ;  a  public  library ;  and  an 
institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb. 

The  Hunze  is  navigable  up  to  the  town  for  vessels  of 
considerable  burthen :  there  is  a  good  harbour,  and  a  con- 
siderable trade  is  carried  on  in  corn,  cattle,  and  other  agri- 
cultural products.    The  population  is  about  25,000. 

Winscnoten,  the  only  other  town  in  the  province  that 
rcf^uires  notice,  is  about  17  miles  south-east  from  Groningen. 
It  IS  fortified  and  difficult  of  approach  to  an  enemy  on  ac- 
count of  the  marshes  by  which  it  is  surrounded :  the  popu- 
lation is  about  2500. 

GRONO'VIUS,  the  Latinized  form  of  Gronov,  was  the 
name  of  a  family  originally  from  Germany,  but  settled  in 
Holland,  several  members  of  which  distinguished  them- 
selves by  their  classical  learning  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries. 

1.  John  Frederic  Gronov,  bom  at  Hamburg  in  1611, 
studied  at  Leipzig,  Jena,  and  Altdorf,  travelled  through  Hol- 
land, England,  France,  and  Italy,  was  appointed  professor 
of  belles-lettres  at  Leyden  in  1658;  he  died  in  1671.  He 
published  editions  of  several  of  the  classics,  .such  as  Livy, 
Sallust,  Seneca,  Pliny,  &c.  He  wrote — 1.  *be  Sesterciis, 
seu  Subsecivorum  recunioe  veteris  GrscctB  et  Romanse, 
libri  iv.,'  Deventer,  1643,  republished  with  important  addi- 
tions by  his  son  James  Gronovius,  Leyden,  1691;  2.  *De 
Musa)o  Alexandrine  Exercitationes  Academica);*  3.  *Lec- 
tiones  PlautinoD,  quibus  non  tantum  fabulso  Plautinae  etTe- 
rentiancD,  verum  etiam  Csesar,  Cicero,  Livius,  illlustrantur,' 
Amsterdam,  1740;  and  other  works  of  classical  erudition. 

2.  James  Gronovius,  elder  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  at 
Deventer  in  1645,  showed  from  early  youth  a  gi-eat  aptitude 
for  philological  studies.  He  published  numerous  editions 
of  the  Greek  and  Roman  classics,  among  others  of  Hero- 
dotus, Polybius,  Macrobius,  Aulus  Gcllius,  Tacitus,  &c. 
But  the  work  by  which  he  is  best  known  is  the  'Thesaurus 
Antiquitatum  Gropcaram,*  13  vols,  fol.,  Levden,  1697,  en- 
riched with  engravings  of  mythical  and  historical  person- 
ages, of  monuments  and  other  remarkable  objects  illustra- 
tive of  the  arts,  customs,  and  history  of  antient  Greece, 
copied  from  antient  sculptures  and  medals,  and  disposed  in 
order  of  time.    He  also  published  '  Geographi  Antiqui,'  2 


vola.  4to.,  Leyden,  1 694.  Gronovius,  after  t?aTelling  tUrough 

various  countries  of  Europe,  was  appointed  by  fbe  ^r^utX 
duke  of  Tuscany  professor  of  belles-lettres  in  the  uni^t-r- 
sity  of  Pisa.  After  two  years  he  returned  to  Holland,  tti 
1679,  and  filled  the  same  chair,  as  professor  in  the  univer^.t  t 
of  Leyden,  which  his  father  had  occupied  before  him.  11' 
died  at  Leyden,  in  1 716.  Gronovius,  unlike  his  father,  «'»> 
fond  of  polemics,  in  which  he  was  lavish  of  hard  word^  au! 
abuse.  [Fabretti.]  Niceron,  in  his  'Mcmoires*'  has  gr.«:i 
a  list  of  all  his  works. 

3.  Abraham  Gronovius,  eldest  son  of  James,  a  ph>stc.in 
of  some  reputation,  wrote  also  several  works  on  nubjert*  >j( 
classical  erudition,  such  as  *Varia  Geograpbica,*  b^  / . 
Leyden,  1739,  being  a  collection  of  dissertations  and  dvim  % 
in  illustration  of  antient  geography ;  he  also  publi&be  1  t 
good  edition  of  Justinus,  8vb.,  Levden,  1760,  adding  lus 
own  notes  to  those  of  his  grandfather  J.  Fred.  Grono-.  lu- 
of  Is.  Vossius,  Grffivius,  Fabri,  and  others,  and  nubjotn  o. 
a  copious  index. 

4.  Laurentius  Thcophilus  Gronovius,  younger  bcothrr  t  > 
James,  published  *  Emendationes  Pandectarum  juxta  K!w 
rentinum  exemplar,*  Leyden,  1685,  which  he  dedicmtc<l  * 
Mugliabecchi,  with  whom  both  he  and  his  brother  had  N. 
come  intimate  while  in  Italy.     He  also  contr^uted  io  h  % 
brother  s  *  Thesaurus,*  and  to  the  '  Varia  Geographica*  uf  h  - 
nephew  Abraham. 

GROOM,  in  old  English,  meant  a  servant  in  some  Wfi* 
station,  a  lad  or  lacquey  who  was  sent  on  errands:  ar.>l  % 
said,  by  Kilian,  to  be  derive<l  from  the  Flemish  grf'-'*, 
boy.  It  answered  to  the  French  gargon.  At  present,  r-- 
common  life,  groom  means  a  servant  especially  attei.'liL' 
on  the  stable.  Jamieson  says  the  original  word  was  jf  *i 
and  that  the  letter  r  has  been  inserted  only  in  En^li5h  .■ 
Scotch. 

In  higher  life,  groom  is  the  denomination  of  se%'cral  ••?' 
cers  or  servants  of  the  royal  household,  mostly  iu  the  1   .  .1 
chamberlain  s  department :    such   as  grooms' in   wait      . 
grooms  of  the  gi*eat  chamber,  grooms  of  the  privy  chimt-  - 
groom  of  the  robes  or  stole,  and,  in  the  lord  stewards   . 
partment,  groom  of  the  almonry. 

There  was  formerly  also,  in  the  lord  8teward*s  df|.  ':- 
ment,  a  groom-porter,  who  is  said  to  have  succeeded  i.'  t» 
otfice  of  master  of  the  revels,  then  disused.    His  bu^  :  ■.. 
was  to  see  the  king's  lodging  furnished  with  tables;  ct.a  -% 
stools,  and  firing;  as  also  to  provide  cards,  dice,  &c.,  an  \ 
decide  disputes  arising  at  cards,  dice,  bowling,  &c. 

From  allusions  in  some  of  Ben  Jonson*t  and  Chapm:  .'* 
plays,  it  appears  that  the  groom-porter  was  formerly  all  ••  •  . 
to  keep  an  open  gambling- table  at  Christmas :  it  i%  n.M  - 
tionedas  still  existing  in  one  of  Lady  Mary  Wortley  M^n- 
tagu*s  eclogues : — 


*•  At  the  grwm-porterU  bftttor'd  bnlUM  vUy/* 

Thmda^,  Bci,  4.  Dodde/t  CUItfrf 


i  ). 


This  abuse  was  removed  in  the  reign  of  George  UI.  Iir  .< 
in  his  account  of  the  I-K)rd  of  Mismle,  in  the  *  Archax4*v  » 
vol.  xviii.,  p.  317,  says,  George  I.  and  H.  played  haxonl 
public  on  certain  days,  attended  by  the  croom-porter.     T 
appellation  however' is  still  kept  up:  the  names  of  thr  • 
groom -porters  occur  amon?  the  inferior  servants  in  the  pr^ 
sent  enumeration  of  Her  Majesty's  household. 
GROSBEAK.    [Fringillid;k;  Hawfinch.] 
GROSE,  FRANCIS,  an  eminent  English  antiquar>'.  v  i^ 
the  son  of  Francis  Grose,  a  native  of  Switzerland,  whc\  <.(- 
tling  in  England,  followed. the  trade  of  a  jeweller,  and  **  i« 
employed  as  such  in  fitting  up  the  crown  for  the  coronat:    • 
of  King  Greorge  II.     Francis  Grose  the  younger  wa*  h  .  - 
at  Greenford  in  Middlesex,  according  to  Noble ;  Chalm.  .  * 
says  in  1731.    His  taste  for  heraldry  and  antiquities  i' 
duced  his  father,  at  an  early  period,  to  procure  a  place  r 
him  in  the  Herald's  College,  where  he  received  the  a.'- 
pointment  of  Richmond  Herald,  a  post  which  be  resiir    i 
in  1763,  when  he  became  adjutant  and  paymaster  of  t 
Hampshire  militia.     At  a  subsequent  time  he  was  a  ca 
tain  in  the  Surrey  militia.    His  father,  who  diod   m  K'    . 
left  him  an  independent  income,  which  he  had  unibrttinari  . 
neither  the  disposition  to  increase  nor  the  pmdencc  to  pre- 
serve.   Whilst  paymaster  of  the  Hampshire  militia,  he  t>-  ' 
jocosely  to  sav  that  he  had  only  two  books  of  accounts  I'- 
right  and  left  hand  pockets.    In  the  one  he  received,  a:>  - 
from  the  other  paid.  Designing  persons,  of  course  regan'i  : 
him  as  their  dupe :  and  he  soon  felt  the  effects  of  his  cr«du  • 
lity.    His  losses  however  roused  his  latent  talenCs.    Ti»  a 
good  education  he  united  a  taste  for  drawings  which  ho  0'« 


G  R  O 


458 


6  RO 


He  constantly  received  books,  vhich  were  brought  in  and 
taken  out  in  a  large  chest  together  with  his  hnen.  For 
some  time  this  chest  was  strictly  examined  by  the  guards, 
but  finding  only  books  and  foul  linen,  they  at  last  grew 
tired  of  the  search,  and  gave  it  up.  Grotius's  wife  having 
observed  this,  persuaded  her  husband  to  get  into  the  chest, 
which  he  did,  and  in  this  manner  escaped  from  the  fortress 
on  the  2l8t  of  March,  1621.  He  made  his  way  through 
Antwerp  to  France,  where  his  wife„who  had  been  detained 
for  about  a  fortnight  in  prison,  joined  him  a  few  months 
afterwards. 

Louis  XIII.  received  Grotius  very  favourably,  and  granted 
him  a  pension  of  3000  livres,  but  it  was  paid  with  great  irre- 
gularity. He  was  harshly  treated  by  the  Protestant  mi- 
nisters of  Charenton,  who,  having  assented  to  the  doctrines  of 
the  synod  of  Dordrecht,  refused  to  admit  Grotius  into  their 
communion,  and  he  was  obliged  to  have  divine  service  per- 
formed at  home.  At  Paris  (1622)  he  jiublished  his  •  Apo- 
logy,* which  was  prohibited  in  Hollana  under  severe  penal- 
ties. Having  spent  a  year  at  Pai-is,  he  retired  to  a  country- 
seat  of  the  president  De  Mesmes,  near  Senlis,  where  he 
spent  the  spring  and  summer  of  1623.  It  was  in  that  re- 
treat that  he  commenced  his  work  *  Do  Jure  Belli  et  Pacis,' 
which  was  published  in  the  next  year. 

During  his  residence  in  France  he  was  constantly  an- 
noyed with  importunities  to  come  over  to  the  Roman  Ca- 
tholic religion ;  but  though  he  was  tired  of  the  country,  and 
receive<l  invitations  from  the  duke  of  Holstein  and  the  king 
of  Denmark,  he  dechned  them.  Gustavus  Adolphus  also 
made  him  offers,  which,  after  his  death,  were  repeated  by 
Oxenstiern  in  the  name  of  queen  Christina.  In  the  mean 
time  the  stadholder  Maurice  died,  and  his  successor  seem- 
ing less  hostile  to  Grotius,  he  was  induced  by  the  entreaties 
of  his  Dutch  friends  to  venture  to  ireturn.  He  arrived  at 
Rotterdam  in  September,  1631,  and  the  news  of  his  return 
excited  a  great  sensation  throughout  all  Holland.  But  in 
spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  his  friends  he  was  again  obliged  to 
leave  the  country,  and  went  (in  1632)  to  Hamburg,  where  he 
lived  till  1G34,  when  he  joined^the  chancellor  Oxenstiern 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  who  appointed  him  councillor  to 
the  queen  of  Sweden,  and  her  ambai^sador  at  the  court  of 
France.  The  object  of  the  embassy  was  to  obtain  the  as- 
sistance of  France  against  the  emperor.  Grotius  arrived  at 
Paris  in  March,  1636  ;  and  although  he  had  many  difiicul- 
tics  to  encounter  from  Richelieu,  and  afterwards  from  Ma- 
zarin,  he  maintained  the  rights  and  promoted  the  interests 
of  his  adopted  sovereign  witn  great  firmness.  He  continued 
in  his  post  till  1644,  when  he  was  recalled  at  his  own  re- 
quest. Having  obtained  a  pas5port  through  Holland,  he 
embarked  on  his  return  at  Dieppe,  and  on  his  landing  at 
Amsterdam  (1645)  was  received  with  great  distinction  and 
entertained  at  the  public  expense.     From  Amsterdam  he 

Proceeded  by  Hamburg  and  Liibeck  to  Stockholm,  where 
e  was  received  in  the  most  flattering  manner  by  the  queen. 
Grotius  however  was  not  pleased  with  the  learned  flippancy 
of  Christina  s  court,  and  resolved  on  quitting  Sweden.    The 
climate  also  did  not  agree  with  him.   The  queen,  having  in 
vain  tried  to  retain  him  in  her  service,  made  him  a  present 
of  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  of  some  costly  objects  ;  she 
also  gave  him  a  vessel,  in  which  he  embarked  tor  Liibeck 
on  the  12ih  August,  but  a  violent  storm,  bv  which  his  ship 
was  tossed  about  during  three  days,  obligea  him  to  land  on 
the  17th  in  Pomerania,  about  fifteen  leagues  from  Danzig, 
whence  he  proceeded  towards  Liibeck.     He  arrived  at  Ros- 
tock on  the  26ih,  veiy  ill  from  the  fatigues  of  the  journey, 
and  from  exposure  to  wind  and  rain  in  an  open  carriage; 
he  died  on  the  28th  August,  1645,  in  the  »ixty-third  year  of 
bis  age.     His  last  moments  were  spent  in  religious  prepa- 
ration, and  he  died  expressing  the  sentiments  of  a  true 
ijtiribtian.     His  body  was  carried  to  Delfl  and  deposited  in 
the  grave  of  his  ancestors,  where  a  monument  was  erected 
to  him  in  1781.  Two  medals  were  struck  in  honour  of  him. 
Notwithsitaiiding  his  stormy  life,  the  works  of  Grotius  are 
very  numerous.    They  ti-eat  of  divinity,  jurisprudence,  his- 
tory, literature,  and  poetry.    Many  of  them  are  become  clas- 
sical.    They  may  be  distributed  us  follows: — 1.  His  'Opera 
Theologica,'  which  were  collected  by  his  son  Peter  Grotius, 
4  vols.  4to.,  Amsterdam,  1679,  contain,  in  the  first  volume, 
bis  commentaries  on  the  Holy  Scriptures,  but  particularly  on 
the  Gospels,     l^eibnitz  said  of  them  (Operas  vol.  vi.,  p.  '226) 
that  he  preferred  Grotius  to  all  the  commentators.     2.  The 
treatise, '  De  Veritate  Religionis  Christiana),'  which  has  been 
translated  from  the  I^itin  of  Grotius  into  many  Em'opcan, 


anderenintoBomeOrieiitil languages.  An  Amine  tnuMUtiun 
was  published  at  Oxford,  1 660,  with  notMby  Sdwaid  PocucLc 
3.  A  treatise  in  Latin  '  On  the  Atonement*'  written  afcain-i 
Sooinus,  in  order  to  vindicate  the  Remonstnusta  from  tiu 
charge  of  Socinianism ;  translated  into  English,  and  pu(> 
lished  at  London,  1693,  under  the  title,  'Uefeiiee  of  t. .« 
Catholic  Faith  conoeming  the  Satitfaetionof  Ghriat,'  irai,* 
latedbyW.  H.    4.  *Via  ad  Paoem  Scclesiaaticam/  -\u- 
several  other  treatises,  amongst  which  the  most  mnurkaiM 
is  *  Philosophorum  Sententin  de  Fato  et  de  eo  quod  in  n" 
tra  est  Potestate/    Among  his  works  on  jurisprudeu^'e*  lut 
treatise  '  De  Jure  Belli  et  Pacis'  is  translatea  into  all  liic 
European  langusges,  and  has  long  been  adopted  by  tsaji.* 
universities  as  an  elementary  book  for  the  study  of  m  > .  - 
national  law.    It  seems  however  that  the  author  wrj'<.  ,i 
rather  for  the  use  of  sovereigns  and  ministers  than  for  stu- 
dents.    It  was  a  fkvourite  hooik  of  Gustavus  Adolphuj^  n  u . 
he  always  carried  it  with  him.    2.  '  Flonim  Spaiaio  ad  J  u*. 
Justinianeum,*  Paris,  1642.    3.  '  Introduction  to  the  Jitl-- 
prudence  of  Holland,'  (in  Dutch,)  at  the  Hatpie,  163  K    4. 
'Mare  Liberum,*  a  treatise  against  the  claims  of  tbe  Eng- 
lish to  exclusive  right  over  certain  seas.    It  was  ansuvn-. 
by  Selden  in  his  'Mare  Clausum.'    6.  'De  Imperio  Suu- 
marum  Potestatum  circa  Sacra,'  Paris,  1646;  rejirintri 
at  Naples,  1 780,  '  Cum  Scholiis  Critiois  et  ChnN&olo(pci<^.^ 
6.  A  collection  of  legal  consultations,  opinions,  &c. 

His  principal  historical  works  are— 1.  'Annaleset  H.^ 
toritD  Belgicte  usque  ad  Inducias  Anni  1609,  lib.  xviii.  ;*  .* 
appeared  after  his  death,  at  Amsterdam,  1657,  in  fui.;  :. 
*Ue  Antiauitate  ReipublicsD  Batavicft,' Leyden,  IGlo.  i.i 
4to. ;  3.  '  Parallella  Rerumpublicarum,*  which  he  Ictt  : 
manuscript,  and  of  which  only  a  fragment  was  Dubltsh«il  - 
1801,  at  Ley  den,  by  Baron  Meerman;  4. '  DeOrigine  G*  • - 
tiura  Americanarum,*  Paris,  1648  and  1643,  in  bvo. ; 

*  Historia   Gothorum,  Yandalorum,   et   Longobardo:  uu:. 
published  after  his  death,  Amsterdam,  16dd. 

His  Latin  poems,  which  were  collected  and  publi^Vr . 
for  the  first  time  by  his  brother  "WilUam  Grotius,  «t  L 
den,  in  12  vols.,  went  through  ten  editions  before  that  »• 
Amsterdam,  1670.    Three  tragedies— 1.  '  Adamus  K\J 
published  at  Leyden,   1601,  on  the  same  subject  as  i  • 

*  Paradise  Lost ;'   2.  •  Christus  Patiens,'  printed  at  1.  • 
den,  1608,  and  translated  into  English  by  George  San     • 
under  the  title  of  'Christ's   Passion,'  with  annoiat*- 
London,  1640,  a  translation  with  which   the  author  v.  . 
much  pleased;  the  third  of  his  tragedies  is  entitled  •> 
nhompaneas'  (which  signifies  in  Egyptian  *  Saviour  of  •• 
World').    The  subject  is  the  histon^  of  Joseph  in  K^  ^ » « 
It  was  also  translated  into  English  oy  Frsncxs  Gotdsm. 
London,   1652.      Besides    these    tragedies  lie  }eti  tni'    « 
poetical  compositions  in  Latin,  of  the  lyrical,  elegiac,  .  . 
epigrammatic  kind,  as  well  as  many  translations  from  t .  < 
Greek  poets  into  Latin  verse.     Grotius  wrote  some  ^.-n- 
of  poetry  in  Greek,  and  several  Dutch  poems,  wh:cu  .. 
much  esteemed  by  his  countrymen.    His  letters  have  l 
through  many  editions,  of  which  the  last  is  that  of  Aia.-:   . 
dam,  1809.     *  llie  Life  of  the  truly  eminent  and  Ic.ici . . 
Hugo  Grotius,'  containing  a  copious  and  circumstot* 
history  of  the  several  important  and  honorable  negoti.x;i 

in  which  he  was  employed,  together  with  a  critical  ace  »;.:, 
of  his  works,    written   originally  in  French   by   M. 
Burlgny,  appeared  at  London  in  1754.    *  The  Life  of  11  ■ 
Grotius,  with  Brief  Minutes  of  the  CiWl,  Eccle>ia>.  .. 
and  Literary  History  of  the  Netherlands,'  by  CharU*s»  li. : 
ler,  Esq.,  of  Lincoln*s  Inn,  London,  1 826,  is  not  equal 
Burigny's  work. 

GROUND-BASE,  in  music,  a  subject  consisting  ol  \>    . 
few  bars,  adopted  as  a  base,   and   continually   iv|tM'. 
during  the  whole  movement,  while  the  upper  part,  or  i ;;;  •. 
proceed  at  liberty.    That  the  composers  of  the  seven  iti 
ccn t ury  were  proud  of  displaying  their  patience  an d  md n*'  < 
by  writing  on  subjects  of  this  kind,  we  have  many  pi. 
remaining,  one  whereof,  a  chaconne  by  PurceU,  XihicL  . 
equally  good  as  an  example  and  as  a  composition,  is  ^i«  • 
in  Dr.  Crotch's  Speamens,  vol.  ii,  p.  91. 

GROUND-GRU  (grundeis  of  the  GermanN  ;c;..  - 
du'fond  of  the  French,  ground-ice  of  some  authora,  A'*/*  .• 
ice  of  others),  is  the  ice  formed  at  the  bottom  of  nveriL 

It  is  generally  imagined  that  rivers  freeze  only  ot  f 
surface;  this    however    is   not  tlie  fact,    ice   being    fr- 
quently  formed  at  the  bottom  of  running  water.    Th^\ 
according  to  Dr.  Farquharson,  the  phenomenon  is  &o  om:* 
moui  and  so  well  known  in  certain  parts  of  Lnacoiushir-N 


O  R  U 


460 


G  R  Y 


Tlie  chief  towns  of  the  principality  are,  Eimheck,  the 
capital,  on  the  Ilm,  which  lies  in  the  north,  and  contains 
about  780  houses,  and  5000  inhabitants  -  it  has  tworelii^ious 
houses,  a  gymnasium,  three  churches,  in  one  of  which  (St. 
Alexanders)  are  the  sarcophagi  of  the  dukes  of  Gruben- 
hagen ;  an  orphan  asylum,  two  hospitals,  and  manufactorios 
of  woollens,  cottons,  linens,  tobacco,  leather,  &c :  Osterode, 
in  the  east,  a  walled  town,  on  the  Sose  and  Apenke,  with  a 
castle,  three  churches,  two  hospitals,  a  gymnasium,  a  spa- 
cious granary,  about  580  houses,  and  45u0  inhabitants,  and 
manufactories  of  woollens,  cottons,  hats,  deals,  whitelead, 
tobacco,  linen,  stockings,  &c. :  and  Duderstadt,  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Hahle,  which  Hows  through  it,  a  town  surrounded 
by  ramparts  laid  out  in  walks ;  it  has  about  730  houses,  and 
4600  inhabitants  a  Roman  Catholic  gymnasium,  an  Ursu- 
line  convent,  a  Lutheran  and  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  an 
orphan  asylum,  two  hospitals,  and  manufactories  of  woollen 
stuffs,  tobacco,  tapes  and  ribands,  brandy,  &c.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  Herzberg,  a  large  village  of  about  450 
houses  and  3200  inhabitants,  there  are  iron-works,  a  royal 
manufactory  of  fire-arms,  and  quarries  of  alabaster  and 
gypsum;  and  near  Salzderhelden  and  Siildek,  two  other 
villages,  there  are  royal  and  private  salt-works. 
GRUIDiE.    [Herons.] 

GRUINA'LES,  a  name  given  by  Linnrous  to  the  natural 
order  of  plants  now  called  Geraniaceo}. 

GRUNBERG,  or  GRUNEBERG,  the  chief  town  of  a 
circle  which  forms  part  of  the  principalitv  of  Glogau,  in  the 
north  of  Prussian  Silesia ;  it  is  a  wallea  town  situated  on 
the  Lunze  between  vine-clad  hills;  in  51°  57'  N.  lat.  and 
15°  32'  £.  long.,  on  the  high  road  from  Breslau  to  Berlin. 
Griinberg  has  two  suburbs  and  three  gates,  a  Protestant 
and  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  a  town-hall,  a  civic  school, 
an  orphan  asylum  and  school,  an  hospital,  an  infirmary,  about 
1260  houses,  and  a  population  of  about  9,800.  It  has  ex- 
tensive manufactories  of  woollen  cloths,  of  which  about 
30,000  pieces  are  woven  annually ;  besides  these,  woollen 
yams  are  spun,  and  printed  linens,  straw  hats,  leather,  to- 
bacco, &C.,  are  manufactured.  About  2000  acres  of  high 
land  in  the  vicinity  are  planted  with  vines,  from  which  about 
10,000  hogsheads  of  wine  are  obtained,  a  large  'proportion 
whereof  is  converted  into  vinegar.  The  circle  of  Griinberg 
has  an  area  of  about  332  square  miles,  with  five  market 
villages,  64  other  villages,  and  about  43,600  inhabitants;  it 
is  watered  by  the  Oder,  Ochel,  &c.,  has  fine  forests  of  oaks 
and  other  timber,  is  in  general  fertile  and  well  cultivated, 
and  is  well  known  for  its  woollen  manufactures. 

GRUS,  the  Crane,  a  constellation  of  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere, introduced  by  Bayer.  It  is  situated  between  Eri- 
danus  and  Sagittarius,  a  little  below  Piscis  Australis. 


/-N 

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GRUSTA.    [Gkoroia.] 

GRUTER,  JOHN,  an  eminent  scholar  and  critic  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  bom  at  Antwerp,  December  3,  1560. 
He  may  be  esteemed  half  an  Englishman,  being  of  an  Eng- 
lish  mother,  learned  and  able,  who  is  reported  to  have  been 
his  childhood's  chief  instructor.  Moreover,  his  family  being 
Protestant,  and  driven  from  Antwerp  on  account  of  their 
religion,  he  spent  his  boyliood  in  England,  and  studied 
several  years  at  Cambridge,  which  he  quitted  to  go  to 
I«yden  at  the  ago  of  nineteen.    His  biography,  as  to  dates 


and  places,  is  not  clearly  made  out  &it  ttat  aeademic 
employment  was  at  Wittemberg,  as  professor  of  hi»tor>. 
This  he  left,  rather  than  compromise  his  adherence  to  th«? 
Protestant  religion.  The  professorship  of  belles-lettres  aft 
Padua,  a  place  of  much  emolument,  he  declined  on  similar 
considerations.  In  1602  we  find  him  a  professor  at  Heidel- 
berg, hut  know  not  in  what  branch  of  learning :  he  bail 
also  the  direction  of  the  public  library.  He  hims^f  made 
a  very  valuable  collection  of  books,  at  the  expense  of  M^Ovo 
crowns,  which  was  lost  in  the  sack  of  Heidelbei^  by  TUly 
in  1622.  After  this  he  received  invitations  from  several 
univenities,  none  of  which  were  accepted.  He  oonttnurU 
to  reside  near  Heidelberg  until  his  death,  September  :2ii, 
1627. 

Gruter  was  more  remarkable  for  industry  than  for  bnl- 
liancy  of  talent :  it  is  said  that  he  published  a  book  alm>»wt 
every  month,  which,  of  course,  is  an  exaggeration ;  but  any 
one  of  whom  this  could  be  said,  must  have  publiabed  .i 
great  deal  not  worth  remembering.    The  catalogue  of  h;* 
works  in  Niceron  (v.,  9)  extends  only  to  thirty-two.     It 
includes  editions  of,  or  notes  on,  Seneca,  Statiua,  Martial* 
Tacitus,  Veil.  Paterculus,  Florus,  Liyy,  Sallust,  Pliny,  Ouo»- 
ander,  Panegyrici  Veteres,  Historie  Augustas  Scripturu^. 
Latini  Minores,  Cicero,  and  Publius  Syrus.    His  chief  wiirk 
was  '  Inscriptiones  AntiqusB  totius  Orbis  Romani,*  Heidel- 
berg, 160 1 :  a  repository  of  all  then  known  inscriptioni^  which 
alone,  it  has  been  said,  would  be  enough  for  the  ghiry  of 
Gruter.      The  original  work  however  is  superseded  by  a 
second  edition,  by  Grievius,  Amst,   1707,  4   vols.,   foK; 
'  Lamjpas,'  6  vols.  8vo.,  1602,  deserves  mention  as  a  collec- 
tion of  rare  or  unpublished  critical  notices  on  all  manner  of 
subjects,  by  various  persons,  which  might  probably  hat  e 
perished  in  their  scattered  state.  (Niceron,  Mcmoires  yuur 
servir,  &c.,  vol  ix. ;  Bayle.) 

GRUYE^RE.    [Cheese,  p.  14.] 

GRY'LUDiE  {Achetidof,  Leach),  a  family  of  ioser*. 
belonging  to  the  order  Neuroptera.  Distinguishing  chi- 
racters: — Thighs  of  posterior  legs  large;  tibise  aniutl 
with  spines ;  abdomen  terminated  by  two  long  and  slendi-r 
fleshy  appendages  ;  tarsi  of  the  anterior  and  intennedi^^c 
pairs  of  legs  three-jointed ;  antennae  usually  long  and 
cetaceous. 

The  three  principal  genera  contained  in  this  family  arv 
Gryllus,  Gryllotalpa,  and  Tridactylus.  In  the  genua  Gfyi- 
lus  the  anterior  tarsi  are  simple  ;  the  labial-palpi  are  &hun  ; 
the  anal  appendages  are  long  and  slender,  thickest  at  tlif 
base  and  pointed  at  the  apex ;  the  elytra  in  the  females  vr^ 
studded  with  minute  nervures  which  cross  each  other  in  &n 
oblique  manner ;  in  the  males  the  nervures  are  lesa  nume- 
rous and  irregularly  disposed :  the  wings  are  longer  tb^n 
the  elytra,  and  when  not  in  use  are  folded  longitudiuaU«  , 
the  females  are  furnished  with  a  long  ovipositor. 

The  common  house-cricket  {Giyuus  aomesticuM,  Lanii.) 
affords  an  example  of  this  genus.  This  insect  is  about  thnrc- 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  of  a  pale  brown  colour. 
with  blackish  markings  on  the  head  and  thorax.  It  is  foun  i 
throughout  Europe,  frequents  houses,  and  prefen  the  \io(- 
nity  of  the  fire.  The  male  makes  a  shrill  noise,  which  u 
caused  by  the  friction  of  the  elytra  against  each  other.  Th*-*^ 
insects  are  of  nocturnal  habits,  take  to  the  wing  n!a<lt.v 
and  can  leap  a  considerable  distance.  The  wingless  sper  i 
mens  are  the  larviB,  and  those  which  have  only  rudimentori 
wings  are  the  pupse. 

There  is  another  species  which  is  tolerably  common  iu 
some  parts  of  England  and  in  various  parts  of  the  Omtj- 
nent— the  field-cricket  {Gryllut  Camputru,  Linn.).  Tin* 
insect  is  of  a  larger  size  than  the  house-cricket,  and  uf  .i 
black  colour ;  the  inner  side  of  the  hinder  tliighs  is  rv«l. 
and  the  elytra  are  brown,  with  a  yellowish  band  at  tl-.* 
base.  The  field-cricket  generally  frequents  diy  sandy  di^> 
tricts  ;  it  burrows  in  the  ground  and  preys  upon  other  in 
sects.    The  female  is  said  to  lay  about  three  bundled  egi,«. 

The  species  of  the  genus  Gryllotalpa  are  remarkable  fi-r 
the  large  size  of  the  anterior  pair  of  legs  and  their  fit  not 
for  burrowing ;  these  legs  are  very  broad,  and  fiattenol. 
notched  beneath  at  the  extremity,  and  bear  a  great  resem- 
blance to  the  fore  feet  of  the  mole — hence  Uie  name  of 
mole-cricket  has  been  applied  to  them.  The  mole-crick«t 
(Gryllotaipa  vulgaris,  Lat.)  is  common  in  some  parts  of 
England,  but  appears  to  confine  itself  to  particular  districu. 
It  is  upwards  of  two  inches  in  length  and  of  a  brown  colour. 
the  legs  are  yellowish.  This  insect  excavates  aubtemnean' 
galleries  of  considerable  extent,  and  in  so  doing  throws  up 


G  U  A 


462 


G  U  A 


peatod  by  the  echo  in  the  depths  of  the  grotto.  By  fixing 
torches  of  copal  to  the  end  of  a  long  pole,  the  Indians 
showed  the  nests  of  these  bitxls  fifty  or  sixty  feet  above  the 
heads  of  the  explorers,  in  funnel-shaped  holes,  with  which 
tiie  cavern-roof  is  pierced  like  a  sieve, 

Onco  a  year,  near  midsummer,  the  Giiacbaro  cavern  is 
entered  by  the  Indians.  Armed  with  poles,  they  ransack 
the  greater  part  of  the  nests,  while  the  old  birds  hover  over 
the  heads  of  the  robbers,  as  if  to  defend  their  brood,  uttering 
liorrible  cries.  The  young  which  fall  down  are  opened  on 
the  spot.  The  peritoneum  is  found  loaded  with  ftit,  and  a 
layer  of  the  same  substance  reaches  from  the  abdomen  to 
the  vent,  forming  a  kind  of  cushion  between  the  bird's 
legs.  Humboldt  here  remarks  that  this  quantitv  of  fkt  in 
frugivorous  animals,  not  exposed  to  the  li^ht  ana  exerting 
but  little  muscular  motion,  brings  to  mind  what  has  been 
long  observed  in  the  fattening  of  geese  and  oxen.  It  is 
wtiU  known,  he  adds,  how  favourable  darkness  and  repose  are 
to  this  process.  At  the  period  above  mentioned,  which  is 
generally  known  at  Caripe  by  the  designation  of  '  the  oil 
harvest,'  huts  are  built  by  the  Indians,  with  palm  leaves, 
near  the  entrance  and  even  in  the  very  porch  of  the  cavern. 
There  the  fat  of  the  young  birds  just  killed  is  melted  in 
clay  pots  over  a  brushwood  fire  ;  and  this  fat  is  named  but- 
ter or  oil  (manteea  or  aceite)  of  the  Guacharo.  It  is  half 
liquid,  transparent,  inodorous,  and  so  pure  that  it  will  keep 
above  a  year  without  becoming  rancid.  In  the  kitchen  of 
the  monks  of  the  convent  of  Caripe  no  other  oil  is  used, 
and  Humboldt  never  found  that  it  imparted  a  disagreeable 
taste  or  smell  to  the  aliments.  The  quantity  of  very  pure 
man<tf<;a  collected  does  not  exceed  150  or  160  bottles,  each 
being  sixty  cubic  inches  ;  the  rest,  which  is  less  transparent, 
is  preserved  in  large  earthen  vessels :  the  whole  hardly  seems 
to  correspond  with  the  immense  annual  carnage  of  birds.** 
The  use  of  the  Guacharo  oil  is  very  antient,  and  an  Indian 
family,  bearing  the  name  of  Morocomas,  pretend  to  be  the 
lawful  proprietors  of  the  cavern,  as  descendants  firom  the 
first  coloni)»ts  of  the  valley,  and  lay  claim  to  the  monopoly 
of  the  fat ;  but,  when  Humboldt  wrote,  the  monks  had 
taken  care  that  their  rights  were  merely  honoraty.  The 
Indians  were  obliged,  in  conformity  with  the  system  of  the 
missionaries,  to  furnish  oil  of  guacharoes  sntticient  for  the 
church  lamp  ;  the  rest,  Humlwldt  was  assured,  was  pur- 
chased from  them.  He  obsenes  that  the  race  of  Guacharo 
birds  would  have  been  extinct  long  since  if  several  circum- 
stances had  not  contributed  to  its  preservation.  The  natives, 
withheld  by  superstitious  fears,  seldom  dare  to  proceed  far 
into  the  recesses  of  the  cavern.  Humboldt  had  great  dif- 
ficulty in  persuading  them  to  pass  beyond  the  outer  part  of 
tho  cave,  the  only  portion  of  it  which  they  visit  annually  to 
collect  the  oil ;  and  the  whole  authority  of  the  Padres  was 
necessary  to  make  them  penetrate  as  far  as  the  spot  where 
the  tloor  rises  abruptly  at  an  inclination  of  sixty  degrees,  and 
where  a  small  subterraneous  cascade  is  formed  by  the  tor- 
rent. In  the  minds  of  the  Indians  this  cave,  inhabited  by 
nocturnal  birds,  is  associated  with  mystic  ideas,  and  they 
believe  that  in  the  deep  recesses  of  the  cavern  the  souls  of 
their  ancestors  sojourn.  They  say  that  man  should  avoid 
places  which  are  enlightened  neither  by  the  sun  nor  the 
moon ;  and  '  to  go  and  join  tho  Guacharoes'  means  to  re- 
join their  fathers— in  short,  to  die.  At  the  entrance  of  the 
rave  the  magicians  and  poisoners  perform  their  exorcisms 
to  conjure  the  chief  of  the  evil  spirits.  It  appears  also,  as 
another  cause  of  preservation,  that  Guacharo  birds  inhabit 
neighbouring  caverns  too  narrow  to  be  accessible  to  man, 
and  from  these  perhaps  the  great  cavern  is  repeopled  ;  for 
the  mi^isionaries  declared  that  no  sensible  diminution  of 
the  birds  had  been  observed.  Yotmg  birds  of  this  species 
have  been  sent  to  the  port  of  Cumana,  and  have  lived  there 
several  days,  but  without  tiking  any  food;  the  seeds  offered 
to  them  not  suiting  them.  The  crops  and  gizzards  of  the 
young  hirds  opened  in  the  cavern  contain  all  sorts  of  hard 
and  di7  fruits,  which  are  conveyed  to  them  by  their  parents : 
tliose  are  preserved,  and,  under  tho  name  of  setni/h  del 
Guacharo  (Guacharo  seed),  are  considered  a  celebrated  re- 
medy against  intermittent  fevers,  and  sent  to  the  sick  at 
Cariaco  and  other  low  localities  where  fever  prevails.  Our 
limits  will  not  allow  us  to  pursue  Humboldt's  description 
further ;  and  we  must  content  ourselves  with  referring  the 

*  l'1i(<  aiiil'or  rpinnrks  that  tliis  branch  of  industry  remiodt  one  of  the  harrwi 

of  ii\"<u\  oil,  of  wliich  si'iue  thoisaitiU  of  ^uirrt*U  were  Ibrincrlv  colloct«^  iu 
r.m.liii:\  fr>.m  tht«  joiin:;  of  the  Pa*A:ugox  Pkean,  Ectopisttt  ma'ratvria,  [Co- 
I.UMBXUJB,  \oL  vu.,p.  3/3.:  -o  i-  y  L 


reader  to  the  *  Narrative*  for  many  interesting  detail*  t^ 
specting  the  cavern  itself  and  the'surrounding  Hcener>'.  z\^  > ;: 
only  in  conclusion,  the  situation,  elevation  and  temper jti  ■>, 
of  this  extraordinary  grotto. 

The  Cuevadd  Qwntharo^  then,  is  situated  nearly  in  hr 
10^  10',  and  conseauently  in  the  centre  of  the  torrnl  Z'tnc. 
Its  elevation  is  506  toises  above  the  level  of  the  Gulf  nf 
Cariaco.  Humboldt  found,  in  the  month  of  September.  th'> 
temperature  of  the  interior  air  in  every  part  or  it  het^.^ir 
64°  6'  and  66°  of  Fahrenheit,  and  the  esftemal  atmo9*|  i  nr 
61°  2^  At  the  entrance,  the  thermometer  in  the  air  ^'m- 
63°  V  ;  but  when  it  was  immersed  in  the  water  of  the  I.m  - 
subterraneous  river  it  stood,  even  to  the  end  of  the  ca;  r.  :^\ 
62°  2'. 

GUADALAVIAR.    [Spaiw] 

GUADALA'JARA,  a  province  of  Spain,  forming  pr: 
of  New  Castile,  is  boundea  on  the  north  by  the  prcn  .i:"  « 
of  Burgos  and  Soria;  on  the  east  by  Aragon,  from  vh  •  r. 
it  is  separated  by  the  great  central  ridge  which,  nndcr  t*- 
name  of  Sierra  de  Molina,  divides  the  basin  of  the  Etr- 
from  that  of  the  Tagus ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  provi  i  ■  <** « 
of  Madrid  and  Toledo.     The  province  forms  part  of  :. 
upper  basin  of  the  Tagus,  and  is  watered  by  the  Hennrv> 
the  Jarama,  the  Taj  una,  and  other  affluents  of  that  rr.*r. 
[Castile.]    The  ground  towards  the  north  and  east  n^  -^ 
into  extensive  ana  elevated  table-lands,  which  produce  <•  •! 
pastures  and  wood  for  fuel :   the  valleys  along  the  courM 
the  rivers  produce  com,  wine,  hemp,  flax,  some  oil.  frui*% 
wax,  and  honey.    In  the  mountains  are  abundant  rotnc^  • ' 
iron.    The  province  is  divided  into  two  distncts,  Sitrurr    • 
and  Guadalajara,  containing  altogether   521   puebli»     ■: 
communes,  and  about  215,000  inhabitants.     Guadal-nira, 


convents,  a  college,  an  hospital,  and  the  vast  mansioi      * 
palace  of  the  dukes  del  Infantado,  with  some  good  \\. 
mgs,  and  in  the  convent  of  the  Franciscans  the  $pi<f.     i 
sepulchral  chapel  of  the  same  family.    The  old  royal  m«'  4- 
factory  of  woollens,  established  at  Guadalajata  by  Phil  p  \' , 
which  was  once  very  prosperous,  is  now  in  the  hsr.  t- 
private  individuals,  but  greatly  decayed.    Gnadalajurr.  •• 
10  leagues  north-cast  of  Madrid,  on  the  high  ruaii   t 
Aragon. 
(Miiiano,  Diccionario  Geogrq/Ico  de  Efpamcu) 
GUADALA'JARA,  the  capital  of  the  republic  of  X- 
lisco,  which  belongs  to  the  Mexican  confederation*  is  situ  at  •  . 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  Santiago,  about  21"  N.  lat   r    . 
104°  W.  long.    Though  its  population  is  stated  by  H 
boldt  to  be  only  19.500,  it  had  increased  to  46,804  In  .-.  , 
according  to  Ward,  who  supposes  that  in  1827  it  am*  •  r.     . 
to  nearly  60,000.     It  therefore  ranks  as  the  second  c",\     ! 
the  confederation.    The  town  is  handsome,  the  sinxn>'  i-- 
airy,  and  many  of  the  houses  excellent.    There  are  f«mrtt  • 
squares,  twelve  fountains,  and  a  number  of  con%*ents  t    . 
churches.    The  cathedral  is  still  a  magnificent  buT.  i.* 
notwithstanding  the  destruction  of  the  cupolas  of  b  ith  .  - 
towers  by  the  great  earthquake  of  1818.    The  portaK-s  ^: 
colonnades,  may  be  called  the  bazaar  of  the  town,  b« .-  . 
filled  with  handsome  shops,  well-stockcxl  with  Eur.  t>   . 
and  Chinese  manufactures,  and  with  the  less  important  -  ■ 
duce  of  national  industry.    These  portales  are  much  1: 
than  those  of  Mexico,  aud  built  with  equal  solidity  s^n^i  .^ 
good  taste.    The  Alameda,  or  public  walk,  is  well  iax*l 
and  resembles  in  some  respects  an  English  park ;  it  L^  . 
fountain  in  its  centre  and  a  stream  of  water  all  round,    i .  • 
inhabitants  are  industrious,  and  carry  on  various  tr     -^ 
They  are  good  blacksmiths,  carpenters,  MlverbmitliK  « 
are  noted  for  their  skill  in  working  leather,  as  »ell  i^  * 
manufacturing  a  sort  of  porous  earthenware,  with   \m 
they  supply  not  only  Mexico,  but  also  the  neigh  be  . 
states  of  the  Pacific.   Shawls  of  striped  calico  are  aU^  i.  . 
in  considerable  quantities.     The  port  of  Gaudalau-iT  i   < 
San  Bias  on  the  Pacific,  but  it  has  not  been  murh\*- 
lately,  on  account  of  its  natural  inferiority  to  Maxatla: 
Guaymas,  and  the  trade  of  Guadalajara  with  foreitnt  < 
tries  is  at  present  inconsiderable.  (Ward ;  Humboldt  <  11  .i 
GUADALOUPE,  an  island,  or    more    coniH-t.% 
islands,  divided  from  each  other  by  a  very  narrow  ch.ir 
forming  part  of  the  Lesser  Antilles^  and  intersected  h\    • 
20'  N.  lat.  and  by  62"  W.  long.     Guudaloupe  was  fir>i     - 
covered  by  Columbus  in  1493,  and  was  thus  named  b$  h  . 
honour  of  Saint  Maria  de  k  Guadaloupe.   It  was  prv\ . 


* « 


G  U  A  4 

called  hy  tba  nslin  inhabitant!  Qufnquian.  -It  wu  not 
until  Ids  that  an;  lettlemeDt  of  Europeans  waa  formed 
in  lliii  itland.  In  that  year  a  body  of  SOO  Frenchmen 
landed,  and  forthvith  began  a  war  of  extermination  with 
the  nalivet,  which  continued  until  1640.  It  roniiunad  in 
iKHstiMion  of  F>anoB  until  1 799,  when  it  waa  token  by  the 
.^iiglUb,  but  vaa  icitored  to  France  in  1763.    It  wa«  again 


wbirh  time  it  baa  remained  in  the  posscstion  of  France. 

The  channel  which  biiaati  Guadaloupo,  and  ii  called  La 
Rivii!re  Sal6e,  or  Salt  River,  run*  frum  north  to  louth,  and 
has  a  large  bay  at  each  end ;  that  on  tbv  north  is  called 
Cr,md  Cul-de-sac.  and  that  on  the  south  Petil  Col  de-iac. 
Bc-twucn  ibcae  bays  the  channel  rariet  in  breadth  tntm  3(i 
Lo  70  yards.  Its  de|i(h  is  (o  unequal  that  on);  veueli  ur 
small  burthen  can  past  through  it  The  land  In  the  east 
of  ihii  channel  is  called  Grand  Terra,  while  that  on  the 
we>it,  being  the  part  first  discovered  and  earliest  settlcil,  is 
mure  properly  called  Ouadaloupe.  The  e&Lre  length  of  ihe 
vrhiile  island  is  from  60  to  70  milea,  and  it*  greatest  breadth 

The  island  is  apparently  of  volcania  origin.  About  the 
middle  of  the  waatem  division,  somewhat  towards  the  aoutli, 
ia  a  high  mountain  called  La  Sauffriire,  or  the  Sulphur 
Hill,  about  3500  feet  above  the  leaL  A  thick  black  sninko 
rises  from  Ihia  mountain,  mixed  wilb  iporki.  which  are 
visible  at  night  This  volcano  wo*  in  a  state  of  much  acti- 
Tityinleta.  It  forms  part  of  a  rid^  which  divides  the 
wi-slcrn  division,  extending  through  it  in  a  direclion  north 
ami  south.  Several  streams  rise  in  these  mountain*.  The 
ensicm  dimion,  or  Grand  Terre,  is  more  level  than  the 
western  side,  but  has  no  strDams  or  springs,  and  the  •oil, 
being  of  a  more  sandy  nature,  is  less  fertile. 

The  rapiul  of  the  island,  St  Louis,  or  Point-i-PeIre, 
stands  en  Grand  Terre,  at  the  south  entranca  of  the  Ri- 
viera Salfe,  in  16°  le'  N.  lat  and  61°  36'  W.  long.  The 
harbour  is  sheltered  and  the  anchorage  good.  The  town  of 
B:issa  Terra,  which  i*  in  the  other  division  of  Guadsluupe, 
sUndanooritsMUth-west  Doint,  in  IS°S9'  N.  lat  and  61°  47' 
\V.  lung.  It  is  an  unsheltered  roadstead  with  indifferent 
aiiirliar-.igc,  and  is  unsafe  during  the  hurricane  season,  but 
frum  its  greater  proximity  to  the  most  productive  part  of 
tho  island  it  is  more  frequented  by  shipping  than  I'oint- 
ik-Pc1ro,  and  is  Ihe  chief  commercial  station  of  the  colony. 

The  population  of  Guadaloupo  in  1834,  according  to  an 
ofllrial   return  made  to  the  French  government,   wa4   as 

Main.  Ftmilo.  TduI, 

»uc  Persona     .      13,756         14,967         2a,7-l.'i 
Slaves    .      .      .     46,573         30,112         96,60-1 


Total 


eD,32B 


1 25,4  J  7 


The  free  'population  is  divided  between  the  tonna  and 
jiUnialions  in  nearly  equal  proportions,  whilo  of  the  slaves 
only  1^,153,  or  about  ono-eighlh,  reside  in  llic  Inwus.  The 
number  of  births  in  1834  was  3773,  of  whom  963  belongud 
tu  the  free  classe*  and  1810  lo  the  slaves,  bein);  I  fur  lb  of 
the  fiee  females,  and  only  1  for  27  of  the  femalu  slaves.  The 
number  of  deaths  in  Iha  two  classes  was  samewhnt  nmror 
I»  ilie  proper  proportions,  being  6b7,  or  1  in  3i,  of  free  per- 
sons, and  1974,  or  I  in  49,  of  the  slaves.  The  produce  of 
the  colony  in  Ihe  same  year  (1634)  was  640,000  cwt  of 
fiii;nr,  1,500.000  gallons  molasses,  340,000  gallons  rum, 
'Ji..)00  cwt.  coSee,  and  inconsiderable  quantities  of  cotton 

GUADALQUIVIR.    [Spai:*.] 

GU.\DIANA.     [Spai:».] 

GUAIACUM,  a  genus  of  small  crooked  Ircos,  inhabiting 
scvemi  of  the  West  India  islands,  in  low  places  n^r  the 
srik,  and  belonging  lo  the  natural  order  Zygophvllacov. 
The  must  remarkable  species  is  <i.oJldnale,  from  wlueh  the 
liard,  i-ompaci,  black-green  wjod  called  lignum  vilm  is  oh- 
l-iiiicd.which  isso  heavy  that  it  siiiksinwater,and  from  which 
|ic-ilc!i.  shiivhlocks,  roUurs,  raslors.  Sic.  are  turned.  This 
|i1;int  grows  about  twelve  feet  high,  with  round  knolly 
t'l.-inrlici.  The  leaves  are  equally  pinnate,  wilb  about  three 
|.  'ii-  i>t  opp">ili',  smool It, roundish  ovale,  iirob,i\nic,obliquo 
ii'ii:<M-i,  The  Ituwers  arc  n  bi'uuiifiil  hri-;ht  blue,  groivinu' 
irt  "inall  axillary  cluilura.  Tho  petals  ore  ubluiibr,  downy  in 
tliL'  iiisiile,  about  three  limes  as  long  m  the  supaU  There 
'an  ovale  cuiiipre'rsed  oiary,  vhicU  bo- 


oom?*  an  inversely  heart-shaped  aueoulent  yellow  ca|isul<i, 
with  from  twolo  Ave  eolU,  and  a  single  roundish  cuiii|>re.'>si.ri 
seed  in  each  cell.  Thia  plant  producus  tbegum-rusiii  kiiunii 
in  medicine  under  the  name    "  " 


1.  »  mHiniilW  *!«»  of  Ihu  Jlnmcm  .induij.;. 

GUAIACUM  OFFICINALE,  a  tree,  naiive  of  ibe 
West  Indies,  of  which  llio  wood  and  ivtin  are  ustd  in  int^ 
dicino.  The  wood  should  be  procured  from  the  duramen, 
or  central  part  of  tho  trunk,  as  bein^  the  richest  in  Ihe 
active  principle.  This  nood  should  be  very  denie,  heavier 
then  water,  of  an  obscure  greenish  fawn  colour;  but  the 
recent  fracture  is  yellowish,  exhibiting  an  unequal  rk-avago, 
wilb  a  fbtty  shining  appearance,  if  the  specimen  be  t.'ood. 
The  wood  of  Ihe  cu^iumference  is  lighler,  both  in  culour 
and  weight  pale  fawn,  and  opake.  In  Guiana  the  wood  uf 
Ihe  Dcpierix  odorata  (Tonka  bean)  is  used  under  the  name 
of  guaioc-wood,  which  il  greatly  re?>ombles ;  hence  prohablv 
the  slatement  of  some  writers,  Ibat  the  Guaiac-tree  is  a 
native  of  America. 

Genniito  guaiac-wood  is  destitute  of  smell,  hut  if  rubbed, 
and  still  more  if  set  on  fire,  it  evokes  an  ai^reeable  aroniatir 
odour.  If  long  rheweil.  the  taste  is  peculiar,  guttural,  and 
bitterish.  Trummsilorf  obtained  from  lUU  ]iarts  VC  parts 
of  rosin  of  ^uuiac ;  one  pound  gives  two  ounces  of  extract. 
The  active  principles  are  the  re^in  and  a  peculiar  extractive. 
Guaiar-nood  is  used  in  tho  farm  of  raspings  (chieHy  ob- 
tained from  lite  shops  of  turners  who  make  blocks  for  ships 
of  the  lignum  vita,  as  Ihey  term  this  wood) ;  hut  this  is  a 
mixture  of  the  wood  of  the  external  and  of  tho  internal 
layers,  of  variable  strength  and  quality.  The  wood  is  les« 
used  than  the  resin.      Uuaiao-ret>in  exudes  aponianeuusly. 


and  hardens  on  the  bark. 


Resin  obtained  in  this  way  is  generally  in  spherical  or  long 
lear-!<liapral  pieces.  Il  is  also  procured  more  abundantly 
by  culling  the  stem  in  pieces  of  moderate  length,  boring  a 
hole  through  it,  then  putting  llie  one  end  in  the  Gre,  and 
cuUcciin^  the  resin,  which  flows  from  the  opposiie  end,  in 
calabashes.  Another  mode  is  lo  bull  splints  of  Ihe  uoud  hi 
salt  and  water ;  also  by  digesting  llie  raipcd  wood  and  bai  k 
in  alcubol. 

Tliero  arc  some  slight  differences  in  colour,  tronspurency, 
and  other  points,  according  to  the  method  ofoblainiiig  it ; 
hill  ihene  arc  of  little  runst-quencu,  prmidtd  n,i  aiiiilctilal 
or  fraudulent  admixture  of  oiher  substances  have  occurred, 
such  as  pieces  of  wood  and  bark,  sand,  or  amber.  To  purify 
it  from  tncsc,  il  is  commonly  dissolved  in  proof  spirit.    By 


QUA 


464 


G  U  A 


this  means  a  larger  quantity  of  iesin  is  procured  than  was 
originally  suhjected  to  the  solvent,  owing  to  a  hydrate 
beinc  formed.  Resin  which  has  been  so  purified  has  lost 
nearly  all  acrimony.  The  resin  is  likewise  adulterated  with 
colophony ;  and  it  is  said  to  be  adulterated  with  the  resin 
or  gum  of  the  manchineel-tree,  a  most  culpable  substitution, 
owing  to  its  formidable  powers. 

According  to  Unverdorben,  guaiao-resin  consists  of  two 
distinct  resins :  the  one  is  easily  soluble  in  aqua  ammonio, 
which  the  alcoholic  solution  of  acetate  of  copper  precipi- 
tates ;  the  other  forms  with  ammonia  a  tarry  combination, 
which  is  soluble  in  six  thousand  parts  of  water,  and  which 
the  alcoholic  solution  of  acetate  of  copper  does  not  precipi- 
tate. 

The  resin  of  guaiac  becomes  blue  by  continued  exposure 
to  the  air,  and  also  when  in  contact  with  many  organic  sub- 
stances: many  vegetable  substances,  particularly  several 
containing  gum  and  starch,  turn  the  tincture  of  guaiao 
blue ;  a  point  of  importance,  from  the  similar  effect  of  iodine 
on  starchy  substances. 

The  acrid  taste  of  guaiac-resin  is  owing  to  a  peculiar 
bitter  acrid,  so-called  extractive  (or  guaiacin\  which  is 
contained  in  much  greater  quantity  in  the  bark  than  the 
wood.  It  is  to  this  principle,  according  to  Buchncr,  that 
guaiac-resin  is  indebted  for  its  medicinal  powers. 

Guaiac  possesses  the  property  of  stimulating  the  system 
generally,  causing  increasea  vascular  action,  augmented 
neat  of  the  body,  and  promotes  the  secretions  of  the  skin 
and  lungs ;  but  in  large  doses  it  produces  nausea,  anxietv, 
abdominal  pains,  and  stupor.  It  is  not  prized  now  so  highly 
as  on  its  introduction  into  European  practice  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  when  it  bore  a  most  extravagant  price,  four 
ducats  being  often  given  for  a  pound  of  the  wood.  It  is 
however  a  useful  agent  in  certain  forms  and  stages  of  gout 
and  rheumatism,  and  in  some  cutaneous  diseases,  especially 
when  in  the  first  set  of  disorders  it  is  combined  with  am- 
monia, and  in  the  latter  with  mercurials  and  diaphoretics 
or  antimonials. 

Its  insolubility  in  watery  menstrua  is  an  obstacle  to  its 
easy  administration,  and  even  its  alcoholic  solutions  are 
precipitated  on  the  addition  of  water.  It  is  generally 
made  into  an  emulsion,  or  given  in  pills ;  but  a  soap  may  be 
formed  by  means  of  heated  aqua  potassflD,  in  which  the 
resin  is  to  be  dissolved,  then  evaporated,  and  a  soft  consistent 
mass  is  obtained,  which  may  be  formed  into  pills  or  a  bolus. 

GUAN.    [Cracidjb,  vol.  viii.,  p.  130.] 

GUANA'OO.    ILlama.] 

GUANAXUAtO,  the  capital  of  Guanaxuato,  one  of  the 
United  States  of  Mexico,  is  situated  south  of  21^  N.  lat 
and  near  102^  W.  long.  It  is  on  the  table-land  of  Anahuac, 
6,835  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  built  on  extremely 
uneven  ground,  furrowed  by  numerous  ravines.  The  town, 
which  owes  its  origin  altogether  to  the  mines  which  sur- 
round it,  is  very  irre^larly  built  Many  of  the  streets  are 
very  steep.  It  contains  numerous  splendid  memorials  of 
the  former  rich  produce  of  the  surrounding  mines,  in  the 
magnificent  palaces  of  the  proprietors,  in  the  church  which 
Ibrtnerly  belonged  to  the  Jesuits,  in  the  numerous  chapels 
and  religious  edifices,  and  in  the  road  which  leads  to  the 
mine  of  Valenciaiia.  Tlie  Alhondiea,  a  large  square  build- 
ing used  as  a  public  granary,  is  a  solid  edifice.  Before  the 
War  of  Independence,  the  town  contained  a  population  of 
41,000,  and  its  six  suburbs  nearly  30,000  more;  but  most 
of  the  works  of  the  mines  were  destroyed  during  the  civil 
war,  and  the  annual  produce,  in  spite  of  the  great  sums 
which  the  Anglo-Mexican  Mining  Association  has  expended 
for  their  re- establishment,  still  falls  far  short  of  what  it  was 
formerly.  The  population  has  consequently  been  reduced 
to  less  than  one-half;  in  1827  it  consisted  of  34,000.  nearly 
all  of  whom  were  occupied  in  the  mines,  or  in  smelting  liie 
ores  taken  frum  them.  The  mines  lie  in  different  direc- 
tions round  the  town:  from  1766  to  1820,  tbev  produced 
nut  less  than  225,935,736  Spanish  dollars.  (Humboldt: 
Ward.) 

GUANCABBUCA.    [Peru] 

GUAPORE'.    [BiiAXiL,  p.  359.] 

GUARDIAN,  one  who  has  the  care  of  a  person  and  his 
property,  who,  by  reason  of  his  imbeeility  or  want  of  un- 
t)er»landing.  vi  in  law  considered  incapable  of  acting  fer  his 
own  interest.  Guanlians  in  the  English  law  are  appointed 
only  to  infants,  though  under  the  rivil  law  they  \(ere  also 
asiHi^nc<l  to  idiots,  lunatics,  women,  and  sometimes  prodi- 
gals.   The  laws  of  England  indeed  provide  for  the  protec- 


tion of  idiots  and  lunatics,  bat  the  mlea  rslaliac  ^ 
will  be  more  conveniently  oonsidovd  under  tbcMe  \s 
and  therefore  we  shall  here  confine  our  remarks  toe*-* 
ians  of  infanta.     Hie  guardian  under  the  riTil  Isv  « 
either  a  tutor  or  curator.  [CukatoilI    Gnardiana  «cr-. 
pointed  either  by  the  will  of  the  father,  by  the  di«^ ' 
of  the  law,  or  by  the  magistrate ;  and  accordingly,  w  ith 
once  to  its  origin,  the  guardianship  was  styled  te9ta^r\  :  s 
legitima^  or  aalHfO,    The  nature  of  guardianship  nr.  .*•  r 
civil  jlaw  is  ftiUy  explained  in  the  '  System  des  Pan  «  i 
Rechts'  of  Thibaut,  i.,  p.  377. 

The  usual  division  of  guardians,  accordinir  to  thr  F 
law,  and  therefore  the  most  convenient  order  in  «  i 
explain  their  office,  is : — 1.  Guardians  by  the  comx. 
2.  Guardians  by  custom.    3.  Guardians  by  statnti.' 

1.  Guardians  by  the  common  law  were  of  i  vr  i 
guardians  in  chivalry,  in  socage,  by  nature,  uud  :.  : 
ture. 

Guardianship  in  chivalry  is  now  aboliahcd  by  r^'  • 
tute  12  Car.  II.,  c.  24,  which  extinguished  the  oorr  . 
tions  of  the  feudal  system.   This  guardianship  mr<^*«  '- 
out  of  the  principles' of  tenure,  and  it  could  onU  txkr 
where  the  estate  vested  in  the  infimt  by  ck«>o  . 
tenants  by  knights'  ser\'ice,  being  males  under  21,  tir  * 
under  14,  at  the  ancestor's  deaSi,  were  liable  tu  ii 
continued  over  males  tfll  21,  over  females  till  t»>     r 
riage.    It  extended  over  the  estate  as  well  as  the  ,  <  r 
the  infant,  and  entitled  the  lord  to  make  sale  i>f  - 
riage  of  the  infant  under  the  restriction  of  not  m^i 
marriage  of  disparagement,  and  to  levy  fbrlinturv^ 
infiint  reftised  the  marriage,  or  married,  after  tri.J'r 
alliance  by  the  lord,  against  his  consent.    Tkt*  '  - 
bound  to  maintain  the  infant,  but  subject  to  th»  «. 
he  was  entitled  to  the  profits  of  the  estate  for  ht»  n^  i    ■ 
This  guardianship  being  considered  more  an  tnt^n  >: 
guardian,  than  a  trust  for  the  ward,  was  saleal*Sr 
not  disposed  of,  passed  at  the  lord's  deatli  to  h;»  ; 
representatives. 

2.  Guardian  in  Sooo^e.^-This  also,  like  tbe  f  r-:-     - 
consequence  of  tenure,  and  takes  place  only  wberr  .. 
socage- tenure  descend  upon  an  infant  under  tlx*  r^ 
Upon  attaining  that  age,  the  guardianship  in  »  <-«>•  . 
and  the  infant  may  appoint  his  own  guardiaai.    7  r 

to  this  guardianship  is  in  such  of  the  infiant**  next . 
as  cannot  have  the  estate  by  descent  in  respect  of  « *: 
guardianship  arises,  lest,  it  is  said,  the  lamb  sbou.*.  :• 
livered  to  the  wolf  to  be  devoured.   This  pcccnttOia  ^r 
perhaps  from  too  great  a  mistrust  of  human  nature.  ^ 
seems  that  in  the  early  period  of  the  Roman  Rcpul.:  ■  : 
distinction  was  made.    No  provision  upon  the  »uhi^^    - 
in  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables— the  lawgiivr  d:i  -  t    . 
^ne  that  the  life  of  the  heir  was  in  danger  tbonsj^  <*  « .- 
in  the  hands  of  the  person  who  would  mpn  tr-ci* 
death.    {Montesq,,  b.  19,  c.  24.)    And  e\^n  at  a  ».^-*<* 
period  no  such  rule  was  known  to  the  civil  law :  x   : 
such  a  rule  could  have  no  place  in  the  Rocais  »-  *- 
succession.    By  the  laws  of  Solon,  no  one  c«>i«ld  1  v  «  . 
dian  who  was'  to  enjoy  the  estate  of  the  «ard   ^^  • 
death,  and  such  it  has  been  shown  is  the  law  of  }    . 
with  regaid  to  guardians  in  socage.    The  laws  cf  *^ 
and  the  old  laws  of  France  prescribe  a  middle  r^.^r- 
estate  is  entrusted  to  the  next  in  suecesaioo,  bcn^- 
most  interested  in  preserving  it  from  waste,  bet  Lr 
eluded  from  the  custody  of  tlie  person  of  tbr  mmri      : 
is  the  ^principle  upon  which  the  Court  of  Chsp-r.- 
ceeds  m  its  management  of  lunatics  and  thr  r  •  - « 
[Lunacy.]  The  Ofde  Civil  of  France,  b  I,  tii.  x ,  ^ 
has  many  provisions  relating  to  guardianships  tkv  r  i.- 
to  mention  here.  The  guardian  in  socage  to  eou:ir>i  r 
to  the  custody  of  the  person  and  socage  cataica  of  i^c 
but  also  to  his  hereditaments  not  lying  in  tenuir  «    ' 
his  copyhold  estates,  «here  no  custom  to  the  c^ati  a-\ 
in  the  manor  of  which  they  are  held,  and  al«o  Li*  \nr  ■ 
property.    The  guardianship  in  socage  is  regarded  «%  4 
wholly  for  the  infant  s  benefit,  and  is  not  saUal4K«    r  • 
missible,  but  in  the  event  of  the  death  uf  the  rua* . 
wardship  devolves  on  the  person  next  in  d«vre«  •if  ^ 
to  the  infant,  not  being  inheritable  to  bim,  and  t\^  c-  - 
is  accountable  to  the  infant  fur  the  pn*flts  uf  kts  c>^- . 

Guardianship  in  socage  is  however  SQ|««%vdr»i  W     . 
the  person  and  estate  uf  the  infant,  if  tbe  tklWr  ar*^ 
guardian  according  to  the  sUtule»  as  will  shottty  \m  -^^-^ 
tioned. 


G  U  A 


465 


G  U  A 


3.  Guardian  by  Nature, — This  species  of  guardianship 
has  no  connection  with  the  rules  of  tenure.  It  extends  only 
to  the  custody  of  the  infant's  person  and  lasts  till  he  attains 
2 1 .  Any  ancestor  of  the  infant  may  he  such  a  guardian, 
the  first  right  heing  in  the  father,  the  next  in  the  mother, 
und  if  they  he  dead  the  ancestor  to  whom  the  infant  is  heir 
lias  a  right  to  the  custody  of  his  person.  Until  14,  it  seems 
the  guardian  m  socage  is  entitlea  to  the  custody  of  the  per- 
son, and  after  that  age  the  guardian  hy  nature. 

4.  Guardiant  fi)r  Nurture — are  the  father  and  mother 
ofthe  infant ;  in  default  of  father  or  mother,  the  Ordinary, 
it  is  said,  may  appoint  some  person  to  take  care  of  the  in- 
fant's personal  estate  and  to  provide  for  his  maintenance 
anrl  ecfucation.  though  this  has  been  doubted.  This  species 
of  guai-dianship  extends  only  to  the  age  of  14,  in  males  and 
females.  Both  these  last  descriptions  of  guardianship  are 
nlso  superseded  by  the  appointment  of  a  guardian  by 
stilt  ute. 

Where  an  infant  is  without  a  guardian  the  Court  of 
Chancery  has  power  to  appoint  one,  and  this  juriscliction 
seems  to  have  vested  in  the  king,  in  his  Court  of  Chancery, 
as  Parens  Patrice,  upon  the  abolition  of  the  Court  of  Wards. 
[Chancellor.]    And  where  a  proper  case  exists  for  the 
jurisdiction  of  this  court,  it  will,  treating  all  guardians  as 
trustees  for  their  wards,  interfere  not  only  with  the  pro- 
perty of  the  ill  fan  t,  but  also  with  tlie  custody  of  his  person, 
and  will,  in  case  of  any  misbehaviour,  remove  a  guardian, 
however  he  may  have  been  appointed  or  constituted,  and 
will  appoint  a  proper  guardian  to  the  infknt  in  his  room, 
or  this  jurisdiction  a  *  recent  instance  is  afforded  by  the 
o.'>e  of  the  Duke  of  Beaufort  ».  Wellesley— where,   the 
fiither  being  alive.  Lord  Eldon  upon  moral  grounds  deprived 
him  of  the  custody  of  his  children- and  this  power  of  the 
Court  of  Chancery  is  now  flrmlv  established.    And  thouc^h 
the  infant  may  have  elected  and  appointed  a  guardian,  this 
will  not  exclude  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Court  of  Chancery, 
hut  upon  the  case  being  brought  before  the  court  it  will 
onl(«r  an  inquiry  as  to  the  fitness  of  the  guanlian  appointed. 
All  courts  also  have  power  to  appoint  a  guardian  ad  litem, 
that  is,  to  defend  a  prosecution  or  suit  instituted  by  or 
aguiiist  an  infant.     {Co.  Lilt.,  88,  b,  Hargr.  note.) 

II,  Guardiatu  by  Custom.'-By  the  custom  of  the  city  of 
I^ondun  the  guardianship  of  orphans  under  age  and  unmar- 
runl  belongs  to  the  city ;  and  in  many  manors  particular 
r  iistoAis  exist  relating  to  the  guardianship  of  infants ;  but  in 
tlie  absence  of  any  such,  the  like  rules  prevail  as  before 
tiK^ntioned  of  guardians  in  socage. 

III.  Guardians  by  Statute,— AX  common  law  no  person 
could  appoint  aguaraian,  because  the  law  appointed  one  in 
i*vcry  case.  The  statute  4  and  5  Phil,  and  Mary,  c.  8,  seems 
to  have  given  some  powers  to  the  fathers  of  in&nts  to  ap- 
]  HI  i  n  t  guardians ;  but  guardians  by  statute  are  now  appointed 
by  virtue  of  12  Ch.  XL,  c.  24.  Under  this  statute  fathers, 
ys  bother  under  age  q|-  of  full  age,  may,  by  deed  or  will  attested 
by  two  witnesses,  appoint  any  person  or  penons  (except  Po* 
l»sh  recusants)  guardians  of  their  unmarried  children  until 
they  attain  twenty-one,  or  for  any  less  period.  A  guardian 
appointed  under  this  statute  supersedes  all  other  guardians, 
except  those  by  the  custom  of  London,  or  any  city  or  corpo- 
rate town  in  6vour  of  which  an  exception  is  made,  and  is 
entitled  to  the  custody  of  the  infant's  person,  and  his  estate, 
real  and  personal.  If  two  or  more  persons  are  appointed 
guardians  under  the  provisions  of  this  statute,  the  guardian- 
^hip  remains  to  the  survivor.  By  the  wording  of  the  sta- 
tute vi  father  alone  is  empowered  to  appoint  a  guardian, 
and  consecjuently,  though  the  omission  was  probably  unin- 
tentional, It  has  been  decided  that  neither  a  mother,  nor 
grandfather,  nor  any  other  relation,  can  make  such  an  ap- 
point men  t.  Neither  can  a  father  appoint  a  guardian  to 
n's  naftiral  child:  but  in  all  these  cases  the  Court  of  Chan- 

ccfry  will  appoint  the  persons  namefl  to  be  guardians  if  they 
appear  to  be  fit  persons  to  exercise  the  trust  reposed  in 
tluMn. 

Guardians  are  rarely  now  appointed  by  infants  them- 
selves'*, the  jurisdiction  of  the  Court  of  Chancery  providing 
fiir  safer  and  more  effectual  means  for  the  management 
iiid  control  of  their  property;  and  since  in  manj  cases  the 
*ourt  will  interfere  by  petition  without  the  institution  of  a 
utt.  «  cheap  and  speedy  mode  of  procuring  its  interference 
5  afforrled.  The  guardian  is  considered  as  a  trustee  for  his 
irnnl,  and  is  accountable  for  the  due  management  of  the 
ti  fa  tit^s  property,  and  is  answerable  not  only  for  fraud,  but 
or  negligence  or  omission 
F.  C  No.  716. 


1 


Guardian  qf  the  Spiritualities  is  the  person  to  whom  th» 
spiritual  jurisdiction  of  any  diocese  is  committed  during  the 
vacancy  of  the  see. 

Gutardian  of  the  Temporalities  is  he  to  whom  the  tempo- 
ral jurisdiction  and  the  profits  of  the  see  are  committed 
during  the  like  period. 

The  words  guardian  and  warden  are  of  the  same  signifi- 
cation: indeed,  they  were  formerly  used  indifferently. 
Thus  the  warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports  was  styled  guardian, 
or  in  the  old  French,  gardeyn,  and  churchwardens,  gaideyns 
del  Eglise.  The  Welsh  word  qward  is  the  same  as  the 
English  guard. 

GUARl'NI.  GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,  was  bom  at  Fcr- 
rara  in  1537,  of  a  family  which  had  produced  several  dis- 
tinguished men  of  letters.    His  ancestor  Guarino  of  Verona 
was  one  of  the  restorers  of  Greek  studies  in  Italy.    He 
died  at  Ferrara  in  1460,  leaving  a  son,  Giovanni  Battista 
Guarini,  who  was  many  years  professor  of  belles-lettres  at 
Ferrara,  where  he  died  in  1494,  and  left  several  works; 
among  others  a  dissertation  *DeSecta£picuri,'  and  another, 
'  De  Ordine  docendi  et  studendi.'     Guarini,  the  subject  of 
the  present  article,  after  receiving  a  careful  education  was 
taken  into  the  service  of  his  sovereign  Alfonso  II.,  duke  of 
Ferrara,  who  sent  him  on  several  missions  as  his  ambassador 
to  Venice.  Rome,  Turin,  and  also  to  Grermany  and  Poland. 
In  1582  Guarini  left  the  court  of  Alfonso  in  disgust,  and 
retired  to  his  villa  near  Rovigo,  where  he  applied  himself 
to  his  studies  and  to  his  domestic  affairs,  which  were  much 
impaired  by  the  expenses  attending  his  various  journeys. 
After  four  years  he  was  recalled  by  Alfonso,  who  appointed 
him  secretary  of  state;  but  Guarini   soon  after  resigned 
again,  and  passed  into  the  service  first  of  the  duke  of  Savoy, 
and  afterwards  of  Vincenzo  Gonzaga,  duke  of  Bdantua.  In 
15U0  he  was  once  more  recalled  to  Ferrara,  and  restored  to 
Alfonso's  favour.     In  1592,  Alfonso  having  died,  and  Fer- 
rara being  taken  possession  of  by  the  pope,  Guarini  offered 
his  services  to  Ferdinand  de'  Medici,  grand-duke  of  Tus- 
cany,  by  whom  they  were  readily  accepted ;  but  having 
some  time  after  quarrelled  with  him  also,  he  pas^sed  into 
the  court  of  Francesco  Maria,  duke  of  Urbino.    Becoming 
dissatisfied  here  also,  he  left  the  duke  of  Urbino,  and  went 
to  Rome,  Ferrara,  and  lastly  to  Venice,  where  be  died  in 
October,   1612.    He  often  complained  of  the-  tiammels, 
jealousies,  and  ingratitude  of  courts ;  and  yet,  although  be 
was  not  destitute  of  the  means  of  independence,  he  i:ould 
not  live  away  from  courts,  and  after  repeatedly  quitting  in 
dudgeon  one  prince,  he  looked  about  for  another  to  take  him 
into  his  service.  Guarini  wrote  poetry  of  various  kinds :  the 
most  celebrated  of  his  compositions  is  his  '  Pastor  Fido,* 
(the  faithful  swain),  a  pastoral  drama,  which  was  performed 
with  great  splendour  at  Turin  on  the  occasion  of  the  mar- 
riage of  Charles  Emmanuel,  duke  of  Savoy,  with  the  in- 
fanta Catharine  of  Spain.    It  was  published  for  the  first 
time  at  Venice,  in  1 590,  ten  years  after  the  publication  of 
Tasso*s  pastoral  drama,  the  'Aminta.*    The  two  dramas 
however  are  very  different,  that  of  Guarini  being  more 
complicated  in  its  plot,  and  more  elevated  in  its  sentiments 
and  style ;  perhaps  too  much  so  for  a  composition  called  pas- 
toral.    But  Guarini*B  shepherds  are  in  fact  men  of  the 
world  and  smart  reasoners.    The  greatest  charm  of  the 
poem  is  in  the  softness  and  fluency  of  its  versification.    It  is 
said  that  the  author  spent  many  years  in  touching  and  re- 
touching bis  work.    It  must  also  be  observed  that  the '  Pas- 
tor Fido'  contains  some  loose  passages  and  immoral  senti- 
ments.   The  beauties  and  the  faults  of  this  production 
have  been  commented  upon  by  a  host  of  critics,  the  titles 
alone  of  whose  works  fill  up  a  whole  chapter  of  Fontanini's 
'  Biblioteca  dell'  Eloquenza  Italiana,*  vol.  u  class  4,  ch.  5. 
Some  of  these  commentaries,  with  the  name  of  Verrato,  or 
Verato,  in  defence  of  his  poem,  were  written  by  Guarini 
himself.     The  'Pastor  Fido'  went  through  more  than 
thirty  editions  in  Italy  alone;  it  was  performed  with  ap- 
plause in  the  different  Italian  cities,  and  has  been  translated 
into  almost  every  language  of  Europe.'    Guarini  wrote  also 
a  number  of  madrigals,  and  other  specimens  of  lyric  poetry 
His  works  were  collected  and  published  in  4  vols.  4to^ 
Venice,  1737. 
GUASTALLA.    [Parma.] 

GUATEMA'LA  till  the  year  1829  was  the  capital  of 
that  portion  of  the  Mexican  isthmus  which  now  constitutes 
the  United  States  of  Central  America.  It  was  founded  by 
the  conqueror  of  this  part  of  America,  Pedro  de  Alvarado, 
in  1524,  but  not  on  the  present  site.    The  original  city. 

Vol.  XI.— 3  O 


G  U  A 


466 


G  UB 


built  about  26  miles  farther  t^est,  tteur  the  tbvti  of  Guate- 
mala la  Antigua,  was  destroyed  shortly  after  the  death  of 
its  founder  (1541),  as  it  is  said,  by  enormous  masses'of  water 
bursting  forth  ft-om  a  nei^hbouriQ^  Tolcano,  which  from 
that  circumstance  has  obtained  the  name  of  Ynloano  de 
Agua,  or  the  water-volcano.  A  new  town  was  built  on  a 
neighbouring  site,  and  is  now  called  Goatemehi  la  Antigua, 
or  briefly  La  Antigua.  This  second  capital  was  partly  de- 
stroyed by  earthquakes  in  1773,  after  which  disaster  the 
present  town,  called  Guatemala  la  Nueva,  or  the  New,  was 
founded  in  1774. 

Guatemala  la  Nueva  is  situated  in  U""  37'  N.  lat.  and  90° 
30'  W.  long.,  on  a  plain,  which  is  about  14  miles  long  and 
9  wide,  and  is  4961  feet  above  the  sea-level;  it  is  90  milea 
from  the  Atlantic  and  26  miles  from  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It 
is  built  with  great  regularity ;  the  streets  are  straight,  run- 
nine:  east  aiVd  west,  and  north  and  south,  and  cross  one 
another  at  right  angles.  They  are  40  feet  wide,  and  always 
terminate  in  some  conspicuous  building.  The  streets  are 
badlv  paved,  and  the  surface  has  a  considerable  slope  to- 
wards their  middle,  where  it  forms  a  gutter.  The  houses 
have  only  one  story,  but  occupy  a  great  deal  of  ground,  con- 
tainiug  within  their  walls  one,  two,  or  even  three  court- 
yards, which  have  a  basin  full  of  water  in  the  middle,  and 
are  surrounded  by  a  portico  of  wooden  columns,  under  which 
is  the  entrance  to  the  rooms :  the  roofs  are  flat.  The  town 
is  well  provided  with  water  brought  by  an  aqueduct  from 
a  spring  which  rises  in  a  hill  about  4  miles  from  the  city. 
The  aqueduct  is  a  well-planned  work,  and  the  water  is  con- 
ducted by  pipes  into  twelve  public  reservoirs,  from  wlrich  it 
is  carried  to  every  private  house.  The  most  remarkable 
buildings  are  round  the  piazza,  or  great  market-place,  a 
square  about  150  yards  each  way,  situated  nearly  in  the 
centre  of  the  town.  On  three  sides  of  it  are  projecting 
piazzas,  which  form  a  covered  walk,  under  which  various 
articles  are  exposed  to  sale.  On  the  east  side  stands  the 
cathedral,  a  simple  but  noble  building,  and  near  it  on  one 
side  the  palace  of  the  archbishop,  and  on  the  other  the  uni- 
versity. The  north  and  west  sides  of  the  piazza  are  occu- 
]ned  by  other  public  buildings,  and  on  the  south  side  are 
the  best  shops  of  the  town.  Besides  the  cathedral  there 
are  four  parish  churches,  and  fifteen  other  churches  and 
chapels.  All  the  public  buildings  are  in  a  good  style,  and 
some  of  them  judiciously  decorated.  Guatemala  enjoys  an 
eternal  spring,  the*  weather  nearly  the  whole  year  round  re- 
sembling that  of  the  month  of  June  in  England.  The 
thermometer  rarely  rises  above  70^  and  still  more  rarely 
descends  below  64°.  Earthquakes  are  frequent,  and  in 
1830  several  buildings  of  the  town  were  damaged  by  one. 
The  population,  which  is  stated  to  amount  to  between  35,000 
and  4U,000,  consists  mostly  of  descendants  of  Spaniards, 
auiopg  whom  there  are  many  rather  wealthy  families,  Who 
spend  here  the  rents  of  their  estates.  The  commeree  is 
limited  to  its  own  consumption  and  that  of  the  neighbour- 
hood. Its  manufactures  do  not  extend  beyond  the  common 
Wants  of  life.  The  suburbs,  which  ire  mostly  inhabited  by 
natives  or  mulattoes,  here  called  ladinos,  partly  surround 
the  town. 

Guatemala  la  Antigua  (Old  Guatemala),  which  is  abont 
26  miles  west-south-west  of  the  capital,  is  situated  in  a  wide 
valley  of  great  fertility,  at  the  western  end  of  which  rise  the 
two  great  volcanoes  called  De  Agua  and  De  Fuego,  of  which 
the  first  ri.ses  12,620  feet  above  the  sea,  and  the  second  still 
hii^her.     The  town  itself  is  at  an  elevation  of  5817  feet. 
After  its  partial  destruction  in  1773,  and  the  foundation  of 
New  Guatemala,  the  Spanish  government  ordered  the  place 
entirely  to  be  abandoned,  and  even  used  coercive  means 
agamst  those  who  were  ineliued  to  disobey.     But  as  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  town  had  not  sufl^red  by  the  earth- 
quake, people  still  returned  to  it,  and  it  always  contained  a 
population  of  from  6000  to  8000,  which  in  later  times  has 
so  considerably  increased,  that  it  is  now  inhabited,  accoitl- 
ing  to  several  statements,  by  16,000  or  18,000  people.     This 
increase  is  mainly  to  be  attributed  to  the  great  fertility  of 
the  valley,  in  wjiich  nearly  ail  the  vegetables  are  cultivated 
which  are  consumed  in  both  cities;  a  considerable  quantity 
of  cochineal  is  also  collected.  Among  the  buildings  which 
have  not  been  destroyed  is  the  townhall,  a  magnificent  edi- 
fice and  a  sample  of  the  style  in  which  the  place  was  built. 
A  ^Tetit  part  of  the  place  is  still  in  ruins.    (luaror* s  Hiitory 
of  Guat**mafa;  Haetkens's  Guatemala^  and  his   Central 
Ameril{,\ ;  Dunn's  GuaienuUai  and  CommmiioaiUm  from  j 
Colonel  Galiudo.j  j 


QUAY  A,  or  GUAIAVA.    [PsionmJ 
GUAYAQU'lU  the  capital  of  the  ^trtoient  6ui)^ 
quil,  in  the  republic  of  Ecuador,  in  South   Anwrica,  is 
situated  in  3**  12'  12"  8.  lat.,  and  79*  39'  46*^  W.  long,  on 
the  banks  of  the  river  Guayaquil,  which  ia  aboot   two 
miles  wide  opposite  the  town,  and  enten  the  sea  40  miles 
bcdow  it.  near  the  island  of  Puna.    Vessels  of  conaiderabic 
burden  ean  sail  up  to  the  town  with  great  ease,  M  the  tide 
at  full  and  change  rises  twenty-four  feet    Hie  Xowa  itself 
is  built  on  the  northern  side  of  the  river  on  a  low  eiound. 
and  divided  into  the  old  and  new  town.  La  Gudad  Vieja 
and  La  Ciudad  Nueva.    The  old  town,  which  is  higher  up 
the  river,  is  entirely  inhabited  by  the  poorer  cltsaos*    It  l» 
intersected  by  narrow  creeks,  which  are  full  at  high-iia:«r, 
but  at  half-ebb  the  mud  is  uncovered  and  exhalea  the  luuft 
noisome  and  pestilential  et&uvia,  especially  in  hot  weather. 
The  new  town  is  exempt  from  this  nuisanoe,  but  as  it  stan<;^ 
on  a  perfect  level,  which    has   no    drainage,   its  str^-ci^ 
during  the  rainy  season  (from  December  to  April) are  eoc- 
verted  into  quagmires,  and  are  entirely  impassable.  There  t> 
also  a  marsh  at  die  back,  of  the  city.    All  these  circuonstau cc* . 
taken  together,  sufficiently  account  furihe  malignant  fcvt  r> 
which  so  often  prevail  in  Guayaquil.    The  whole  Iovm  c\ 
tends  about  two  miles  along  the  river,  but  its  width  is  ti: 
considerable.    The  houses  liave  commonly  one  stor>',  at  id 
the  framework  is  made  of  timber.    The  upright  part3  U> 
the  corners  and  sides  are  very  long  and  stout,  and  are  sun^ 
four  or  five  feet  deep  in  the  earth,  as  a  precaution  agu:urt 
the  terrible  earthquakes  which  are  so  often  experieutvi 
here.    In  the  principal  street,  called  the  Calle  de  Comi*n  r*. 
almost  all  the  nouses  are  two  stories  high ;  the  ground-flo  < : 
is  divided  into  small  shops^  occupied  by  artisans  of  djfllr*  rit 
trades.    None  of  the  public  buildings  are  distinguishel  '  \ 
architectural  beauty.    The  custom-house  is  a  comm\/<!i«i.<> 
building,  and  has  oroad  stone  steps  in  front  for  the  c   .- 
venience  of  landing  at  any  time  of  the  tide,  which  ctnti  i 
be  effected  anywhere  else,  on  account  of  the  deep  mud  a. 
loW'Water.    As  the  tides  rise  so  high,  the  water  far  ab«ui 
the  town  is  brackish  and  unfit  for  drinking.    Several  lur.- 
balzas  are  constantly  employed  to  bring  fresh  water  do^i 
the  river  from  a  distant  place.    There  are  few  apotA«  e>  i  i 
between  the  tropics,  which  for  richness  and  vigour  of  ^i-vi 
tation  can  vie  with  the  wide  valley  traversed  by  tlie  ri\et  <  f 
GuayaquiL    Its  soil  consists  of  alluvium,  and  is  ctf%m  i 
with  groves  of  every  kind  of  intertropical  fruits.    A  couj)  ;k- 
ratively  small  quantity  of  sugar  is  produced,  bat  an  im 
mense  quantity  of  cacao,  which  is  considered  as  good  <:% 
that  produced  in  Venezuela.    The  last  article  is  sent  Iv  ai' 
countries  bordering  on  the  Pacific  Ocean.    Tlie  popuUt  i-  r 
of  Guayaquil  is  stated  to  amount  to  between  24,00u  aii : 
30,000  inhabitants,  mostly  of  Spani&h  origin.    Itfan^  fa.M 
lies  live  entirely  on  board  of  balzas  in  the  river  Guai:iqi ... 
in  the  same  wa^  as  in  China  and  between  the  nuun-rv  .- 
islands  of  the  Indian  Sea.    European  goods  are  ini|r»r'i  ! 
into  Guayaquil  in  considerable  quantities,  and  sent  up  ti.c 
river  to  Babayhogo  or  Caracol,  whence  they  are  camel  ••. 
the  backs  of  mules  to  the  valleys  of  Hambato  atkd  Qu;' 
Mount  Chimborazo,  as  well  as  the  volcano  of  CoUmaxu  aii- 
visible  from  the  town  in  clear  weather.    (Ulloa'a  foyaxr  '  - 
Scfuih  America;  Captain  6.  Hall's  Journal;  Cam^t-ju    - 
and  Cruises  tn  Venezuela  and  New  Granada,  and  tn  .*/*- 
Pacific  Ocean.) 
GUAZU-BIRA.    [Dbeb,  vol.  viiL,  p.  361.1 
GUAZU-PITA.     [DEBii,voLviii.,p.  361.1 
GUAZU  PUCO.    [Dbbr,  vol.  viii..  p.  36iJ 
GUBEN.  a  circle  in  the  administrative  circle  of  Frvnk- 
fort,  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Brandeuburs;,  ia  bound-  I 
on  the  north  by  the  circle  of  Frankfort-on-tbe-Oder.     1  > 
area  is  about  430  square  miles.    The  population  in  I  « .  * 
was  29,358;   in  1831,   36,008;  and  is  at  pieaaat   ab  •  ; 
39,300.    It  is  watered  by  the  Oder  and  Neisse;  the  sun  <% 
is  undulating,  mostly  level;  and  the  soil  is  productive  >-. 
frrain,  flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  &c.     The  only  town  be«:    •> 
Guben  is  FQrstenocrg,  which  lies  on  the  Oder  neax  a  L-t^f 
and  contains  a  chinch,  about  170  houses  and  1750  uxua 
bitants. 

GUBEN,  the  chief  town  of  the  ciide,  in  6r  b^  N.  !«!« 
and  IS""  46'  E.  long.,  is  prettily  situated  on  the  ligbl  b^r «. 
of  the  Neisee,  whiiTli  becomes  navigable  afler  receiviM  ii 
Lubst  at  this  spot,  and  stands  at  the  fi>ot  of  the  Nes&se  br.-, 
which  are  co\i-tv<l  with  vin^ards.  It  has  three  c^A^rdA:- 
able  suburbs,  is  siurrounded  by  walla,  and  tbe  {uiocifk  • 
streets  are  sti-aigbt,  broad*  and  well  paved.   His  popnUu^u 


G  U  E 


468 


G  U  B 


eonsisl  of  the  following  species  :--Stmt<i  Enielius,  Dufr.; 
Simia  rubra,  Gmel. ;  Simia  jEihiops^  Linn. ;  Simiafuli' 
ginoio,  Geoff.;  Simia  Mar.ira,  Linn.  (Gmel.  ?);  Simia 
*a6^a,  Linn.;  Simia  Faunus,  Gmel.;  the  Mona  {Simia 
Mona  and  Simia  monacha,  Schr.) ;  Simia  Diana,  Linn. ; 
Simia  Cephus,  Linn. ;  Sitnia  Petaurista,  Gmel. ;  Simia 
NicHtatis,  Gmel.;  Simia  Nasica,  Schr.  (the  Proboscis 
Monkey,  or  Kahau) ;  and  Simia  nem^pus,  Linn.  (Gmel.  ?). 

In  his  last  edition  of  the  same  work  (1829)  he  makes  the 
group  consist  of  Simite  rubra,  ^thiops,  fiUiginosa,  sabepo, 
Faunus,  erytkropyga,  melarhina,  the  Mona,  Diana,  Petau- 
rista,  and  nictitans,  and  he  places  these  Guenons  between 
the  Gibbons  {Hylobates,  lllij?.)  and  the  Semnopitheci ,  M. 
F.  Cuvier,  in  his  •  Histoire  des  Mammiferes,'  had  expressed 
his  doubts  of  the  propriety  of  placing  the  Entellus  Monkey 
amoni^  the  Guenons,  and  in  his  work  'Des  Dents  des  Mam- 
mitres*  (1825)  had  separated  the  Semnopitheci  from  them. 

Mr.  Swainson  (*  Classification  of  Quadrupeds/  1835)  ex- 
cludes Man  from  the  zoological  circle,  and  makes  the 
'  Quadrumana,  Four-handed  Quadrupeds,^  the  first  order  of 
the  class  Mammalia.  Of  this  order  the  *  SimiacUe,  Ape- 
monkeys,'  form,  according  to  him,  the  first  family,  which 
consists  of— 1.  *  Simia,  Linn.,  Oran-ouiang,*  =  Simia, 
Troglodytes,  Hylobates,  Presbytes,  Pithecus ;  2.  *  CJercopi- 
thecus.  Pouched  Monkeys*  =  Lasioj/t/ga,  Semnojnthecus, 
Colobus,*  Cercopitherus,  Cercocebus,  Nasalis.  The  other 
genera  are  Innuus,  Macacus,  and  Papio.  In  the  table  of 
of  *  Typical  analogical  Characters,'  Cercopitheeus  is  placed 
opposite  to  FertB. 

For  Mr.  Ogilby's  arrangement  (183G)  see  Chbibopoda, 
vol.  vii. 

In  this  article  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  M.  F.  Cuvier's 

second  division  of  the  true  Guenons. 

4  1  —  1  5  —  5 

Dental  formula: — Incisors-,  canines .molars-^ 

4  1-1  5-5 

=  32. 


Teeth  of  Qa&oaiu,  oiM-lbinfh  larger  than  natme.  (F.  Corier.) 

*  In  Um  diagram  of  '  the  Circle  of  Simiaac,'  in  a  precctUu^  part  of  tlic  book 
7^«  thu  word  *  CoMmsf  (with  a  note  of  interrof^atlon)  nppoars  above 
wpUheeus,  oa«  of  Uw  Qve  names  included  in  the  circle '  Cercopitlieciu.' 


The  true  Guenom  comprise  the  genen  Cereopitketttt 
and  Cercocebus  of  Geoffroy.  Nearly  aimilor  in  manners 
and  in  their  dentition,  particularly  with  regatd  to  tl.eir 
canine  teeth,  these  genera  appear  to  be  naturally  alUed  to 
each  other,  though  the  facial  angle  and  more  elongast^l 
muzzle,  the  large  cheek-pouches,  and  shorter  tail  of  tbe 
second  subdivision  (Cercocebus)  seem  to  lead  gtadnalU  tu 
the  Baboons. 

Cercopitheeus. 

Nearly  allied  to  Semnopithecus*  [SsMNOPiTHECt's]  in 
form  ana  manners,  but  differing  from  both  Semnopithffm 
and  Cercocebus,  not  only  in  the  developtncnt  of  the  ri"..- 
tition,  but  in  the  size  of  tlie  facial  angle,  which  range<i  t'n  m 
50°  to  55^  in  the  flat  nose,  in  the  rounded  head,  and  !<•  j 
posterior  extremities. 

Example,  Cercopitheeus  Mona  (the  Varied  Monkey  ..f 
Pennant,  Le  Singe  varic  of  Brisson,  La  Mo7ie  and  Gu'  >  ;* 
Mone  of  Buffon  and  the  more  modem  French  zoologist  •> 

Buffon  is  of  opinion  that  this  species  is  the  Kijt^  (Ci'b'.>* 
of  Aristotle,  on  what  ground  it  is  difficult  to  iinagu.e.  f  i 
Aristotle  only  says — 'Effri  o'  6  fiiv  injPoc,  sriftycoc  ^x****'  <"''     • 
— *  the  Obus  is  a  Pithecus  (or  Ape)  having  a  tail,'  (//.».* 
lib.  ii.,  c.  8.)    Pennant  indeed  gives  'r^^oc?*  (with  an  i*  • 
terrogation)  among  the  synonyms  of  the  Varied  Mntif  - . 
but  in  his  text  he  shows  that  he  was  aware  upon  u !    ' 
slender  data  Buffon  assumed  its  identity  with  the  r^--^^ 
the  Greeks.    Buffon  refers  also  to  Ludolf  *s  curious  nvc- 
(History  of  Ethiopia)  as  applying  to  this  monkey,  witi: 
much  probability  as  distinguishes  his  reference  to  Ari«jti  • 
*  Of  Apes,*  says  Ludolf,  or  rather  his  book  'made  En;:!  * 
by  J.  P.  Gent'  (1682),  'Of  Apes  there  are  infinite  !!o  ^.. 
up  and  down  in  the  mountains  themselves,  a  thousand  z^ 
more  together:   there  they  leave  no  stone  unturn'd.      ! 
they  meet  with  one  that  Wo  or  three  cannot  lift,  the\   • 
for  more  ayd,  and  all  for  the  sake  of  the  worms  that  .   - 
under;    a  sort  of  dyet  which    they  relish  exceehui.. 
They  are  very  greedy  after  Emmets.    So  that  having  fu 
an  emmet-hill,  they  presently  surround  it,  and  laying  t      r 
fore-paws  with  the  hollow  downward  upon  the  ant-bea]>.   ^ 
fast  as  the  emmets  creep  into  their  treacherous  polmes,  ti 
lick  'em  off  with  great  comfort  to  their  stomaehs:    :: 
there  they  will  lie  till  there  is  not  an  emmet  left.    T   ■ 
are  also  pernicious  to  fruit  and  apples,  and  will  dc^r. 
whole  fields  and  gardens,  unless  they  be  carefully  \u^k 
after.     For  they  are  very  cunning,  and  will  never  vent .  ♦ 
in  till  the  return  of  their  spies,  which  they  send  aU  • 
before;  who  giving  information  that  all  things  are  siitc. 
they  TUbh  with  their  whole  body,  and  make  a  quick  di>}.  l 
Therefore  they  go  very  quiet  and  silent  to  their  proy ;  i    ; 
if  their  young  ones  chance  to  make  a  noise,  they  ch..v  . 
them  with  their  fists ;  but  if  they  find  the  coast  rleor,  \\ 
every  one  hath  a  different  noise  to  express  liis  joy.     N  - 
could  there  be  any  way  to  hinder  them  from  further  lu  ■ 
plying,  but  that  they  fall  sometimes  into  the  ruder  hr. 
of  wild  beasts,  which  they  have  no  way  to  avoid  but  i- 
timely  flight,  or  creeping  into  the  clefts  of  the  rock-^.     . 
they  find  no  safety  in  flight,  they  make  a  virtue  of  nect^.-  - 
stand  their  ground,  and  filling  their  paws  fiiU  of  d..^: 
sand,  fling  it  full  in  the  eyes  of  their  assailant,  and  th« 
theii*  heels  again.'     Such  is  the  account  upon  the  ^trt .  ^ 
of  which  Buffon  makes  his  reference ;  but  that  is  n .  *  .  . 
for  the  translation  at  least  is  graced  by  a  large  plate  k 
trative  of  these  wonderful  scenes,  and  there  is  iu»:  ' 
vestige  of  a  tail  among  the  whole  party  of  'Apes,*  t%w.  t 
six  in  number. 

Description. — Top  of  the  head  greenish  yellow  t. 
with  a  slight  tinge  of  black ;  neck,  back,  and  sidv.-  • 
deep  chestnut  brown,  passing  downwards  as  far  a^  * 
shoulders  and  haunches,   where  it  changes  into  a  J  > 
slate  colour  continued  on  the  limbs  and  tail, 'which  I.   ' 
considerably  longer  than  the  body,  and  has  on  each  - 
of  its  base  a  remarkable  white  spot.    Under  surface   •:' 
body  and  inside  of  the  limbs  pure  white,  separated  *■, 
the  neighbouring  colours  by  an  abrupt  line  of  detnarc.c 
Naked  upper  part  of  the  face,  comprehendiug  the  u- 
and  cheeks,  bluish  purple.    Lips,  and  so  much  of  the  t. 
as  is  without  hair,  flesh-coloured.    On  the  sides  of  the   - 
large  bushy  whiskers  of  a  light  straw-colour  mixed  « . 
few  blackish  rings  advance  forwards  and  cover  a  c\  -■ 
derable  portion  of  the  cheeks.    Above  the  cye-hro«>  • 
transverse  black  band,  extending  on  each  side  as  far  a?     > 


*  Fowl  rcmiODs  of  SewuupithtMi  SntMut,  t)ie 
fbund  io  India, 


Mmacy.tewW-i 


QUE 


470 


QUE 


tiiiii))nn  kindness  and  indulgence.    He  frequently  visited 
the  principal  cities  of  Italy,  where  be  met  with  ample  em- 
ployment, and  as  he  designed  and  worked  with  great  readi- 
ness and  facility,  his  productions  were  very  numerous.    His 
fixed  place  of  residence  however  was  Cento,  where  he  re- 
mained till  the  death  of  his  friend  and  competitor  Guido 
Reni,  when  he  removed  to  Bologna.    The  general  applause 
which  the  public  lavished  on  the  works  of  Guido  induced  him 
to  adopt  a  third  style,  in  which  he  endeavoured  to  attain  the 
suavity  of  manner  of  that  artist ;  but  though  he  sometimes 
succeeded,  yet  on  the  whole  his  works  in  this  third  style 
are  inferior  to  those  of  the  second,  beina^  deficient  in  the 
stamp  of  originality,  for  the  want  of  which  no  imitatiqn, 
however  successful,  can  compensate.    He  died  at  Bologna 
in  1666,  in  the  76th  year  of  his  age.    He  bore  a  high  cha- 
racter for  regular  conduct,  modesty,  freedom  from  all  petty 
jealousy,  and  generosity.    He  was  well  informed,  agreeable 
in  conversation ;  and  died  unmarried,  leaving  a  large  pro- 
perty to  his  relations.      His  works  are  at  Rome,  Parma, 
Piacenza,  Modena,  and  Reggio,  and  in  most  qf  the  museums 
and  cabinets  of  Europe. 

GUEHET,  a  town  in  France,  capital  of  the  department 
of  Creuse.  It  is  between  the  Gartempe  and  the  Crease, 
284  miles  from  Paris,  through  Orleans  and  Limoges. 
Gu^ret  was  the  capital  of  the  county  of  Marche.  It  is  a 
dull  place,  with  narrow  crooked  streets ;  but  the  houses  are 
tolerably  well  built,  and  there  are  several  fountains.  Tliere 
are  still  vestiges  of  its  antient  walls  and  towers.  The  popu- 
lation in  1831  was  3100  for  the  town,  or  3921  for  the  whole 
commune.  There  are  twelve  yearly  fairs  for  cattle,  horses, 
hardwares,  &c.  The  towi^  has  a  subordinate  court  of 
justice,  a  high  school,  a  small  public  library,  an  agricultural 
societv,  an  hospital,  and  a  theatre. 
GUERTCKE,  OTTO.  [Air  Pump.] 
GUERNSEY,  one  of  the  islands  of  the  English  Channel, 
belonging  to  England,  is  situated  between  49**  24'  and 
49*^  SO'  N.  lat.  and  2°  32'  and  2**  47'  W.  long.  The  form  of 
the  island  approximates  to  that  of  a  right-angled  triangle: 
the  sides  face  the  south,  east  and  north-west,  and  are  respec- 
tively about  6 J,  6.  and  9  miles  long.  The  coast  is  somewhat 
diflUcult  of  approach,  from  the  number  of  the  rocks  and  the 
rapidity  of  tne  currents  around  it.  Tlie  tides  rise  to  the 
height  of  32  feet.  The  northern  part  of  the  island  is  a 
level  tract,  and  the  coast  for  the  most  part  lies  low :  the 
southern  part  is  more  elevated,  but  the  high  ground  is  in- 
tersected by  narrow  valleys  and  deep  glens,  and  the  coast  is 
lofty  and  abrupt.  Springs  and  rivulets  are  plentiful.  The 
only  good  roads  in  the  island  are  those  made  while  Sir  John 
Doyle  was  lieutenant-governor,  and  leading  from  St.  Peter's 
Port  to  different  parts  of  the  island.    The  old  roads  are  very 

bad. 

The  island  is  almost  entirely  of  granitic  formation :  the 
rocks  are  chiefly  gneiss,  granite,  granitel,  and  sienite. 
Large  masses  of  sienite  are  quarried  at  Grande  Rocque,  on 
the  north-west  side  of  the  island,  for  building;  and  at  St. 
Sampson's,  on  the  east  side  of  the  island,  a  grey  or  black 
granitel  is  wrought.  It  is  used  for  building  and  paving, 
and  large  quantities  of  it  are  sent  to  London  and  Ports- 
mouth for  the  latter  purpose.  Some  trap  rocks  and  mica- 
ceous and  argillaceous  schist  are  observable  in  the  western 
part  of  the  island. 

The  climate  of  Guernsey  is  suT^ject  to  frequent  but  not 
great  variations:  the  thermometer  seldom  rises  above  80* 
of  Fahrenheit,  seldom  falls  as  low  as  37%  and  never  re- 
mains long  stationary  at  the  freezing  point  Snow  is  rare, 
and  frosts  are  neither  severe  nor  durable.  During  the 
spring  easterly  winds  generally  prevail,  but  the  prevailing 
winds  during  the  rest  of  the  year  are  westerly. 

The  soil  is  fertile,  but  the  improvement  of  the  kind  has 
been  checked  by  the  minute  subdivision  of  property.  The 
country  people  li^'e  upon  and  cultivate  their  own  estates,  the 
largest  of  which  is  said  not  to  exceed  200  Guernsey  vergees, 
or  about  74^  English  acres,  and  few  of  them  exceed  half 
that  size.  A  man  who  farms  20  or  30  acres  ic  accounted 
a  large  farmer;  the  holdings  commonly  vary  from  5  to  12 
acres ;  and  the  subdivision  is  progressively  going  on.  The 
land  under  tillage  is  rapidly  increasing,  and  wheat  is  the 
crop  most  generally  grown,  the  red  wheat  having  the  pre- 
ference. Oats,  beans,  and  rye  are  seldom  raised ;  oats  can 
be  imported  cheaper  than  they  can  be  grown.  Parsnips 
are  used  for  winter  fodder  for  cattle,  and  for  fattening  them ; 
but  the  cultivation  of  this  root  is  declining.  The  ploughed 
lands  an  never  suffered  to  lie  fallow*  The  prinoipiu  manure 


L 


used  is  sea-weed.  The  bones  of  the  island  are  all  Ul-liameil 

and  ill-fed. 

The  breeding  of  cattle,  especially  of  cows,  is  in  Guem^^ry 
an  object  of  great  attention.  The  islanders  consider  thr.r 
cows  superior  to  those  of  Jersey;  and  they  are  certain:, 
larger.  The  dairy  is  on  all  fanns  of  any  size  the  prim-t^  .i 
object  of  attention,  and  the  chief  source  of  the  ^nui.'* 
profit.  The  butter  that  is  made  is  in  high  repute.  1  ■  •: 
export  of  cows  to  England  is  %*ery  small.  Swme  are  n.. 
merous,  and  the  hogs  attain  a  great  size ;  but  few  sbevp  a: «' 
bred. 

The  island  is  not  so  well  wooded  as  Jersey.  In  some  pa:  t.^ 
however  there  is  tolerable  abundance  of  wood,  and  Kvnt  • 
men*8  seats  are  generally  shaded  by  trees.  The  hclc- 
rows  are  chiefly  of  furze.  The  orcliards,  chiefly  of  9\*- 
pies,  are  productive,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  c\  • 
is  made,  both  for  home  consumption  and  for  exportate  «•. 
The  usual  fruits  of  an  English  garden  grow  in  (rr«-.t 
abundance,  and  the  mildness  of  the  climate  affortU'  i^'  - 
portunities  ibr  raising  in  the  open  air  those  which  .:; 
England  require  artificial  heat  or  shelter.  The  fig-tn  •« 
succeeds  well :  melons  are  raised  under  hand-glaases,  At  I 
some  species  without  glass ;  and  even  the  orantce-tfee.  wu .. 
the  advantage  of  a  wall,  and  in  winter  the  shelter  of  n).it% 
bears  fruit. 

The  cultivation  of  flowers  is  carried  on  with  gr«%t 
success.  The  Guernsey  lily,  a  species  of  the  araarvlU's  ^ 
a  native  of  Japan ;  it  is  a  delicate  plant,  liable  to  be  injure*  * 
even  by  the  mild  winters  of  the  island,  and  not  more  tii ..: 
fifteen  or  eighteen  roots  in  a  hundred  blossom. 

There  is  a  good  deal  of  waste  land  in  the  inland,  esperiui'.% 
in  the  western  and  northern  parts,  covered  with  furze,  vhi< :. 
is  used  for  fuel.  In  the  year  1808  a  large  tract  of  la:  i. 
amounting  to  about  300  acres,  which  had  been  overfli>v«-j 
by  the  sea,  and  was  covered  every  tide,  was  by  the  exisrtii^ : 
of  Sir  John  Doyle  (then  lieutenant-governor  of  the  isU'vi  i 
recovered  and  brought  into  cultivation. 

A  great  variety  of  fish  is  taken  on  the  shores  of  tW 
island:  mackerel,  gar-fish,  whitini^s,  bream,  pollacks,  r^tk- 
fish,  congers  (which  last  sometimes  weigh  from  3o  tt 
40  lbs.  each),  and  mullets.  Soles  and  plaice  are  cau;?>:. 
but  not  in  any  great  quantity.  There  are  crabs  loli>i<i-*, 
cray-flsh,  and  oysters  in  plenty.  There  is  a  shell-fish,  w*i ; 
to  be  peoruliar  to  the  Channel  Islands,  called  the  onnt-r, 
which,  when  dressed,  resembles  a  veal  cutlet.  Vano.  - 
species  of  the  sea  anemone  are  found. 

The  only  division  of  Guernsey  is  into  parishes:  these  arc 
ten  in  number,  and,  with  their  situation  and  population  ir. 
1831,  are  as  follows:— St.  Andrew,  central,  101 1;  Cat.:, 
west  and  central,  1937;  Forest,  south,  695;  St.  Martin. 
south-east,  1652;  St.  Peter  du  Bois,  west  and  south-wes?. 
1191;  St.  Sampson,  north,  1109;  St.  Saviour,  west  a'^d 
central,  1073;  St.  Torteval,  south-west^  378;  The  Vale, 
north,  1410;  St.  Peter's  Port,  east,  13,893. 

The  aggregate  population  of  the  above  parishes  amounted 
to  24,349;  and,  with  the  population  of  the  dependent 
islands,  Aldemey  and  the  Caskets  (1045),  Serk  (543>w 
Herm  (177),  and  Jethou  (14),  made  a  total  of  26,126. 

The  only  town  in  Guemsev  is  St.  Peter's  Port,  situateil 
on  the  slope  of  a  hill  about  the  middle  of  the  eastern  rcvtst 
of  the  island,  and  extending  for  nearly  a  mile  along  the 
shore.  What  is  termed  Hauteville  (the  upper  town  u  on 
the  slope  of  the  hill,  to  the  south-west  of  the  old  town.  ]» 
the  most  modem  and  best  built  quarter.  The  appearan  -e 
of  St  Peter's  Port,  on  approaching  it  by  sea,  is  imposing. 
As  the  houses  rise  one  above  the  other,  little  or  nothing  l< 
lost  to  the  eye.  The  streets  however  are  narrow,  steep,  an  7 
crooked;  and  the  houses,  though  substantial,  are  du^kv 
looking  and  old.  The  government-house,  the  residence  of 
the  lieutenant-governor,  is  a  substantial  but  heavy  building. 
Near  the  government-house  is  Elizabeth  College,  a  band 
some  and  extensive  building,  of  mixed  architecture  and 
monastic  appearance,  surrounded  with  spacious  ornamental 
pounds.  St.  Peter's,  the  most  modem  church  in  the 
island,  was  consecrated  jljd.  1312.  The  new  eonrt-hooae,  a 
neat  building,  and  the  new  prison,  an  expensive  but  ill-con- 
trived structure,  are  in  Hauteville.  The  town-hoepital  wi.< 
erected  a.d.  1741-42,  and  enlarged  and  improved  a-ix  160*j 
10.  There  are  three  markets:  tlie  fish-market,  vhich  i* 
well  supplied,  is  a  spacious  arcade,  190  ftwt  long^  and  broad 
and  lofty  in  proportion,  with  a  double  row  of  msible  sUIm 
extending  the  whole  length  of  the  building;  the  other 
markets  an  oommodioiii.    In  the  neighbowtedl  <C  (be 


G  U  E 


472 


G  U  E 


during  the  reign  of  the  same  prince,  attacked  by  the  French 
under  one  Yvans,  but  without  success.  In  the  reipjn  of 
Edward  VI.  the  French  attacked  by  surprise  a  squadron  of 
ships  lying  in  the  roadstead  of  St.  Peter's  Port,  but  were 
repulsed. 

In  the  civil  war  of  Charles  I.  and  his  parliament  the 
Channel  Islands  embraced  the  king's  party,  and  were  not 
subdued  until  after  the  death  of  Charles. 

Protestantism  was  introduced  into  the  islands  in  the  reigns 
of  Henry  VIII.  and  £dward  VI.,  and  made  considerable 
progress.  When  it  was  restored  under  Elizabeth,  the  Ge- 
nevese  discipline  was  gradually  introduced,  and  at  length 
formaUy  established  .by  two  general  synods  of  the  clergy  of 
all  the  islands  held  at  St.  Peter's  Port  in  a.d.  1576  and  1597. 
That  these  proceedings  should  have  received  no  check  from 
the  queen,  as  imperious  in  ecclesiastical  as  in  civil  matters, 
is  a  curious  feature  in  the  history  of  the  time.  Presbyte- 
rianism  retained  its  predominance  in  Guernsey  until  the 
restoration  of  Charles  II.  and  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  Uni- 
formity. Many  were  then  induced  to  fall  in  with  the 
Liturgic  service,  but  so  late  as  a.d.  1755  the  dean  was 
obliged  to  apply  to  the  civil  magistrates  to  enforce  the 
reading  of  the  Litany.  And  even  at  Ihe  present  time  the 
surplice  is  not  used,  and  though  baptism  is  generally  admi- 
nistered in  the  church,  yet  there  is  not  a  font  in  the  whole 
island. 

Dependencies  of  Guenueyj  AUJtemey,  Serk,  Herm,  and 
Jethtm, — Of  Alderney  an  account  is  given  elsewhere.  [Al- 
DBRNEY.]  Serk,  or  Sercq,  the  next  in  size  to  Alderney,  is 
about  six  and  a  half  to  seven  miles  east  of  Guernsey.  Its 
greatest  dimension  is  about  three  miles  from  north  to 
south :  its  greatest  breadth  is  about  a  mile  and  a  half;  but 
it  is  so  contracted  near  the  centre  of  the  island  that  it  may 
be  regarded  as  consisting  of  two  parts,  one  of  them  called 
Little  Serk,  connected  together  by  a  high  and  narrow  ridge 
or  isthmus  called  the  Coup6e.  The  coast  is  indented  on 
every  side  by  small  bays,  called  by  the  islanders  '  boutiques' 
(shops) ;  and  is  so  girt  with  cliffs  that  there  is  no  way  of 
landing  on  the  island  but  by  scrambling  up  the  cliffs  or 
ascending  by  a  tunnel  cut  through  the  solid  rock  in  the  little 
harbour  of  Creux,  on  the  north-east  side  of  the  island.  Serk 
is  a  table-land,  and  when  approached  from  the  sea  presents 
the  appearance  of  an  inaccessible  wall  of  rock,  from  one  to 
two  hundred  feet  high ;  but  when  on  shore  it  is  perceived  that 
it  is  broken  into  romantic  valleys,  watered  by  little  tumbling 
brooks,  diversified  with  wood,  and,  except  Little  Serk, 
under  cultivation.  Serk  is  a  strong  natural  fortification, 
and  might,  at  a  small  expense,  be  rendered  impregnable. 
It  is  higher  on  the  western  than  on  the  eastern  side,  and 
its  western  side  is  so  abrupt  that  a  large  ship  may  range 
tolerably  near  without  danger.  The  eastern  snore  is  lined 
with  rocks  running  far  out  into  the  sea. 

The  western  side  of  the  island  belongs  for  the  most  part 
to  the  trap  and  schistose  formation ;  the  eastern  side  to  the 
granite  formation.  On  the  west  side  of  Serk,  separated 
from  it  by  a  narrow  strait,  is  the  island  of  Brechou,  or 
Brechnou,  otherwise  the  He  des  Marchands,  about  a  mile 
and  a  half  round.  It  was  once  kept  by  the  lord  of  Serk  as 
a  rabbit  warren,  but  he  has  lately  settled  two  families 
upon  it. 

The  healthiness  of  Serk  is  attested  b^  the  fact  that,  on 
the  average  of  ten  years,  the  yearly  mortality  is  not  quite 
one  in  a  hundred.  The  population  in  1831  was  543.  The 
land  is  generally  under  tillage.  The  manure  used  is  vraic, 
or  sea-weed.  The  produce  consists  of  wheat,  barley,  oats, 
beans,  potatoes,  parsnips,  and  mangel-wurzel.  The  island 
grows  more  than  sufficient  for  its  own  consumption :  it  is 
commonly  said  that  the  yearly  produce  of  corn  is  equivalent 
to  two  years'  consumption ;  in  1832  upwards  of  500  qrs.  of 
wheat  were  exported,  and  a  large  quantity  of  potatoes.  From 
the  indivisibility  of  property  the  inclosures  are  larger  than 
in  the  neighbouring  islands.  There  are  many  good  orchards 
in  Serk,  which  produce  abundantly.  The  horses  are  not 
large  nor  good-looking,  but  hardy,  good  workers,  and  easily 
kept ;  horned  cattle  and  hogs  are  larger  than  in  Guernsey, 
and  the  few  sheep  that  are  kept  afford  excellent  mutton. 
Disease  among  the  cattle  is  rare.  The  quantity  of  land 
under  tillage  is  about  1100  acres;  land  lets  readily  at  75s, 
an  acre ;  all  rents  are  paid  in  kind. 

The  island  constitutes  one  manor,  comprehending,  besides 
other  land,  forty  original  copyhold  farms,  which  cannot  be 
divided  either  in  case  of  sale  or  descent.  This  checks  the 
increase  of  tho  population,  which  has  consequently  taken 


iic 


4     14 


place  only  upon  such  land  as  had  not  been  granted  in  eopy* 
nold.  These  copyhold  farms  scarcely  average  more  tliau 
fifteen  acres,  and  as  this  does  not  afford  sufficient  occupy*  ion 
for  the  farmer  and  his  family,  all  the  farmers  are  fi^heimca 
also.  They  catch  abundance  of  rock-fish,  which  are  saitd 
for  the  winter:  the  surplus  prorluce,  consisting  chiefly  «f 
crayfish  and  lobsters,  is  taken  to  market  at  Guernsey.  Tin- 
farmers  are  their  own  boat-builders,  and  the  little  harbdir 
of  Creux,  protected  by  a  pier  or  breakwater,  form*  th-s 
building-yard.  The  absence  of  the  men  at  their  fislung  cau^<-> 
much  out-door  labour  to  fall  upon  the  women,  uho  arc  ri- 
markably  plain,  while  the  men  may  be  considered  a  pf. 
looking  race.  The  farmers*  houses  are  built  of  stone»  and  .^r  • 
commonly  in  the  dells  or  other  sheltered  situations^  aiul  i 
better  sort  have  inclosures  before,  and  a  little  orchard  1» 
hind.  The  people  of  Serk  live  better  than  thot«  of  :  h 
neighbouring  islands.  Cows  are  very  generall)  kept,  a 
butter  made,  some  of  which  is  sent  to  Guernsev. 

iJ'here  are  a  few  shopkeepers  in  Serk,  and  a  few  artifir  r; «. 
such  as  shoemakers  and  general  carpcnten;  the  femalv^  .  f 
each  family  are  the  tailors  and  hatmakers  of  the  isle.  T.  o 
island,  in  civil,  military,  and  ecclesiastical  affiairs  is  a  <i>  - 
pendency  of  Guernsey,  but  a  power  of  making  local  et.a  .- 
ments  is  vested  in  the  lord  of  the  manor  and  the  f^ri-. 
copyholders,  who  form  a  little  parhament  that  meet^  thr  •• 
times  in  the  year.  The  lord  has  a  veto  on  its deUberat !•>%-. 
He  appoints  a  seneschal  as  the  iudge  of  the  island  ;  iXu  :*- 
is  an  appeal  from  his  court  to  tLe  royal  court  of  Goern^'  > 
All  the  inhabitants  above  sixteen  years  of  age  are  obhj  t 
to  bear  arms,  and  constitute  the  militia  of  the  island,  ab^tut 
one  hundred  strong. 

The  island  forms  a  curacy,  to  which  the  lord  of  ^  .  •. 
presents  :  there  is  no  fixed  stipend  ;  but  at  present  tho  1  :  I 
(who  receives  the  great  tithes  of  the  island)  allows  the  tii 
cumbent  80/.  a  year  and  a  free  house:  the  church,  a  ur.: 
building,  was  built  in  1 820,  and  is  regularly  attended  :  - 
most  of  the  inhabitants.  There  is  a  free-school  in  tlie  ui«i.d, 
which  is  attended  by  about  seventy  children. 

In  the  sixth  century  Serk  was  uninhabited,  and  it  is  vi.  I 
that  St  Magloire,  bishop  of  Del,  repaired  here  to  dci-  v 
himself  to  solitude,  prayer,  and  meditation  for  his  h«.'.v 
work,  before  visiting  the  other  islands  to  introduc«  ii  . 
Gospel.  In  the  middle  ages  Serk  was  a  nest  of  pirate^,  l>  .i 
these  having  been  destroyed  by  an  ex)>edition  fitted  out  >  t 
the  men  of  Rye  and  WincheUea,  tho  island  was  a;r.  t. 
uninhabited  till  the  time  of  Edward  VI.  Then  it  «•  £« 
occupied  by  the  French ;  but  was  retaken  by  some  Flcin*.  . » 
in  the  reign  of  Mary  I.,  Edward's  successor.  After  ihLs  i;. 
island  was  uninhabited  till  a.d.  1565,  when  it  wassetlU'^l  )•» 
a  colony  sent  by  Hillary  de  Carteret,  Lord  of  SL  Ouen'«  ■:. 
Jersey,  under  a  patent  from  Queen  Elizabeth.  Serk.  ..i 
called  Gers  by  the  French. 

Herm  is  within  two  miles  and  a  half  of  Guernsey  -  tu 
greatest  length  is  from  north  to  south  about  a  mile  and  a  h  ^M 
the  greatest  breadth  scarcely  exceeds  half  a  mile.     Lik- 
Guernsev  it  is  loftiest  in  its  southern  part,  where  the  oii-: 
is  bounded  by  cliffs ;  the  northern  part  has  a  low  slntiv. 
with  sands  extending  some  distance  beyond  higU-wa!*  - 
mark.    The  rocks  which  surround  it«.a^und  with  shci:* 
fish.    What  is    called  *  the  shell   beach*  extends    fr-Tj 
half  to  three-quarters  of  a  mile  along  the  shore,  and  isc  tt»- 
posed  of  small  perfect  shells  and  fragments  of  larger  or«*<. 
without  any  intermixture  either  of  pebbles  or  sand.     1 :«. 
island  is  rich  in  corals,  sponges,  and  coralines,  and  all.»:   > 
some  rare  specimens  of  diminutive  lobsters,  crawfish,  ^p}*l-T 
crabs,  &c.    The  shores  afford  abundance  of  sea- weed  t*  - 
manure.    The  island  is  composed  of  gneiss  and  frmn 
which  last  is  quarried.    It  has  one  little  harbour  near  lit. 
granite  auarries. 

Some  nundreds  of  acres  of  land  are  under  indifferent  r ...  - 
tivation :  but  a  good  deal  of  land,  at  present  coveruil  w: 
furze  and  wild  mint,  might  be  brought  under  Ullagt.     T. . 
produce  of  the  island  in  corn  and  potatoes  is  said  to   ;  < 
greater  than  the  consumption.     Few  sheep  are  kept,  tliou . . 
there  is  much  ground  suited  for  them,  and  they  were  i    - 
merly  more  numerous.  There  are  abundance  of  wild  rabl'ii- . 
and,  besides  the  birds  that  frequent  tho  other  island^  t:.%. 
cormorant  may  sometimes  be  seen. 

The  population  of  the  i^nd  in  1831   was  177.     Ilr*  • 
belongs  to  one  proprietor,  who  resides  on  the  Uland  .  t 
granite  quarries  are  his,  and  he  is  the  only  culti^nx.r 
the  soil. 

Jethou  lies  south  by  west  of  Hefm»  distant  ludf  an,- 


G  U  I 


474 


G  U  I 


make  the  duke  acknowledge  himself  his  feudatory;  but 
Gruicciardini  prevented  this,  for  althouprh  hostile  to  a  popu* 
lar  form  of  government,  he  was  anxious  to  maintain  the 
political  independence  of  his  country  under  a  native  ruler. 
When  the  Duke  Alessandro  was  murdered  by  his  cousin 
and  companion  in  debauch  Lorenzino  de'  Medici,  in  Janu- 
ary, 1537,  Guiociardini  by  his  timely  measures  prevented  a 
popular  explosion,  and  by  his  influence  in  the  council 
obtained  the  appointment  of  Cosmo  de'  Medici  as  governor 
of  the  Florentine  republic,  with  a  fixed  income  of  12,U00 
golden  florins  a-year,  and  under  the  express  condition  that  he 
should  do  nothing  without  the  advice  of  his  counciL  Here 
however  Guicciai^ini  miscalculated,  and  he  was  told  so  at 
the  time  by  his  brother-councillor  Vettori :  he  wished  to  esta- 
blish something  like  the  government  of  Grenoa  or  Venice ;  but 
the  circumstances  of  those  states  were  very  different  from 
those  of  Florence,  where  the  Medici  had  been  for  a  cen- 
tury past  the  hereditary  leaders  of  a  powerful  party,  and 
were  supported  by  foreign  powers.  The  event  soon  unde- 
ceived Ouicciardini.  Cosmo,  aspiring,  and  clever,  with  more 
self-command  than  his  predecessor  Alessandro,  soon  ex- 
changed his  title  of  governor  for  that  of  duke,  and  esta- 
blished himself  as  absolute  lord  not  only  of  Florence,  but  of 
all  Tuscany.  [Cosmo  I.]  Guicciardini  remained  for  some 
time  attached  to  him ;  but  finding  his  advice  disregarded, 
he  resigned  his  office,  and  withdrew  to  his  country-house 
at  Arcetri,  where  he  employed  himself  in  writing  the  con- 
temporary history  of  Italy,  which  was  not  published  till 
more  than  twenty  years  after  his  death.  He  died  in  his  re- 
tirement, in  May,  1540,  at  the  age  of  58,  and  his  death  was 
said  to  hAve  been  hastened  by  di!>appointment  at  the  unto- 
ward result  of  his  political  exertions. 

Of  Guicciardini's  history  the  first  sixteen  books  were 
published  in  1561;  the  other  four  appeared  afterwards; 
and  the  whole  twenty  together  were  published  fur  th^  first 
time  at  Venice  in  1569:  'Istoria  d    Italia   di  Francesco 
Guicciardini,  gentiluomo  Fiorentino,  libri  x\.'     The  work 
was  afterwards  frequently  reprinted  both  in  Italy  and  in 
other  countries,  and  it  has  been  translated  into  several 
European  languages.    The  old  Italian  editions  are  muti- 
lated from  political  motives:  the  first  unmutilated  edition 
was  that  under  the  fictitious  date  of  Fribourg,  3  vols.  4to., 
1775  ;  but  the  most  complete  and  correct  edition  is  that  by 
Professor  Rosini,   of  Pisa,   10  vols.  8vo.,  1819-20,  with  a 
luminous  essay  by  the  editor  concerning  Guicciardini's  life 
and  writings.     Guicciardini  stands  by  common  consent  at 
the  head  of  the  general  historians  of  Italy.     His  narrative, 
which  embraces  the  period  from  1494  to  1 532,  is  that  of  a 
contemporary  who  had  seen  and  participated  in  many  of  the 
events  which  he  relates.     He  is  very  prolix,  difiering  in  this 
respect  from  the  concise  nervousness  of  hi^  countryman  Ma- 
chiavelli,  and  his  minuteness  is  sometimes  wearisome.  He  has 
adopted  Livy's  custom  of  putting  speeches  into  the  mouths 
of  his  principal  historical  personages,  and  sometimes  the 
sentiments  he  makes  them  express  are  not  consistent  with 
facts,  as  Foscarini  has  observed  in  his  '  History  of  Vene- 
tian Literature.'    In  his  narrative  he  has  been  charged, 
not  with  stating  untruths,  but    with  colouring  and   dis- 
guising truth  when  he  speaks  of  parties  which  he  dislikes, 
such  as  the  Florentine  popular  leaders,  the  French,  and  the 
court  of  Rome,  which,  after  the  death  of  Clement  VII.,  be- 
came hostile  to  the  Medici.    In  his  tone  he  cannot  be  called 
either  moral  or  patriotic.   Like  Machiavelli,  he  belongs  to  the 
school  of  positive  or  matter-of-fact  historians ;  he  considers 
men  such  as  he  found  them  to  be,  and  not  such  as  they 
might  or  ought  to  be ;  he  relates  with  the  same  coolness 
an  atrocious  act  as  a  generous  one ;  and  he  seems  to  blame 
failure  resulting  from  incapacity,  or  weakness,  or  scrupu- 
lousness, more  than  the  success  resulting   from  boldness 
and  abilities,   however  unprincipled.      Like    some  other 
statesmen,  he  considers  an  error  in  politics  as  worse  than  a 
crime.     It  must  be  observed  however  that  Guicciardini 
lived  in  an  age  of  triumphant  dishonesty,  that  he  was  the 
contemporary  of  the  Borgias,  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  of 
Ludovico  8forza,  Bourbon,  Pescara,  and  the  worst  of  the 
Medici;  and  it  is  no  wonder  therefore  that  he  ascribes  the 
acts  of  publio  men  to  two  great  sources,  selfish  calculation, 
or  passion,  and  seldom,  if  ever,  to  virtue,  or  disinterested- 
ness.   Collections  have  been  made  of  the  moral  and  politi- 
cal aphorisms  scattered  through  his  work,  by  his  nephew 
Ludovico  Guicciardmi  (Antwerp,  1585),  by  Anghiari  (Ve- 
nice, 1625),  and  others.     Corbinelli  published  another  col- 
Icetion  of  principles  and  sentences  which  it  appears  that 


Guicciardini  had  written  separately  for  his  own  gaidan<*<! : 
'  Consigli  e  Awertimenti  in  materia  di  Re  Pubbhrae  di  Pri- 
vata,'  Paris,   1576.     Part  of  his  correspondence  w&^  p  *  > 
lished  by  Frd  Remigio  in  his  'Consideracioni  civili  v.;.* 
r  Istoriadi  Francesco  Guicciardini,'  Venice,  1582.     O  .    * 
letters  of  Guicciardini,  written  during  his  Spanish  leeui.*   , 
have  been  published  by  Rosini,  '  Legazione  di  8p:i/'    . 
Pisa,  1825.    Botta,  a  Piedmontese  writer  whuo  died  in  I  -  ". 
has  written  a  continuation  of  Guicciardini's  history  i  u 
books:  '  Storia  d*  Italia  continuata  da  quella  del  Guii f. 
dini  sine  al  1789,  di  Carlo  Botta,*  10  vols.  8vo.    This  «  • 
is  eloquently  and  cleverly  written,  and  it  has  secured  r     -  * 
author  a  distinguished  rank  among  Italian  historians.  I>  .  * . 
had  previously  written  a  history  of  Italy  during  the  \i.i\-    i 
the  French  revolution  and  of  Napoleon,  from  1789  t<)  !  ^  ,* 
The  merits  of  these  two  works  are  discussed  in  two  an.<  .*  - 
of  the  *  Foreign  Quarterly  Review,'  No.  1,  July,  18jr,  x 
No.  33,  April,  1836. 
GUICOWAR.    [Hindustan.] 

GUIDO.  D*  AREZZO,  who  stands  very  promincnih  .. 
all  musical  histories  as  the  discoverer  of  the  path  whieii  i  i 
to  the  invention  of  the  modern  system  of  notation,  an-:  .f 
the  true  art  of  teaching  singing,  together  with  othor  .... 
provements,  was  born  at  Arezzo,  in  Tuscany,  towar*lv  •  • 
end  of  the  tenth  century.  When  youne  he  entered  t 
Benedictine  monastery  of  that  city,  probably  as  a  chDr^-.:. .. 
and  afterwards  became  a  monk  of  the  order.  Tb.crv  :  • 
first  conceived  a  new  method  of  writing  music,  and  ot  i'  • 
structing  in  the  art;  and  having  well  digested  his  pla.i.  I « 
there  also  carried  it  into  effect,  at  a  school  opened  b}  i,  ■ , 
for  the  purpose.  On  the  old  system,  it  is  stated,  tvn  y-  .* 
were  consumed  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  pluin  s  :  j 
only ;  Guido's,  we  are  told,  reduced  the  years  to  as  tn  i 
months.  His  success  excited,  as  commonly  happens.  ;*  » 
jealousy  of  his  brethren,  and  he  was  driven  to  Sivk  .  : 
asylum  in  another  monastery.  Tliis  we  learn  fx-Kfxn  )..* 
letter  to  Michael,  a  brother  monk;  and  fVom  the  sazi.o  .; 
appears  that  the  fame  of  his  school  having  reached  tht* .  -  « 
of  Pope  John  XIX.,  he  was  invited  to  Rome,  and  hnd  ^  • 
honour  not  only  of  explaining  to  the  sovereign  pont  '\  *  .- 
nature  of  his  new  method,  but  of  teaching  the  holy  f»: .  r 
to  sing  by  it. 

Onliis  return  from  Romo  he  visited  the  ablxrt  of  P 
posa,  in  the  duchy  of  Ferrara,  who  persuaded  him  to  ^ 
in  that  place.     Here  it  was  he  wrote  his  Microlr.jf.  i.  . 
brief  discnurse  on  music,  in  which  most  of  his  indent   •  ♦ 
are  described,  as  well  as  his  method  of  instruction.     Rui  :   . 
doctrine  of  solmisation,  or  the  use  of  the  syllables  ut^rr,  t  t 
&c.,  is  not  mentioned  in  that  work;  it  is  explained   .t    i 
small  tract  under  the  title  of  Argumentum  noui  Cantu*  • 
veniendi. 

To  Guide  we  are  indebted  for  the  invention  of  the  S*    ~. 
t>.  the  lines  and  spaces ;  for  the  reformation  of  the  S  .. 
as  also  of  the  mode  of  notation,  and  for  the  art  of  Sol  it]    » 
tion.    [Scale;  Notation;  Solmisation.]  Musical  in* t    .- 
ments  being,  it  is  to  be  presumed,  very  imperfect  in  hiv  -1  ■ 
he  taught  his  scholars  to  sing  by  a  monochord,  for  the  :  -  > 
per  division  of  which  he  gives  precise  rules:  but  his  rvl-.-  ^• 
was  on  a  system  of  hexachords,  or  scales  of  six  notes,  m  h    . 
he  substituted  for  the  antient  tetrachords,  and  on  tlie  <>'  - 
lables  he  applied  to  the  different  sounds.    To  this  invcir    • 
— an  explanation  of  which  will  be  found  under  the  )*     * 
Hexachoro  and  Solmisation — Guide  is  mainly  in<K'  :-  ! 
for  the  fame  he  has  so  long  enjoyed.    The  art  of  c.»un    ' 
point,  and  other  imoortant  discoveries  made  beforo  .     . 
after  his  time,  have  been  attributed  to  him,  but  the  i*-  - 
tions  which  have  assigned  to  the  ingenious  ecclesiastic  :.  .. 
to  which  he  has  no  title,  and  never  claimed,  have  bev..  : 
futed  in  the  most  unanswerable  manner. 

GUIDO  RENI  (whom  we  place  here  as   being,   :  . 
Raphael,  more   generally  known  by  his  Christian  r-.n 
was  bom  at  Bologna  in   157-k  where  he  studinl    y. 
ing,  first  under   Denis  Calvart,  a  Flemish  artist  of  * 
reputation,  and  afterwards  visited  the  school  of  tlic  i  . 
racci,  who  are  reputed  to  have  been  jealous  of  Lim.    i . 
appears  to  have  been  some  time  undecided  with  o^sji*-: 
the  stylo  he  should  adopt.    At  first,  as  might  be  vxp%  '> 
he  followed  the  Caracci,  preferring  however  the  man  ri*  r    ' 
Lodovico.    On  visiting  Rome  he  carefully  examined  ei .   < 
thing  worthy  the  attention  of  an  artist,  and  was  enraptu- 
with  the  works  of  Raphael.    He  was  also  much  struck  *» 
the  great  effect  of  the  style  of  Caravaggio,  which  he  atlempi.  ' 
for  a  time,  but  happily  laid  it  aside  for  that  ttyle  pcculiA/Jy 


G  U  1 


476 


GUI 


the  point;  the  lower  mandible  forming  an. angle  more  or 
le9B  open.  <  NosiriU  basal,  lateral,  concave,  longitudinal, 
perrious,  half  shut  by  a  large  membrane  covered  with  fea- 
thers advancing  on  the  bill.  F^t  short,  plunged  as  it  were 
in  the  abdomen,  so  that  the  lower  end  of  the  tibia  only  is 
perceptible,  and  placed  beyond  the  equilibrium  of  the  body 
very  rar  back ;  tarsi  short,  slender ;  three  toes  only,  all  an- 
terior and  entirely  webbed ;  Naih  comnreased,  rather  curved 
and  sharp.  Wings  short,  narrow,  ana  acute,  the  Arst  quiU 
longest.    Tail  y9tj  short,  rounded 


Bm  of  Ooilbmol.    (Uria  TioUe.) 


Foot  f>r  Oomemot    (UrlaTmlk.) 

Geographical  Distribution  and  Habits  of  the  genus,-^T\\9 
Guillemots  seem  especially  framed  for  existence  in  the  Arc- 
tic and  even  ^olar  regions,  and  are  seldom,  comparatively, 
found  in  the  warmer  latitudes.    In  the  north  they  swarm 


on  all  toe  rocks  and  islets  of  the  chilling  teas.  la  tbe  short 
but  bright  summer  that  gilds  some  of  their  nertbem  haunts 
they  make  haste  to  deposit  their  eggs,  sometimes  only  nMr. 
on  the  bare  rock,  without  wasting  the  precious  days  in'm  ik- 
ing a  nest  On  the  naked  ledge  that  overhangs  the  wz 
the  young  Guillemot  is  hatched,  and,  as  soon  as  it  is  able  *.-> 
bear  the  shock,  is  conducted,  or  rather  tumbles,  from  «'« 
hard  nursery  into  the  bosom  of  the  ocean,  where  a  plentiful 
harvest  is  spread  for  it  Here  the  GuillemotB  are  ind^^^i 
in  their  element ;  plying  their  way  with  wings  and  fevt  t>r 
neath  the  waves  and  even  beneath  the  ice,  they  make  pro* 
of  the  small  fish  and  crustaceans  which  form  their  princtf;  il 
food.  Their  native  rocks  or  the  ice-caverns  shelter  tii-  m 
from  the  storm,  and  it  is  only  when  the  winter  is  more  (bjii 
hyperboreally  severe  that  some  of  these  species  are  (\n\*u 
to  a  temporary  resort  to  more  temperate  climates^  Tix  r 
flight  is  sharp  and  rapid,  though  of  no  long  duration,  a  <1 
generally  directed  just  above  the  surfooe  of  tbe  sea.    1  iie 


eggs,  which  are  reckoned  palatable,  notwithstanding  th«  r 
fishy  diet,  are  thick  in  the  shell,  which  has  a  dull  ap(x\-r 
ance. 

Dr.  Richardson  notices  Uria  (Mergulus)  Alle  [Auk.  ^  I. 
iii.,p.  100]  among  the  species  which  merely  winter  in  Penn- 
sylvania, and  migrate  in  summer  to  rear  their  young  m  t),- 
fur  countries — Uriag  Brunnichii^  Grylie^  and  Alle,  :ii  h  t 
listofhirds  detected  in  the  North  Georgian  Island*  and  :>•:- 
joining  seas,  lat  73"*  to  75°  north,  on  Sir  Edward  Pajn'> 
first  voyage — and  Urim  Bmnmchii^  7Vioi/e,  OrylU^  mA 
Alle,  in  the  list  of  species  common  to  the  Old  World  ar.il  t-^ 
tbe  Fur  countries.  Uriee  Alle,  Brunmchii,  and  Gry^  ' 
occur  in  the  list  of  Greenland  Birds  (Captn.,  now  CoK,  ^»- 
bine). 

In  the  table  published  by  Dr.  Richardson  in  '  Fauna  K. - 
real  i- Americana,'  the  following  interesting  inibrmau>)n  u 
given : — 


Speeiofl. 


Extreme  Northern  range. 

Dittribntiua  in  the  Fur  conntriee. 

Whether  resident  or  migntory. 


Uria  Trmle 


Brunnichii 

Grylle 

Alle 


Lat.  N. 

61°.    Arctic   Sea  and  Hud< 

son's  Bay. 
75°.    Ditto.  Ditto. 

75°.    Ditto.  Ditto. 

75°.    Ditto.  Ditto. 


Species  obscn'cd  on  Uie  Saakatehe- 

van,  lat.  53^  to  540  y,^  und  <Vt>m 

600  to  }000  miles  distant  from  the 

•ea-eoast. 


•  ••■••■ 

•  •••••• 

•  •••••• 


8jH>eies  Uiat  frequent 
the  Tfcinhy  of  Phila- 
delphia.   (C.  Booa- 
parte.) 


Accidental 

visiter. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 

Winter.    Rather 

rare. 


T 


Whiter  QoBitcim  «r  iIm 


Principally  at 
in  high  latitudes. 

Ditto.    Ditto. 

Ditto.    Ditto. 

United  States. 


Captain  James  Ross  (*  Supplement  to  Sir  John  Ross*s  last 
Voyage ')  says,  that  Uria  Brunnichii  abounds  in  Bafiin's 
Bay  and  is  found  in  most  parts  of  the  Arctic  Seas,  and  that 
he  has  also  met  with  the  spe<nes  at  Uist,  the  northernmost 
of  the  Shetland  Islands,  and  in  several  parts  of  Scotland ; 
but  he  observes  that  it  has  ever  been  confounded  by  au- 
thocs  with  Uria  Troile,  which  it  so  nearlv  resembles.  He 
further  states  that  Uria  Alle  {Little  Gwilemot,  Little  Auk 
of  authors)  collects  during  the  breeding  season  in  vast 
numbers  along  the  north  and  east  coast  of  Baffin's  Bay, 
but  is  seldom  to  bo  met  with  far  to  the  westward  of  Lan- 
caster Sound.  A  few  were  seen  by  the  expedition  neai 
Leopold  Island,  and  two  or  three  specimens  were  obtained. 

We  select  as  examples  of  the  genus  Urine  Troile  and 
Grylle-^ 

Uria  Troile, — Description  qf  both  sexes  (old)  in  their 
mnier  dress.  Summit  of  the  head,  space  between  the  eye 
and  the  bill,  longitudinal  band  behind  the  eyes,  and  all  the 
upper  parts,  of  a  velvetty  black  slightly  inclining  to  ash:  all 
the  lower  parts  and  the  extremity  of  the  secondaries  pure 
white :  white  is  also  found  between  the  band  behind  the 
eyes  and  the  back  of  the  nape,  and  advances  towards  the 
occiput,  where  it  forms  on  each  side  an  open  angle.  The 
ashy  blackish  colour  of  the  lateral  part  of  the  neck  seems  to 
form  towards  the  breast  a  kind  of  collar,  feebly  indicated  by 
bright  ash.  Bill  ashy  black;  inside  of  the  mouth  livid 
yellow ;  iris  brown ;  feet  and  toes  yellowish  brown ;  poste- 
rior part  of  the  tarsus  and  membranes  black.  Length  frem 
the  bill  to  the  claws  rather  more  than  15  or  16  inches.  N.B. 
The  female  is  rather  less  than  the  male.  In  this  state 
Temminck,  whose  description  we  have  given,  considers  the 
bird  to  be  Uria  Suarbag  and  Binguia  of  Bruunich ;  Co- 
lymbus  minor  of  Gmelin ;  Lesser  Guillemot  of  Pennant ; 
Der  Dwnme  Lnmme  of  Bechstein;  and  Troillumme  of 
Ifeyer, 


SummerfOT  NupHal,  Plumaee.^Head,  region  of  the  «>  <-s 
throat,  and  all  the  upper  part  of  the  neck,  of  a  velvetty  brow  i 
inside  of  the  mouth  bright  yellow:  the  rest  of  the  plumatrc 
as  in  winter.  Thus  clad  it  is  Uria  Lomcia  of  Briintn'  . 
Colymbus  TVoile  of  Linnasus  and  Gmelin ;  Le  Gut*/*  ^t  t 
of  Buffon ;  Foolish  Guillemot  of  Latham ;  Uria  Maggi  .r", 
Stor.  degl.  ucc.  (Temminck). 

Young  qf  the  Kfor.— Principally  distinguished  from  tic 
old  birds  in  their  winter  plumage,  by  the  comparative  sborT- 
ness  of  the  bill,  which  is  ashy  and  yellowish  at  tbe  bax' : 
the  black  of  the  upper  parts  is  clouded  with  ash-^olour ;  t!-.* 
stripe  or  longitudinal  band  is  not  distinct,  and  mingles  \  v 
means  of  ashv  spots^with  the  white  of  the  sides  of  the  -  - 
ciput.  Ashy  brown  predominates  on  the  lower  parts  of  t^  < 
neck,  and  the  white  of  the  lower  parts  is  not  so  pure ;  th? 
tarsi  and  toes  are  of  a  livid  yellowish  hue.  It  is  then  '  ^  - 
lymbus  maculd  nigr$  pone  oculos,  Sander.  Natai£  Gmi« 
i.,  p.  584.  var.  /3.  (Temminck). 

Accidental  P^arieties.^lio  white  on  the  secondary  qu.!!< 
M.  Temminck  states  that  he  killed  an  old  Guillefflot  in  x\ ; 
spring,  which  had  the  whole  of  the  back  and  the  caudal  Tr-x- 
thers  mottled  with  yellowish  ashv  stains. 

This  species  is  the  Gwilym  ana  Chcilog  (the  latter  trr^i 
applicable  to  the  state  in  which  Pennant  calls  it  tbe  Z>xa-  - 
Guillemot)  of  the  ancient  British,  and  is  called  Blli^vk  r 
the  south  of  England,  Shout  in  Yorkshire,  and  Ktdi:  - 
in  Cornwall.  The  number  of  Provincial  names  is  >iri 
great 

Geographical  Distribution,--The  Arctic  Seaa  of  the  0' . 
and  the  New  Worlds ;  migratory  in  winter  in  large  oompan .  ^ 
along  the  coasts  of  Norway  and  England ;  verv  common  a 
that  time  along  the  shores  of  the  &ltic  and  the  mani.::^ 
coasts  of  Holland  and  France;  more  rarely  fimod  ^uf*! 
our  seas  and  great  lakes  of  the  interior.'  (Temminck  i 
Spitsbergen,  Lapmark,  and  the  White  and  loy  Seas  « 


GUI  4 

u  Kamtehatka.  Alotiff  Ihn  wbote  oout  of  Hudxm'ii  Ray, 
Labrador,  and  Newfoundland.  (NuttalL)  The  groatbody 
of  ibe  American  birds  of  this  species  winter  in  the  Bay  of 
Fiindy.     (Audubon.) 

In  ;lia  British  Islands  they  ars  numerous  (among  other 
localiticsl  in  tbe  Orkneys,  on  the  Bass  Rock,  the  Ptm  or 
turn  lalea,  Ihe  cliffn  of  Scarborough,  the  Needles  and 
cUnk  of  the  Ule  of  Wight.  Ihe  Goodeve  Rockj  itat  Hu 
fnim  Si,  Ivee  in  Cornwall,  and  ihe  Isle  of  Prieslholui,  con- 
tiguous to  Ihe  Island  uf  Anslesey.  Stc.  (See  fuither,  Geo- 
grap/'icai  Dittributitm  qfllu  Genu*,  iboie.) 


/  ^>:-A ) 


bread  in  emat  numbera  on  the  Fern  Islands,  « loealily  that 
hu  aflbrded  ine  Bin[i1e  opportunittos  of  atteoding  to  Iheir 
economy  and  watching  ilw  change*  ihey  undergo.  They 
have  selected  the  suramil*  of  three  fine  isolated  pillars,  or 
masses  of  wAtn«/o>M(  trap -rock},  that  rise  upwards  of  thirty 
feet  above  ihe  level  of  Ine  sea.  Upon  these  the  egga  are 
laid  as  close  as  possible,  merely  allowing  room  for  the  birds 
to  sit  upon  thum,  which  they  do  in  an  upright  poaiiion. 
The  appearance  they  make  in  a  dense  mesa  i*  carious,  and 
the  interest  is  incrGased  by  Ihe  number  of  Kiltivafces 
iLarut  THdaeluluf)  which  hover  around,  and  which  breed 
in  the  small  side  clefts,  or  on  the  projecting  angle*  of  the 
reck ;  and  by  the  nesli  of  two  or  Inrce  Crested,  or  Green, 
Cormorants,  which,  from  the  unusual  conBdenoe  they  dis- 
play in  continuing  to  sit  upon  their  eggs,  even  when  over* 
looked  from  the  opposite  precipice  at  only  a  few  yards'  dis- 
tance, seem  to  be  well  aware  of  the  security  of  the  station 
they  have  chosen.  The  great  bodv  of  the  breeding  birds 
arrives  towards  the  end  of  Marcn,  or  the  beginning  of 
April,  at  which  time  most  of  Ihem  have  acquired  the  per- 
fect nuptial  plumage.    '  "■ —  "■ *■'-■ — '  "■- ' 

'     '       the  w 


I  have  however  obtained  them  much 


/ 


UmTnin*.    AnaAdmMBTaiutbbdiitllMTtv. 

Hatilt,  PrupagaHon,  Food.  8tc.— The  appellation  of 
Fmlith  GidUmvit  has  been  given  to  this  speries  from  ill 
often  suffering  itself  to  be  taken  by  the  hand  or  killed  on 
the  spot,  especially  in  the  breeding  season,  ralhcr  than  quit 
the  njilfit  has  chosen  fur  its  abode.  The  sea  is  the  favour- 
ite resort  of  these  birds  when  they  leave  their'  cliff*,  and 
there  Ihey  seek  their  food,  consisting  principally  of  small 
fish,*  small  marine  cruslaoeans,  and  small  bivalves,  divijig 
with  the  greatest  facility.  They  are  with  difflcully  roused 
to  DishL  Early  in  April  and  May,  or  at  the  end  of  March, 
thev  Degin  to  assemble  on  their  favourite  cliff*  in  Britain, 
anci  lay  their  single  unprotected  egg  on  the  Oat  here  ledge 
of  rock.  This  egg  is  generally  of  a  pole  green,  blotched 
and  stained  with  black  and  dark  brown  (umber).  Some- 
times Ihe  egg  is  white,  wilh  or  without  a  few  spots.  It  is 
a  remarkable  sight  to  see  these  birds,  where  ihey  abound, 
silting  upon  Iheir  eggs  on  Iheir  rocky  shelves,  often  in  line, 
and  so  dose  thai  ther  nevly  touch  each  olher,  A*  soon  as 
the  voung  are  capable  of  migrating,  which  is  in  August,  or 
by  the  end  of  that  month,  ihey  aro  said  to  disappear  from 
our  shores.  Hr.  Belby,  whose  observations  are  always  va- 
tiiahle,  give*  the  following  iutcreijling  account  of  these 
birds:  'Incubation  lasts  for  a  month,  and  when  Ihe  young 
are  fint  excluded  they  arecovercd  with  a  thick  down,  of  a 
blackish-grey  colour  above,  and  white  beneath.  This  gni- 
dually  gives  place  to  the  regular  plumage,  and  in  the  course 
of  Sve  or  six  weak*  from  the  time  of  hatching  the;  are  ca- 
pable of  taking  to  the  water.  During  the  time  Ibey  remain 
upon  Ibe  rock  the  puenta  supply  them  plentifully  with  the 


AUuite.    Upon  the  Northumbrian  coast  these  GuiUemot* 


earlier,  and  when  tl 

lace  to  the  p  „       __ 

till  after  the  sexual  intercourse.  At  this  time  they 
often  lose  so  many  of  their  quill-feather*  aa  to  be  totally  in- 
capable of  flight ;  but  these  are  soon  reproduced,  ana  the 
Di^niei  which  had  made  the  English  coasts  their  summer 
quarter*  retire  to  more  southern  latitude*  to  pas* Ihe  winter 
monlhd.    Their  place  in  this  country  i*  but  sparingly  nip- 

Elied  by  a  fev  straggler*  from  the  great  bodies  that,  being 
red  in  still  higher  latitudes,  make  the  Urthi  of  Scotland 
and  its  isles  ihe  limit  of  their  equatorial  mignlion.'  (JUm- 
traliotu  nfBritUh  Ormlhologj/,  voL  ii.) 

Utitity  to  Man. — Much  cannot  be  said  in  &Tour  of  Iho 
flesh  of  the  Foi^Jsh  Guillemot,  though  the  people  of  Kamt*- 
chatka  kill  numbers  of  those  birds  for  food.  The  principal 
reason  however  for  the  attack  upon  them  arise*  ttora  the 
value  of  their  *kins  a*  an  article  of  clothing  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  thoee  cold  region*.  The  egg*  seem  to  be  generally 
accounted  delicacies. 

Uria  Grylln.  Detention  qf  both  ieze§  in  comptett 
winter  pAinM^e.— Summit  of  the  ktod,  nane,  and  all  the 
upper  part*,  with  the  exception  of  the  middle  of  the  winga, 
of  a  rather  deep  black ;  the  wing-coverts  forming  a  la^ 
white  space,  or  speculum.  Cheeks  and  all  Ihe  loaer  pari* 
from  bill  to  tail  pure  white ;  iridet  red.*  Bill  black  ;  ht- 
terior  of  tbemoulh  and  feel  bright  red.  Length  (h>mhillto 
daw*  about  13  inches.  In  this  stale  H.  Temminck,  whose 
deicripLion  we  have  selected,  says  that  l/ria  minor  tlriata 
of  Brisson,  Uria  Dallica  and  GryUoidei  of  Brunnich,  are 
individuals  in  dilTerent  stages  of  moulting,  passing  fh>m 
winter  plumage  to  that  of  summer;  that  the  Spoiled 
Greenland  Dave  of  Edwards  iGlean ,  I  SO)  is  a  very  exact 
figure  of  a  moulting  individual  ;  and  that  the  Spoiled 
GwUemol  of  the  '  British  Zoology '  and  Latham  (Syn.)  are 
varieties  or   different  stales  of  the  autumnal  and  spring 

Young  of  t\»  Kear .^Throat,  breast,  and  the  Ioimt  ;iar(t 
white  ;  summit  of  the  head,  nape.  lower  part  of  neck  and 
sides  of  the  breast  blackish,  spotted  with  grey  and  while ; 
back  and  rump  of  a  dusky  black,  some  of  the  scapulars 
and  fbathers  of  the  rump  terminated  wilh  whitish  ash; 
tcingi  black,  with  the  exception  of  the  speculum,  which  it 
while,  but  marked  wilh  asby  or  blackish  stains;  inside  of 
the  moulh  and  feet  livid  reddish ;  irit  blacki*h-browii.+ 
In  this  sUlo  there  is  a  very  faithful  fleuie  of  the  bird  in 
Frisch.  Vog.  DeuUch.,  t.  IBS  (Temminck). 

Sianmer  Plumage,  or  Nupliat Drett. — Mrfa— Thewhoio 
plumage,  the  middle  of  the  wing  alone  excepted,  of  asooty- 
blaek;  wing  coverls  forming  a  large  space  or  speculum  of 
pure  white.    Bill  black,  the  inside  of  it  and  the  feet  bright 

d. 

Amo^.— Ralber  lest.  The  black  of  the  plumage  less 
deep,  and  the  white  of  the  plumage  loss  extended  and  less 
put*.  At  the  period*  of  the  two  moults  while  feather*  in 
mom  or  let*  qiumtity  are  visible  on  the  under  parts  of  boih 
texe*.  M.  Temminck,  who  give*  this  description,  refers  to 
the  following  synonvma  ana  works  as  illustrative  of  this 
state  of  plumage,  and  some  of  itsstages:  I/no  Gryttf,  Lath.  ; 

>  TcBBlnd  m-n  bnwii :  bol  Mr.  Ounld  (■  Blidi  el  Ennn ')  ilacribw  ud 
SaumUkem  •■  tol  in  Ihi  Bdult,  noil  thbocMiiTii  lobe  ris". 

(  Id  our  cvpy  of  Fri-:h  Ih.  In.  t.  ootamd  Bd.  1=  Mr  (tonW.  ■  BM.  ol 
Eonipt'  UhHu  !•  biWBU,  UcUMdi  ta  olMk laa  Ilia  »«  an  TaLMUr 


G  U  I 


478 


G  U  J 


ColynJnu Grylle,  Gmel.  (Linn.?);  Columba  Groenlandtca, 
BrUs. ;  Le  Petit  Guillemot  Noir,  Buflf.  ;*  Black  Guillemot, 
Lath.  (Syn.) ;  Penn.  Brit.  Zool,  p.  1 38»  t.  H.  4,  an  individual 
preserving  some  of  the  feathers  of  its  youth ;  Penn,  Arct, 
ZooLt  p.  516,  No.  437 — Edw.,  Glean.,  t  50 ;  Der  Schwarze 
Lumme,  Bechst.,  Naiurg.  Deutsche  v.  iv.,  p.  586 — Mejer, 
Taschenb.,  vii.,  p  446 — Meyer,  Vog.  Deutschl,,  v.  i.— Heft. 
13.  t.  3  and  4— Naum.  Vog.,  t.  64,  No.  6,  f,  100,  very  old 
male. 

M.  Temminck  remarks  that  the  indications  of  the  pre- 
tended species,  Cephus  lacteolus  (Pallas,  Spic  v.  5,  p.  33), 
which  Latham  has  recorded  as  his  Uria  lacteola  {Ina.,  t.  2. 
p.  798.  sp.  3) — Colymbus  lacteolus  (Gmel.)— have  reference 
to  an  Individual  in  its  winter  plumage,  accidentally  rarie- 
ffated  with  white;  and  that  tliis  albino  was  obtained  by 
Pallas  on  the  maritime  coasts  of  Holland. 

Mr.  Selby  observes  that  from  the  short  description  given 
by  Cuvier  of  his  genus  Cephus,  in  the  *  R5gne  Animal,'  it 
is  evident  that  the  Rotche,  or  Little  Auk  of  some  of  our 
writers  {Alca  AMe),  is  there  considered  to  be  its  typical  repre- 
sentative, and  not  the  Black  Guillemot ;  and,  he  observes, 
this  appears  still  more  evident  from  the  note  at  the  bottom 
of  the  same  page,  in  which  (after  adverting  to  the  figures  of 
the  Lesser  and  Spotted  Guillemots  in  the  second  volume  of 
Pennant's  *  British  Zoology,'  pi.  83)  Cuvier  says,  'Ces  sont 
des  Guillemots  proprement  dits.  Au  contraire,  fAlca  Alle, 
Penn.  (*  British  Zoology,*  11,  pi.  82,  1 ;  Albin,  1,  85),  appar- 
ticnt  aux  Cephus.*  Mr.  Selby  goes  on  to  remark  that  Dr. 
Fleming  has,  however,  appropriated  this  generic  term  to  the 
Black  Guillemot,  making  tne  distinction  between  it  and 
Uria  to  consist  in  the  want  of  a  terminal  notch  in  the  upper 
mandible ;  but,  as  this  character  does  not  appear  to  be  con- 
stant, Mr.  Selby  having  seen  some  specimens  with  the 
notch,  though  not  so  fully  developed  as  in  the  Fbolish  Guil- 
iemot,  he  has  retained  it  in  the  situation  where  it  was  origi- 
ginally  placed  by  Dr.  Latham. 

The  note  alluded  to  by  Mr.  Selby  is  in  the  first  edition  of 
the  '  Rdene  Animal;'  but,  in  Cuvier's  last  edition  (1829), 
which  Mr.  Selby  does  not  appear  to  have  seent,  the  note  is 
omitted.  In  this  edition  the  generic  appellation  '  Cephus 
(Vulg.  Colombes  de  Groenlandy  is  retained  with  the  same 
charactere.  but  the  subsequent  part  is  very  much  altered ;  for 
it  stands  thus  in  the  last-mentioned  edition: — *The  species 
most  known,  called  Petit  Guillemot,  or  Pigeon  de  Groenland 
(Colymbus  Minor,  Gm.  EnL  917  ;  Mergulus  Alle,  Vieill., 
Gal.  295 ;  *  Brit  Zool.'  pi.  H.  4,  f.  1 ;  Edw.,  91 ;  Naum.,  Ist. 
ed.,  65,  f.  102),  of  the  size  of  a  good  pigeon,  is  black  above, 
white  below,  with  a  white  mark  on  the  wing  as  in  the 
Guillemot.  Its  bill  is  black  and  its  feet  are  red.  It  inhabits 
all  the  coasts  of  the  north  and  nestles  under  ground  {*  niche 
sous  terre').  We  see  it  also  sometimes  in  winter.'  Not- 
withstanding the  confusion  in  the  passage  just  quoted  and 
some  parts  of  the  description  references  and  alleged  nidift- 
cation,  which  can  hardly  be  made  to  apply  to  the  Little  Auk, 
or  Rotche,  it  seems  probable  that  Cuvier  meant  to  take  that 
bird,  as  Mr.  Selby  observes,  as  the  type  of  his  genus 
Cephus. 

Uria  Grylle,  Black  Greenland  Dove,  Sea  Turtle,  or 
Doveket/  of  the  Northern  Voyagers,  is  the  Sesekesewuck 
of  the  Cree  Indians,  and  Gwylim  dii,  Eas  gan  longwr,  of  the 
antient  British. 

Gfioffraphical  Distribution. — Inhabits  the  same  countries 
as  Uria  Iroiie ;  migratory  during  winter  along  the  borders 
of  the  ocean;  more  rarely  seen  on  land  than  Uria  Troile, 
and  then  only  by  accident ;  very  rare  in  the  seas  and  lakes 
of  the  interior.  (Temminck.)  "Widely  distributed  in  the 
Arctic  Circle  and  met  with  in  very  high  latitudes,  inhabiting 
all  the  icy  regions  of  Europe  and  North  America.  (Selby.) 
Abounds  in  the  Arctic  Seas  and  Straits,  from  Melville 
Island  down  to  Hudson's  Bay,  and  remains,  though  in 
diuiuiished  numbers,  all  the  winter  in  the  pools  of  open 
water,  which  occur,  even  in  high  latitudes,  among  the  noes 
of  i(  e.  Small  Hocks  extend  their  migrations,  in  that  season, 
as  far  south  as  the  United  States.  (Richardson.)  See 
further.  Geographical  Distribution  qf  the  genus,  above,  and 
the  next  paragraphs. 

Habits,  Propagation,  Food,  <J-c.— Mr.  Selby  observes  that 
in  the  northern  parts  of  Scotland  and  its  isles  this  is  a  nu- 
lueruus  species,  but  becomes  of  rarer  occurrence  as  we  ap- 

*  M.  Totominrk  iiponks  of  BulTon's  dedcriptioo  ul>eiag  correct,  but  not  to 
Uir  filers  in  the  '  I'lauchas  enlumiuecs'  ^917 )• 
t  '1  rio  date  of  Ml.  bvlby'i  Huii  vol.  of  '  liluttratioui  of  Britiih  Onutholoity* 


preach  the  English  coast,  wliere  indeed  it  is  but  oerasion- 
ally  met  with.    *  Although  Montagu,'  continues  Mr  Seltn, 
'  has  mentioned  it  as  resorting  to  the  Farn  Islands,  and  M  r. 
Stephens  has  repeated  the  same,  I  can  safely  assert  fhut 
this  has  not  been  the  case  for  the  last  twenty-five  or  thirty- 
^ears,  having  been  in  the  habit  of  risiting  this  group  •  ( 
islands  almost  annually  during  that  period;  and  had  it  Ix**  n 
a  visitant,  I  feel  confident  it  coula  not  have  escaped  xi.\ 
observation,  or  that  of  the  keepers  of  the  lighthouse,  «h  » 
reside  there.    It  certainly  breeds,  though  in  very  small  pro* 
portion,  upon  the  Isle  of  May,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Frith  u^ 
Forth,  but  is  not  found  in  large  congregated  numbers  ti.I 
we  reach  the  vicinity  of  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  I<)i-v 
In  these  parts  it  is  resident  throughout  the  year,  never  na- 
grating  to  the  same  extent  as  the  preceding  species  {Un  s 
Troile)  and  the  Razor-bill  Auk.    Its  habits  are  very  mlui- 
lar  to  those  of  its  congeners,  and  it  is  rarely  seen  upon  lur.M. 
except  for  the  purposes  of  incubation.     It  breecu  in  i  IjJ 
crevices  or  on  the   ledges  of  rocks,  from  whence  it  c-ja 
readily  drop  into  the  water  or  get  upon  wing,  and  lav%  \ 
single  egg,  of  a  greyish-white,  speckled  with  bUck  and  a^b- 
my.     Its    food   consists    of    fish,  crustaccn   (crustajc^a;. 
&c/    So  far  Mr.  Selby,  with  whose  accuracy  as  an  obseri'-r 
we  have  often  had  occasion  to  be  satisfied.     Mr.  G<('1 
moreover  speaks  of  its  dep6siting  on  the  ledges  of  the  rcM-K- 
*  its  single  egg.'    We  must  however  now  let  one  of  tij. 
most  indefatigable  observers  speak  for  himself,  more  e^i  v- 
cially  as  his  account  diflfers  so  essentially  from  those  al>  \  «- 
mentioned,  and  indeed  from  those  of  most  other  autlf  r%, 
except  Nuttall.     '  Wherever,*  says  Audubon,  *  therv*  a  « 
fissures  in  the  rocks,  or  great  piles  of  blocks  with  ho\*^  \u 
their  interstices,  there  you  may  expect  to  find  the  B;.  k 
Guillemot.    Whether  European  writers  have  spoken  of  it  » 
species  at  random,  or  after  due  observation,  I  cannot  k^i 
All  I  know  is,  that  every  one  of  them  whose  writin^v  ] 
have  consulted  says  that  the  Black  Guillemot  lays  only''  n* 
egg.  As  I  have  no  reason  whatever  to  doubt  their  assert  •:.. 
I  might  be  tempted  to  supnose  that  our  species  differ-*  fi .  .i 
theirs,  were  I  not  perfectly  aware  that  birds  in  difTtr*-'!! 
places  will  construct  different'  nests,  and  lay  more  or  f^t^^rr 
eggs.    Our  species  always  deposits  three,  unless  it  may  h  i  .v 
been  disturbed;  and  this  fact  I  have  assured  myself  of  ot- 
having  caught  the  birds  in  more  than  twenty  instances  >«t. 
ting  on  that  number.    Nay,  on  several  occasions,  at  Lal.^. 
dor,  some  of  my  party  and  myself  fair  several  Black  GuiJ. 
mots  sitting  on  eggs  in  the  same  fissure  of  a  rock,  h  h<  ^  * 
every  bird  had  three  eggs  under  it;  a  fact  which   I  n  ri.< 
municated  to  my  friend  Thomas  Nuttall.     What  was  ni<  -: 
surprising  to  me  was,  that  even  the  fishermen  Ihare  th^u^.<: 
that  this  bird  laid  only  a  single  egg ;  and  when  I  a>Lo: 
them  how  they  knew,  they  simply  and  good  natnredly  a.\ 
swered  that  they  had  heard  so.'    The  same  graphic  autl.>  - 
addressing  the  reader  tells  him,  in  order  to  aati^fy  him^c  *'. 
to  go  to  the  desolate  shores  of  Labrador.      *ThcTc,*  « «  -- 
tinues  the  American  ornithologist,  *  in  the  vernal  ni(»n'r> 
of  June,  place  yourself  on  some  granite  rock,  against  xt  .- 
base  of  which  the  waves  dash  in  impotent  raee ;   and  c  -  .> 
long  you  will  see  the  gay  Guillemot  coming  from  afar  :  . 
the  side  of  its  mate.    They  shoot  past  >ou  on  flutter-  ^• 
wings  and  suddenly  disappear.   Go  to  the  place ;  lay  yoxi  r >.  fr 
down  on  the  dripping  rock,  and  you  will  be  sure  to  s^t^  • . 
birds  preparing  their  stony  nest,  for  each  has  briMi^'f.t    i 
smooth  pebble  in  its  bill.     See  how  industriously  th<»\  .1  ^ 
engaged  in  raising  this  cold  fabric  into  the  form  of  a  ir:  - 
nest,  before  the  female  lays  her  eggs,  so  that  no  "wrt  m  * . 
reach  them  from  the  constant  trickling  of  the  waters  :..  - 
neath.    Up  to  the  height  of  two  or  three  inches  the  peb^i  » 
are  gradually  raised :  the  male  stands  by  his  bebived  :    ^ 
some  mornme  when  you  peep  into  the  crevice,  you  o W;  -, 
that  an  egg  has  been  deposited.     Two  days  after  you  u , 
find  the  number  complete.'      {Ornithological  Bidgraj.\/ 
vol.  iii.)  ^ 

Utility  to  Man. — Captain  James  Ross,  R.N.,  wht». 
March,  1823,  shot  near  Igloolik  the  specimen  described  >.. 
Dr.  Richardson,  says  that  one  individual  only  was  obtzi^r..  . 
by  the  expedition  during  the  winter,  alt hout;li  several  ut'., . 
were  seen  off  Fury  Point,  in  February,  1833.      It  was    ' 
adds,  subsequently  met  with  in  great  numbers  as   >• 
travelled  along  the  high  precipitous  land  betwe^D  F*.  . 
Point  and  Batty  Bay,  where  the  birds  congregated  in  \  .  • 
quantities  during  the  breeding  season,  affording  to    t   . 
party  many  delicious  meals,  and  proving  a  valuable  adil^ : .   1 
to  their  then^seanty  stock  of  proviflioiw    S«T<anI 


been  long  atllicled  wilh  that  mmt  dreadful  malady  tile  let- 
Bi.'urv]r,  Wire  tc»tored  to  health.  Captain  J.  Rosa  add*  that 
_  it  ii  nut  ci|Uiil  in  flavour  to  Uria  Troile,  hut  is  much  more 
nunieruus  and  more  ektetisivelf  dia^taed  along  the  coasLi 
or  the  Arctic  Seas. 
The  species  of  this  genui  are  but  few.    Speskiag  of 


'■-m 


UrU  GtTtw. 


I  adnll  >n 


Una  lackrymani.  the  Bridled  Guiltirmot,  Mr.  Gould,  m 
lii«  '  Birds  of  Europe,'  where  it  is  beautifully  figured, 
stales  that  lie  is  douhtful  of  its  ipeciQc  value,  aa  it 
btars  M  cIoM  a  resemblance  to  I'ria  Troile.  from  which 
it  ilifiersoaly  in  the  white  mack  which  encircles  tbe  eyes 
and  passe*  <]owii  the  sides  'of  the  heaj.  It  inhabits 
the  saiuo  localitius  as  Uria  Troile,  and  is  even  often  found 
in  iMunpnny  with  it  on  various  part*  of  our  coast,  particu- 
larly in  Wales,  where  Mr.  Gould  has  been  informed  both 
kinds  are  equally  numerous.  He  remarki  that  it  was  Rrst 
dest^ribed  as  distinct  by  Choris,  who  stales  that  it  is  abun- 
dant at  Spilzbergen  and  in  the  neif^bhouring  seas;  and 
atlUs  that  M.  Temminck  and  the  French  naturalists  con- 
sidor  these  two  Uriia  distincU  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
Uria  BnmnieAii,  the  distinctions  of  which  have  been  well 
puinred  out  hy  Cnpt.  Sabine  in  his  mcmoii:  on  the  birds  of 
Greenland,  is  a  well-defined  species. 

GUILLOTINE,  an  instrument  for  tbe  infliction  of  capi- 
tal punishment,  proposed  to  tbe  National  Assembly  of 
France  by  JoMph  Ignace  Guillotin,  a  nhysician.  a  native  of 
XaintcB.  and  a  member  of  tlio  Assembly ;  and  which  from 
him  took  its  name,  It  was  adopted  by  a  decree  of  the  20th 
of  March,  1793. 

This  instrument,  under  other  names,  had  existed  ai'a 
means  of  public  execution  long  before,  in  Germanj,  Bobe- 
niia,  Italy,  Scotland,  and  England. 

CruMus  in  bis '  Annales  Suevici,'  fol.  I  S9a-6,  torn,  ii.,  p.  S96, 
says,  'Antiquiiautem  teroporihua,  inGermoniaetiam.decul- 
latiu  non  f;ladio  flebat,  sea  quemo  ligno.  habento  acindent 
■U'lilisiirac  femim.  Addit  Widomannui,  »e  vidisse  tale  in- 
Btrumcnlum  Halra  in  vetere  Nosodocheo  (Svecbaui)  prius- 
nuain  id  destruerelur:  et  hodiernum  ibi  (cdiflcorelUT. 
KfTercbalur  inde  ilia  machina,  ai  auii  pleclendus  eaael : 
siippticioque    peracto,   eodem   refereoatur.* — '  Postea   usui 


In  German  this  instrument  was  called  if^riVanAa  der  Veil 
<ihe  plank  of  wood),  and  in  older  languue  Faiikel  (the  fM- 
iog  hatcbft).    In  Bohemia  it  wai  cuiea  Hagee,  tometluiig 


9  GUI; 

akin  to  the  plank.  In  Italy  it  was  known  hy  tbe  nuns  of 
Mannaia,  and  an  engraving  of  it  may  be  seen  in  *  Achillij 
Boccbii  Bonon.  Symbolicarum  QuKstionum,  lib.  v.,'  8vo., 
Bonon..  IS35,  p.  3G.  There  is  a  very  beautiful  engraving 
of  tbe  German  instrument  in  a  representation  of  the  be- 
heading of  tbe  son  of  Titus  Manliua,  by  Henry  Aldcgrevers. 
dated  13S3.  Evelyn,  in  his  Memoirs,  toL  L,  p.  170,  stale* 
that  he  saw  a  similar  instrument  at  Naples. 

Pennecuik,  in  his  '  Description  of  Tweeddale,'  pp.  IE,  17, 
speaking  of  the  R^ant  Morton  of  Scotland,  says;  '  This 
miehty  earl,  for  the  pleasure  of  tbe  place  and  the  salubrity 
of  the  air,  designed  hero  a  noble  recess  and  retirement  from 
worldly  business,  but  was  prevented  by  hii  unfortunate  and 
inexorable  death,  three  yeats  after,  anno  ISSl,  being  ac- 
cused, condemned,  and  executed  by  the  Maiden  at  the  Cross 
of  Edinburgh,  as  art  and  part  of  the  murder  of  King  Henry, 
earl  of  Damley,  father  to  King  James  Vl.,  which  falal  in- 
strument, at  least  the  pattern  thereof,  the  cruel  Regent  had 
brought  fi-om  abroad  to  behead  the  Laird  of  Pennecuik  uf 
that  ilk,  who  notwithstanding  died  in  his  bed,  and  the  un- 
fortunate eoil  was  the  first  himself  that  handselled  that 
merciless  Maiden,  who  proved  so  soon  after  bis  own  exo' 


In  England,  what  has  been  since  called  the  Guillotine 
was  used  only  at  Halifax  in  Yorkshire,  and  confined  even 
there  to  the  punishment  of  felonies  comroitted  within  tbe 
forest  of  Haidwiek.  Its  use  at  Halifax  i*  traced  as  &r  back 
as  the  time  of  Edward  lU.  It  was  in  iGSti  that  the  last 
malefactar*  there  suffered  by  it.  (Watson's  Uisl.  qf  Hah 
/ax,  p.  214-239.) 

Joseph  Ignaee  Guillotin,  who  revived  the  use  of  this  in- 
strument, in  France,  is  suppotied,  by  many,  to  have  perisbvd 
at  a  later  period  of  the  Revolution,  like  ihe  Regent  Morton 
by  bis  own  invention.  But  this  is  not  correct.  He  died  a 
natural  death,  20th  May,  1814,  at  tho  age  of  7G.  (.Biogr 
Uniivrselh.i  _ 

GUIMARABS.    [Entrr  DouRO  s  Minho.] 

GUINEA,  an  extensive  country  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  betweun  4°  and  10°  N.  lat,  and  i"  E.  and  13°  W 
long.,  bos  a  coast-hne  of  more  than  Ittuu  miles.  The  inland 
part  is  almost  entirely  unknown,  wilh  the  exception  of  the 
country  of  tbe  Ashantees,  and  the  countries  lying  along 
the  route  by  which  Captain  Clapperton  and  tlic  Landers 
entered  the  interior  of  Africa.  The  coasts  have  hccn  visited 
by  European  vessels  for  four  centurius,  and  several  settle- 
ments were  formed  on  it,  most  of  which  however  have  been 
abandoned  since  tbe  abolition  of  the  slave  trade.  The  coun- 
tries along  the  sea-cooat  are  known  to  European  sailors 
under  six  names—Sierra  Leone,  Groin  Coast,  ivory  Coast, 
Gold  Coast,  Slave  Coast,  and  Benin.  We  shall  notice  here 
only  the  second,  third,  and  fif^h,  having  already  given  an 
ac(K)Lint  of  the  Gold  Ctuist  [Coast,  Gold  ;  Ashamtees],  and 
of  Benin  [Bkn in,  Riv.  and  Bigbt].  Sierra  Leone  is  treated 
in  a  separate  article. 

The  Gmin  Coast  extends  from  Cape  Mesurado  (7°  N.  lat.) 
to  Cape  Palmas  (4°  30'  N.  lat.),  a  distance  of  somewhat 
less  than  300  miles.  The  high  land,  which  occupies  nearly 
the  whole  space  between  the  Bay  of  Guinea  and  llie  Saliara, 
advances  here,  as  in  Sierra  Leone,  close  to  the  sea,  form- 


wooded,  and  the  valleys  wide  and  fertile,  producing  r 
crops  of  rice,  which  is  exported  to  a  large  amount.  'Cattle, 
sheep,  pigs,  goats,  and  poultry,  are  ohuudant.  Besides  rice, 
ivory  and  cam-wood  are  exported.  It  produces  also  a  sort 
of  coarse  pepper,  called  by  the  Dutch  grains,  and  by  tho 
Portuguese  sextos,  which  was  formerly  sometimes  brought 
to  Europe,  when  the  supply  from  tbe  East  Indies  was  de- 
ficient The  coast  is  now  only  visited  by  vessels  which  sail 
between  the  setilementa  of  Siorra  Leune  and  those  on  the 
Ciold  Coast,  though  several  of  its  rivers  offer  great  facilities 
for  trade,  being  navigable  for  small  vessels  to  a  considerable 
distance  in  the  interior.  It  saums  that  Ihe  whole  country  is 
divided  into  three  kingdoms.  Tbe  most  western  is  the 
kingdom  of  Cape  Mount,  which  extends  on  both  sides  of 
Cape  Hesarado,  and  comprehends  a  coast  of  about  160 
miles,  reaching  more  than  100  miles  inland.  Its  capital, 
Couseea,  is  said  to  haveapopulationof  is, 000.  At  Kingston 
there  is  a  small  English  settlemenL  Ilie  middle  of  the 
coast  is  occupied  by  tbe  kingdom  of  Sanguin,  from  which 
much  polm-oil  is  obtained.  Its  principal  port  is  Baaso. 
[Basia.]  Within  its  boundary  is  the  American  setllemefit 
of  Ijbena,  established  io  1821.  The  capita],  KonrovtSi  iti 


O  U  f 


480 


G  U  1 


iome  yean  ago  700  inhabitants,  and  the  whole  population 
•xoeeaed  2000  aouli.  Hie  countiy  near  Cane  Palmas  is 
occupied  by  the  SettraCroo,  a  tribe  of  negroes,  distinguished 
by  their  industry ;  they  aie  met  with  in  almost  all  the  Eu- 
ropean settlements,  where  they  work  for  wages. 

The  Ivory  Coast  occupies  the  countries  between  Cape 
Palmas  and  Cape  Three  Points  (Tres  Puntas),  a  distance  of 
nearly  400  miles.  Our  naTigators  however  add  the  eastern 
dtstricU  as  fkr  as  the  river  Asinee,  about  seventy  miles  east 
of  Cape  Lahooi  to  the  Gold  Coast.  In  this  part  the  high 
land  of  the  interior  does  not  come  close  to  the  beach,  but  is 
divided  firom  it  by  a  low  tract,  about  ten  or  twelve  miles 
wide  on  an  average.  This  part  of  Guinea,  which  is  less  fte- 
quented  than  any  other,  appears  to  be  inhabited  by  a  num- 
ber of  small  negro  tribes,  living  in  a  state  of  independence, 
except  those  of  the  western  district,  which  are  depen- 
dent on  the  Ashantees.  The  English  and  Dutch  had  some 
establishments  west  of  Cape  Three  Points,  but  they  have 
been  abandoned,  with  the  exception  of  the  Dutch  fortress 
of  Axim.  [Coast,  Gold.]  Near  Cape  Palmas  is  a  harbour 
ibrmed  by  a  reef,  which  ;is  the  only  sheltered  one  on  this 
part  of  the  coast.  It  is  sfMcious,  perfectly  secure,  and  has 
good  iinchorage. 

The  Slave  Coast  begins  on  the  west  at  the  Rio  Volta, 
which  empties  itself  into  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  near  the  me- 
ridian of  Ureenwidi,  and  is  considered  as  the  boundary-line 
between  it  and  the  Gold  Coast :  it  extends  eastward  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  river  Formosa,  or  Benin,  a  distance  of 
mora  than  400  miles  along  the  sea-shore.  The  Rio  Volta, 
which  comes  down  from  a  ^;roat  distance  (some  say  400  miles), 
is  a  broad  river  in  the  interior,  but  towards  its  mouth  it  divides 
into  several  branches,  and  forms  a  kind  of  delta.  The  shores 
of  this  coast  aro  flat  and  low,  and  partly  rendered  inaccessible 
by  sand-banks.  They  aro  ooveiea  by  extensive  salt-marshes 
and  numerous  laooons,  traversed  by  several  rivers,  among 
iriiich  the  Lagos  is  the  most  considerable.  It  is  stated  that 
at  least  during  and  shortly  after  the  raiinr  season  a  water 
eommunieation  exists  between  the  rivers  Lagos  and  Volto, 
by  means  of  short  natural  canals  uniting  a  number  of  la- 

J[oons.  The  plain  extends  inland  80  or  100  miles ;  it  is 
ertile,  open,  and  level,  exhibiting  large  savannahs  covered 
with  high  grass ;  in  some  parts  however  it  is  thickly  wooded 
with  fine  trees.  Farther  inland,  where  tlie  ground  rises, 
it  is  covered  with  extensive  and  thick  forests.  The  (preatest 
part  of  the  plain  is  converted  into  a  swamp  during  the 
rainy  season,  from  May  to  October.  The  whole  plain,  with 
the  mountain-region  extending  north  of  it,  seems  to  be 
divided  l>etween  the  kingdoms  of  Dabomy,  Ardrab,  and 
La^os.  Dahomy  occupies  the  western  ix>rtion,  lying  con- 
tiguous to  the  country  of  the  Ashantees.  It  extends  from 
the  coast  to  a  great  distance  inland,  perhaps  to  9^  N.  lat 
Its  capital,  Abomy  (7°  12' N.  lat.),  lies  in  the  mountain- 
region,  and  is  slated  to  contain  24,000  inhabitants.  Cal- 
minis  farther  south,  has  16,000  inhabitants;  and  Whydda 
is  also  eonsiderable.  The  principal  harbour  of  Dahomy  is 
Grewhe  (aooording  to  Adams,  6^  17'  N.  lat.  and  3°  6' E. 
long.X  with  6000  or  7000  inhabitants.  The  kinj^dom  of 
Ararah  extends  east  of  Dahomy,  and  is  less  extensive,  com- 
probending  only  a  considerable  portion  of  the  plain.'  Its 
capita,  Ararah  (6"  26'  N.  lat),  is  built  on  the  banks  of  a 
lake,  and  contains  20,000  inhabitants.  Its  port  is  Porto 
Novo.  The  kingdom  of  Lagoe  occupies  the  countries  ex- 
tending on  both  sides  of  the  lower  course.of  the  river  Lagos. 
In  its  territory  are  the  towns  of  Lagos,  with  about  6000  in- 
habitants; and  Badagry,  with  a  population  of  10*000  souls. 
But  the  king  of  Lagos  is  dependent  on  the  king  of  Yarriba, 
whose  dominion  extends  over  the  whole  breadth  of  the  Kong 
Mountains  to  the  banks  of  the  river  Quorra,  and  along  that 
river  to  10*  N.  lat  The  mountains  rise  only  to  about  2600 
iset  on  an  average,  and  stretch  out  in  extensive  levels,  and 
aro  moatly  eoverod  with  luxuriant  grasses  and  fine  trees. 
This  part  of  the  continent  i%  also  prott]jr  well  cultivated,  and 
comparatively  thickly  peopled,  containing  a  oonsidmble 
number  of  large  towns,  as  Katuiin,  the  capiul  of  Yarriba; 
Dub,  with  16,000  inhabitanU;  Choodoo.  with  7000  inba- 
bitanti;  Koosoo^  with  20,000  inhabitants;  and  Artoopa, 
with  6000  inhabitants.  These  towns  lie  on  the  road  which 
Gbptain  CUp^erton  and  the  Landers  followed  on  their  route 
into  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  we  may  fairly  conclude  that 
thete  aro  many  moro  of  equal  importance.  The  climate  of 
this  higher  npon  is  less  hot  and  moro  healthy  than  the  low 
pbin  uong  the  sea-eoast.  which  in  this  respect  does  not 
muehdtfieff  from  thai  of  the  Gold  Coast,  except  that  the 


extensive  swamps  which  cover  it  near  the  sImcw 
still  much  mora  unhealthy. 

(Dalxel's  Hittory  qf  J)ak(fmif;  Robertson^s  AV#t  •■ 
Afriea ;  Hutton's  Voyage  to  i^/Wca ;  Adams'a  /KsiiorAi  m 
the  Countries  extenmng^  firom  Cape  Pahmae  t»  tke  Mtr^ 
Congo;  Monrad*s  OemafUde  der  Kuete  vtm  Gmmm  :  Ls- 
marthe's  Voyage  d  la  C6te  de  Guinea ;  Bowdkfa's  M—n'm 
to  Aihantee ;  Clapperton's  Joumai  ^a  Seeomd  Erpfdtir  « 
into  the  Interior  of  Africa ;  Lander's  Erptditiom  to 
mine  the  Coune  ind  Terminatum  qfthe  Niger.) 

GUINEA,  NEW.    [Papoa.] 

GUINEA.    [MoNSY.] 

GUINEA-FOWL.    [PbahanidjlI 

GUINEA  PEPPER,  the  seeds  of  two 
mum,  found  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  wil 
the  one,  A.  grana  Pbradisi,  the  other,  A.  g 


the 


Tliey  aro  powerfully  aromatic,  stimulant, 
aro  used  fur  the  same  purposes  as  Cardanona. 

GUINEA-PIG  (Cavia  Cobaya,  ReetUee  C^K  i^ 
known    BrasUian   rodent   now  domesticated 
[Leporida.] 

GUINES.    [Pas  DB  Calais.] 

GUINGAMP,  a  town  in  France,  in  the 
Cdtes  du  Nord,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  rivwr 
on  the  high  road  from  Paris  to  Brest,  295  mile 
The  town  is  walled,  and  surrounded  with 
The  churoh  has  two  lofty  towers ;  and  there  ia  a 
market-house,  with  a  fountain  in  front  of  it  ia  the 
place.     The  population  in   1831  was  0100. 
manufactures  of  linens,  which  take  their  na 
town,  and  of  linen  thread,  earthenware,  and  Icalher. 
are  a  court  of  justice  and  an  agricultural  aoeietr. 
aro  twelve  yeariy  fairs,  at  which  much  business  is 
in  com,  cattle,  flax,  hemp,  and  linens.    Pollen*  ciay  is  i^z 
in  the  neighbourhood. 

Guingamp  was  antiently  capital  of  the  cooatj  «/  Br> 
thi^vre,  united  with  Brotagne.    It  is  now  the  chia^  t«ea  J 
the  arrondiasement,  which  contains  10  canton^  79  etm- 
munes,  and  had,  in  1831,  116,679  inhabitants. 

GUIPU'ZCOA  is  situated  at  the  oasteni  iivtuMinr  .4 
the  northern  coast  of  Spain,  and  although  the 
the  most  interesting  of  the  three  Basque 
tioned  in  a  former  article.    The  river  Bidj 
from  France  on  the  east.    It  enjofs  the  nortli  hsM^i  fr 
the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and  is  free  from  the  sultry  heati  of 
It  contains  38  square  leagues  and  about  1 04,600  mkftl 
If  Spain  wera  ecjually  peopled  throughout,  it 
frill  30,000,000  mhabitants.    Guipuxcoa,  althaitf  1i  «  k- . 
mountainous,  is  most  carefrilly  cultivated.      Appica  c*  • 
plentifblly  in  the  fields,  and  produce  an  exeallrai  c«.« 
Corn  however  and  other  necessaries  hX\  sboat  of  cka  r^ 
sumotion.   These  deficiencies  in  the  products  of  the  loi!  &-t 
amply  compensated  by  the  abundance  of  fine  iraift-<s«w  « *  •  - 
is  smelted  on  the  spot,  and  converted  into  randrv  %r^  «• 
which,  owing  to  the  tenacity  and  elasticity  of  tbe  ttas«r^ 
aro  proferabte  to  other  wares  of  the  kind  whidft  hmw  x  1.  .- 
appearance.     The  Basque  fowling-piecaa  aiw   ta  ^«&jm. 
both  at  Spain  and   abroad;   the  muskcd^    awwrls   < 
bayonets^  anchors,  implements,  nails  of  all  «uc»»  hu.  •- 
uncommonly  well  made.   To  these  staple  prodticts  .f  £» 
industrv  may  be  added  fumituro,  hide%  skina,  bes^  f «;. 
linen,  doth,  rigging,  oars,  &c.    Much  actt%it>  and  si^..  4- 
displayed  bv  the  females  of  this  country.      Ocmm*.  - 
which  in  other  countries  belong  exctust^vly  to  naL*  «.- 
cheerfully  undertaken  by  them  ;  and  among  ocbrr  t^    .• 
they  handle  the  oar  with  surprising  dexCcritv.     B«i  :. 
aro  above  all  accomplished  housewives,  end  ikr  ft«-«i.  i  : 
dent  in  personal  attractions.     The  (arms,  vo«iift»  dvc.T.  ^«. 
customs,  and  the  countenance  and  dress  of  the  pe«f  -. 
form  a  powerful  contrast  between  tbe  state  of  Gu.,«-i.  • 
and  the  mterior  of  Spain. 

Morot  is  of  opinion  that  the  independence  of  ikr  Bc^.  - 
originated  in  some  arrangement  between  Justioaa   »^- 
Athanagild.      Subsequently    when   Reearedo  a«|i»-A 
Groffoiy  the  Great  for  a  copy  of  this  oontr^n.  t\«  j  •  . 
would  not  comply  with  the  muest,  beraiue  the  •tip«.U:.  j- 
wero  unfavourable  to  the  Goths.  Guipuacoa.  wub  tW  .  '..^r 
Basque  provinces,  was  sunk  in  the  genenl  dcooAsattt.  c  -' 
Cantabria  and  also  of  Vardulia.  which  latter  term  r  mr  -- 
bended  Old  Castile.    According  to  trustwatthy  tiWiz.  -■ 
Guipuxcoa  submitted  in  1300  to  AUbnso  ^FIT  .^nillrJ     C 
de  las  Navas'  for  his  victory  gained  at  that 
Moon^  whose  empiro  flma  t&l  t?tat  i0m  iu 


G  U  L 


4B2 


O  U  L 


Richelieu,  he  was  tried  by  the  parllaiheiit,  and  oondemned, 
par  coniumace^  m  1641.  In  1647  he  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  revolted  Neapolitans  [Masanibllo],  but  waff 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Spaniards;  and  being  released  in 
166'2,  he  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1664,  leaving 
no  tissue.  His  *  M^moiros*  were  published  after  his  death. 
His  younger  brother,  Lonia  duke  of  Joyeuse,  left  a  son, 
Louis  Joseph  of  Lorraine,  duke  of  Guise,  who  died  in  1671, 
leaving  an  infant  son,  who  died  in  1675,  five  years  of  age. 
The  line  of  the  Guises  thus  became  extinct;  but  the  col- 
lateral branch  of  the  dukes  of  ElboBuf  has  continued  to  the 
piesetit  time. 

GU ITAR,  a  musical  instrument  which,  in  various  shapes, 
may  bo  traced  to  the  remotest  periods  of  antiquity.  The 
word  is  derived  from  the  Greek  KtOApa,  and  comes  imme- 
diately to  us  through  the  French  Ouitare,  though  it  ii 
nearly  the  same  in  the  Italian,  Spanish,  and  German  lan- 
guages. The  terms  Cittern  and  Gittem,  used  by  the  old 
English  poets,  are  but  corruptions  of  the  primitive  word. 

The  English  and  French  guitar  of  the  last  century  was 
wide  and  thin  in  body,  short  in  the  neck,  and  strung  with 
wire.  The  modern  guitar,  which  is  of  the  Spanish  kind, 
and  differing  httle  from  the  lute,  consists  of  a  body  from 
seventeen  to  eighteen  inches  in  length,  four  in  depth,  and 
of  a  neck  of  about  sixteen  inches,  the  latter  carrying  a  finger- 
board divided  by  seventeen  frets.  It  has  six  strings,  three 
being  of  silk  covered  with  silvered  wire,  and  three  of  catgut 
The  compass  of  this  elegant  instrument  is  from  b  below 
the  base  staff,  to  A  above  the  treble  staff,  including  all  the 
intermediate  tones  and  semitones.  The  best  and  cheapest 
guitars  are  made  in  Germany,  and  may  be  purchasea  in 
London  at  a  moderate  price. 
GUJERAT.    [Hindustan.] 

GULDl'NUS,  or  GULDIN,  HABAKKUK,  afterwaids 
PAUL,  was  bom  at  St.  Gall  in  1577,  and  was  bred  a  Pro- 
testant, but  became  a  Roman  Catholic  in  or  before  1597,  in 
which  year  he  took  the  vows  of  a  Jesuit,  as  coadjutor  tern- 
poraiis.  Having  shown  a  talent  for  mathematics,  he  waa 
allowed  to  study  at  Rome,  and  afterwards  taught,  first  at 
Griltz,  then  at  Vienna.  He  wrote  for  the  Gregorian 
Kalendar  against  Calvisius,  and  against  Scaliger,  on  the 
precession  of  the  equinoxes :  also  on  the  geographical  pro- 
blem of  the  method  of  numbering  the  days  of  those  who  sail 
to  the  new  world  [Antifodbs],  on  Centrobarycs,  and  other 
things.  He  died  in  1643.  This  is  the  account  given  by 
Riccioli  of  a  writer  whose  memory  would  not  have  required 
notice  in  this  work,  if  it  had  not  been  for  some  propositions 
mentioned  by  Pappus,  which  he  appropriated  without  ac- 
knowledgement, and  which  for  a  long  time  passed  under 
his  name.  These  propositions  are  cit^  in  the  article  Cbn- 
TRE,  and  though  they  now  merge  in  an  elementary  formula 
of  the  integral  calculus,  and  are  not  used  in  the  form  in 
which  Pappus  and  Guldinus  exhibited  them,  they  never- 
theless give  a  very  good  conception  of  the  properties  of  the 
centre  of  figure,  and,  under  the  title  of  the  centrobaryc 
method,  form  an  interesting  step  in  the  chain  of  reasonings 
which  preceded  the  differential  calculus. 

The  work  of  Guldinus,  •  De  Centre  Gravitatis,'  (of  which 
the  first  book  was  published  at  Vienna  in  1635,  and  the 
rest,  owing  to  the  disturbed  state  of  the  country,  in  1640 
and  1641),  is  a  laboured  geometrical  treatise  on  the  pro- 
perties of  the  centre  of  gravity,  including  applications  and 
verifications  of  the  theorems  of  Pappus,  but  no  demonstra- 
tion. The  attempt  to  prove  these  theorems  was  a  failure  in 
the  hands  of  Guldinus.  To  put  it  beyond  question  that  this 
writer  really  did  borrow  from  his  predecessor,  we  subjoin  a 
paraj*raph  from  the  preface  of  the  seventh  book  of  the  col- 
lections of  Pappus,  taking  the  Latin  text  of  Commandine, 
which  was  published  before  Guldinus,  and  which  he  cites. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  the  text  of  this  preface  is  very 
imperfect.  •  Perfectonim  utrorumque  ordinum  proportio 
coinposita  est  ex  proportione  amphismatum,  et  rectarum 
linearum  similiter  ad  axes  ductarum  A  punotis,  quoe  in 
ipsis  gravitatis  centra  sunt.  Imperfectorum  autem  proportio 
composita  est  ex  proportione  amphismatum,  et  circum»ren- 
tiarum  k  punctis  qu»  in  ipsis  sunt  centra  gravitatis,  fac- 
tarum.' 

But  the  work  of  Guldinus  called  the  attention  of  a  more 
powerful  geometer  to  the  subject.  He  had  made  some 
objections  to  the  theory  of  indivisibles  of  Cavalieri,  to  which 
the  latter  replied,  in  the  third  of  his*  Exercitationes/  and 
ended  his  reply  by  making  the  method  of  indivisibles  furnish 
the  demonstration  which  Guldinus  was  not  able  fo  find.   It 


»  therdbre  to  Csfalieri,  and  not  to  6vMuiu%  tbat  tho 
^redit  is  due  of  having  made  the  firs(  advance  upon  Pappus. 
^  GULF.    [Bay.) 

GULF  8TREA1I.    [Atlantic  Ocean.] 

GULL.    [Laudjb.] 

GUIX),  the  gencnc  name  under  which  the  GhUton,  or 
Wolverenet  and  the  Orimn  (Galictia  of  Bell),  with  oiL«r 
camivoroot  congeners^  have  been  arranged. 

M.  F.  Cuvier,  in  the  32nd  number  of  his '  Denta  dci 
MammilSrea,'  says  that  he  might  havo  treated  of  the  Gnsim, 
the  Tayra  (Gulo  barbatus  of  Desmarest),  and  the  Gluiton, 
in  his  preceding  article,  where  be  treats  of  the  dentition  u( 
the  Putw  (Putorius  of  G.  CnvierX  ZcriUe  (Zonlla).  and 
Jbfor/et (Martens);  for,  he  remarks,  the  dental  arrangemetii 
of  the  Griton  and  Tayra  resemble  that  of  Puioriua,  aiid 
that  of  the  Grieon  is  similar  to  the  formula  ofae«r>tfd  .n 
Martee.  The  two  first,  he  statos,  havo  two  fidse  moUca  aU>i  e 
and  three  below,  and  the  last  has  an  additional  one  in  e^::\ 
jaw.  For  the  rest«  these  animala  have  nothing  in  tlieir  te«>th 
to  distinguish  them ;  that  is  to  say,  he  contiauoi^  they  ha\  e 
the  same  incisives,  the  same  canines,  and  the  same  tuWr- 
cular  teeth.  They  have  consequently  all  a  leliah  for  bkKl, 
and  could  not  be  separated  from  each  other,  were  it  'i  : 
for  the  plantigrade  feet  of  the  Grison,  the  Toyro,  ar.i 
the  Glutton,  an  organization  which  does  not  however  chatiL*. 
their  propensities,  and  only  leads  to  the  modifioation  of  u  ^ 
means  by  which  they  satisfy  their  appetites. 

The  dental  formula  of  the  group  haa  been  stated  as — 
6  1  —  1  4—4        6—6 

Incisives  -,  Canines  - — -7,  Molars  ^ — ;  or  1 — 1  =  34  or  Ji> 


1-r 


6-5        6-9 


Twth  of  Gulo.    {je.  Cavicr.) 

The  well-developed  carnivorous  dentition,  united  with  \\* 
plantigrade  foot,  seems  to  have  thrown  a  diflicultr  in  u 
way  of  zoologists,  as  to  the  proper  place  of  thrae  aiumal»  *. 
a  natural  arrangement. 

Linnceus  placed  the  Quickhateh  {Urnu  /watf>  anon^ 
the  Bears;  but  he  appean  to  have  ooBiMmd  Ihn  Glaaoc 


G  U  L 


484 


CUL 


upon  tlie  eareuet  of  b«ost8  which  hate  heen  kQled  hy 
aoeident,  that  it  has  great  strength,  and  that  it  annoys  the 
natives  by  destroying  their  hoards  of  provision,  and  demo- 
lishing their  marten  traps. 

Mr.  Graham  in  his  MSS.  informs  us  that  the  wolverenes 
are  extremely  mischievous,  and  that  they  do  more  damage 
to  the  small-ftir  trade  than  all  the  other  animals  conjointly. 
They  will,  he  states,  follow  the  marten-hunter's  path  round 
a  line  of  traps  extending  forty,  fifty,  or  sixty  miles,  and 
render  the  whole  unserviceable,  merely  to  come  at  the 
baits,  which  are  generally  the  head  of  a  nartridge  or  a  bit 
of  dried  venison.  They  are  not  fond  of  tne  martens  them- 
selves, but  never  fail  of  tearing  them  in  pieces  or  of  bury- 
ing them  in  the  snow  by  the  side  of  the  path,  at  a  consider- 
able distance  from  the  trap.  Drifts  of  snow  often  conceal 
the  repositories  thus  made  of  the  martens  at  the  expense  of 
the  hunter,  in  which  case  they  ftimish  a  regale  for  the 
hungry  fox,  whose  sagacious  nostril  guides  him  unerringly 
to  the  spot;  and  two  or  three  foxes  are  often  seen  following 
the  wolverene  for  this  purpose. 

Such  is  Mr.  Gmham's  mteresting  and,  we  believe,  fidth- 
ful  account  of  the  habits  of  the  wolverene.  May  not  the 
attendant  foxes  have  given  rise  to  the  story  that  the  Arctic 
fox  is  the  jackal,  or  provider  of  the  glutton? 

Dr.  Richardson  says  of  the  glutton, '  It  is  so  suspicious, 
that  it  will  rarely  enter  a  trap  itself,  but  be^ning  behind, 
pulls  it  to  pieces,  scatters  the  logs  of  which  it  is  ouilt,  and 
then  carries  off  the  bait  It  feeds  also  on  meadow  mice, 
marmots,  and  other  rodentia,  and  occasionally  on  disabled 
Quadrupeds  of  a  larger  size.  I  have  seen  one  chasinff  an 
American  hare,  whicn  was  at  the  same  time  harassed  by  a 
snowy  owl.  It  resembles  the  bear  in  its  gait,  and  is  not 
fleet ;  but  it  is  very  industrious,  and  no  doubt  feeds  well, 
as  it  is  generally  fkt  It  is  much  abroad  in  the  winter,  and 
tlie  tracK  of  its  journey  in  a  single  night  may  be  often  traced 
for  many  miles.  From  the  shortness  of  its  legs,  it  makes 
iu  way  through  loose  snow  with  difficulty,  but  when  it  falls 
upon  the  beaten  track  of  a  marten-trapper,  it  wiUpursue  it 
for  a  long  way.'  (Awia  BorwaU  Americana.}  The  same 
author  {he,  dt.)  remarks  that  the  wolverene  is  said  to  be  a 
(p'eat  destroyer  of  beavers,  but  that  it  must  be  only  in  sum- 
mer, when  those  industrious  animals  are  at  work  on  land 
that  it  can  surprise  them ;  for  an  attempt  to  break  open 
their  house  in  winter,  even  supposing  it  possible  for  the 
claws  of  a  wolverene  to  penetrate  the  thick  mud- walls  when 
froien  as  hard  as  stone,  would  only  have  the  effect  of  driv- 
ini?  the  beavers  into  the  water  to  seek  for  shelter  in  their 
vaults  on  the  borders  of  the  dam.  Dr.  Richardson  fturther 
tells  us  that  though  the  wolverene  is  reported  to  defend 
itself  with  boldness  and  success  against  the  attack  of  other 
quadruueds,  it  Hies  from  the  lace  of  man,  and  makes  but  a 
poor  fight  with  a  hunter,  who  requires  no  other  arms  than  a 
stick  to  kill  it. 

Captain  James  Roas  {Appendix  to  8ir  John  Ross's  Last 
Voyage)  gives  a  striking  narrative  of  the  boldness  of  the  spe- 
cies wlien  urged  by  famine.  The  incident  happened  at  Vic- 
toria Harbour.  *  There,'  writes  the  gallant  Captain,  *  in  the 
middle  of  the  winter,  two  or  three  months  before  we  aban- 
doned the  ship,  we  were  one  day  surprised  bv  a  visit  from 
one,  which,  pressed  hard  by  hunger,  had  climbed  the  snow- 
wall  that  surrounded  our  vessel,  and  came  Ix^dly  on  deck, 
where  our  crew  were  walking  for  exercise.  Undismayed 
at  the  presence  of  twelve  or  fourteen  men,  he  seised  upon 
a  eanister  whidi  had  some  meat  in  it,  and  was  in  so  raven- 
ous a  sUte  that  whilst  busily  engaged  at  his  feast  he  suf- 
fered me  to  pass  a  noose  over  his  head,  by  which  he  was 
immediately  secured  and  strangled.  By  oischarging  the 
eontents  of  two  secretory  organs^  it  emitted  a  most  insup- 
portable stench.  These  secratorv  vessels  are  about  the  site 
of  a  walnut,  and  discharge  a  fluid  of  a  yellowish-brown 
colour,  and  of  the  consistence  of  honey,  1^  the  rectum, 
when  hard  pressed  by  its  enemies.' 

The  wolverene  produces  young  once  a  year,  in  number 
finun  two  to  four,  and  the  cubs  are  covered  with  a  downy 
Air  of  a  pale  cream  colour.    (Richardson.) 

Geographical  Di#lri5iiliofi.— Throughout  the  whole 
northern  parts  of  the  American  Continent,  from  the  coast  of 
Labrailor  and  Davis's  8uraiU  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  and 
the  islands  of  Alaska.  It  even  visiu  the  islands  of  the 
Polar  Sea,  iU  bones  having  been  found  in  Melville  IsUnd, 
nearly  in  ktitude  75*.  Not  rare  in  Canada.  Sxtent  of 
range  to  the  southward  not  nntioiied  byAmorioaa  writen.  I 
CRWrhaidson.)  I 


Captain  James  Ross  {Appendix  ahore  qtioted) 
that  some  traces  of  the  existence  of  die  iwifwrw 
highest  northern  latitudes  were  observed  on  two  of  t-i* 
preceding  Arctic  expeditions :  but  none  of  the  awirnaW  m*^ 
seen  on  those  occasions ;  although*  he  obaarea,  we  ki*.  « 
that  it  remains  throughout  the  winter  as  fiar  Bortti  n 
70*  N.  lat,  and  is  not,  like  other  animab  of  Cbal  r«un  .. 
climate,  subject  to  any  change  of  colour  from  tlw  »>-• 
cold.    A  few  days  previous  to  the  arrival  of  the  EAq«:s« 
near  Felix  Harbour,  in  January,  1830,  tlie  irveks  -Y  :. 
animal  were  first  seen ;  and  soon  after  the  skins  «f  t>  i 
and  two  young  ones  were  brought  to  the  ship  by  ilie  nil  • 
who  had  taken  them  in  traps  built  of  stone.     Dwris^g  e  ^- 
of  the  following  winters  their  tracks  were 
and  at  Victoria  Harbour  they  were  very  n 

Pennant  notes  it  as  inhabiting  Lapland,  the 
eastern  parts  of  Siberia,  and  Kamtohatka. 

Lesson  states  that  it  inhabits  a  complete  oirele 
north  ]>ole,  in  Europe  and  Asia,  as  well  as  A 

Utility  to  Man, — We  have  seen  what  misehMC  tbe  Ct,  - 
ton  does  to  the  trapper,  and  the  skin  of  the  aoiiBBl  docs  - 
compensate  for  its  destructive  habita.    Pennaat  mx%  \, 
the  skin  sold  in  Siberia  for  four  or  six  shiUinga  ;  at  Yak*.  • 
for  twelve;  and  still  dearer  in  Kamtchatkn,  wbetv  *_ 
women  dress  their  hair  with  ita  white  paw«»  which  u.- 
reckon  a  great  ornament.    The  fur,  he  adds^  is  fcm* 
esteemed  in  Europe,  and  he  remarks  thai  tbe  ^las  «f  . 
north  of  Europe  and  Asia,  which  are  sompHmMs  i»  W  ts^- 
in  the  ftirriers'  shops,  are  infinitely  finer,  blacker,  aad  wa^ 
glossy  than  those  f^om  America.    Dr.  Riibnfdw  u 
that  the  fur  of  the  American  Glutton  bears  a  gtaei  •->- 
larity  to  that  of  the  bladt  bear,  but  that  it  is  ttoc  so  Iv  : 
nor  of  so  much  value. 

DeeertptUm. — Head  broad  and  compact,  ludAcolv  mos  d- 
off  on  every  side  to  form  the  nose.    Jatte  itmtm\^\t%  t^« 
of  a  dog  in  shape.    Back  arched ;  taU  low  moA 
thick  and  short:  whole  aspect  indicatiiig 
much  activity.    Ar  generally  dark  brown, 
height  of  winter  almost  into  blaek.    A  palie  swldnh  !§%« 
band,  more  or  less  distinct,  and  sometimea  iidnig  isss  »»«s 
brownish  white,  commences  behind  the  shoulder,  asd  r.- 
ning  along  the  flanks  turns  up  on  the  htp  aad  oniist  v  . 
its  fellow  on  the  rump.    The  short  tail  thickty  cs>nend  v 
long  black  hair.    Some  white  markings,  not  eofsetas- 
sise  or  number,  on  the  throat  and  betweeu  ih&  firt  w^v 
Lege  brownish  black,    dance  strong  and  aktaip. 

Dr.  Richardson,  firom  whose  work  {Ftmmm  Bmtw^  ^^ 
ricana)  the  above  description  is  taken,  adds  thaa  ibc  ax-iif. 
places  its  foot  on  the  ground  much  in  the  mantMr  of  a  in- 
and  imprints  a  track  on  the  snow  or  aand,  wksh  m  a  .- 
mistaken  foe  that  of  the  bear  by  Europeaas  oo  ik.r  t 
arrival  in  the  fur  countries;  but  the  Indiane  dtou»v^« 
the  tracks  at  the  first  glance  by  the  len^  of  tbeaaipk  Ifc 
Doctor  also  gives  the  following  dimensions  :^-- 


•v 


tti 


Length  of  head  and  body 
tail  (vertebre) 
tail  with  fur 


^     % 

•     le 


Captain  James  Ross  {Appendix,  &e.)  states  tksi  the 

script  ions  of  authors  are  sufficiently  accurate,  h«u  b«  ^ 
that  the  following  dimensions  of  a  female^  whw4  «%v^ 
27|  pounds  may  be  useful : — 

Length  from  snout  to  insertion  of  tail      S*  4 

of  the  tail  9*0  .«^ 

of  the  hair  of  the  ua  a 

44- 1 

Length  from  snout  to  shoulder   .  *  11  i 

to  occiput  •  .as 

Extreme  breadth  of  head    .  4  *  t 

Circumference  at  ensiform  cartilage  .  14*  ^ 

at  neck  .  ie*« 
at  broadest  part  of  the 

head       •        •  .  19 

Vertebrw-Cervical    7 

Doml     ISOOIrasaadfi 
Lumbar    5 

Saciml      3  (WW  ia  «m) 
Otudal    Ifi 


The  maaiomj  of  the  Griwiti,  Gulo  viltatuM  of  Docrouett, 
Viverra  vitlala  of  Schraber  and  Gnielin,  Lulra  vittata  of 
Traill,  Urtu*  BntiUgntit  of  Thunberg,  and  Galtelit  niltala 
of  Bell,  baa  been  made  known  to  lu  by  Mr.  Martin,  who, 
in  tho  'Zoological  PraeoMlingB'  for  1S33,  Btalei  the  remits 
of  tha  poat  moHem  euminatioa  of  a  male  which  had  been 
kept  in  tbo  Gftrdeni  at  the  R«gent'i  Park.  The  animal, 
fi9Dt  the  noM  to  the  ituartion  of  the  tail,  meaaured  1  foot 
6  inchet,  and  the  (ail  wa«  6}  inchea  in  length.  The  intaa- 
tines,  aa  in  the  Mustelidn  genenUy,  exhibiled  no  diviiion 
into  imall  and  In^e,  except  that  the  rectum  became  gra- 
dually increaaed  in  eiicumference :  their  total  length  waa 

4  feet  S  incfaei.  The  ttomaeh,  when  moderalalf  inflatad, 
meaiured  104  inches  in  its  greatest  circumforenoe,  13  along 
itB  greater,  and  4}  along  iis  Isaaer  curra.  The  imuntum 
waa  thin  and  irregularly  puckered  tt^ther.    At  about 

5  inchoa  from  the  otuu  oommenced  a  group  of  thickly 
ace  uf  4  inches  in 
o  gland*,  each  of 

inc  aize  of  a  nutmeg,  and  containing  a  fluid  of  the  con' 
si»tence  and  colour  of  liquid  honey,  and  of  a  moat  into- 
lerable odour:  the  orifice  or  duct  of  these  gland*  opened 
jutl  vithin  the  verge  of  Ihe  anui.  The  Hoar  waa  tripartite, 
the  middle  portion  being  divided  into  one  large  and  one 
small  lobe;  on  the  under  aide  of  the  lai^  lobe,  in  a  deep 
furrow,  VBB  lituated  the  gall-bladder,  of  a  moderate  siie 
and  somewhat  elongated  form.  The  biliary  Mcrelion  en- 
tered the  tbwdenuM  l\  inch  below  the  pykvui.  The 
panereag  was  long,  flat,  and  narrow ;  beginning  in  a  curved 
form  near  the  pylonu,  and  following  (he  courae  uf  the 
duodenum  for  about  4  inches.  The  tpUen,  tongue- shaped, 
was  loosely  attached  to  the  stomach  and  G  inches  in  length. 
The  lungt  eonaiated  of  three  right  and  two  left  lobes.  The 
fiearl  was  of  an  obtuse  Bgure,  measuring  t  i  inch  in  len){tli 
and  1  inch  in  breadth.  The  primary  branches  of  (bo  aoria 
■were,  Ist.  a  right  branch,  or  arteria  innominata,  which, 
running  for  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  gave  off  the  two  carotids 
and  the  right  subclavian ;  and,  Snd.  a  left  branch,  passing 
to  form  the  right  subdaTian.  The  epigloltit  waa  acu- 
minata, and  in  dose  approximation  to  the  longite,  which 
was  tolerably  smooth,  with  a  crescent  of  distinct  fosaulate 
papilla  at  ila  base.  The  ot  fmoidtt  was  united  by  a  suc- 
cession of  four  bones  on  each  side  to  the  skull.  The  kidney* 
were  of  an  oval  form,  the  right  being  half  its  length  higher 
than  tha  left:  length  of  each  1^  inch.  The  fti6u/i  entered 
the  pehit  of  the  kidney  by  a  single  large  oonical  papilla. 
Suprarenal  glands  smuL  The  U»ie*  each  a*  lan^  as  a 
small  nutmeg;  the  cremaster  muscle,  embncin^  the  sper- 
matic cord  as  it  emerges  ftom  the  ring,  very  distmet.  The 
pent*  had  been  injured  in  removiag  the  skiu  of  the  animal ; 
ita  length  Brom  the  pttbet  was  about  3}  inches,  and  its 
musclos  were  very  distinct.  It  contained,  as  in  the  Dog, 
«  slender  bone,  1|  inch  lon^,  rather  stout  at  its  commence- 
nWDt,  than  narrowing  aa  it  ptocaeded  till  near  the  apex, 
when  it  suddenly  bent  at  an  obtuse  angle,  giving  olT  at  this 
part  two  small  praeeasaa.  The  diiluiot  of  m,  pnMtatt 
ftom  the  bliddw  wu  li  inch. 


a  G  U  L 

HiAia,  Food,  fc.~TbB  habiu  of  tba  Orison  are  vory 
sangninary,  and  it  ia  a  great  destroyer  of  the  smaller  qua- 
drupeds. 

Gmgraphicai  DiXn'^'t on.— Inhabits  the  greater  part  of 
South  Americn,  but  more  particularly  Guvana  and  Paru- 
guay.  Dr.  Rennger  notes  both  it  and  Ovic  barbana  among 
the  plantigrade  camiTora  of  Paraguay,  where  both  cpccios 
are  called  Yaguapa. 

Description.— "Head  rather  largo;  earsbroed  and  short. 
Body  very  much  elongated ;  fur  above  deep  brown,  each 
hair  tipped  with  white,  which  gives  a  grey  or  hoary  as[)cct 
to  the  upper  parts.  A  broad  white  line  paisiug  on  encli 
side  of  Iho  front  to  the  shoulders.  Note,  throat,  undur 
side  of  body,  thighs,  and  iegt  black.    Length  about  2  fuct. 


There  M  a  notice  in  the  'Zoological  Proceedings'  fur 
1830-31  of  the  exhibition  of  a  living  quadruped  referrible 
to  Oi^o  barbaru*.  It  was  presented  to  Ibc  Society  by 
Edmonstone  Hodgkinson,  Esq^  of  IVinidad,  who  described 
it  as  being  'playful  and  gentle,  although  easily  esctied  and 
very  voracious.  It  is  exceedingly  strong,  as  it  indicated  bj' 
its  shape ;  and  it  has  the  same  antipathy  to  water  as  a  cat.' 
Mr.  Hodgkinson  suspected  it  to  be  a  native  of  Peru.  Ho 
obtained  it  in  Venezuela,  where  it  was  presented  to  him  bv 
the  president,  General  Paei.  Tho  name  he  received  witb 
it  was  the  Ouacke  ;  but  this  appellation,  it  was  obaerved  by 
Mr.  Bennett,  was  probablv  erroneously  applied  to  (be  pre 
sent  animal,  belonging  tatter  to  tho  CJoati,  the  orlhc«Taphy 
of  which  is  TDriousty  given  as  Coali,  Couati,  Quatje, 
Quachi,  and  GuacM.  The  latter  form,  it  is  remarked, 
occurs  in  the  'Personal  Narrative'  of  the  Baron  Vun  Hum- 
boldt, where  it  evidently  refers  to  a  nocturnal  speciea  of 
Natua.  The  form  and  general  appearance  of  the  animal 
were  remarked  to  be  adtogelhcr  those  of  a  Muitela,  to 
which  genus,  it  was  observed,  it  should  probably  be  re- 
ferred, together  with  the  typical  Gulo  barbarut.  A  specimen 
of  the  latter  was  plared  upon  the  (able,  from  which  the 
living  animal  was  shown  to  differ  by  the  absence  of  the 
large  yellow  spot  beneath  tba  neck :  a  remarkable  distinc- 
tion in  this  group,  but  on  the  occurrence  of  which,  unless 
confirmed  by  several  specimens,  it  was  considered  improper 
to  propose  regarding  it  as  a  distinct  species. 

There  is  a  figure  and  description  of  the  Galtra,  referred 
to  by  Linnrous  for  his  Mutteia  barbara,  in  Browne's 
'  Jamaica,'  p.  48S,  tab.  49.  Browne  calls  it  the  GaUra,  or 
Guinea  ^tx,  and  says  that  it  is  often  brought  to  Jamaica 
from  the  coasts  of  Guinea  (Guyana?),  where  it  is  a  native, 
and  frequent  enough  about  all  the  negro  settlements.  It 
is,  he  says,  of  (he  siie  of  a  small  rabbit  or  cat,  and  ver^' 
stronfT  in  its  fore-tbet,  which  are  much  shorter  than  the 

Mr.  Gray,  in  the  'Zoological  Proceedings*  for  lSJO-31, 


Hamilton  8i 
Iqpt  Zoologin.' 


Viwm  larvata  of  Gray,  in  Ilia  'Spioi- 


GUM 


486 


GUN 


Fossil  Gxtlonsb. 

Fossil  Gluttons  have  been  detected  in  the  ossiferous 
caverns :  Gulo  spelceus  (Goldfuss),  for  instance,  has  been 
found  in  those  of  Gailenreutb,  and  Sundwick,  in  West- 
phalia. Professor  Kaup  also  records  another  extinct  species* 
Gulo  arUedilumanuM  <iLaup),  from  the  Epplesheim  sand. 

GUM  is  a  proaumate  {nrinciple  of  vegetables*  of  more 
universal  occurrence  than  any  other  secretion  by  plants.  It 
is  in  reality  the  material  generally  prepared  by  them  for 
their  own  growth  and  nourishment,  and  is  at  first  always 
in  a  state  of  solution,  in  which  condition  it  mostly  remains 
so  long  as  it  is  contained  in  the  internal  tissues  of  plants ; 
but  wlien  it  escapes  to  the  exterior  of  the  bark  it  frequently 
becomes  thickened,  and  even  solid  and  pulverizable.  It  is 
probable  that  it  never  escapes  to  the  surface  unless  some 
wound  of  the  bark  has  been  made,  either  by  disease,  the 
punctures  of  insects,  the  agency  of  fungi,  or  by  the  knife. 
The  escape  of  gum  from  plum  and  chen7  trees  may  always 
be  regarded  as  an  indication  of  unhealthiness ;  the  imme- 
diate cause  of  escape  is  the  presence  of  a  small  corkscrew- 
like fungus  termed  Naemaipora  crocea. 

Gum  is  known  in  commerce  only  in  the  solid  state ;  the 
term  is  oflen  erroneously  applied  to  substances  which  are  a 
mixture  of  gum  with  resins,  and  which  are  properly  gum- 
resins,  such  as  ammoniacum,  asafcetida,  and  the  like,  and 
even  to  substances  which  contain  no  portion  of  gum,  such 
as  euphorbium. 

Chemical  characters  alone,  and  not  physical,  determine 
what  is  a  gum ;  but  even  of  true  gums  there  are  several 
varieties,  chiefl^  distinguished  by  their  greater  or  less  solu- 
bility in  water. 

The  purest  gum  (arabie)  consists  of  a  principle  termed 
arabin,  and  is  soluble  in  water,  forming  with  it  a  mucilage. 
Other  gums  contain  beusorine,  either  alone,  or  with  arabin 
and  other  matters.  When  bassorine  only  is  present,  the 
specimen  merely  swells  in  water ;  if  arabin  be  also  present, 
it  will  dissolve,  while  the  bassorine  and  other  matters  which 
are  not  impurities  swell  as  before  stated.  The  arabin  is 
preeipitatea  from  its  watery  solution  by  alcohol,  by  silicate 
of  potass,  &c  When  boiled  with  nitric  acid,  mucic  or 
saclactic  acid  is  produced. 

Pure  gum-arabic,  which  consists  of  about  97  per  cent,  of 
arabin,  with  3  per  cent  of  some  malates  and  other  salts, 
has  an  ultimate  constitution,  according  to  Gay  Lussac  and 
Th^nard,  of 

Carbon    .         .         •        42*23 
Hydrogen         •         •  6*93 

Oxygen  •         •         50*64 

100*00 

Berzelius  mentions  a  trace  of  nitrogen,  which  may  be  pre- 
sent, as  Pleisch  found  ammonia.  Grum  is  certainly  not 
acid,  though,  when  moistened,  it  reddens  litmus  paper, 
owing  to  the  presence  of  the  malic  and  acetic  add  of  the 
malaies  and  other  salts  above  indicated. 

Bassorine  contains  less  carbon  and  more  oxygen. 
Most  of  the  commercial  gums  are  obtained  by  incisions 
made  in  the  bark  of  several  species  of  acacia  growing  in 
Arabia,  India,  Upper  Egypt,  Senegal,  &c.  The  specimens 
differ  considerably  in  colour,  even  when  obtained  from  the 
same  species.  Genuine  gum-arabic  occurs  in  pieces  from 
the  size  of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  walnut,  or  larger,  which  are 
irregular  in  shape,  or  roundish  or  angular ;  either  white, 
yellowish,  or  dark  mne  yellow ;  scarcely  any  odour ;  taste 
mawkish,  glutinous.  Sp.  Gr.  1*316  to  1*482.  It  breaks 
easily  into  small  irregular  pieces ;  fracture  uneven,  vitre- 
ous; dissolves  almost  completely  m  water;  100  parts  of 
water  at  100°  of  Centigrade  thermometer  take  up  19  parts 
of  gum.  The  solution  is  almost  transparent  when  made 
with  cold  water.  Gtim,  when  in  powder,  is  often  adulter- 
ated with  stareh,  the  presence  of  which  is  detected  by  tinc- 
ture of  iodine ;  or  when  cold  water  is  used  for  the  sc^ution 
of  the  gum,  the  starch  will  remain  undissolved.  The  mu- 
cilage made  with  cold  water  is  not  only  purer,  but  keeps 
better,  and  for  all  purposes  for  which  it  can  be  used  is  pre- 
ferable to  that  made  with  warm  water,  which  is  the  conuaon 
method. 

Gum  is  highly  nutritive,  six  ounces  in  twenty-four  hours 
being  deemed  sufficient  to  sustain  the  life  of  an  adult;  yet 
it  is  not  very  easily  digested  when  taken  alone,  and  will 
often  pass  through  the  stomach  nearly  unchanged,  if  not 
associated  with  some  bitter  or  astringent  prinoij^e.  This 
property  however  renders  it  demttlcent  in  affections  both  of 
tho  throat  and  also  of  the  intestines,  by  theathiog  tho  niMa* 


brane  from  air  or  the  irritation  of  acrid  secretions.  Hen^ 
allowing  a  portion  to  dissolve  slowly  is  often  useful  in  ci>in* 
men  colds.  Mucilage  is  also  used  to  suspend  many  uiv> 
luble  matters  in  water.  Its  agglutinating  properties  rendtr 
it  valuable  in  many  of  the  arts. 

GUM-RESINS  are  secretions  of  plants  which  are  pro- 
duced in  the  greatest  quantity,  and  most  perfectly  elabo- 
rated,  in  warm  countries.  Tfaiey  are  obtained  duefly  frt»m 
trees  and  shrubs  of  particular  tribes  of  plants*  imrdy  f  rum 
herbaceous  plants,  except  the  large  berbaoeoits  umbelle 
feres,  which  yield  the  fostid  gum-resins.  They  either  exuib 
spontaneously,  or  are  procured  by  incisions  of  the  stem 
and  branches.  When  tney  first  escape  to  the  sor&ce  they 
are  fluid,  and  of  a  light  colour,  but  gradually  harden,  and 
become  of  a  deeper  hue,  either  by  the  evaporation  of  soin«* 
of  their  "volatile  oil,  or  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen  from  tlic 
air,  and  the  conversion  of  the  oil  into  a  resin.  Some  tv- 
main  in  a  semi-liquid,  viscid  state,  such  as  sagapenum  and 
galbanum,  which  are  only  pulverizable  in  winter.  M"«i 
gum-resins  possess  a  strong  odour,  which  in  many  instancvn 
is  disagreeable,  such  as  that  of  asafostida,  with  a  i»ar'u 
acrid  taste,  and  by  application  to  the  skin  for  any  oonatdc- 
rable  time  they  cause  redness  and  inflammation.  Own./ 
to  their  composition  being  a  mixture  of  gum  and  resin,  th<.  \ 
are  not  completely  soluble  either  in  water  or  absolute  alco- 
hol, but  are  perfectly  dissolved  in  proof-spirit,  which  i> 
much  employed  to  prepare  tinctures  of  this  class  of  sub- 
stances. The  gum  being  soluble  in  water  is  capable  for  a 
time  of  holding  the  resinous  portion  suspended  in  water, 
thereby  forming  an  emulsion,  a  state  which  permits  of  ih*.:r 
administration,  If  used  soon  after  being  prepared ;  for  i  -. 
rest  they  separate.  Many  of  them  are  soluble  to  a  corta  u 
extent  in  acetic  acid,  especially  when  assisted  by  beaU  T..o 
strong  mineral  acids  char  them  and  produce  chemical 
changes.  Many  gum-resins  are  popularly  termed  baUam^s 
a  designation  to  which  they  have  no  title,  as  they  do  liut 
contain  bensoic  acid. 

Gum-resins  are  with  difficulty  soluble  in  the  auimil 
juices,  yet,  as  they  must  be  assimilated  befi>re  they  pro- 
duce their  characteristic  effects,  they  require  to  be  ust^i 
for  some  time  before  the  .secretions  of  tne  body  aoqunt* 
their  peculiar  odour.  They  influence  the  secretory  a.\i 
excretory  processes,  which  they  rouse  to  codUuul'I 
action.  They  also  act  upon  the  skin  as  audoriCcs^  ai.i 
more  permanently  than  the  volatile  oils.  They  nxiui-.' 
fest  their  beneficial  effects  chiefly  when  the  skin  is  cv>.l. 
pale,  and  in  a  state  of  atony,  and  they  can  even  check  pri>- 
fuse  perspiration,  when  this  is  caused  by  the  lax  state  J 
the  cutaneous  tissues.  They  are  likewise  poaaessed  of  C4»r}- 
siderable  antispasmodic  powers  and  hence  are  much  v.-««  i 
in  nervous  complaints.  They  greatly  promote  digest,  i.. 
when  the  stomach  is  feeble  owing  to  a  oefective  supply  >t 
nervous  energy.  Their  utility  in  the  treatment  of  h>»tc^i- 
cal  and  other  paroxysms  is  very  much  increased  by  x\d:^.- 
nistering  them  in  a  state  which  admits  of  ready  solut.uu  m 
the  gastric  fluids;  hence  the  acetous  preparations  of  iLiui 
are  much  more  potent  than  any  other  form.  They  tu .« 
be  administered  either  by  the  mouth,  or,  in  case  of  rp^>M 
closing  the  teeth,  or  tlie  patient  being  refractory,  lu  L  - 
form  of  clyster,  the  dose  being  doubled  in  theUlicr  u.- 
stance. 

Gum»resins  are  likewise  applied  externally,  owinc  to  i\u  .r 
rubefacient  powers,  in  the  form  of  liniments  or  plsbteiN  »:< 
spasmodic  and  rheumatic  affections,  and  also  to  assist  m  di*- 
plersing  indolent  tumours. 

Gum-resins  should  be  kept  in  oool  well-bloied  places  Cu 
prevent  the  evaporation  of  their  volatile  principles. 

GUM  TRAGACANTH,  or  GUM  BRAGON.    [Tea 

GACANTH.] 

GUMBINNEN.    [Prussia,  East.] 

GUMS.    [DbntitUSn.I 

GUN.    [Ames.] 

GUN-METAL.    [Bionzb] 

GUN-SHOT  WOUNDS.  Under  this  head  wtiten  os 
military  surgery  have  usually  ooasklered  not  only  all  ti  c 
injuries  produced  by  cannon-balls,  bullets,  £&c  strikr.3: 
aeainst  the  body,  but  those  which  arise  firom  the  ptmecti... 
of  stones,  splinters  of  wood,  and  other  substaooes  hrok«D 
off  and  thrown  about  by  heavy  balls,  or  by  the  ezplosiun  k{ 
shells,  &c.  We  shall  here  include  however  only  tlio«e  pro- 
duced by  the  shots  themselves,  bsoause  the  othecs  diffar  la 
no  important  degree  from  the  more  wauooa  ooDtused 
wounds. 


GUN 


488 


G  VN 


the  put  IS  panl]rted ;  if  &  bone  is  itrack,  it  splinters,  espe- 
cially in  the  longitudinal  direction,  and  is  besides  so  shaken 
that  death  ensues  in  it,  as  in  the  softer  tissues:  after  pene- 
trating part  of  a  bone,  the  ball  often  loses  so  much  of  its 
power  that  it  remains  firmly  impacted  in  the  med<ullary 
C4inal.  If  any  of  the  cavities  be  penetrated,  it  is  indicated 
by  effusion  of  their  contents,  and  other  peculiar  symptoms, 
as  in  the  lungs  by  spitting  up  of  fVothy  blood,  extreme  dys- 
pnoBO,  air  passing  tlurough  the  wound,  and  sometimes  em- 
physema ;  in  the  abdomen,  by  protrusion  of  the  \iscera,  pas- 
sago  of  bile,  fsBcal  matter,  &c.,  into  the  cavity,  producing 
at  first  extreme  depression,  followed  by  intense  peritonitis. 

The  first  process  for  the  repair  of  the  injury  which  gun- 
shots have  occasioned  is  the  separation  of  the  slough  or 
dead  portion  around  the  track  of  the  ball.  As  in  similar 
cases  from  common  causes,  the  inflammation  necessary  for 
this  purpose  supervenes  but  slowly,  though  when  established 
it  is  very  intense,  accompanied  with  great  swelling,  heat 
and  pain  of  all  the  surrounding  parts,  and  severe  constitu* 
tional  disturbance,  fever,  sleeptessness,  disordered  stomach, 
&c.  As  the  slough  separates  and  protrudes  at  the  orifices 
of  the  wound,  these  (when  double)  present  appearances  just 
the  reverse  of  those  which  they  had  when  first  made ;  that 
at  which  the  ball  entered  (then  the  smallest)  is  now  the 
largest,  its  edges  are  wide  open,  and  it  is  generally  filled 
with  a  large  piece  of  sloughed  tissue  hanging  fVom  it,  like 
tow  dipp^  in  pus;  while  that  at  which  the  ball  passed 
out  is  contracting,  or  has  been  already  healed  by  the  first 
intention.  This  difference  depends  on  the  ball  having  lost 
much  of  its  velocity  in  passing  through  the  several  tissues: 
hence  the  part  last  traversed  is  less  bruised  or  destroyed ; 
and  if,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  ball  has  been  flattened  in  its 
course,  it  may  have  passed  out  with  its  sharp  edge  forwards, 
and  given  the  latter  part  of  the  track  so  much  the  character 
of  a  common  penetrating  wound,  that  it  might  heal  by  the 
first  intention.  The  constitutional  symptoms  change  when 
suppuration  is  fairly  established,  the  surrounding  indamma- 
tion  is  lessened,  the  fever  subsides,  and  in  slight  injuries  the 
health  may  seem  but  little  affected.  In  more  severe  ones, 
where,  with  considerable  loss  of  substance,  a  very  oopbus 
suppuration  occurs,  or  where  it  involves  some  important 
tissue,  as  a  joint  or  bone,  &c,  hectic  fever  supervenes, 
with  debility,  a  small  rapid  pulse,  speedy  emaciation,  copi- 
ous night-sweats,  diarrhcea,  &c.  A  chief  danger  accompa- 
nying tiie  separation  of  the  slough  is  that  some  of  the  large 
vessels,  which,  when  torn  by  the  ball,  did  not  bleed  much,  if 
at  all,  may  now  ulcerate,  and  produce  severe  hemorrhage ; 
but  if  this  be  avoided,  the  further  progress  of  the  wound 
presents  nothing  that  could  distinguish  it  from  one  of  the 
same  extent  produced  by  any  penetrating  instrument,  and 
in  process  of  beine  filled  up  by  granulations. 

Gun-shot  wounds  partake  of  the  natures  at  once  of  pene- 
trating, lacerated,  and  contused  wounds,  and  they  present 
the  charactos  of  all  these  in  an  extreme  degree  of  inten- 
sity, from  the  velocity  with  which  the  ball,  ill  fitted  by  its 
simpe  for  penetrating,  has  been  propelled.  The  general 
rules  of  treatment  must  however  be  the  same  as  for  similar 
injuries  from  common  causes,  but  it  will  be  advisable  here 
to  notice  a  few  points  peculiar  to  this  class  alone,  and  to 
point  out  what,  after  long  discussions,  are  now  the  most 
(leuerally  received  rules  of  practice. 

The  extraction  of  the  ball  and  other  foreign  substances, 
though  its  necc^ity  has  been  very  much  exaggerated,  is 
fintt  to  be  considered.  If^  on  examination  of  the  wound 
(which  should  be  made  as  much  as  possible  with  the  finger), 
the  ball  and  the  substances  it  has  carried  in  with  it  be  felt 
tolerably  movable,  and  in  a  part  wliere  forceps  can  be  easily 
applied,  they  should  certainly  be  at  once  extracted,  and 
»4>metimcs,  though  very  rarely,  it  may  be  advisable  even  to 
dilate  the  wounif  by  incisions  along  its  sides  for  this  pur- 
yo^e.  No  violent  attempts  should  ever  be  made  at  first  to 
accomplish  the  removal;  for  as  the  walls  of  the  wound 
slough  and  suppurate,  the  track  will  become  larger,  and 
they  may  then  either  fall  out  or  be  easily  displaced,  or  they 
may  sinli  down,  and  presenting  at  a  dependent  part,  may  be 
taken  out  aAer  merely  dividing  the  skin  over  them ;  or  they 
may  become  imbedded  in  the  surrounding  tissues,  and  as 
the  irritation  at  first  producefl  subsides,  the  adhesive  in- 
tlainmation  may  form  a  loose  sac  around,  in  which  they  may 
lie  for  years,  without  producing  any  further  inconvenience. 

It  hsb  been  already  said  that  the  boll  may  pass  through  a 

^art,  and  lodge  just  beneath  the  skin  of  the  opposite  side, 

c  tliat  after  a  circuitous  courso  it  may  be  found  under  the 


skin  at  adistanee.  In  either  CMe,ifitesBbifilt,f«stt 
the  distance  of  an  inch  below  the  sorfSMs,  it  ikoaM  Wr;( 
down  upon  and  removed.  If  it  strike  ifaiost  i  Ih^  • 
may  lodge  in  it  superficially,  and  may  thea  bt  dspiw^ 
with  the  forceps,  or  with  the  end  of  a  aeoop,  or,  if  a^i 
deeply  fixed,  with  a  bullet-screw :  if  it  pass  tlut»«|h  lUtC 
into  the  cancellous  texture,  many  suigeons  rMoomcni  tb; 
the  bone  should  be  cut  down  upon,  and  a  trephine  t^i 
over  the  ball,  so  as  to  cut  out  a  piece  of  bone  iiilk«t'.« 
large  to  draw  it  through.  If  the  ball  or  other  iab<uni 
be  not  extracted  at  first,  and  remain  fixed  after  ihs  ti.  «■:. 
ing  and  suppuration,  no  further  attempt  to  tnun  *M 
should  be  made  till  the  infbmmation  tut  bss  mpvpttA 
is  fairly  subdued :  then,  if  rotioh  irritation  cootiaQB  u  m 
excited,  if  abscesses  form  about  its  track,  and  m«h  o^j- 
tu tional  disturbance  is  produced,  it  may  be  neoenn  ii  b« 
every  effort  to  find  out  their  seat,  and  if  potsibkrea 
them ;  but  if  still  impracticable,  and  amputstMii  caes  t  '• 
performed,  or  is  not  aeemed  advisable,  the  future  tmtiytt 
must  consist  in  supporting  the  patient  by  toniesadib-.i  • 
medicines,  and  by  the  mildest  antiphlogislic  lool  (^ 
cations. 

Whether  the  ball  be  extracted  or  not,  the  linplat  p» 
sible  dressings  should  be  at  first  applied;  a p tect  of  Ltr. 
spread  with  some  mild  ointment,  fixed  oo  Ughtljbtitnpi  I 
adhesive-plaster,  and  covered  by  a  rag  kept  ooostaat);  c  • 
with  oold  water,  are  the  best  and  most  oomfbrtsbkaff^n 
tions.  Tight  bandages,  stimulating  and  heatiQ;  oiataru 
&a,  are  especially  injurious.  It  may  be  frequeotl;  afirjt 
ble  to  bleed  the  patient  immediately,  or  soon  sfteribr  y 
dent,  and  aperient  medicine  should  alwan  be  pea  n  i 
mild  antiphlogistic  diet  strictly  eujoiDeo.  After  tfat*  < 
four  days,  when  suppuration  is  established,  the  eotdipi  ^ 
tion  will  probably  cease  to  be  agreeable  to  the  ntnt,  l. 
then  it  should  be  exchanged  for  some  wann  cnoIiK&t  f^. 
tice  (either  of  bread,  or  carrots,  or  turnips^  or  Dsnbx*- 
lows,  or  any  mild  vegetable  most  coDvenienll)  it  b:i» 
and  the  constitutional  disorder  altering  with  the  m-  * 
of  the  sore,  the  reducing  remedies  may  be  laid  mik  f^* 
soon  replaced  by  mild  tonics,  a  nutritious  diet,  &e. 

The  question  of  amputation,  when  thatopeniMa  ii  if? 
cable,  must  be  decided  as  in  common  cases  by  the  diir&  ^ 
of  each ;  no  general  rule  can  be  given,  except  that,  or^n 
paribus,  it  will  be  advisable  in  many  cases  in  nuliun  tnt- 
tice,  in  which,  in  civil  practice,  it  would  be  icvo*  -  * 
tifiable.     If  the  difl&culty  of  removal  from  the  ftrli  \  >" 
permanent  hospital,  the  insufficiency  of  aocoouDodiU'  -■ 
nursing  which  must  be  experien<^  where  hxfv  t^^ 
are  simultaneously  wounded,  the  badness  of  the  t;  - 
which  they  will  probably  be  exposed  in  erowiied  \tr%*^ 
and  other  circumstances  inseparable  from  the  m/^t^^ 
and  arrangements  of  large  military  or  natal  fatten  k  re 
sidered,  it  will  bo  evident  that  it  would  be  sdraorifer.^ 
convert  a  severe  wound,  contused  and  laoerstcd.  «b".  '^ 
under  the  most  favourable  circumstances  wwM  be  ^  -• 
tain  and  most  tedious  in  its  progress,  into  s  cks&  ''^ 
one  like  that  of  an  amputation,  in  which  dsascf  &>»:-- 
ing  may  be  lessened  and  which  will  roauire  far  le«  *'•  ' 
tion  than  the  other.    As  to  the  long-debated  qtie«'-  • 
what  time  amputation  should  be  peffonacd,  tt  •  • 
agreed,  that  the  best  period  is  as  soon  as  inubW  if*'^ 
patient  has  recovered  lh>m  the  immediale  acproaK '- ' ' 
which  often  follow  the  reception  of  the  voood. 

Wounds  of  the  head,  chest,  and  abdomen  most  be  tr 
as  in  common  cases :  if  the  ball  be  lodged  in  their  -. 
it  will  be  improper  to  use  more  than  the  mostgeoik  ~  - 
to  extract  it;  and  if  in  the  abdomen,  it  will  (c»r 
quite  useless  to  search  for  it    The  most  rij^ocoa  t* 
gistic  treatment  will  be  necessary  to  give  the  K 
chance  of  recovery. 

Secondary  hemorrhage  not  unfVvqneDdy  eoisn.  * 
the  iiarts  Ground  the  track  of  the  wound  sloogb  b;  • 
tion  of  the  larger  vessels  iiyured  by  the  ball  The  I 
vessel  must,  if  poMible  in  this  case,  as  well  as  if  it  ^  *' 
at  the  first  receipt  of  the  ii^ury,  be  at  once  cut  d  «'. 
and  tied  both  aoove  and  below  the  openuv.   1*  ^*  ' 
way  portions  of  various  organs  may  akwgb  uem  the . 
received  and  by  giving  issue  to  their  oonieois  vs<  Jf 
rapidly  fatal  symptoms. 

In  cases  wliere  the  skin  is  not  iijared,  bat  tk  r* 
neath  greatly  bruised,  it  Im  raoommeadsd  to  m^' 
more  incisions  in  order  to  clear  out  some  *d  the  cue* 
blood,  &C.,  and  to  permit  the  discheige  s^  the  *>  t'* 


Wlioro  tha  bonM  and  Veuek  are  coaiideniUr  brokm,  bi  i 
■..  >L  1101  i  rocs  happens  in  theie  cases,  amputation  is  at  once 
iii.'CL'^sury.  In  all  caies  when  the  alouf^hi  have  Mparated 
thi- wound  commences  to  gran-alate,  and  from  this  time, 
"  iiL-lhi^r  ita  progress  be  towards  recovery  or  death,  its  treat- 
iiKiit  iiued  not  differ  from  that  of  wounda  in  a  similar  con- 
iliuon  from  common  causes. 

ijiilm  Hunter,  Treatiie  on  the  Blood,  Inflammation,  and 
CiDi-Khoi  Wound*,  'Works,'  by  Palmer,  vol.  ill.,  1837; 
l.-irri'v.  Mimoiret  de  Chirursie  Miiilaire,  4  volt.  8vo, 
1  ■>  1  i  ;  Guthrie,  On  Gun-thot  JVowkIm  of  the  Extremttiet, 
t  vi>l.  fivo.,  1816;  John  Hennen,  Obiervatiotu  on  toma 
ii'ip-rtiint  Pointi  qf  Military  Surgery,  1  vol.  8vo.,  ISIB.) 
(U'NDUCK.  or  GONDOCK  [Hinoostan.] 
GUNNERY  is  that  branch  of  the  art  of  war  which  com- 
IirrliL-ndi  the  theory  of  miliiarj  projectiles,  and  the  manner 
ul'  I'ingiloying  ordnance  in  the  attack  and  defence  of  for- 

Tlia  ftrst  applicmlon  of  gunpowder  to  the  purpose  of  dis- 
i-jviri;liii;  balls  from  cannon  appenra  to  have  been  about  the 
I  i-:ir  I  ^iiG ;  when  it  is  said  that  some  Germans  brought  to 
iUl'  Venetians,  who  were  then  besieging  Claudia  fossa,  a 
I'livn  now  called  Chioggia,  two  small  pieces  of  artillery  with 
n  sii]>ply  of  powder  and  leaden-balls,  by  the  aid  of  which 

I  Ih'v  BOOH  made  themsdvc^  maslers  of  the  place.  The  dis- 
i-'iiry  of  the  compos  i  lion  is  supposed  to  have  been  made  by 
Sl  hwartz  about  30  years  previously.  It  should  be  observed 
li  mever  that  Roger  Bacon  described,  in  12/0,  a  coraposi- 
li'ii  of  iho  same  nature,  and  that  both  the  Hindus  and 
Liiint'se  are  supposed  to  have  used  it  at  a  much  earlier 
ti^..h.    [Bacon,  Roobr;  GuNPOwnKR.] 

Vor  (luscriptions  of  some  of  the  oldest  cannons  the  reader 
\~  rifi.'rrcd  to  the  word  Ahtilleby.  Representations  of  the 
f.>i'iiis  of  many  anlienl  pieces  of  ordnance  may  be  seen  in 
'.Ui>  'Treatise  on  Artillery,' by Dieco  Ufano,1614,as  well  as 
■.n  tlic  Praltiea  lUanuale  di  Arliglieria,  by  I.uii;i  Colliado, 
I'.iPfi.  Generally  the  antient  fire-arms  were  so  conslrucied 
:i  -.  ti)  discharge  masses  of  enormous  weij^lit ;  and  it  is  said 

I I  i^it  n  hen  Mohammed  II.  bos ie god  Constantinople  heera- 
jitoveil  pieces  whose  calibre  (diameter  of  bore)  vos  equal  to 
1  -J  p;ilms,  and  which  projected  aj>ainst  the  walls  of  the  city 
-Lines  weighing  1200  lbs.  Al  present  a  rapid  succession 
oi'ilisoliarKcs  from  a  comparalivdy  small  kind  of  ordnance 
14  I'onaiilurcd  more  elticacious,  when  directed  against  the 
■L'-illsof  a  forlrexs,  than  (he  few  shots  which  ran  he  fired 
li.uisuch  unwieldy  machines.  The  13-inch  shell  which  is 
:iM\r  cni])loyed  weighs,  when  loaded,  about  2110  lbs. ;  but 
i>  lrt.'ii  the  trench  besieged  the  citadel  of  Antwerp  in  1B3'2, 
t  hi'  Bt'lgians  brought  up  a  mortar  whose  calibre  was  24 
^..^hcs,  and  whuE>e  shell  when  loaded  weighed  101S  lbs. 
'i  :i<'  eliect  produced  by  it  was  not  however  so  great  as  had 

T.uUlua  appears  to  hare  been  the  first  malhcmalician 
V.  ii'i  wrote  on  the  motion  of  balls  when  projected  from  fire- 
.i;;iis,  and  in  his  Qiifstli  el  Inifntione  Diverti,  wliich  was 
|ii  iiiU'd  ut  Venice  in  IS-tG,  he  investigates  a  few  particulars 
<  oMi'i'rning  that  kind  of  motion ;  but  the  low  stale  of  the 
liiL'ory  of  such  motions  at  thai  time  may  bo  imagined,  when 
111-  consider  that  he  thought  it  necessary  tu  disprove  the 
iipiniun.  which  then  prevailed,  that  on^  part  of  the  Iriijec- 
f-.iv,  orpatli,  of  a  cannon-ball  was  reeiilini'ar. 

Ill    1G33  Galileo  published  the  Diuhi-hi  drlli^   S..-iriize 
Xw.re,  in  which,  together  with  his  invusiiijalions  concur 
!■■,.;   Ilic  composition  of  motions  in  goncrul,  lie  sliciws  thai 
'  li  il  projected  from  a  gun  describes  a  parubulic  curve.     I 
-Mii'<  that  the  shot  is  urged  by  the  ini|)uUivo  force  ofl 
{"Hilcr  in  a  rectilinear  direction,  coinciding  with  the  axis 
I  ,!.■  bore,  and  that  it  would  move  with  a  uniform  vclocily  if 
u  wiTc  not  continually  deUected  by  the  attraction  of  ^ratily 
1>'>[ii  that  direction;  he  shows  also  thai  this  dellecting  liircc, 
I  \i'rt<'d  in  lines  perpendicular  to  the  horiion,  would  cause 
!<:<.'  sliot  to  descend  in  such  linos  with  a  variable  velocity. 
,\iiw,  ihe  spaces  which  would  be  described  in  consct|Ucnce 
iif  the   projectile  force,  being  proportional  to  the  times  of 
■k-icribiiig  them ;  and  the  spaces  described  in  consequence 
kI  the  earth's  altraclion  being  proportional  to  the  squares  of 
ill'-  timi-s;  it  followed,  from  the  relation  between  the  spaces 
<.'<  dercrihod.  that  the  shot,  which,  according  la  Iho  laws  of 
iliu  ciiinnosition  of  motions  would  always  be  at  the  inlersc 
1, oil  of  the  tines  representing  the  spaces,  must  describe 
nirve  with  respect  to  which  the  eorreiponding  hne*  would 
l.nvu  the  same  relation ;  that  is,  a  parabola. 

liahleo  expressly  saya  that  Ibis  curve  Tould  he  de- 
P.  C  No  719. 


scribed  by  the  ihot,  if  it  wera  not  ratisted  l>y  tba  tii;  ba 
was  aware  of  that  resistance,  and  be  proposes  a  neuiod 
of  finding  ita  effects.  It  is  now  well  known  that  the  re- 
sistance of  the  air,  wlien  the  motion  of  the  projectile  ia 
rapid,  is  such  as  to  cause  the  latter  to  describe  a  curve- 
line  very  different  from  a  parabola ;  and  consequently  that 
the  parabolic  theory,  as  it  is  called,  is  of  small  imporlanco 
as  a  guide  to  the  practical  artillerist ;  yet  as  it  possesses  a 
certain  interest  on  account  of  its  connexion  with  the  general 
subject  of  projectiles,  and  is  a  step  to  the  invsstigation  of 
the  real  trajectory,  it  will  be  proper,  before  entering  upon 
that  investigation,  to  give  a  demonstration  of  the  Ainda- 
mental  proposition,  end  e\hibit  a  few  of  the  principal  deduc- 
tions which  are  usually  made  from  it. 
In  proving  that  the  path  of  the  shot  in  vacuo  is  a  para- 
ilic  curve,  we  may  be  permitted,  agreeably  to  the  method 
used  by  Newton  in  treating  the  subject  of  curvilinear 
motion,  to  consider  Ihe  trajectory  as  consisting  of  a  senea 
of  right  hnes  described  in  successive  intervals  of  time,  and 
constituting  the  diagonals  of  parallelograms  formed  in  a 
vertical  plane  between  the  vertical  deflections  caused  by 
gravity  and  the  production  of  the  line  of  motion  which 
had  been  described  in  each  preceding  interval  of  time. 
Then,  if  the  intervals  of  time  be  supposed  inllnitely  small, 
evident  that  the  trajectory  may  he  considered  us  a 

>w  let  AB,  fig.  1,  represent  a  honiontal  line  on  the 


Kg 

1. 

A 

/\ 

/ 

'^ 

P 

/ 

M 

~~--\ 

/ 

** 

dr 

^ 

w 

y^J 

^ 

,     / 

^\ 

7' 

/ 

/ 

ground,  and  AG  the  produced  axis  of  the  gun  at  A ;  then, 
if  Ac  be  taken  on  AG  to  represent  the  space  which  the  shut 
would  descrilte  in  that  diiectiun  by  the  force  of  Ihe  powder 
in  a  i-mall  portion  of  time,  and  Au,  or  cb,  Ibe  space  through 
whieh  the  shot  would  descend  by  gravity  in  the  same  lime ; 
by  the  Iheury  of  the  composition  of  motions  the  shot  would 
describe  lite  diagonal  Kb  in  the  same  lime,  and  Kb  mav  be 
taken  to  represent  the  velocity  at  b  in  the  path.  Pro- 
ducing A6  and  making  hif  equal  tu  hb.  the  lino  Uf  will 
represent  the  space  which  would  be  described  by  the  shot 
in  an  interval  of  lime  ei|aal  to  the  former.  If  the  aclion  of 
gnvity  were  to  cease ;  then  if  we  make  ba',  or  c'6',  equal  lo 
Au,  lo  represent  the  deflection  caused  by  gravity  in  this 
nevt  interval  of  lime,  the  shot  would  evidently  describe  the 
line  til'  in  the  same  time;  and  this  would  represent  Ihe 
velocity  in  the  path  at  the  end  of  the  second  interval. 
Tlicrefore,  producing  W,  making  6'c"  equal  to  bb',  and 
proceeding  aa  before,  we  should  have  a  scrii«  of  points  A, 
0,  6',  ft",  8to.,  in  the  path  of  the  shot ;  wliich,  beniK  con- 
sidered as  a  curve,  the  several  lines  Ac,  be',  b'd',  &r., 
would  become  tangents  at  those  points. 

On  account  of  the  equality  of  thu  lines  hb  and  be',  bb' 
and  ftV,  &C.,  lespoctively,  it  ia  evident  thai  the  parallel 
Vol.  X1.-3  U 


OU  14 


43& 


GUN 


terticat  Imes  jmssitig  throngh  A,  b,  ¥,  V\  h6^  ^fll  tjb 
equally  distant  ftota  each  other ;  and,  ta  the  deflections 
wlTich  are  jifoduced  hy  the  action  of  gravity  In  equal  thned 
are  equal  to  each  other,  we  have  al*o  eft,  (/(/,  c^'lr  equal  to 
each  other,  which  Is  a  known  property  of  the  [jarahola. 
And  thus  the  trajectory  of  the  shot  is  proved  to  he  that 
aperies  df  curve. 

In  determining  the  circumstances  relating^  to  the  motion 
of  projectiles,  it  is  usual  to  represent  the  initial  velocity  of 
the  shot  by  that  which  a  b(xly  would  acquire  by  falling,  in 
Vacuo,  from  a  state  of  rest  during  a  certain  time.  Let 
therefore  a  vertical  line  AI,  or  Al%  be  drawn  through  A, 
and  equal  in  length  to  the  space  through  Which  a  body  would 
descend  by  gravity  in  the  time  necessary  to  acquire  d  velo- 
city equal  to  that  with  which  the  shot  is  discharged,  from 
the  niece  of  ordnance  at  A,  in  the  direction  AG ;  then,  by 
the  laws  of  motion  the  shot,  moving  uniformly,  would  de- 
scribe AC,  a  space  equal  to  2  AI,  in  the  time  of  the  said 
descent  from  A  to  I.  Therefore,  drawing  IB'  parallel  to 
AO  till  it  Tiieets  the  vertical  line  drawn  from  C,  the  inter- 
face! ion  B'  will  be  the  place  of  the  shot  in  the  curve  at  the 
end  of  the  same  time,  reckoned  from  the  moment  of  the 
discharge.  This  line  AI,  or  I'A,  is  technically  called  the 
impetus,  and  AB  the  range  of  the  projectile. 

Since  IB',  or  AC,  is  equal  to  2AI,  by  a  property  of  the 
parabola,  IB'  is  equal  to  half  the  parameter  of  the  diameter 
AI ;  and  if  AB  were  bisected  in  E,  the  intersection  F  of 
this  line  with  one  drawn  through  E  perpendicularly  to  AB 
would  be  the  focus  of  the  curve.  The  line  passing  through 
£  and  F  is  the  axis  of  the  parabola,  which  is  symmetrical 
on  each  side  of  this  line,  and  the  extremity  D  of  the  latter 
is  the  highest  point  of  the  trajectory.  If  the  angle  BAG,  of 
elevation,  were  equal  to  45°,  the  line  IB' would  pass  through 
E,  the  middle  point  of  the  horizontal  line  AB;  E  would 
then  become  the  focus ;  the  range  AB  would  he  equal  to 
the  parameter  of  the  axis,.and  the  height  ED  would  be 
one-R>iirth  of  the  range. 

On  account  of  tbe  equality  of  the  distances  in  directions 
parallel  to  AB,  between  the  vertical  lines  passing  through 
A.  b,  b\  y\  &c.,  it  will  follow  that  the  velocity  of  the  shot, 
if  estimated  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  horizon,  will  be 
the  same  at  every  point  in  the  trajectory ;  for  the  equal  in- 
tervals parallel  to  AB,  between  those  verticals,  are  decom- 
posed parts  of  the  tangential  spaces  A6,  ^c',  6V,  &c., 
which  by  hypothesis  are  described  in  equal  times,  and 
consequently  may  represent  the  velocities  at  A,  h^  6',  6", 
&c .,  in  the  directions  of  tangents  to  the  trajectory. 

With  respect  to  the  velocity  in  a  vertical  direction  at  any 
point  of  the  curve,  it  may  be  determined  by  considering 
that  the  spaces  Aa,  ha\  &c.,  are  described  by  gravity  in 
the  sanae  times  as  the  spaces  Ac,  hc\  &c.,  are  described  by 
tbe  projectile  force.  Now,  by  the  laws  of  gravity,  considered 
as  a  uniformly  accelerative  force,  a  body  descending  through 
a  space,  as  ha\  would  acquire  a  velocity  which  would  carry 
it  with  a  uniform  motion  through  a  space  equal  to  Ibd  in 
the  same  time;  and  as  the  spaces  described  with  uniform 
motions  are  proportional  to  the  velocities,  therefore  6c'  is 
to  Iha!  as  the  \elocity  in  the  curve  at  the  point  6  is  to  the 
vertical  velocity  at  the  same  point. 

Now,  by  the  nature  of  the  parabola, 

GB    :     CB'    : :    AG*    :    AC*  • 
tut  AC  =  2AI,  or  2CB' ;  therefore  AC»  =  4CB'*. 
C©nsequently  GB    :    CB'    ::     AG*    :     4CB'*, 
or  GB     :       1       ::    AG*    :     4CB':  ' 
therefore  AG*  =  4GB.CB',  or  AG  is  a  mean  proportional 
between  CB',  or  AI,  and  4GB. 

Ilavini*  therefore  the  initial  velocity  of  a  shot  discharged 
from  a  piece  of  ordnance,  and  having  found  the  height  due 
to  that  velocity  by  the  usual  formula,  the  horizontal  range 
of  the  projectile  may  be  thus  determined.  On  A  I',  as  a 
diameter,  describe  the  semicircle  I'HA  intersecting  in  H 
the  line  AG,  which  is  a  tangent  to  the  cur^^e  at  the  point  A, 
and  makes,  with  the  horizontal  line  AB,  an  angle  GAB 
equal  to  the  given  elevation  of  the  piece  :  then,  joining  V 
and  H,  since  I'AH  is  the  complement  of  GAB  and  of 
AI'H,  and  since  the  angles  both  at  H  and  B  are  right 
ancfles ;  the  trianG:les  I'AH  and  AGB  arc  similar 
hence,  AI'     :     AG     :  :     AH  GB ; 

but,  as  has  been  just  shown,  we  have 

AI'    :    AG      -AG         4  GB. 
Therefore,    by  equahty  of  ratios,  AG  =  4  AH.      Conse- 
quenjlly,  if  AG  be  made  equal  to  4  AH,  and  the  line  GB  be 


cirawfl  J[)cr{>ef)ditttlar1jf  to  AB,  tlie  boini  0  and  the  extent 
AS  of  the  ran^e  i^ill  he  determined;  ^r,  ^wing  HK 
parallel  to  AB,  it  is  evident,  from  the  similarity  of  the  in- 
angles  AKd  arid  AfiO,  that  AB  wUl  be  equal  to  4  H  K. 

Knowing  AB,  the  position  XTit  of  tbe  axis  b  obtan.'.-  L 
and  also  the  height  EfD ;  for,  from  the  nature  of  the  para- 
bola,  EM  (=  4  GB)  is  bisected  in  O,  or  ED  =  iGB. 

Wheti  the  initial  velocity  and  the  horizontal  range  sr? 
given,  th0  Corresponding  elevation  of  the  piece  will  t..> 
found  by  sirhpTy  making  AN  =  £  AB,  and  drawing  a  h'-v 
through  N  perpendicularly  to  AB;  for  such  line  will  in(«r- 
sect  the  circle  itiA  in  two  points,  as  tl  and  P,  e%^*v ,  t 
when  the  angle  of  elevation  Is  45^  in  which  ease  the  1  r  * 
HN  would  touch  the  circle  at  the  intersection  of  AG  w  h 
the  circumference. 

Through  either  of  the  two  points  of  intersection  the  \v\t 
AG  being  drawn,  that  line  will  be  the  required  directior.  ^ 
the  gun*s  axis :  it  is  henee  evident  that  the  range  will  he  a 
maximum  when  the  elevation  is  eoual  to  45^,  and  that  ^v.y 
other  given  range  will  correspond  to  two  angles  of  eV'..i- 
tion,  one  of  which  is  as  much  below,  as  the  other  is  ah^i.e 
45  degrees. 

Tlie  time  of  flight,  or  that  in  which  the  trajectory  is  'I-  - 
scribed,  may  be  readily  found  by^conaidering  that  it  is  c*\  u 
to  the  time  in  which  a  body  would'descend  vertically  tbro.^l: 
a  space  equal  to  G  B ;  therefore  this  line  being  fauiul  .s 
above,  we  have,  by  the  laws  of  accelerated  motions  r  - 


tGB 


;  or,  since  4HN  or  4KD  =  GB,  we  have  i- 


.2ED 

«/•  -^ ,  where  g  =  32i  feet,  that  is,  tbe  velocity  ac 

S 

Suired  by  a  body  on  falling  vertically  from  a  statAK>f  n>»t 
uring  one  second  of  time. 


A  construction  similar  to  that  above  given  will 
determining  the  ranges  on  planes  oblique  to  the  hor./. 
for,  imagine  A  B  to  be  such  oblique  plane,  and  A 1'  to  ^: 
the  height  due  to  the  initial  velocity :  then,  if  upon  A  1' 
there  be  described  a  segment  I'  H  A  of  a  circle,  capab  c  >  f 
containing  an  angle  I' HA  equal  to  the  siipplement  of  '. 
angle  I'AB,  and  intersecting  the  line  of  direction  AG  ; 
the  gun's  axis,  in  a  point  as  H,  the  triangle I'H  A  w.H  > 
similar  to  the  triangle  GAB;  fbr,  OB  being  pftndiei  :o 
I' A,  the  angle  AB  G  is  the  supplement  of  the  angle  1'  A  t>. 
and  consequently  is  equal  to  the  angle  I'M  A,  and  the  al- 
ternate angles  I'AH  and  AGB  are  eqnal  to  each  o^i.  r 
Hence,  as  before,  A  G  is  a  mean  proportional  between  A  I' 
and4GB.AG=4AH,  andANrr^AB.  It  follow*  J-. 
that  when  the  line  of  direction  A  G  bisects  the  ua^a  V  A  •!. 
the  range  on  the  oblique  plane  is  a  maximum ;  and  th..:  w 
every  other  range  there  correspond  two  angles  of  elc\a[.'  % 
between  which  the  angle  producing  the  maxima m  ranjc*-  < 
an  arithmetical  mean.  Lastly,  the  time  of  flight  is  ^^  J 
to  that  in  which  a  body  Would  fall  verticaUy  throucL  i 
heioht  equal  to  G  B  or  to  4  H  N. 

With  equal  charges  or  equal  initial  velocities,  the  Rir.\« 
are  proportional  to  the  sines  of  twice  the  angles  of  elera .    .- 
For  the  maximum  range,  or  that  which  corresponds  t*. .  - 
elevation  equal  to  45^  is  equal  to  four  times  the  radius  O  \ 
of  the  circle  on  A 1',  and  the  range  A  B,  corfesponding  to  t . 
angle  G  A  B,  =  4  K  H.    But  the  said  tadias  repre^nt5  \ 
sine  of  twice  45°,  and  KH  represents  the  sine  of  the  a.  i 
KOH,  which  is  twice  the  angle  KI'H  or  twice  G  A  :'. 
and,  as  the  same  reasoning  will  serve  for  all  angles  of  '  - 
vation,  it  is  evident  that  the  ranges  vaiy  as  tbe  sine*    * 
twice  the  elevation.     In  the  same  case  the  greatest  ht :.   i 
E  D  varies  as  the  square  of  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  ei  -t 
tion.     For  E  D  =  H  N,  and  the  height  to  which  the  *'   i 
would  rise  if  projected  vertically  upwards  is  I'  A :  now 

I'A:  AH::rad.(=l);sin.ArH(=aIn.GAB). 
and  A  H  :  H N : :  rad.(=  1) :  sin.  GAB. 
Therefore  I' A  :  H  N  : :  rad.»  (=  I)  :  sin.«  GAR 

But  I' A  is  constant  when  the  initial  velocity  is  given  ;  ti.-  *  - 
fore  H  N  varies  as  sin.*  GAB. 

When  the  elevations  are  the  same;  ainee  AG  is  t.- 
posed  to  be  described  with  uniform  motion  in  the  ^.l    . 
time  that  the  curve  ADB  is  actual\y  described  by  the  v.:  • 
the  ranges  A  B,  which  vary  with  A  G,  will  v«y  in  a  ;  • 
compounded  of  the  time  of  flight  and  of  the  initial  vc4o<  r- 
that  is,  the  ranges  are  proportional  to  the  aquarsa  of  ::  e 
mitial  velocities. 

Lastly,  the  times  of  digts^  vary  as  t]ie.liiMS  of  fiiA  ang.  • 


nf  elevation.  'For  the  tinies  of  describing  anj  parabolus 
hiiving  Ihe  same  range  AB  are  equal  lolho  times  of  de- 
MTLhing.  vith  uniform  luotion,  [lie  corresponding  lines  AG, 
of  ilirevlion  ;  therefore,  the  times  v.try  as  the  lengths  of  the 
i:ni>  A  G  vary,  at  as  ihe  lengths  of  the  line  A  H  vary  (for 
A  H  =^iAG).  Now  AB  repr«£onU  the  sine  of  the  angle 
A  I'  H  or  of  the  angle  GAB;  therefore  the  times  vary  with 
liiu  bines  of  the  angles  of  elevation.  And,  when  the  elava- 
ii'iiis  uru  the  same,  si  ace  the  ranges  are  proporiional  to  the 
1 1  iiLus  and  the  v^cities.  the  times  will  bo  directly  propor- 
li'iiiai  to  Ihe  rangci,  and  inversely  proportional  t«  the  initial 

The  theory  of  the  motions  of  projectiles  would  therefore 
liL'  aliuiidaally  simple  if  it  were  permitted  to  neglis^l  the 
ulfr.-i'ts  produced  by  theresislanceof  the  air  during  the  (light 
III' lilt' shot;  but,  in  &ct,  when  high  charge}  of  powder  are 
fm]ilo)rcd,  the  trajectory  bears  no  resemblance  to  any  other 
kind  of  curve,  and  can  only  be  expressed  hy  equations  of  a 
li  .iiisrciulenlal  nature. 

Krom  the  time  of  Galileo  to  that  of  Newton,  though  the 
iiiiliicct  of  the  movement  of  projectiles  occupied  the  alteii- 
ti'iti  of  nearly  eveiy  mathematician  in  Europe,  it  seems  to 
hire  been  taken  for  granted  that  the  resistance  of  the  air 
«;>■:  too  small  to  deserve  much  consideration.  Even  Dr. 
H.ilk'y,  while  he  admitted  that  its  effects  might  become 
sfii-ilile  when  the  projectile  wm  light,  conceived  that  it 
uoiild  he  of  no  importance  when  the  heavier  kinds  of  shot 
vtTu  cmplo.ved  ;  and  it  Li  easy  to  conceive  that  the  idt'as 
ilu;n  entertained  of  the  form  of  the  Ir.ijoclory  were  very 
u  ule  of  the  truth.  Huygens  himself,  flum  an  unfuuudeil 
ci'iTiion  that  the  resistance  was  proiiortiunal  lo  the  velocity 
Bi[ii(i|y,  asserted  that  the  path  of  a  shot  through  llic  air  was 
a  log.trilhroie  curve. 

It  was  reserved  lor  Newton  to  develop  the  true  laws  of 
th'.'  resistance  experienced  by  bodies  movinir  in  Iluid  media, 
iitid  to  make  a  near  approach  to  the  form  of  iho  curve  de- 
>'  ribcd  by  a  projectile  in  the  air.  In  a  scholium  to  prop,  4 
I  I'riadpia,  lib.  ii.),  he  shows  that  such  resistance  is  pro()or- 
:  I'Uial  lo  the  square  of  the  velocity ;  and  elsewhere  lie  proves 
I  ir;it,C(rJ<v/tpan'A(«s,  the  resistance  lo  globular  bodies  varies 
;»  llic  sijuarcs  of  their  diameters  and  as  the  density  of  the 
i:j<  'lliiin.  He  also  takes  nolico  of  the  retardation  which 
V  ,11]  Id  be  caused  by  the  condensation  of  the  fluid  in  front  of 
:  :.,•  b.)dy  when  Ihe  motion  is  riipid.  and  of  that  proilucwl  in 
i-.iii-e'nn.Tice  of  llic  air  not  being  able  to  111)  up  immediately 

I  'f  ]i:ii'iial  vacuum  which  CNiz^is  behind  the  hull  during  its 
:i  ibt.  And,  in  a  scholium  to  piop.  10,  lie  e-(plains  that  the 
(Vino  de-icribed  inauniformly  resisting  medium  isaspecics 
■  'I  h)  perbola  huvini;  the  asymptote  of  the  descending  branch 

II  ^  veriical  position. 

Tiic  evidence  ulTorded  hy  the  invent igoti on s  and  cxpcri- 
iii-rilsof  Newton  concerning  the  elfects  produced  by  the 
I  -.islaiice  of  the  air,  induced  ma lhenialician»,  immediately, 
ti  jdiipt  in  their  researches  tlie  principle*  winch  he  hod  es- 
r  iUii-}ied.  Daniel  BornouiUi  appears  to  have  been  the  first 
wlir.didso;  but,  from  an  example  in  which  he  compares 
t'.e  accent  of  o  cannon-ball  in  the  air  when  projected  verli - 
■■■t\\\-  npwards,  wiih  the  lieii;ht  to  which  it  would  rise  in 
\:\i  iVi  Willi  the  same  inilial  velocity,  he  has  manifestly  cs- 
i]i,Kiied  the  resisiance  much  loo  low. 

Ill  the  fallowing  i n vest iirit ion  respecting  the  trajectory 
,.r  :i  -liol  in  air,  tlie  line  of  motion  is  supposed  to  bo  in  a 
i.tiichI  plane,  and  the  resiiilanceof  the  medium  ia  supposed 
1  .  \Trv  priiportionallj  to  the  square  of  the  velocity  at  every 
1.  ..Ill  of  the  curve. 


Fig.  i. 


second)  in  consequence  of  !he  projectile  force;  tlien,  if  the 
force  oF  gravity  and  tlie  resiritance  of  the  air  were  not  to 
act  on  Ibe  shot,  the  latter  might  in  the  next  equal  portion 
of  time  be  supposed  to  describe  the  line  mil  in  the  dii'ection 
ol'  a  tangent  lo  the  curve  at  M.  But,  during  this  puriiun  of 
time,  let  the  diminution  of  motion  caused  by  the  resistance 
of  the  air  be  represented  by  n  n'  and  the  dellection  produced 
by  gravity  bo  represented  byR'm';  then  m'  wdl  be  the 
piuce  of  the  shot  at  the  end  of  that  portion  of  time.  Draw 
the  vertical  lines  MP,  mp,  n'p',  nq;  and  the  horixaniul 
lines  Mk,  n't.  .M  AP=x.  PM  =  V.  »"^  the  arcAM  =  s',- 
let  also  R  represent  the  force  of  the  air's  resistance  and  g 
the  force  of  gravity  (both  fgrccs  being  measui-cd  by  ihe 
velocities  which  they  would  produce,  at  the  end  of  one 
second,  in  a  body  moving  by  (heir  impuUes). 

Then,  by  the  laws  of  motion,  the  velocities  varying  pi'o- 
portionally  lo  the  forces  and  limes  of  motion,  we  liavo  Rdl 
and  gdl  for  the  resistance  nn'  and  the  force  of  descent  iil 
during  the  evanescent  portion  of  time,  expressed   by  dl. 

And  by  Ihe  resolution  of  motions,  -j~  R  dl  will  express  the 
diminution  of  velocity  vertically  in  consequence   of   Ihc 
in'l 
while  '-7-  R  dl  will  express  the  liorizonl.il  dimi- 

le  account.   But,  from  the  similar  (riaiiu;les 


Msm,  n'tn,  \ 


!  Iiuv 


n'a  s  nl  ::  Mm  :  ms  : .  dx  :  dy ;  whence  —r  ■ 

n'i       d> 

Also  nn  :  n  I  ■■  Mm  :  M»  ::  dx  •  dx ;  w hence  —p=—- 

Therefore  the  vertical  diminution  becomes  — ±7— ;*ndlho 
Rdxdl 


n  horizunlally,  — 


To  the  former  addin 


edl  for  the  action  of  gravity,  as  obove,  we   have,  for  the 

R  d>/  dl 
whole  veriical  diminution  of  velocity,  — ^ l-gA, 

Now  the  veriical  and  horizontal  velocities  of  the  shot  in 
vacuo,  at  M,  being  represented  by  ms  and  Mk;  tbat  is,  by 


J,  .nd-jrapcoUvdy!   , 


1  the  ascending  branch  of 


tile  trajectory  the  forces  arising  holh  from  gravity  and  llie 
resistance  of  the  nir  being  returdalive,  ihe  velociiies  in  Ihe 
next  second  of  linie  will   be;  in  (he  horizontal  direction, 


m' 


.'?■'»'" . 


— d{  -r  I,  and  in  the  veriical  dineclion, -f  — d 

dl         \  dl  /  dl 

that  is,  the  diininulions  of  velocity  are,  in  the  furmei 

tion,— df  ^Vand.  in  |  the   latter,  —  d  (-f\      Con- 

„,.„*.ai^. _.(!;).. ..„;.  ' 

But  Iho  resistance  experienced  by  a  shot  miiving  Ihioii^li 
the  air  is,  agreeably  to  the  laws  of  Hydi'udjnaniiei,  nine- 
senled  by  some  part  of  the  weight  of  a  column  of  ihe  Iluid, 
whose  base  is  a  section  through  tlie  shot  perpcmlicul^ir  io 
Ihe  line  of -its  motion,  and  whose  height  is  lliat  sp.ui- 
through  which  a  body  would  descend  in  vacuo  to  luqu.ie 
the  actual  velocity  of  the  shot.  Therefore  let  A  be  tlic  ar.:i 
of  such  section,  v  the  velocity  of  the  shot,  and  h  the  lieiglii 
due  to  that  velocity;  and  let  D  he  the  density  of  llie  air; 
then  h  =  I;;  and  —  A.D  =  the  weight  of  Iho  column. 
Putting  2ffp  lo  ri'prcsent  some  number  which  is  lo  be  deter- 
mined by  experiment  we  shall  have  ;*•  A.D  for  the  lesi^l- 
anco,  or  for  the  molion  dcslreyed  in  one  second,  mid 
jiv'  A.D  dl  for  the  molion  destroyed  in  the  time  dl.     Bui, 

,     „  momentum  ,        ,        .,., 

by  Dynamics, — =  velocity;  therefore,  if  M  ropi-e- 


t  tlie  n 


%  of  the  shot,  ^ 


■   is  the  velocity   de- 


stroyed by  the  resistance  in  ibe  time  li/;   and  this 
is  expressed  above  by  Kdt:  consiH|ueiilly  we  lia' 

m"  A.D  pA.D 

— jyj-;  or,  representing  -y- 


by  -jj-,  and  for  t'  putting 

3R: 


GUN 


492 


O  U  N 


its  valae  --r-  we  have  R  =  -g  "in"  ^®°  the  general  equa- 
tions  (I)  and  (II)  will  beoome 
dxdz  jf^\ 


and4-^  +  ^^=-rf(^); 


B,dt 


but  d<  being  considered  as  constant,  they  may  be  put  in  the 
form 

dxdz  _  ,  dydz  -^ 

-— =:  —  rf^, and ^2^  +^£tt»  «  — rfV. 

Fiom  the  first  of  these  equations  we  hafe  dz  9* ^-; 

which,  being  substituted  in  the  latter,  gires 

^  +  ^ir.  =  -.  rfV;  or.  after  reduction,  *•  == 

\dxj  g 
But,  multiplying  the  above  equation  for  —  d*x  by  H  d^^ 
it  becomes  dx  dz  d^  ^-YLd^d^x-y  which, on  substituting 
in  the  first  member  the  preceding  value  of  d^,  becomes 

dzdW\da^  ^Ugdfd^x. 

Again rf*  =  V (<te'  +  rfy")  =  rfa?  V (l  +  ^);  therefore 
the  last  equation  may  be  put  in  the  form 

This  equation,  being  integrated,  would  determine  the  rela- 
lation  between  x  and  y  in  the  trajectory ;  and,  since  di  is 
constant,  the  integral  of  the  second  member  is,  evidently, 

^-r-.    To  obtain  that  of  the  first  member,  let  t  repre- 

sent  the  tangent  of  half  the  angle  made  by  a  horisontal  line 
and  a  tangent  to  the  curve  at  each  point ;  then,  by  tri {To- 
nometry, we  shall  have  -^  ( =  the  tangent  of  the  whol 


1  + 


angle)  =  j^,  and  d  {^)  =  j^-^  d  t ;  also 

difi         1+t' 

-^)  =  — — -J-:  consequently,  that  first  member  becomes 

2(l  +  t«)Mt      ,         .'        ,  .      t+t»    ^    ^    dt 

t  +  t*  1+t 

..  _*tvt  +  i  ^g-  fZTt*  therefore  the  integral  of  equation 

(III)  is 

t  +  t«     ...       1+t      _       H  gdfi 


(l-tV  "*"*^^S-i_| 


=  C- 


2d3^ 


av). 


where  C  is  an  arbitrary  constant. 

Now,  let  E  represent  the  angle  of  elevation  at  the  point 
A,  or  the  angle  (^A  B ;  at  this  point  we  have  dx  =  dz  cos.  £. 
and  da^  =  ds^  cos.*  E ;  also,  at  the  same  point,  dz  =  \  dU 
V  being  the  initial  velocity  of  the  shot.    Therefore 

dt^  1 

dx*^y*df  cos.«  E,  and  ^,  =  y.  ^ «  ^ ;  but  since,  by 

Dynamics,  V*  =  2^h,  we  have  evidently, 

di*  1 

2dx*  "^  4gh  COS.*  E  • 
then,  if  this  value  be  substituted  in  (IV),  and  tan.  }  £  be 
put  for  t,  that  equation  will  become 
tan.jE+tan.'^E  l+ten.^E  H 

"(l+ton.«iE)*     +**^8-i-tan.*E'^^"2hcos.-E"^^^ 
from  whence  the  value  of  C  might  be  found. 

Substituting  in  the  equation  (IV)  the  above  value  of  dt*, 
J,  fdy\  dx       ^         .      ^    dy  2t 

equation  becomes 
t  + 1*  1+t  H       /   2t   \ 

(i-t«)»  +  ♦^^^^ r^  =  ^ ■*" 2S''  \T^0'  ^^®"~ 


we  obtain 

2<fa>  _ 
H   "" 


(r^) 


•  ••••••   V  l)« 


But,  as  this  expression  does  not  admit  of  being  integrated 
by  any  known  rules,  mathematicians  have  en&avoured  u 
obtain  an  approximate  value  of  the  integral ;  and  Bezuut 
whose  method  has  been  adopted  in  the  above  investigation, 
employs  the  following  process  for  that  purpose.    Developing 

1+t 
the  expression  ^  log.  in  an  infinite  series,  putting 

that  series  in  the  form  of  a  fraction,  whose  denominator  u 
(1  —  t*)',  and  then  substituting  it  in  the  preceding  equaliuo* 
the  latter  becomes,  after  reduction. 


2dx 
Iff" 


-'(r^) 


-r^L 


§*• 


I     + 


t*  +  A  t*  +  fee. 
1  -t« 


] 


...(VII). 


Assuming  the  last  factor  in  the  den<miinat4ir  to  be  cun- 
stent,  and  representing  it  by  b,  we  have 


2dx 
H 


-'(t^) 


C- 


2t 


1  -t' 


..b 


(VIII) 


which  can  easily  be  integrated,  since  the  second  member  is 
equivalent  to  the  differential  of  a  logarithm ;  thus  we  have 

H  =  b^^K- \P  -  i-ir?;  +  c' (IX). 

where  C  is  a  new  arbitrary  constant 

The  value  of  b  in  equation  (VII),  when  simplified,  will  >« 
found  to  be  equal  to  }  sec.  E  +  (  cotan.  E  log.  tan.  (4  j^  t 
i  £) ;  and  Bezout  has  computed  from  this  formula  a  uUe 
of  its  values  for  every  degree  of  elevation.  At  40^  we  haTo 
b  =  1'1073  merely;  therefore,  at  elevations  not  exceeding 
that  number  of  degrees,  we  may,  without  much  error,  c  >n- 
sider  b  as  constant  and  equal  to  unity.  The  value  of  C\ 
when  obtained  from  equation  (V)  and  simplified,  is  found  x^ 

H 

be  equal  to  -rr «  +  b  tan.  E ;  and  the  value  of  (^  may 

4n  COS.  ifi 

be  obtained  by  the  following  process. 
At  A,  the  point  of  projection,  we  have  x  s  o,  and 

2t 
.  __   ,  =  tan.  E ;  therefore,  at  that  point,  the  equation  (IX/ 

becomes 

5  =  ^  log-  (C  -  b  tan.  E)  +  C; 

whence 

C'=  -  Jlog.(C  «btan.E),  or  =  -  Jlog.  jj^Tg. 

_,       -       2x       1         4h  cos.t  E  /  2bt   \ 

Therefore  g-  =  g  log. g [C  -  y"— jij  i 

and  putting  e  for  the  base  of  the  hyperbolic  logarithms 
(=  2*71828),  we  have 

2bx 
H  4h  COS.  •£  /^         2bt  \ 


e         = 


H 


2hr 


I 


and 

Butff  = 
dx 


2t 


1  -t» 

2t 


1  r         H        H  "I 

b  L^  "  4hcos.«E'®       J* 


I  -i 


dy^ 


t> 


therefore. 


Cdx 


H  dx 


e 


2bjc 
H 


b  4bh  COS.*  £ 

This  equation  being  integrated,  and  the  constant  detenu.:, 
on  the  supposition  that  y  =  o  when  ;r  =  o,  we  have 

2bj? 

H 


y  = 


Gx 


H« 


8b'  h  COS.'  B 


\1  —  c       j;  or,  putting  far  v. 


''-['"■=+3iraE>+ii?ir5rE('-'' "  )•«■>• 

By  substitutinK  in  this  eqimtioii  any  assumed  vahies  of  x, 
»u  should  obtain  the  norresponding  vertical  ordinates  ;  and 
Ihus  the  form  of  the  trajectory  would  be  determined,  ap- 
jiroximativetf .  But.  if  the  olyect  is  merely  to  obtain  toe 
liurizontol  range,  make  y  =  o  in  the  equation;  then  the 
luitcr  will,  alUir  reduction,  berome 


2b      , 
vriclog.  o  = 


H 


,.[..|{f.: 


.2E  + 


ibr  X,  Siai 


Substituting  in  this  equation  different  numbers 
uliic.h  renders  the  two  members  equal  to  each  othi 
txpruss  the  required  extent  of  the  range. 

In  the  preceding  investigation,  g  has  been  taken  to  re- 
present the  aecolerative  force  of  gravity,  or  that  by  which  the 
shot  would  descend  in  vacuo ;  but,  in  fact,  it  ahould  repre- 
liL'iit  the  accelerative  force  by  which  the  shot  descends  in 
sir.  And,  in  order  to  obtain  the  latter  force,  let  r  represent 
llic  sem {diameter  of  the  shot,  r  the  ratio  of  the  circumference 
iil'a  circle  to  its  diameter  (=  3"  14159).  D  the  density  of  the 
air,  and  JV  that  of  the  shot.  Then  J  ir  H  D'  will  express 
the  weight  of  the  shot  in  vacuo,  and  J  r  r*  D  the  weiRht  of 
an  equal  volume  of  air;  therefore,  }  ■■  r*  (D*  -  D)  is  the 
HLii;hl  of  the  shot  in  wr.  and  Jirr"*  (IV  —  D)  is  the 
iiielive  power  by  which  the  shot  descends  ;  the  latter,  being 
divided  bv  the  weit^bt  of  the  shot,  expressed  as  above,  gives 

^  — jy —  for  the  accelerative  power  required.    But  if  the 

jliot  1«  of  lead  or  iron,  whoaa  weight  far  exceeds  that  of  an 
c<j\ial  volume  of  air,  the  term  T>  may  be  considered  as  equal 
to  zero,  and  the  accelerative  power  may  be  represented  by  g, 
Ihr  force  of  gravity  on  a  body  in  vacuo. 

By  differential  in  (;  the  equation  (XI),  making  dg  =  o, 
and,  from  the  resulting  equation,  obtainina;  the  value  of  x; 
then,  on  substituting  (his  value  in  equation  (XI),  the  re- 
Biiliinu  Tslue  of  jr  would  bethat  of  the  greatest  vertical  ordi- 
nate of  the  cur\-e,  while  .the  said  value  of  a;  is  the  comj- 
s  pun  ding  abscissa. 

^^'llal  is  called  the  point  blank  range  is  the  distance  from 
a  point  on  tlie  ground,  vertically  under  the  chamber  of  the 
Run  or  howitzer,  to  the  point  at  which  the  shot  strikes  the 
Cronud  after  tlic  discharge,  the  axis  of  the  bore  being  sup- 
l<u:^ed  to  be  in  a  hiirizontal  position,  or  parallel  to  the  ground 
ifilio  latter  should  be  inclined  to  the  horizon.  The  extent 
ol'such  range  may  be  determined  from  the  equation  (XI). 
by  making  B  =  o  and  considering  i/  as  negative.  In  this 
ruae  the  said  equation  becomes,  b  being  equal  to  unity. 


~  coft.  E  n/  3glv  ' 


which  being  integrated  gives  (  = 


H 


:+c. 


b  COS.  E  V  ag^h  1 
where  C  is  an  arhitnry  constant. 

Now,  to  obWin  C ;  since  (  (the  time  of  flight)  =  o  when 
a^  =  0,  by  substituting  those  values  in  the  equation,  the 
latter  becomes 


-  +  C ;  whence  C  •■  —  r 


H 


and  consequently  t  c 


H 


r(« 


•  i>. 


-y  = 


4h 


Sh 


2£ 

(I  -e")i 


wlicro  y  is  the  height  of  the  gun  above  the  level  of  the  spot 
on  which  the  sliot  falls.  And  the  equation,  after  reductioi, 
iKicoioes 

2x,  ,       aHT+H'-|-8hy 

T  log.  e  =  log. — 


H'^ 


H* 


in  which,  substituting  for  x  different  assumed  values,  that 
which  renders  the  two  members  equal  to  each  other  will  bo 
the  required  ranee- 

Tlie  bal  en  Uimc  of  the  French  is  frequently  called  the 
line  of  metal  range,  and  signifies  the  distance  from  the 
fliiiniber  of  thegun  to  the  point  where  the  trajectory  of  the 
slut  crosses  (the  second  time)  a  line  joining  the  tops  of  the 
li.ise,  and  tnuzzla  rings,  and  produced.  Here  the  axis  of 
the  gun,  which  is  always  a  l«ngent  to  the  Irojeutory  at  the 
noiirust  oxtremity,  makes  a  small  angia  with  the  said  line, 
'li'liciidrng  on  the  dispart,  or  the  difference  between  the 
riciiiiiliamolors  of  the  gun  at  the  Utsc  and  muzzle. 

Now.  to  6nd  the  time  of  (light:  from  the  equation  (IV); 
|.y  reducing  the  logarithm  to  a  series  and  proceeding  as 
K  lure,  we  shall  haie 

/  2bt  \ 

abt 

mid  having  found,  6om  the  oqnalion  (X),  that  C  -    ^■_  ^, 


B.E  V2gli^' 

From  which  equation,  on  substituting  the  value  of  a;  (tho 
horizontal  range),  which  is  supposed  to  be  given,  the  time 
(of  the  flight  of  tho  projectile  wdl  be  obtained. 

It  may  be  observed  hero  that  a  knowledge  of  tho  time 
during  which  a  shell  will  describe  its  trajectory  is  of  great 
importance,  since  it  enables  the  gunner  so  to  regulate  the 
length  of  the  fuze,  that  the  shell  may  explode  nearly  at  the 
moment  that  it  bos  reached  tha  object  which  it  is  intended 
to  destroy. 

Note. — In  determining  the  trajectory,  the  range,  and  the 
time  of  flight,  by  the  above  formutcn,  the  operations  must  be 
performed  by  the  aid  of  logarithms. 

tt  is  of  the  Brat  importance,   in  obtaining  fhim  the  above 
formula)  a  near  approximation  to  the  reouircd  values,  that  n 
'  of^the  velocity  with  whlcn  a  shot  issues  from 
the  mouth  of  a  gun  should  be  obtained;  and  the  determi- 
nation of  such  velocity,  when  the  charge  of  powder  is  given, 
is  the  abject  of  the  following  investigation,  which,  using  the 
differential  notation,  is  taken  from  the  third  volume  of  Dr. 
Hulton's  Tracts. 
Let  r  =  the  semidiameter  Of  the  shot,  or  of  the  bore. 
V/  =  the  specific  gravity  ef  tho  shot. 
IT  =  3'14I6  (the  ratio  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle 

to  its  diameter). 
g  =  32^  feet, 
m  =  33120  oz.  (the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on 

ic  =  the  weight  of  the  shot. 

a  =  the  distance  from  the  bottom  of  the  chamber  to 

the  hinder  part  of  the  ball. 
b  =  the  length  or  the  bore. 

n  =  the  ratio  of  the  expansive  force  of  Bred  gun- 
powder to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere, 
ti  =  the  velocity  of  the  shot  on  leaving  the  gun. 
X  =  any  variable  distance  of  the  shot,  in  the  barrel, 
from  the  bottom  of  tho  chamber. 
Then  r'lr  =  the  area  of  a  transverse  section  through  the 
bore,  or  ofa  section  through  the  shot ;  and 
nmr**  =  the  force  of  the  powder  on  the  hinder  part  of  the 

ball. 
But  the  expansive  force  of  powder  being  supposed  to  be 
inversely  proportional  to  its  density,  or  to  tho  space  which  it 
occupies  in  tlie  barrel,  we  have 

1         1                       mnar**  ,  ,        ,  _     , 

—  :  — :;ninf*ir  ; (=  tho    motive    force    of  tho 

powder  at  any  point,  in  the  barrel,  whose  distance  from  the 
bottom  of  the  chamber  =  x). 

Consequently,  dividing  this  term  by  the  weight  of  the 

shot,  we  have for  (be  accelerative  force  of  the 

powder  on  the  shot  at  that  point ;  from  this  term  subtracting 

,  which  expresses  the  retardation  arising  from  the 


^!L-!^('- I  J-    let  this  be  represented  by/    Now,  bj 

tho  theory  of  forces,  wo  ha%o 


GUN 


494 


O  U  N 


afthiieqmtiMite 

*i^  =  ^—^  (nahyp.  log. «  -  «)  +  C ; 
*  w 

where  C  is  an  arbitrary  constant. 

To  find  this  constant ;  since  9  =  0  when  a;  =  a,  on  8ub« 
stituting  these  values  the  equation  becomes 

*""^  ina  hyp.  log.  a  -  a)  +  C ; 


o  s 


to 


from  which  C  beins  found  and  substituted  in  the  preceding 
equation,  the  complete  integral  becomes  after  reduetion.  and 
substituting  b  for  x, 

or>  substituting  for  to  its  value,  tiz.  f  r**-  ly,  we  obtain  for 
the  velocity  of  the  shot  on  leaving  the  gun, 

1783         >•      -        .       h 


p  s 


Vriy 


A^(na  hyp.  log.  -  +  «-*) 


On  comparing  the  results  of  the  formula  with  those  ob- 
tained from  experiments  made  with  the  Ballistic  pendulum, 
Dr.  Hutton  found  that  the  expansive  force  of  powder  varies, 
with  the  quantity  employed,  from  1776  times  to  2300  times 
the  pressure  of  the  atmo9phere ;  allowance  being  made  lor 
the  loss  of  force  occasioned  by  the  vent  and  by  windage. 
Those  numbers  express  the  values  of  n  in  the  formula. 

From  the  numerous  experiments  made  with  the  machine 
above  mentioned  between  the  years  1784  ai)d  1791,  Pr. 
Hutton  concludes  that  the  initial  velocities  of  sliot  are 
directly  proportional  to  the  square  roots  of  the  weights  of 
the  charges,  and  inversely  proportional  to  the  square  roots  of 
the  weignts  of  the  shot  (the  ^uns  being  similar  to  each 
other);  and  he  gives  for  the  mitial  velocity  in  feet  the 

y2c 
formula  V  =3  1600  a/ ■ — ;  where  e  is  the  weight  of  (lie 

•ehaige,  and  to  that  of  the  shot    Dr.  Gregory's  formula, 

/3c 
founded  on  mora  recent  experiments,  is,  V  =  1600^  /  — 

Jt  must  be  admitted  however  that  some  uncertainty  still 
exists  respecting  the  value  of  V,  partly  on  account  of  va- 
riations in  the  quality  of  the  powder,  and  partly  in  couse- 
Quence  of  the  different  degrees  of  windage ;  and  these  are 
ttie  chief  causes  of  the  want  of  agreement  between  the  ex- 
perimented and  calculated  ranges  of  shot  This  however  is 
not  in  general  greater  than  that  which  has  been  observed 
between  ranges  obtained  from  different  trials  when  made  in 
like  circumstances. 

The  resistances  actually  experienced  by  a  shot  in  passing 
through  the  air  were,  in  1 789,  made  the  subjects  of  experi- 
ments,  which  are  described  in  Mutton's  Tracts.  From 
these  it  appears  that  the  resistances  are  in  rather  a  higher 
ratio  than  the  squares  of  the  diameters  of  the  shot ;  and,  as 
examoles  of  the  amount  of  the  resistance,  it  may  be  ob- 
servea,  that  a  ball  weighing  3  lbs.,  when  moving  at  the  rate 
of  600  feet  per  second,  was  opposed  by  a  force  equal  to 
about  35}  lbs. ;  and,  when  moving  with  the  velocity  of  1700 
feet  per  second,  by  a  force  equivalent  to  the  pressure  of 
above  1 54  lbs.  It  was  found  also  that  there  is  a  gradual  in- 
crease in  the  exponent  of  the  resistance  as  the  velocity  in- 
creases, probably  on  account  of  the  partial  %*aruum  behind 
the  ball.  When  tlio  motions  were  slowest,  the  resistance 
was  nearly  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  velocity ;  and 
when  the  shot  moved  at  the  rate  of  1500  feet  per  second, 
that  exponent  seemed  to  have  attained  its  maximum,  the 
resistance  being  then  nearly  as  the  2^  power  of  the  velocity. 
Beyond  that  rate  of  motion  the  exponent  of  the  resistance 
gradually  decreased. 

In  the  preceding  formulce  the  height  h,  or  that  which  is 
due  to  the  initial  velocity,  is  by  the  theory  of  forces  equal 

Iq —  where  V  represents  the  initial  velocity,  and^,  as 

befjre,  rs  3.'^  feet  To  obtaiii  the  value  of  II  it  must  be  oh- 
servuil  that,  from  hydrostatical principles,  we  hai*e  ^r*  wpD 
for  the  resistance  cxpen<>nr;d  in  moving  through  a  fluia  by 
a  body  which  is  terminated  in  front  by  a  hemispherical  sur- 
face ;  where  r  is  the  seutidiametcr  of  the  sjihere.  D  is  the 
spec i lie  gravity  of  the  fluid  (air  in  the  present  case),  andp 
is  a  coefficient  which  must  be  determined  by  experiment 
Then  the  mass  of  the  shot  boing  equal  \o\)*wD'  (whare 


ly  is  the  speeifle  gnvity  of  the  ahot),  dividiiis  the 

3Dp 
of  these  terms  by  the  latter  we  have  g^  for  the 

^  ,8rD^r 

tive  power  of  the  resistance.     Henes  V  3Pp 

the  terminal,  or  constant  valocttjr,  with  vbkh  ikm 
would  deicend  in  the  air  when  the  resUtaooe  of  tbt  Uucr 
becomes  equal  to  the  acoetorative  power  of  grmvity. 

Now,  in  the  preceding  investigations*  -g-  wna  nwio  u,  t^ 

psesent     '^    ;  therefore,  substituting  for  A  its  eqimakt.. 

fw,  »nd  for  M  ito  equivalent   lf*wiy,    «»•   ahall  {- 

4  riy 
H  =     j^    ;  which,  being  compared  with  Che  abovw  >i- 

S cession  for  the  terminal  velocity,  ta  evidently  the  hr.«  - 
ue  to  that  velocity,  or  the  space  through  which  a  ^•. 
must  descend  from  rest,  in  vacuot  to  aoquirs  thai  %^)/^  i  s 
Dr.  Hutton,  having  formed  a  table  exhihitlog  the  r^^r 
anoes  experienced  bv  shot  when  moving  with   difirrt- 
velocities,  determinea  from  it  by  strople  propafft«>tt^  :- 
values  of  the  terminal  velocities  for  solid  shot  wei«  . 
from  1  lb.  to  42  lbs.    (Tract  37,  art  69.)    And  tn  the  «• 
Tract  (art.  122)  he  has  given  a  table  of  terminal  vei.« .    ^ 
for  several  natures  of  shells.    These  last  velocilieo  nf^v>-* 
rily  differ  from  those  of  solid  shot  because  the  ahdu  i^-.r 
less  weight  than  solid  shot  of  equal  diameteia.     Ai»hsn.  - 
therefore  that  the  internal  diameter  is  <&  of  the  exleraal  : . 
meter  of  a  shell,  he  estimates  the  ratio  of  the  wvt^u  ^ 
the  solid  and  hollow  shot  to  be  as  1*42  to  1 ;  and.  m  •«-..' 
to  express  the  terminal  velocities  of  the  latter  be  duk .:.  *  -a 
those  of  the  former  in  that  ratio.    }}eoce  the  fi»m«^  i  : 
the  terminal  velocity  of  a  shell  should  be 

3"Dp*V      3Dp     • 

and  from  the  numbers  given  in  the  tables  it  appean  th*:  r 
may  be  considr.red  as  equal  to  0*6849.     On  puttm^  ::  • 
formula  in  numbers,  r  and  g  must  be  expressed  m  irnr.« . 
the  same  denomination. 

It  is  easy  to  conceive  that  by  incrMsIng  the  cfaorfv  \^  t 
certain  amount  the  velocity  wul  also  be  incrtasod.  azrl  *i4. 
when  the  quantity  of  powder  is  so  great  that  the  la 
driven  out  of  the  barrel  before  the  whole  has  txme  U 
upon  it  the  velocity  must  become  lesa.  There  mrw&s^ 
therefore  a  certain  quantity  of  powder  which  vUl  prr- 
the  greatest  possible  velocity ;  and  this  ma>  be  de^fl 
by  making  the  differential  of  the  expression  aVire  fc 
the  velocity,  equal  to  zero,  the  lenetb  a  of  the  spa  & 
pied  by  the  charge  being  considered  as  variable.  I>- 
ton  makes  the  charges  for  producing  the  maximum  ^  • 
to  vary  with  the  length  of  the  gun :  thus  the  Wa^tt 
bore  being  equal  to  10,  20,  30,  40,  and  50  calibrea.  tti. 
hers  0'5,  0*84,  109,  l*2d,  and  1'43  will  respecti\ct%  c 
the  weight  of  the  powder  m  terms  of  the  «et|{'i»t 
shot    (Tract  37,  art  189.) 

The  service  charges,  in  terms  of  the  weight  of  i.  j 
are — 


v/ 


.■ 


^        "* 


For  brass  and  iron  guns 
For  brass  howitzen     • 
For  carronades  . 


1 
i 

4 


From  experiments  which  have  been  carrieil  no  42  W 
wich,  on  Sutton  Heath,  an.]  in  France,  the  folk»%r  ; 
brief  abstract  of  the  circumstances  attending  thtf  t  , 
projectiles  has  been  drawn  up:— 

I.  Experiments  with  solid  shot  fired  at  puint  1'. 


Ikok  (ivv%. 


H^iuht  of  tlip  UiiB  tbuTp 
til**  f;n}UU«l  ::  8  fr<^. 


of  StMtt 
iQlll». 

6^ 

24 
IS 


{n  lb«.  ,  ill  )iU. 


9 

144 

8 
6 


300 

4u0 


BatwOeiw. 


Ilruht  of  lb*  iStm  ftbot* 
th^  pruumi  ^  4  A.  €  la 


•tt  Ht«    I  til  vOa 


in  ll>. 

9 
6 

3 


I 


4 

3 
2 

I 


3ie 
aiQ 


C«Ma< 


n 


«re«  •. 


I 


m    I 

It 


GUN 


495 


GUN 


11.  Ricoclict  practice  in  1821 
Solid  Shot. 


N.il  tie  of  Ordnance. 

Elevntioo 

in 
dei^reM. 

Chnrgc. 

Kan;;e  kl 
yaiiU. 

Kam^KT 
of 

24  Po'.iiulor 
Irua  6ua 

11 
6 
3* 

So;b. 
lib. 
21b. 

400 
600 
800 

la 
i» 

8 

18  I*o«ijder 
Iron  Gun 

6* 
7 

901. 
lib. 

400 
800 

27 
10 

12  Poim'lcr 
Iron  Gun 

6# 

6oz. 
•    13.o«. 

400 
800 

19 
16' 

6S  Pounder 
t^ronade 

» 

Sib. 

600 

S 

24  Pounder 

Bras*  IIowitieT 

4f 

lib. 

800 

s 

Shells. 


Ill  Inch  Iron  Howitier 
«i.  of  Shell  92  IbB. 

5 

9f 

4  lbs. 
2ilbs. 

600 
600 

2. 
4 

y  Im-h  Iron  Howiiror 
wi  of  Shell  46  lbs. 

9i 

lib. 
2i  lbs. 

400 
800 

12 
5 

3;    Inch  H«>wiltT 
«t   uf  SlioU  IClbs. 

9 

12  OS. 

600 

►         * 

24  Ptmuiler  Howitzer 
wt.  of  Shell  16  llw. 

4S 

9oz. 

400 

16 

12  I'mindcr  Howitzer 
ut.uf  SheUa  lbs. 

9 

6  ox. 

600 

4 

Otrronnde 

8i 

lilb. 

600 

6 

rroin  the  result  of  the  experiments  it  appears  that  at  a 
r.iuy^v.  of  400  yards,  with  a  weight  of  powder  equal  to  ^  of 
tlu*  weight  of  the  shot,  about  two-thirds  of  the  rounds  took 
•  tUct:  at  600  yards,  with  charges  from  Jj  to  ^,  from  one- 
lialf  to  one-third  look  eifect ;  and,  at  800  yards,  with  charges 
I'loin  }^  to  ^^,  from  one-third  to  two-lifths  took  effect.  It  is 
hcnro  fonoluded  that  ricochet  batteries  should,  if  possible, 
be  at  distances  between  400  and  600  yai'ds  from  the  object: 
at  a  greater  distance  much  of  the  ammunition  would  be  use- 
lessly expended.  Also  that,  with  both  shot  and  shells,  the 
iKdt  elevation  for  enfilading  a  work  is  from  6°  to  9**  above 
ilie  crest  of  the  parapet  of  the  work. 

HI.    Practice  with  a  10-        Practicewitha  French  12- 

iiirh  mortar,  Sutton  Heath,  inch  mortar,  Toulon,    1830. 

I  Ml.     The  elevation  =  45"  The  elevation  =  45**  and  the 

mid  the  weight  of  the  shell  weight  of  the  shell  =   162 

=  DO  Iba.  lbs. 


_               — -    —   -^ 

1     1                      1 

y 

Clmrce  in 

Timi?  of 

Rauffc 

Charge. 

Time  of 

''  Ranfi^e  In 

Ib-i. 

F4Lj,'ht. 

in  vardA. 

Flight. 

yards. 

1  lb. 

10" 

449 

5  lbs.  6  01. 

20ff 

1631 

\{  lb. 

12 

774 

10       13 

28* 

2579 

2 

16 

1317 

16         3 

32i 

ajoi 

2* 

13 

1  r,o5 

21       10 

36  i 

;     3b72 

3 

19 

1995 

27 

39i  « 

[      4368 

Tlic  effects  of  shot  in  penetrating  any  material  form  a 
subject  of  great  importance  in  military  engineering,  as  a 
knowledge  of  those  effects  can  alone  afford  data  for  con- 
structing walls  and  roofs  capable  of  resisting  the  momenta 
I'f  the  va.st  masses  which,  during  a  siege,  may  descend  upon 
or  1)0  proj<»cted  against  them.  And  in  order  that  such 
eireets  may  be  made  the  objects  of  scientific  investigation, 
t!i(!  i-c>istance  which  the  material  opposes  must  bo  con- 
M'lered  as  a  uniformly  retarding  force,  like  that  which  gravity 
\v<»uld  exert  against  a  shot  fired  vertically  upwards:  then 
the  depth  penetrate<l  will  correspond  to  the  space  which 
would  be  described  by  a  body,  when  subject  to  an  aceelera- 
ii\e  force  equal  to  that  retardative  force,  in  the  time  that  it 
^vould  acQuire  a  velocity  equal  to  that  of  the  impact,  and 
1  he  time  ot  the  penetration  may  be  considered  as  equal  to  that 
in  wluch  such  velocity  would  be  acquired.     By  the  theorem 

to  V* 

of  uuifoimly  accelerated  motions  we  have  F  varies  as 

(where  F  is  the  acceleralivc  or  retardative  force,  w  is  the 
weight  of  the  body,  r  the  velocity  with  which  it  is  moving, 
and  *  the  space  moved  through). 
Now,  if  G  represent  the  force  of  gravity ; 


G 


g  =  32}  feet,  or  the  velocity  'generated  in  one 
cond  by  the  force  of  gravity, 

-  =  the  space  or  height  due  to  that'velocity, 

V   =  the  given  velocity  of  impact, 

s   =  the  depth  Of  the  impression*    Then) 


g 


whence  F  » 


^.2^' 


which  is  the 


force  of  resistence  exercised  by  the  material. 
If  G  be  supposed  to  be  equal  to  unity,  we  shall  have 


V 


^-JTtP  ^^^  ^^^  value  of  F  expresses  the  ratio  of  the  re- 


s-g 


tardative  force  to  that  of  gravity ;  consequently,  representing 
the  latter  by  the  weight  w  of  the  shot,  the  force  of  resistance 

should  be  expressed  by 


In  Sir  Howard  Douglas's  *  Treatise  on  Naval  Gunnery ' 
there  are  recorded  the  following  results  of  experiments  on 
the  penetration  of  an  18-pounder  shot  into  a  butt  made  of 
beams  of  oak  ;  viz.,  with  charges  of  Gibs.,  3 lbs.,  2} lbs.,  and 
1  lb.,  the  depths  of  the  penetrations  were  42  inches,  30  incht'.s 
28  inches,  and  15  inches  respectively;  the  velocities  are 
1600  feet,  1130  feet,  1024  feet,  and  656  feet  respectively; 
and  from  these  data  the  mean  value  of  F  will  be  found  to 
be  138701.  This  number  expresses  the  resistance  of  the 
oak,  in  pounds,  against  a  surface  equal  to  the  area  of  a 
section  through  the  centre  of  the  shot;  and,  by  reduction, 
it  becomes  equivalent  to  912190  pounds  exerted  on  ond 
square  foot. 

Similar  experiments  made  at  Metz  by  firing  24-|tounder 
shot  against  butts  of  fir  (the  numbers  being  reduced  to 
English  denominations)  gave  475070  pounds  for  the  resist- 
ance exerted  on  a  square  foot. 

At  Woolwich,  in  1835,  two  24-pounder  shot  were  fired 
with  a  velocity  of  1390  feet  per  second  against  a  wall  of 
concrete,  into  which  they  penetrated  to  the  mean  depth  of 
3  feet  10  inches;  whence,  by  the  above  formula,  we  have 
F=  188047  pounds;  and,  consequently,  the  resistance  on  a 
square  foot  is  equal  to  1013730  pounds.  From  a  hke  expe- 
riment made  at  Metz  it  was  found  (hat  the  resistance 
o])poscd  by  a  wall  of  oolitic  stone  might  be  expressed  by 
1394800  pounds  (English)  on  an  equal  surface. 

The  French  engineers,  agreeably  to  the  theoretical  deter- 
mination of  M.  Frony,  suppose  the  volume,  instead  of  the 
depth,  of  the  space  penetrated  to  be  proportional  to  the  terra 
iDV^'y  but  when  that  space  is  cylindrical,  the  hypothesis 
will  evidently  be  identical  with  that  which  has  been  above 
stated.  Dr.  Hutton  finds  that,  on  firing  into  wood,  the 
depths  of  penetration,  when  high  charges  are  employed, 
are  in  a  lower  ratio  than  the  squares  of  the  velocities,  and 
nearly  proportional  to  the  velocities  simply :  this  he  sup- 
poses to  depend  on  the  resistance  caused  by  the  elasticity  of 
the  fibres  which  are  driven  before  the  ball  during  the  time 
of  penetration. 

(Colliado,  Prattica  Manuale  delV  Artiglierta,  Milan, 
1606;  Ufano,  Vraye  InstructioJi  de  fArtillerie,  Frankfort, 
1614;  Belidor,  Le  Bombardier  Fran^oiSt  Paris,  1731 ;  Le 
Blond,  Traiid  de  tArtillerie,  Paris,  1743;  Du  Puget,  Essai 
sur  r  Usage  de  rAriillerie,  AmsieTdamt  1771;  Lombard, 
Tables  du  Tirdes  Canons^  &c.,  Auxonne,  1787  ;  D'Antoni, 
On  Gunpowder  and  Fire-arms,  translated  by  Capt.  Thomson, 
London,  1789  ;  Bezout,  Cours  de  Mathhnatiques  (\  ri'suise 
du  Corps  d'Arhllerie,  Paris,  1797  ;  RohinSy  iVeic  Princi]M's 
of  Gunnery,  London,  1805  ;  Hutton,  Traces,  London,  181 2  ; 
Robison,  Mechanical  Philosophy ,  London,  I8'22;  Sir 
Howard  Douglas,  Treatise  on  Naval  Gutwery,  London, 
1829  ;    Strait h,  A  Memoir  on  Artillery,  London,  1836.) 

GUNPOWDER,  a  composition  with  the  explosive  power 
of  which  every  one  is  more  or  less  acquainted.  The  (bite  of 
its  invention  is  involved  in  obscurity.  It  has  been  said  that 
it  was  used  in  China  as  early  as  the  year  a.d.  85,  and  that  the 
knowledge  of  it  was  conveyed  to  us  from  the  Arabs  on  the 
return  of  the  Crusaders  to  Europe ;  that  the  Arabs  made 
use  of  it  at  the  siege  of  Mecca  in  690 ;  and  that  they  derived 
it  from  the  Indians. 

Sir  George  Staunton  observes  tl  at  *  the  kno^^led•re  of 
gunpowder  in  China  and  India  seems  coeval  with  the  mo.>;l 
distant  historic  events.  Among  the  Chinese  it  has  at  all 
times  been  applied  to  useful  purposes,  as  blasting  rock:»^ 


GUN 


496 


GUN 


&c^  and  in  tbe  making  of  fireworks ;  although  it  has  not 
been  directed  through  strong  metallic  tubes,  as  the  Euro- 
peans did  soon  after  they  had  discovered  it.' 

Roger  Bacon  has  been  supposed  to  allude  in  an  enig- 
matic way  to  the  composition  and  explosive  force  of  gun- 
powder;  and  about  1336  Berthold  Schwartz,  a  monk,  is  said 
to  have  also  discovered  the  mode  of  manufacturing  it 

Gunpowder  consists  of  a  very  intimate  mixture  of  nitre, 
or  nitrate  of  potash,  charcoal,  and  sulphur.  According  to 
Mr.  Coleman,  who  has  given  an  account  of  the  nrocess  of 
making  gunpowder,  as  carried  on  in  the  royal  mills  at 
WaKham  Abbey  (Phil.  Mag,,  1801),  the  proportions  are  75 
nitre.  15  cluircoal,  and  10  sulphur. 

According  to  Th^nard  (Chimie,  v.  347X  gunpowdet  is 
made  in  France  of  the  annexed  proportions  of  its  ingre- 
dients, for  the  purposes  under  mentioned : — 

Nitrate  of  potash 
Charcoal 
Sulphur       « 


Sporting. 

Wm. 

Mining. 

78 

75-0 

65 

12 

12-5 

15 

10 

12-5 

20 

100 


100- 


100 


As  the  combustion  of  gunpowder  is  an  operation  most 
clearly  chemical  in  its  nature,  we  might  expect  to  find  that 
the  proportions  of  its  ingredients  are  reducible  to  ecjuivalent 
weights.  In  two  only  however  of  the  four  varieties  which 
we  nave  mentioned  does  this  appear  to  be  the  case :  the 
French  war-powder  consists  very  nearly  of  one  equivalent 
of  nitre,  three  equivalents  of  charcoal,  and  one  equivalent 
of  sulphur ;  while  their  mininj^-powder  is  composed  almost 
exactly  of  one  equivalent  of  nitre,  four  equivalents  of  char- 
coal, and  two  equivalents  of  sulphur. 

The  ingredients  must  be  of  the  greatest  attainable  purity; 
and  the  nitre  is  fused  before  use,  in  order  to  expel  the  last 
portion  of  water,  which  seems  however  scarcely  necessary 
for  any  other  purpose  than  the  exact  ascertainment  of  its 
quantity,  inasmuch  as  the  mixture  is  subsequently  wetted. 
The  charcoal,  either  of  alder,  willow,  or  dog-wood,  is  pre> 
pared,  not  in  the  usual  method,  but  in  iron  retorts ;  and 
the  sulphur  is  the  volcanic  kind  imported  from  Sicily,  and 
is  refined  by  melting  or  subliming. 

When  the  several  ingredients  are  prepared,  they  are  sepa- 
rately ground  to  a  fine  powder,  and  mixed  in  the  proper 
proportions.  The  composition  is  then  sent  to  the  gunpowder- 
mill,  which  consists  of  two  stones  vertically  placed,  and 
running  on  a  bed-stone.  On  this  bed-stone  the  composition 
is  spread,  and  wetted  with  as  small  a  quantity  of  water  as 
will,  together  with  the  revolutions  and  weight  of  the  run- 
ners, bring  it  into  a  proper  body,  but  not  into  a  paste.  After 
the  stone-runners  have  made  the  proper  number  of  revo- 
lutions over  it,  and  it  is  in  a  fit  state,  it  is  taken  off  and 
sent  to  the  coming-house  to  be  corned  or  grained ;  here  it 
is  first  pressed  into  a  hard  and  firm  body,  broken  into  small 
lumps,  and  the  powder  is  then  erained  by  these  lumps  being 

ftut  into  sieves,  in  each  of  which  is  a  fiat  circular  piece  of 
ignum  vited.  The  sieves  are  made  of  parchment  skins, 
having  round  holes  punched  through  them;  several  of 
these  sieves  are  fixed  in  a  frame,  which  by  machinery 
has  such  a  motion  given  to  it  as  to  make  the  lignum 
vitsd  runner  in  each  sieve  go  round  with  velocity  sufiicient 
to  break  the  lumps  of  powder,  and  force  them  through  the 
sieves,  forming  erains  of  several  sizes.  The  grains  are 
separated  from  the  dust  by  proper  sieves  and  reels ;  they 
are  then  hardened,  and  the  rougher  edges  taken  off  by 
being  nm  a  sufficient  length  of  time  in  a  close  reel,  which 
has  a  proper  circular  motion  given  to  it. 

The  gunpowder,  thus  corned,  dusted,  and  reeled  (which 
is  called  glazing,  as  it  puts  a  small  degree  of  gloss  on  it), 
is  sent  to  the  stove  and  dried ;  care  being  taken  not  to  raise 
the  heat  so  as  to  dissipate  the  sulphur.  The  heat  is  regu- 
lated by  a  thermometer. 

A  powder-mill  is  a  slight  wooden  building  with  a  boarded 
roof.  Only  about  forty  or  fifty  pounds  of  composition  are 
worked  at  a  time,  as  an  explosion  will  sometimes  happen 
from  the  runners  and  bed-stone  coming  in  contact,  and 
from  other  causes.  These  mills  are  worked  by  water  or 
horses.    (Phil.  Moff.,  vol.  ix.) 

I  The  theory  of  the  action  of  gunpowder  is  this:— That 
particle  of  it  on  which  a  spark  falls  is  immediately  heated 
to  the  temperature  of  ignition ;  the  nitre  is  decomposed 
and  its  oxygen  combines  with  the  charcoal  and  sulphur, 
which  are  also  heated ;  this  combination  extricates  as  much 

at  as  is  sufiicient  to  infiame  sucoossively,  though  rapidly. 


the  remaining  mass.  The  cause  of  the  expttniiw  force  of 
gunpowder  is  the  production  of  carbonic  acid,  oxide  of  car- 
bon, and  asotic  gas;  and  these  being  liberated  at  a  >cry 
high  temperature,  the  effect  is  greatly  increased.  Aaytrd- 
ing  to  Gay-Lussac,  every  100  volumes  of  the  gas  ptodui*oi 
consist  of  53  parts  of  carbonic  acid,  5  of  oxide  of  carho:., 
and  4!2  of  azote.  The  solids  remaining  af^er  the  enui- 
bustion  are  principally  sulphuret  of  potassium,  sulphattr  an«i 
carbonate  of  potash,  and  some  charcoal ;  but  it  is  e\idcM 
that  the  proportions  and  nature  both  of  the  gaseous  aiwl 
solid  products  of  the  combustion  must  depend  on  the  Ok*m- 
position  of  the  gunpowder. 

Gunpowder  may  be  fired  by  the  electric  spark,  and  by 
percussion.  If  it  be  mixed  with  powdered  glass,  or  any 
other  harder  substance,  and  struck  with  a  heavy  hazDnuT 
on  an  anvil,  it  almost  always  explodes.  It  readily  burn* 
under  water,  and  by  using  a  slowly  burning  powder,  such  il* 
squibs  are  filled  with,  may  be  inflamed  in  a  tube  of  copier, 
and  the  gaseous  products  of  the  combustion  may  be  (ul- 
le<:ted  in  a  glass  jar  filled  with  and  inverted  in  water  tu 
the  pneumatic  trough. 

In  ascertaining  the  goodness  of  gunpowder,  which  is  done 
by  determining  its  strength,  an  iprouoette  is  employe  I  to 
measure  its  projectile  force.  This  is  a  small  strut. ^ 
barrel,  in  which  a  given  quantity  of  the  powder  is  fired,  ai^'l 
the  comparative  expansive  force  is  measured  by  the  action 
exerted  on  a  spring  or  weight 

A]  ready  but  not  a  very  accurate  way  of  analyzing  gun- 
powder is  to  wash  out  the  nitre  of  a  given  weight  by  ixaii  r, 
weigh  the  residue,  which  will  show  the  quantity  of  nitre 
dissolved,  and  boil  it  in  a  solution  of  potash;  the  residue, 
after  washing  and  dryine,  will  be  the  charcoal,  and  lU 
weight  taken  from  that  left  after  the  action  of  the  wati-r 
will  show  the  quantity  of  sulphur  dissolved  by  the  |>ut- 
ash. 

GUNPOWDER  PLOT.    [Fawkks;  Gjoinbt.] 

GXJNTER,  EDMUND,  was  bom  in  the  county  .if 
Hertford,  but  descended  originally  from  Gunter*s  Town,  m 
Brecknockshire.  He  was  educated  on  the  royal  foundaut... 
at  Westminster  School,  and  elected  from  thence  to  Oiri>;- 
church  College,  in  Oxford,  in  the  year  1599,  beini^  then 
eighteen  years  of  age,  where  he  took  the  decrees  in  ariK. 
Mathematics  were  the  prevailing  studies  of  his  youth,  and 
about  the  year  1606  he  invented  the  sector,  and  wrote  the 
description  and  use  of  it  in  Latin ;  many  copies  of  whiru 
were  taken  in  writing,  but  none  of  them  printed.  Aft*  i 
this  he  took  orders,  became  a  preacher,  in  1614  wa«  a<I- 
mitted  to  read  the  Sentences,  and  proceeded  to  the  dcjn*c 
of  bachelor  in  divinity.  But  his  genius  still  leading;  hiiu 
chiefly  to  mathematical  pursuits,  when  Mr.  Williams  r.  - 
signed  the  professorship  of  astronomy  in  Gresham  Collrji . 
he  was  chosen  to  succeed  him  March  6,  1619.....He  lU^l 
on  the  10th  of  December.  1626,  about  the  45th  year  of  !;;> 
age.'  (Ward,  Lives  of  the  Gresham  Prqfessws.} 

The  works  of  Gunter  are  as  follow : — 

1.  '  Canon  Triangulorum,'  London,  1620  (8vo.)  and  K.:*> 
(4to.).  A  table  of  losarithroic  sines,  &c.  to  seven  decimu! 
places,  the  first  of  Uie  kind  which  were  published  i-i. 
Brigg's  system  of  logarithms. 

2.  'Of  the  Sector,  Cross-staff,  and  other  Instrumoi/-* 
(first  published  in  1 624).  The  invention  of  the  sector,  w  hi  .. 
now  forms  a  part  of  every  case  of  drawing  instnimt-:  :*, 
is  due  to  Gunter,  and  its  uses  are  described  by  him  in  thri<»' 
books.  [Sector.]  Tliecross-staff  is  not  the  surveying  in  ali- 
ment now  known  by  that  name,  but  an  instrument  (  r 
taking  angles,  consisting  of  one  straight  line  movint;  st 
right  angles  to  another,  with  sights  at  ttieir  extremities. 

3.  *The  Description  and  Use  of  his  Majesty's  DiaU  .  \ 
Whitehall  Garden,'  London,  1624,  4to.  These  diaU  (.K- 
stroyed  in  1697)  were  constructed  by  Gunter. 

The  first  two  of  these  works  went  through  five  editior.^ 
the  fourth  of  which,  purporting  to  be  examined  and  v:.- 
larged  by  W.  L.  (William  Leyboum),  contains  improTeme:.t> 
in  the  sector  by  Samuel  Foster,  &c.  The  fifth,  which  i-  . 
reprint  of  the  fourth,  was  published  in  1673,  and  (wuh  .. 
new  title-page  only)  in  1680. 

Gunter  s  writings  (the 'Canon  Triangulorum'eTccetj to' 
consist  almost  entirely  of  a  description  of  graphical  metlit  -  .^ 
of  constructing  problems  in  trigonometry,  navigation,  K  • 
He  was  the  first  who  laid  down  a  logarithmic  scale  \i^  \ 
wood,  and  used  it  for  the  purposes  of  the  drau^tstD:i'\ 
This  scale  is  still  used,  and  goes  by  his  name.  XSc.%x.a. 
The  common  chain  tised  by  surveyon  also  goes  br  h.^ 


G  U  S 


496 


G  U  S 


then  in  his  seyenteenth  year.  Immediately  on  kia  acces- 
sion the  young  king  had  sufficient  opportunity  for  display- 
ing his  talents  for  government.  Sif^ismund,  whose  father 
John,  as  the  elder  son  of  Gustavus  Vosa,  had  occupied  the 
throne  of  Sweden,  had  been  elected  king  of  Poland  in  his 
father^s  lifetime.  On  accepting  the  Polish  crown,  Sigis- 
mund  abjured  the  Lutheran  faith.  This  circumstance 
had  offended  the  States  of  Sweden,  a^d  in  consequence 
in  the  year  1599  he  was  declared  to  have  forfeited  his 
right  of  succession,  and  his  uncle  Charles,  duke  of  Suder- 
mania,  was  c^ed  to  the  throne.  As  long  as  Charles  lived 
Sigismund  never  ventured  to  renew  his  claims  to  the  crown 
of  Sweden ;  but,  upon  his  death,  when  he  saw  a  youth  of 
seventeen  upon  the  throne,  he  thought  that  he  should  have 
an  easy  game  against  so  inexperienced  an  adversary.  Ac- 
cordingly be  invaded  Sweden,  and  laid  claim  to  the  crown 
for  his  son  Ladislaus,  then  a  minor;  but  this  war  only 
served  to  develop  the  brilliant  qualities  of  Gustavus.  He 
fought  successfully  against  the  Czar  of  Russia,  the  ally  of 
Sigismund,  and  also  against  Sigismund  himself,  until,  by 
the  mediation  of  England  and  Holland,  a  peace  was  con- 
cluded in  1629,  upon  the  most  advantageous  terms  for 
Adolphus.  A  great  part  of  Livonia,  and  the  important 
towu  of  Riga,  were  on  this  occasion  annexed  to  the  ter- 
ritory of  Sweden.  These  warlike  exploits  of  the  youthful 
king  had  drawn  upon  him  the  attention  of  all  Europe, 
and  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  eyes  of  the  persecuted 
Protestants  of  Germany,  who  sighed  under  the  tyranny  of 
Ferdinand  II.  and  the  barbarous  sword  of  his  field- 
marshal  Tilly,  should  have  been  directed  towards  the 
Swedish  monarch  for  help  and  protection.  The  zeal  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus  for  the  Protestant  religion,  and  his  com- 
passion, excited  by  the  unheard-of  cruelties  perpetrated 
upon  the  persecuted  Protestants  of  Bohemia,  were  powerful 
motives  for  inducine  him  to  aid  the  German  Protestants  in 
their  resistance  to  Austria.  But  Gustavus  felt  the  truth  of 
the  principle,  that  foreign  intervention  in  the  affairs  of  a 
country,  tnough  certainly  welcome  in  a  time  of  need,  is,  on 
that  very  account,  ultimately  disagreeable  and  even  hate- 
ful. For  this  reason  he  printed  a  declaration  in  which  he 
endeavoured  to  prove  to  all  Europe  that  he  was  not  moved 
to  the  invasion  of  Germany  by  any  improper  desire  to  inter- 
meddle in  German  affairs,  but  on  account  of  the  enmity 
already  shown  towards  himself  on  the  part  of  Austria.  In 
particular  he  instanced  the  assistance  given  by  this  power 
to  his  enemies  during  the  Polish  war,  and  maintained  that 
Austria  had  violated  the  territories  uf  Sweden  by  enter- 
ing them  with  hostile  troops. 
In  pursuance  of  this  declaration  of  war  Gustavus  Adol- 
hus  landed  in  Pomerania  on  the  24th  June,  1630.  When 
0  entered  the  mouth  of  the  Oder  his  little  squadron  bore 
only  sixteen  troops  of  cavalry  and  a  few  regiments  of  foot, 
which  altogether  amounted  to  not  more  than  8000  men. 
With  this  small  force  however  he  made  himself  master  of 
the  islands  of  Usedom  and  WoUin,  and  pressed  Bogislav, 
the  duke  of  Pomerania,  so  warmly,  that  he  was  compelled 
to  agree  to  a  treaty  by  which  the  town  of  Stettin  was  put  in 
possession  of  the  conqueror,  and  the  whole  country  placed 
at  his  disposal. 

The  army  of  Gustavus  was  reinforced  by  the  arrival  of 
six  English  (or  rather  Scottish)  regiments,  under  the  con- 
duct of  the  Duke  of  Hamilton,  and  he  provided  himself 
with  money  by  raising  a  contribution  of  50,000  rix-dollars 
in  Pomerania.  The  fortress  of  Wolgast,  which  fell  into  his 
hands,  furnished  him  with  arms  and  ammunition,  of  which 
latter  he  began  to  be  in  much  want.  He  next  made  him- 
!>elf  master  of  the  towns  of  Anclam  and  Stolpe,  and  thus 
opened  for  himself  a  road  into  the  province  of  Mecklen- 
burg. The  attack  of  the  Austrians  under  General  Gotz  on 
the  Pomeranian  town  of  Pasewalk,  and  the  frightful  cruel- 
ties perpetrated  upon  the  inhabitants  so  near  the  Swedish 
army,  exasperated  the  troops  to  the  highest  degree. 
Gustavus  now  resolved  to  prosecute  his  campaign  with  in- 
creased vigour.  He  divided  his  force  into  four  parts.  One 
division,  under  the  Duke  of  Lauenburg,  was  ordered  to  the 
relief  of  Magdeburg  ;  Greneral  Bauditz  was  sent  to  make 
an  attack  upon  Kolberg;  Horn  was  left  with  a  garrison  in 
Stettin  ;  and  Gustavus  Adolphus  himself  encamped  at  Rib- 
benitz  in  the  duchy  of  Mecklenburg.  While  lying  there 
he  received  a  letter  written  by  the  Emperor  Ferdinand, 
■ontaining  proposals  for  peace,  m  which  he  made  the 
most  advantageous  offers  to  the  Swedish  king,  including 
he  possession  of  Pomerania.    Gustavus  however  replied 


I 


f  < 


if' 


that  he  had  not  entered  Germany  for  his  own  agg;nndiie 
ment,  but  to  protect  his  fellow-protestants.    He  iber::  -e 
rejected  these  proposals  and  continued  to  make  bmtHl? 
master  of  the  towns  and  fortresses  of  Pomeraniii  and  Mi'^^k 
lenburg.     By  the  end  of  February,  1631,  in  the  cour»v  f 
only  eight  months,   he  had  already  taken  eighty  fgrti. . 
places ;  but  the  towns  of  Rostock  and  Wismar  yet  reiaii- .  i 
in  the  hands  of  his  enemies.    The  emperor  beginning  ' 
feel  the  danger  which  threatened  him  from  Poinci..  .. 
sent  against  him  field-marshal  Tilly,  at  the  head  of ' 
Imperial  army.    With  varying  fortunes  Gu8ta\n]s  and  T. «. 
struggled  for  victory ;  the  Swedes  suffered  many  dcf*  .•. 
yet  the  success  which  usually  attended  the  arms  of  1.. « 
seemed  to  abandon  him  after  he  had  delivered  up  th<>  . 
habitants  of  the  town  of  Magdeburg  to  be  plundered 
murdered  by  his  infuriated  smdiers.  The  army  of  Gu^lu^  ^ 
pressed  forward  into  the  heart  of  North  German).    11 
forces  continually  increased,  and  the  persecuted  Proic^'  -. 
hastened  to  join  his  standard.     His  generals  also,  «li.  ! 
been  acting  separately,  were  victorious.    Colberg,  W'- ' 
Konigsberg,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Swedes ;  (u :  ■ 
Pappenheim,  whom  Tilly  had  despatched  with  four  :•. 
ments  to  protect  Prussia,  suffered  a  decisive  defeat  i.<  ; 
Magdeburg;  and  Gustavus,  collecting  all  his  forces  \\ 
ther,  marched  into  the  territories  of  the  Elector  of  Sa\    \ 
On  the  1st  of  August,  1631,  the   Swedish  army  emu:: , 
near  Wittemberg,  where  Gustavus  received  Count  A  rnli. 
the  ambassador  of  the  elector.    Through  him  a  treat}  «  • 
quicklv  concluded,  by  which  the  Saxon  dominiun^  n  • 
opened  to  the   king  of  Sweden,  and  the  whole  mil '  : 
power  of  the  electorate  placed  under  his  command ;  v. 
at  the  same  time  the  elector  promised  to  provide  the  a*. 
with  ammunition  and  provision,  and  to  conclude  no)'. 
with  Austria  without  the  consent  of  the  kingof  Svf.. 
Immediately  on  concluding  this  treaty  Gustavus  pn ;   • 
to  encounter  Tilly,  who  had  advanced  against  him  to  K 
marschen.    On  the  7th  September,  1631,  they  met  on  i' 
plains  of  Leipzig.  The  collected  force  of  the  kingof  $«(<    . 
to  which  the   Saxon  troops  under  Amheim  werv  j 
amounted  to  about  40,000  men ;  Tilly's  army  was  so^)c^( 
more  numerous.    The  victory  was  long  doubtful  btrtw 
the  two  contending  armies,  led  by  two  of  the  greatest  m  1 
tary  commanders  of  their  time  ;  but  the  enthusiasm  of ' 
Swedes,  animated  by  the  eloquence  as  well  as  thee\a!.; 
of  their  heroic  king,  at  length  overpowered  the  Irai-*- 
troops,  who  fought  only  for  fame  or  plunder.  Tilly'^  'i' ' 
was  complete  ;  more  than  a  third  of  his  army  lemame*!  \ ; 
the  field  of  battle,  and  the  remainder  owed  their  »i'('^  ' 
his  firmness  and  military  talents,  which  were  displa}c<i   : 
a  most  difficult  and  admirably  conducted  retreat 

All  Germany  was  now  open  to  the  Swedes,  and  Gu«t-   • 
hastened  forwanls  in  an  uninterrupted  course  of  con'i'   ' 
To  his  first  ally  the  landgrave  of  Hesse  he  made  over  ::: 
country  on  the  Weser,  and  to  the  elector  of  Sax^n)  *• 
promised  part  of  Bohemia.     He  himself  look  po8se4».')P   i 
the  beautiful  district  which  lies  betwixt  the  Rhine  *•  ; 
the  Main.    But  the  progress  of  the  Swedish  arms  c\' i  * 
the  jealousy  and  apprehension   of  the  whole  German  y 
pulation.     Even  among  the  Protestants  the  national  i' 
ing  was  strong  enough   to   make  them  lament  the  t*'' 
blishment  of  a  foreign   dominion   upon  the  German  ^ 
Gustavus  also,  whether  justly  or  not  does  not  appar.  JR.* 
accused  of  having  designs  on  the  Imperial  cronn.    H*^ 
allies  became  lukewarm,  and  the  inhabitants  ev*r>«li* 
viewed  the  Swedes  with  dislike.     Upon  the  defeat  ot  1 
at  Leipzig,  and  the  Saxon  army  making  itself  mastr 
Bohemia  almost  without  opposition,  the  Empewr  Feniir.  i  . 
became  excessively  alarmed,  and  called  in  WtHen*!  r. 
whom   he  had  some  time  before  dismissed,  ihrouil. 
intrigues  of  the  papal  party,  to  oppose  Gustavus  in';- 
field      Wallenstein,  the  most  extraordinary  roai»  w^' 
time,  had  scarcely  received  his  commander's  staff,  »  •* 
ho  drove  the  Saxons  out  of  Bohemia,  and  threatcneu    * 
adversary  Gustavus  Adolphus,  who  in  the  mean  time  l" 
obtained  a  second  victory  over  Tilly  on  the  Lech,  ro  » • 
that  general  lost  his  life.     Wallenstein  took  up  a  *»-  •  ^ 
position   in  the  neidibourhood  of  Nurnborg,  by  wbn  J' 
cut  off"  all  succours  from  the  king  of  Sweden,  and  frt>t': 
his  plan  of  penetrating  along  the  Danube  through  Ba^ 
into  Austria.     In  fruitless  attacks  upon  the  camp  of  »^ 
lenstein,  and  through  hunger  and  disease,  in  the  ^^^^' . 
seventy-two  days,  Gustavus  lost  30,000  men.    At  1' '  > 
Wallenstein  moved  towards  Saxony,  and  on  the  istoJ .  • 


G  U  8 


500 


GUT 


and  shortly  afterwards  married  a  German  princess  of  the 
house  of  Baden.  Of  all  the  European  monarchs  he  was 
the  most  zealous  partisan  of  legitimacy,  and  he  proposed,  as 
the  great  object  of  his  life,  the  restoration  of  the  dethroned 
family  of  the. Bourbons  to  the  crown  of  France.  In  1803 
he  made  a  journey  through  GJermany  in  order  to  unite  all 
the  sovereign  princes  of  the  Empire  in  arms  against  Napo- 
leon ;  and  to  show  his  detestation  of  the  usurper  he  sent 
back  to  the  king  of  Prussia  the  order  of  the  Black  Eagle, 
because  the  same  distinction  had  been  given  to  Napoleon. 
When  Bonaparte  concluded  peace  with  Germany  in  1806, 
Gustavus  IV.,  through  his  ambassador,  declared  that  he 
would  no  longer  take  any  part  in  the  proceedings  of  the 
Diet  while  it  remained  under  the  influence  of  a  usurper. 
Nothing  more  was  required  to  make  him  break  off  all 
diplomatic  relations  with  the  most  powerful  courts  of 
Europe  than  an  approach  on  their  part  to  friendly  relations 
with  Napoleon.  He  thus  involved  his  country  in  inde- 
scribable difficulties;  irritated  all  his  neighbours,  and 
showed  by  his  conduct  that  he  would  not  scruple  to  sacri- 
fice his  people's  welfare  to  his  unreasoning  obstinacy.  His 
wars  and  negotiations  exhausted  the  poverty  of  Sweden, 
and  the  inhabitants  sighed  beneath  an  intolerable  burthen 
of  taxes.  Even  England,  his  only  ally,  whom  he  certainty 
could  not  reproach  with  any  friendly  feelings  towards 
Napoleon,  he  contrived  to  offend  by  bis  conduct.  Upon 
the  English  government  sending  him  a  message  with  some 
well-grounded  complaints,  hu  broke  off  with  this  power 
also,  and  ordered  all  the  English  ships  in  Swedish  harbours 
to  be  laid  under  embargo. 

The  Swedes  soon  became  tired  of  seeing  themselves 
sacrificed  to  the  extravagant  follies  of  this  Don  Quixote  of 
legitimacy,  and  the  most  influential  natriots  began  seriously 
to  consider  how  they  could  rescue  tneir  country  from  total 
destruction.  Gustavus  appears  to  have  discovered  through 
his  spies  that  a  storm  was  gathering  about  him,  and,  either 
in  order  to  avert  it,  or  to  make  himself  safe  in  any  event, 
he  endeavoured  to  possess  himself  of  the  funds  deposited  in 
the  bank  of  Sweden.  At  first  he  made  an  attempt  to  get 
the  money  into  his  hands  by  means  of  a  proposed  loan  of 
eii^hty-two  millions  of 'Swedish  rix-dollars  (about  twelve 
millions  sterling),  but  as  the  bank  commissioners  refused  to 
comply  with  this  demand,  he  resolved  to  carry  his  plan  into 
effect  by  force. 

On  the  12th  of  March,  1809,  he  repaired  to  the  bank, 
accompanied  by  a  detachment  of  military,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  taking  possession  of  the  money  deposited  there. 
The  commissioners  of  the  bank  had  applied  for  protection 
to  the  Diet,  and  the  Diet  had  directed  Generals  Klingspor 
and  Adlerkreutz  to  divert  the  king  from  his  intention  by 
persuasion,  or  to  prevent  him  by  force.  The  generals  met 
the  king  in  the  court  of  the  bank  buildings,  and  endea- 
voured to  make  him  aware  of  the  impropriety  of  his  conduct ; 
but  Gustavus  treated  them  as  rebels,  and  ordered  the  sol- 
diers to  remove  them  from  his  presence  by  force.  Adler- 
kreutz then  advanced,  seized  the  king  by  the  breast,  and 
cried  with  a  loud  voice — '  In  the  name  of  the  nation,  I 
arrest  thee,  Gustavus  Vasa,  as  a  traitor.'  Of  the  soldiers 
who  were  present,  about  forty  endeavoured  to  defend  the 
king,  but  the  majority  followed  the  call  of  the  general  to 
carry  into  effect  the  orders  of  the  Diet  Gustavus  defended 
himself  with  desperation,  and  it  was  only  by  force  that 
they  could  disarm  him.  He  tore  himself  loose  from  the 
hands  of  tho  soldiers,  and  had  very  nearly  escaped,  but 
was  again  secured,  and  confined  in  an  apartment,  where 
for  several  hours  he  raged  like  a  madman.  Immediately 
upon  the  arrest  of  Gustavus,  Duke  Charles  of  Sudor- 
mania  issued  a  proclamation,  in  which  he  announced 
that  he  had  been  calle<l  to  the  head  of  a  regency,  and 
exhorted  the  people  to  quietness  till  the  decision  of  the 
States-General  should  be  promulgated.  On  the  24  th  of 
March  Gustavus  was  brought  to  the  castle  of  Gripehelm, 
where  he  gave  in  his  abdication.  On  the  29th  there  ap- 
peared the  decision  of  the  Diet,  by  which  Gustavus  IV.  and 
all  his  direct  descendants  were  declared  to  have  forfeited 
their  rights  to  the  Swedish  crown,  and  the  Duke  of  Suder- 
mania  ascended  the  now  vacant  throne  of  Sweden  under 
the  name  of  Charles  XIII. 

Gustavus  left  the  Swedish  territories  very  shortly  afler 
his  deposition.  During  his  exile  he  travelled  through  most 
of  the  countries  of  Europe,  but  lived  chiefly  in  the  little 
town  of  St  Gall,  the  canital  of  the  Swiss  canton  of  the 

m%  name.    He  aasumea  the  nam«  of  Colonel  Gustavson, 


and  renounced  all  external  observaneea  that  might  remind 
him  of  his  former  rank.  He  reftued  the  appanaee  whirb 
Sweden  offered  him ;  he  urged  forward  a  suit  of  dirorre 
firom  his  wife,  which  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  on  the  1  Tth 
of  February,  1812;  and  he  declined  having  any  commo- 
nication  with  his  family,  and  obstinately  rejected  all  as- 
sistance from  them.  He  subsisted  on  tne  produce  of  hi4 
labours  as  an  author,  together  with  a  little  penikm  wliirb 
he  drew  as  a  colonel. 

Among  his  printed  works,  which  appeared  during  hi« 
residence  in  Switzerland,  one  very  systematically  develops 
the  mystical-religious  and  ultra-roval  political  tendeno'-- 
of  his  mind.  The  moderation  and  discretion,  as  well  a- 
the  stedfast  tranquillity  with  which  he  endured  his  ikll  di  t 
him  honour,  and  almost  excuse  the  folliea  through  whirti 
he  trifled  away  the  possession  of  a  throne.  He  was  a  man>  r 
to  his  principles,  which  were  founded  upon  hia  extra\*agiiii: 
notions  of  tne  divine  right  of  kings  over  their  subjects. 

He  died  at  St  Gall,  toward  the  end  of  the  year  I^^r. 
lamented  by  all  who  had  known  him  in  the  latter  years  t*t 
his  life.  His  son,  the  heir  of  the  line  of  Vasa,  now  U\t-s  at 
Vienna,  a  colonel  of  en  Austrian  regiment 

GUSTROW.    [Mecklbnburo-Schwsrin.] 

GUTENBERG,  believed  to  be  the  first  inventor  of  the 
art  of  printing  with  moveable  types,  whose  real  name  wu^ 
John  Gensfleisch,  waa  bom  in  1397  at  Sulgeloeh,  a  villa.*'.* 
n6ar  Mentz.  His  youth  was  passed  in  the  latter  city, 
where  he  acquired  the  name  of  Henne  (?>.  John)  acu 
Gutenberg,  from  that  of  the  family  with  whom  he  dw«r!t 
During  his  residence  in  Menta  he  became  implicated  in 
an  insurrection  of  the  citizens  against  the  nobility,  aii4 
was  compelled  to  fly  to  Strasburg  to  avoid  the  vengeance 
of  his  victorious  adversaries.  At  Strasburg  necessity  cx)tn- 
pelled  him  to  employ  himself  in  mechanical  oocupatior^. 
and  by  accident  ne  made  the  discovery  so  pregnant  mith 
future  consequences.  After  the  animosity  of  fats  perse- 
cutors had  subsided,  Gutenberg  returned  to  Mentz,  and 
endeavoured,  in  conjunction  with  Fust,  a  rich  oiiizen  cf 
that  town,  and  his  son-in-law  Schoeffer,  to  turn  h»  inwit- 
tion  to  a  profitable  account.  But  Gutenberg  experienf-^l 
the  hard  fate  that  all  great  inventors  have  to  endure  froiu 
the  misconceptions  and  ingratitude  of  mankind.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  Guild  of  Writers,  at  that  time  an  influenza) 
body,  together  with  the  priests,  persecuted  him  ;  his  part* 
ners  Fust  and  Schoeffer  joined  with  his  enemies  agam^t 
him ;  through  litigation  he  was  deprived  of  all  his  property ; 
and  once  more  he  was  forced  to  turn  hia  back  upon  \\.e 
ungrateful  town.  In  the  meantime  Fust  and  Schoeffer 
pursued  their  business  as  printers,  and  thus  reaped  all  thr 
profit,  while  the  inventor  was  wandering  in  exile.  After  an 
interval  of  many  years  Gutenberg  returned  to  Mentz,  wbert- 
he  died  in  1466. 

Posterity  has  endeavoured  in  some  degree  to  make 
amends  for  the  ingratitude  of  Gutenberg's  contempofaru*^ 
Last  year  (1637)  a  splendid  monument  by  Thorwald^ n  was 
erected  to  his  memory  in  Mentz.  The  Gutenberg  Socicr% . 
to  which  all  the  writers  of  the  Rhenish  provinces  boluns:. 
hold  a  yearly  meeting  also  in  Mentz  to  honour  his  meinor\ 
and  to  celebrate  his  discovei-v.  [Fust.]  The  *Statuta  PrJ- 
vincialia  antiqua  et  nova  Moguntina,*  4to.,  are  thought  to 
have  been  printed  by  Gutenberg,  with  two  or  three  edi- 
tions, of  which  frae:ments  only  remain,  of  Donatus.  S(itu.> 
have  thought  the  Mazarine  bible  to  have  been  a  product  i  u 
of  his  press.     (Wagenseil,  Biograpkieen.) 

GUTHRIE,  WILLIAM,  was  born  at  Brechin,  in  ihr 
county  of  Angus,  Scotland,  according  to  one  account,  lu 
1701,  according  to  another  in  1708.  He  was  educated  £»t 
the  University  of  Aberdeen ;  but  little  or  nothing  is  kunv  .i 
of  his  early  years,  except  that  it  is  said  he  was  induced  \c 
leave  his  native  country  by  a  disappointment  in  lovc^  on 
which  he  came  to  London,  and  commenced  writing  for  tb« 
booksellers.  He  was  one  of  the  most  popular  oompilern  •  f 
his  day,  and  must  have  been  one  of  the  moat  in«luatriun> 
writers  ever  known,  if  he  was  the  author  of  all  the  volumi- 
nous works  to  which  hia  name  is  prefixed.  Among  tlwm 
are  a  History  of  England,  3  vols,  fol.;  a  History  of  So)t< 
land,  10  vols.  8vo. ;  a  General  History  of  the  World*  1 3  vo^. 
Svo. ;  a  History  of  the  Peerage,  1  vol.  4to. ;  a  translation  > : 
the  Institutes  of  Quintilian,  2  vols.  4to. ;  translati\^»m  •  f 
nearly  all  the  writings  of  Cicero ;  'The  Friends,*  a  novel 
in  2  vols.  Svo. ;  '  Remarks  on  English  Tragedy,*  &e.  But 
in  the  preparation  of  most  of  these  works  he  ia  belies i^i 
to  have  had  little  share»  beyond  lending  them  hit  nanr. 


GUY 


t]«pieal  cwnnlries  in  both  the  Old  and  New  World.  Thev 
■re  nwdily  known  by  their  coriaceous  opposite  leaves,  irith 
very  fine  veins  running  parallel  with  earh  other  in  a  gentle 
curre  from  the  midrib  to  the  margin ;  By  the  absence  of 
■lipulcs  ;  their  "calyx  composed  of  se\  eral  sejjaU  rei^ularly 
overlapping  each  other,  and  bearing  a  definite  proportion  to 
the  pelaU;  iheir  numerous  stamens;  and  their  superior 
ovary,  which  is  in  most  rases  many-celled  and  many-seeded, 
with  B  peltate  radiant  sti^a.  Their  fruit  is  succulent, 
juicy,  and  in  many  cases  resembling  a  larfic  apple  or  oranec. 
Tlia  Mangoaleen  (Garcinia  Man^ostana)  is  probably  ine 
most  delicious  of  any  knonn  ;  but  it  has  never  been  seen  in 
a  firesh  slate  in  Europe,  for  the  tree  will  hardly  exist  out  of 
its  native  humid  healed  atmosphere  in  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago. In  general  the  fruit  of  these  plants  is  acrid  and 
osrringent,  and  quite  unfit  for  food.  Tbe  most  remarkable 
product  of  the  order  is  Gamboge,  which  is  sccieled  by  the 
branches  of  Hebradendron  Cambogioidea,  and  perhaps 
somo  other  species.  Others  yield  an  astringent  gum-resin, 
called  Tacnni  abaca. 


'tr 


-,  p.  348.] 


GUTTUU'NA.    [Ft 

GUTTURALS.    [A 

GUYA'NA.  or  GUAYA'NA'.  often  failed  Guiana,  is 
the  name  applied  to  the  norlh-easlem  porlioii  of  Soulh 
America  extending  from  Ibo  banks  of  the  river  Orinoco 
southward  to  those  of  the  Amazon  river.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  west  by  the  GuaTnia  or  Rio  Negro,  the  natural  canal  of 
Cassiquiare,  and  the  middle  course  of  the  Orinoco.  lu  sur- 
face covers  on  area  of  more  than  6S0,000  square  miles, 
exreeding  thiee  limes  that  of  France;  but  more  than  five- 
sixths  of  it  are  included  within  tbe  boundaries  of  the 
empire  of  Bmiil  and  the  republic  of  Veneiuela,  under 
which  arlietcs  these  portions  are  noticed.  We  limit  the 
pre.^nl  description  lo  those  parts  which  comprehend  the 
Knulish,  Dutch,  and  French  selllements,  and  which  may 
prijbably  eover  a  surfai-e  of  nb^ut  1U0,0U0  square  miles,  or 
double  that  of  England  without  Wales. 

The  boundiiry  between  Braiil  end  the  French  colony  is 
fi<rmed,  according  to  the  common  aulhorilies,  by  the  river 
"*¥apock.   but  Ibo  boundary  which  separale*  the  English 

tlemeuts  from  VeneiusU  hai  avm  hwa  dclemiined. 


fZ  GUY 

and  some  modem  writers  extend  the  British  tetrilonr  to  tb« 
very  mouth  of  the  river  Orinoco,  though  others  fit  it  at 
Point  Nassau  (near  59°  W.  long.),  more  than  a  depi'^ 
farther  east.  The  louthern  and  western  boundary  are  ml' 
more  dubious,  the  district  through  which  they  run  n  ■' 
having  been  visited;  but  it  is  understood  that  all  ihc 
countries  drained  by  the  rivers  irhich  fall  imroediately  in'-i 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  belong  to  the  European  nations,  •hilc 
those  which  are  drained  by  ihc  streams  which  fklt  into  iU<: 
Amazon  and  Orinoco  rivers  are  appurtenance*  of  Braiil  ar.d 
Venezuela  respectively.  The  upper  valley  of  the  Cuyiini 
however  forms  an  exception,  being  annexed  to  Veneruil.L 
The  Oyapock  falls  into  the  sea  near  6J"  W.  long,  and  I 
N.  laL,  and  the  Orinoco  GO°W.  long,  and  6°  N.  lat.,  to  Ihn: 
last  extends  over  more  than  400  mile*.  The  ni'  -: 
southern  brauchesof  the  Essequibo  river  probabi;  apprijo  '.. 
r  N.  lat. 

The  shores  of  this  country  are  skirled  by«  mod  b»i  k. 
extending  about  seven  or  eight  miles  out  to  sea.  The  «:<■<  r 
on  Ibis  bank  decreases  gradually  towards  the  beach.  »o  tl:.a 
vessels  drawing  more  than  twelve  feet  water  stick  tail  :■, 
the  mud  about  three  miles  from  the  land.  The  land  i-. 
very  low,  and  presents  so  great  a  unifbrmily  for  sevo:  I 
hunili'cd  miles  together  that  it  is  impossible  to  know  « I,,  i 
part  of  the  coast  a  vessel  has  reached.  Shipa  thercf  ■ 
which  arc  strangers  to  the  coast  run  along  the  land  till  tli<  ^ 
sec  a  house,  and  then  send  a  boat  ashore  through  tbe  a  ■  : 
lo  a^k  what  part  of  the  country  it  is.  The  sea  exhibils  t:.' 
appearance  of  a  dirty  puddle  uf  water,  and  nothing  of  i^' 
land  is  visible  but  the  tops  of  the  trees  just  above  tbe  :•■. 
it  is  a  perfect  fiat  vilhout  any  feature  of  variety.  1 
mouths  of  the  rivers  aro  discovered  by  the  difference  uf  i^. 
colour  of  the  fresh  water,  which  extends  a  great  many  m  '.•  - 
out  to  sea.  Mud  or  sand  has  accumulated  in  (tont  of  thi  :z. 
to  such  an  extent  ihat  large  vessels  cannot  enter  Ihem. 

Surface  and  Soil. — -The  low  and  flat  country  cilen  '• 
from  40  to  70  miles  inland,  and  is  moatly  on  a  level  «>i  . 
the  sea  at  high-water.  When  these  lands  are  drain.' !. 
banked,  and  cultivated,  they  become  consolidated  and  v::.k 
fully  a  foot  below  tbe  level  just  mentioned,  and  nii.-~- 
quontly  it  requires  unremitting  atlenlion  to  the  embaiii,- 
menta  and  sluices  to  keep  out  the  sea.  The  Rreateat  pa.-; 
of  this  low  plain  is  covered  with  an  alluvium  of  strong  b'  .< 
flay,  highly  impregnated  with  marine  and  vegetaMe  >.  '. 
and  vegetable  matter  in  the  finest  stale  of  comminuti'jii.  U 
is  of  great  Rirlility,  and  as  tbe  first  crop  fully  pays  the  u-- 
ginal  cost  of  embanking  and  cultivating  the  toil,  tii- 
ruliivated  land  in  Guayana  is  rapidly  increasing.  Ai  i 
distance  fVom  lite  rivers  however  there  are  in  some  [:.;- 
Iracts  of  land  which  in  their  natural  state  are  without  'r>.-  . 
or  shrubs,  and  overgrown  with  fern;  these  tracts  ajeenii'.  ■. 
unfit  for  cultivation,  but  they  are  not  numerous  nor  c^r  r 
%We.  In  other  places  there  are  savannahs  of  contidcr.  . 
extent,  which  aflTord  good  pasture,  but  by  far  ihcgrvj.  ■: 
portion  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  troea  and  Al  fur  :;.. 
growth  of  every  kind  of  grain  and  tropical  products. 

The  high  land  which  lies  at  Ihe  back  of  thU  plain  «  > 
till  recently  almost  entirely  unknown.     In  tbe  ytar  l-'. 
the  London   Geographical   Society   send  out  Mr.  Scb 
burgk,  a  naluralisc  and  experienced  traveller,  to  ex.iu. 
(his   region,  and  to  hia  industry  we  are  indebted   fur  "  .: 
acquaintance  with  the  principal  natural  fcatut«t  of  this  ■  i 
tensive  region,  as  fiu-  as  it  is  included  in  the  British  il'>:. 
nions.    Those  portions  of  the  high  land  which  ar»  anui '^    . 
10  the  Dutch  and  French  settlements  have  not  been  i>~  : 
and  are  almost  entirely  unknown. 

The  high  land  docs  not  rise  immediately  fivm  the  pi-  i 
to  a  great  elevation,  the  hills  on  its  southern  edge  WUm  :  ; 
only  a  height  of  from  50  to  £00  feet  abo\-e  the  pi  :. 
Behind  ihesc  hills  the  high  land  stretches  out  in  \c\A  - 
undulating  plains,  rising  here  and  there  into  emine:'ii- 
but  farther  soulh  ranges  of  hills  appear  running  north-i>^': 
and  south-east  parallel  to  tbe  coast,  or  rather  to  the  aonl,- 1  - 
edge  of  the  upper  reiffon,  and  soulh  of  them  the  eiuIjci  - 
again  depressed  and  extends  in  pliin!!.  Tbe  most  eli'U'  . 
of  these  ranges  is  that  which,  near  b°  N.  lat.,  runs  alunc  :- ' 
southern  banks  of  tbe  ri^'er  Maiaroony,  and  on  \b«  c-i^i  •; 

S roaches  Ihe  river  Essequibo,  where  it  is  called  thcTw  a.i:  i 
[ountains;  they  rise  1100  fcet  above  the  river,  which  t-  -. 
breaks  through  the  range,  furming  several  rapids.    On  i 
other  side  of  (be  river  the  range  continues  east-»outh<«>i  ' 
the  banks  of  the  river  Berbice.  where  Parish  Peak  ru^  ■ ' 
919  ft«t  Above  th«  wa,  dmt  4°  SO'  N.  lit,    Fnn  tbm  pi-:i 


GUY 


504 


GUY 


weitttrn  shore  is  a  mud  bank,  mih  7  foet  water  over  it  at 
low  tide,  but  in  the  middle  of  the  river  a  channel  with  8} 
feet  of  water  at  low  tide. 

The  upper  course  of  the  river  Surinam,  which  traverses 
the  midale  of  flie  Dutch  territories,  is  not  known ;  but  if 
we  may  judge  from  the  size  of  the  river,  its  source  cannot 
be  much  soutli  of  4**  N.  lat,  or  in  the  parallel  of  the  sources 
of  the  Berbice.  It  enters  the  low  plain  at  about  4°  40' 
N.  lat.,  and  so  far  it  is  navigable  for  river  barges.  Towards 
its  mouth  it  increases  to  a  mile  in  width,  and  north  of 
Paramaribo  it  is  still  wider.  Vessels  of  considerable  size 
can  enter  it  and  sail  up  to  that  town. 

The  Marony,  which  divides  the  Dutch  and  French  Co- 
lonies, resembles  the  Essequibo.  Its  upper  eourse  and 
origin  are  not  known,  but  its  size  justifies  the  supposition 
that  it  rises  at  a  ereat  distance  from  the  sea,  probably  in  the 
Sierra  Acaray.  It  is  known  that  manv  rapids  and  cata- 
racts occur  in  its  bed  south  of  4*^  45'  N.  lat,  the  most 
northern  of  which  is  above  Armina.  From  this  place^  to 
which  the  tide  ascends,  as  far  as  its  mouth,  it  is  not  less 
than  1 4  mile  wide,  but  full  of  islands.  Large  river  vessels 
can  ascend  to  Armina. 

The  Oyapoc,  which  divides  the  French  territories  from 
Brazil,  has  lately  been  explored  by  some  Frenchmen,  but 
satisfactory  details  of  the  survey  have  not  yet  been  published. 

C/imo/ff.— Guayana  has  two  rainy  and  two  dry  seasons. 
The  long  rainy  season  sets  in  about  the  middle  of  April 
with  frequent  showers  of  short  duration,  which  however  in- 
crease as  the  season  advances,  until  in  the  middle  of  June 
the  rain  pours  down  in  torrents.  In  the  beginning  of  July 
the  rain  begins  to  decrease,  and  in  August  it  ceases  entirely. 
Tlie  long  dry  season  continues  from  August  to  November. 
December  is  showery,  but  in  January  much  rain  falls. 
February  and  March  constitute  the  short  dry  season,  but 
they  are  not  quite  so  free  from  showers  as  the  lonp^  dry 
season.  During  the  rainy  season  it  rains  daily  for  some  hours 
without  cessation,  and  the  remainder  of  the  day  is  fine. 
A  few  days  occur  in  the  course  of  the  season  during  which 
it  does  not  rain  at  all.  The  heat  is  not  so  great  as  might 
be  supposed,  considering  the  position  of  the  country  near 
the  equator  and  the  lowness  of  the  coast.  The  trade- 
winds,  passing  over  the  whole  breadth  of  the  Atlantic, 
reach  this  coast  leaded  with  moisture,  and  both  the  wind 
and  the  moisture  render  the  heat  less  oppressive.  Besides 
this,  there  is  the  alteruation  of  land  and  sea  breezes,  and  as 
the  sea-breezes  are  colder  and  blow  in  the  day,  and  the  land- 
breezes  during  the  night,  both  greatly  contribute  to  main- 
tain a  more  equal  temperature  and  to  diminish  the  differ- 
ence between  the  greatest  and  least  degree  of  warmth  within 
the  twenty-four  hours.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  low 
coast  may  be  between  80®  and  84°.  The  thermometer,  even 
in  summer,  seldom  rises  above  90**,  and  it  does  not  often  de- 
scend below  75^  Though  Europeans  are  subject  to  some 
diseases  on  their  arrival,  it  is  now  well  known  that  the  climate 
of  Guayana  is  more  healthy  than  that  of  most  places  in  the 
West  Indies.  Thunder-storms  occur  only  during  the  rainy 
seasons,  and  are  violent,  but  rarely  do  any  damage.  The 
hurricanes  so  destructive  in  the  West  Indies  are  entirely 
unknown.  Slight  shocks  of  earthquakes  sometimes  occur, 
but  they  never  cause  any  damage.  1  he  more  elevated  parts 
of  the  country  have  the  same  seasons  as  the  low  coast,  but 
they  take  place  a  month  later,  and  the  rains  fall  in  much 
greater  abundance. 

Productions. — Few  countries  on  the  surface  of  the  ^lobe 
can  be  compared  with  Guayana  for  vigour  and  luxuriance 
of  vegetation,  which  shows  itself  especially  in  the  great 
number  of  indigenous  plants  and  the  lai'ge  forest-trees 
which  cover  perhaps  not  less  than  one-half  of  its  surface. 
Many  of  the  trees  produce  excellent  timber,  others  are  used 
for  furniture,  as  the  mahogany,  or  afford  dye-wood,  and 
others  are  valuable  on  account  of  their  fruits.  Some  are 
valued  as  being  very  ornamental,  as  the  silk-cotton  tree  and 
the  Mauritia  vinifera. 

Indian  com  and  rice  are  cultivated,  and  in  some  instances 
three  crops  of  the  former  and  two  of  the  latter  have  been 
obtained  in  one  year  from  some  fertile  pieces  of  ground. 
Wheat  does  not  succeed,  and  Humboldt  seems  to  have  con- 
ceived a  just  idea  of  the  country,  when  he  says  that  no  portion 
of  the  high  lands  in  Guayana  rises  to  such  an  elevation  as  to 
be  fit  for  the  cultivation  of  our  cerealia.  The  roots  which  are 
most  cultivated  are  cassava,  or  mandiocca,  yams  and  sweet 
potatoes,  and  arrow-root.  The  diief  fruits  are  the  banana,  the 
pinft-appla,  and  th«  cacao-nut;  the  cabbage-treo  grows  wild. 


Agriculture  is  principally  directed  to  (he  cultlration  cf 
the  articles  of  export  The  sugar  plantations  are  hnrdlv 
inferior  in  extent  to  those  in  Barbadoes  or  Jamaica.  C*  'ff*-* 
and  cotton  are  also  cultivated  to  a  great  extent  Tobacr » 
and  indigo  are  at  present  less  attended  to.  Ginger  is  u:  <* 
of  the  minor  articles.  Pepper,  cloves,  and  nutmegs  lia\c 
been  introduced  by  the  French;  the  two  first  have  sct* 
oeeded,  but  the  nutmeg-tree  does  not  thrive  well.  1 :  e 
plant  which  produces  castor  oil  grows  wild,  as  well  a-*  tiic 
cacao-tree,  and  the  tree  from  which  arnotto  is  obtainetL 

The  domestic  animals  are  the  same  as  in  England.  hU  v 
cattle  grow  to  a  greater  size  than  in  Europe,  but  their  tK-h 
is  not  so  tender  nor  of  so  fine  a  flavour.  The  wool  of  ii:«' 
sheep  is  converted  into  hair.  Among  the  ferocious  aiuii«aU 
are  the  jaguar  and  couguar.  Other  animals  are  the  arii.a- 
dillo,  agouti,  ant-bear,  the  sloth,  and  a  great  variety  of  mun- 
keys,  and  among  them  the  howling  monkey.  LizartU  arc 
numerous  and  of  various  kinds;  the  iguana  is  coniin*'.. 
and  its  flesh  esteemed  a  delicacy,  as  well  as  its  egi;s^  xW.i 
gators  of  great  size  are  found  in  the  larger  rivers,  and  1 1  • 
manati,  or  sea-cow,  is  also  sometimes  met  with.  Amon^r  ^:  - 
bats,  which  are  twice  as  large  as  those  of  England,  arc  ti  - 
vampires,  which  are  said  to  suck  the  blood  of  persons  wI.l  'i 
asleep.  [Cheiroptera,  p.  22.]  Among  the  snakes,  wli.  :i 
arc  of  different  kmds  and  numerous,  some  are  poisor...-i- , 
and  others  distinguished  by  their  size,  as  the  boa  const nci« .-. 
The  pipa,  a  kind  of  frog,  is  remarkable  for  its  bid**  ■. « 
aspect,  and  for  other  peculiarities.  [Frogs,  p.  493-4.]  H;r  '^ 
of  several  kinds  are  very  numerous,  as  different  sroci**- . : 
parrots,  mackaws,  humming-birds,  the  flamingo.  Mu&4^•^v 
ducks,  toucans,  spoon-bills,  peacocks,  &c.  Of  insects,  ..* 
the  scorpions,  centipedes,  cockroaches,  termites,  and  ot! .  r 
kinds  of  auts,  the  chigoe,  or  sand-flea,  and  the  mosc|uit.K^* 
are  very  troublesome. 

hihabitants, — Guayana  is  inhabited  by  Europeans,  A:'.. 
cans,  and  native  Americans.    The  Europeans  are  ui<t^-.;/ 
descendants  of  Dutch  settlers,  but  some  are  descendants   f 
Englishmen  and  Frenchmen.    The  Africans  were  bro.  :  \ 
over  to  cultivate  the  country  as  slaves,  and  arc  much   in  .v 
numerous  than  the  whites.     In  British  Guayana  thcr^*  nr  • 
six  tribes  of  natives.    The  Arawaaks  surround  the  stt'li 
ments  on  the  Demerara  and  Berbice  rivers;  the  Acc.i'».  .^ 
live  on  the  banks  of  the  Cuyuni  and  Mazaroony,  ami  au^ 
on  the  Essequibo,  north  of  6**  N.  lat.    Between  the  St  r  * 
Pacaraima  and  Sierra  Taripona  are  theMacoosie,  and  ncl;.. 
of  them  the  Warpeshana.    The  Warrows  occupy  the  c  ..-i-: 
between  the  Pomaroon  and  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco.    N^^ 
veral  Carib  tribes  are  dispersed  among  the  natives,  and  <»r>:<  < 
of  them  are  said  to  be  cannibals.  {Lond,  Geog.  Journal^  \ol. 
ii.,  p.  71.) 

The  natives  of  Guayana  are  much  more  civilized  than  t  '• «. 
aboriginal  tribes  who  inhabit  the  adjacent  countries.  Th  > 
cultivate  Indian  corn,  cassava,  and  some  other  roots.  l>i  t 
they  are  still  much  attached  to  a  wandering  life,  and  a  ^l  ix  : 
inducement,  or  sometimes  only  fancy,  leads  them  to  at  ji.- 
don  a  well  cultivated  piece  of  ground,  and  to  remove  ti»  a 
wiMerness,  where  they  undergo  much  toil  in  rooting  out  t:  * 
forest  trees  and  in  preparing  a  new  piece  of  ground.  1 : 
Arawaaks  visit  the  British  settlements,  where  they  vutn  * 
the  wood-cutting  establishments  for  daily  wages,  aiVd  arc  {"• 
ferred  to  the  negroes,  as  steady  labourers.  Some  of  the  iri  • 
are  almost  as  fair  as  Spaniards  or  Italians,  while  thcKo  «i  • 
live  near  the  sea-coast  are  of  a  very  dark  brown,  sometiu.-  > 
resembling  the  yellow-skinned  negroes.  But  the  stnu'  . 
strong,  black  hair,  small  features,  and  well-pruporiKM-. 
limbs,  alwa3's  distinguish  the  Indian  from  the  African. 

Guayana  is,  as  we  observed,  divided  among  Great  Br  it;.. . 
Holland,  and  France. 

I.  British  Guayana  comprehends  the  countries  extendi  j 
from  theCourantm  river  westward  to  the  Orinoco,  and  :r    . 
the  sea-coast  to  the  sources  of  the  rivers  Essequibo  <i'  * 
Courantin,  which  have  not  yet  been  visited  by  Eiin)i  c  j*  - 
Its  irea  probably  does  not  fall  short  of  50,000  square  lui « -^ 
The  most  western  portion,  lying  between  the  OriniKX>  a 
Pomaroon,  a  small  river  which  falls  into  the  sea  about  : 
miles  west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Essequibo,  is  only  inbab.' 
by  the  tribe  of  the  Warrows,  and  no  European  famtU  i^  -' 
present  settled  here.    The  settlements  on  the  Pouiar 
and  Essequibo  are  few  in  number  and  not  large;  but  i 
settlements  along  the  banks  of  the  Demerara  and  Bcrl>. 
as  well  as  along  the  sea-shore  between  these  rivers.  .* 
numerous,  and  extend  from  30  to  50  miles  inland.    On  t.  • 
Courantin  there  are  only  a  few  settlements*  but  tbej  are 


GUY 


505 


GUY 


ra])iclly  increasing  in  number  and  extent.  Sugar,  coffee, 
ami  cotton  are  bere  cultivated  on  a  large  acale.  Previous 
t)  1831  the  counti7  ^^*  divided  into  tbree  colonies,  Esse- 
qujlx),  Deraerara,  and  Berbice,  but  in  tbat  year  tbey  were 
iHiiitd  under  one  government,  called  British  Guayana. 
Tlic  residence  of  the  governor  is  in  Georgetown,  formerly 
rallc'l  Stabrock  (pron.  brook),  on  the  Demerara  river,  a 
sburl  distance  from  its  mouth.  Its  wide  streets  are  traversed 
l'\  tana  Is.  The  houses  are  of  wood,  and  seldom  above  two 
stories  liigh.  Before  them  are  porticoes  and  balconies, 
^luirlod  by  a  nrojecting  roof,  which  is  made  of  red  wood,  re- 
?  1  milling  mahogany.  It  contains  about  10,000  inhabitants, 
<»r'  \\  liich  rather  more  than  one-half  are  negroes.  New  Am- 
^Io^(lam,  on  the  river  Berbice,  not  far  from  its  mouth,  is  a 
Ml) all  place.    [Berbice.] 

British  Guayana,  consisting  of  the  colonies  of  Demerara 
and  Esisequibo,  and  Berbice,  is  under  a  governor-general 
and  commander-in-chief,  who  includes  in  the  same  govern- 
n^cnt  the  islands  of  St.  Lucia  and  Trinidad.  The  actual 
ahninistration  of  affairs  is  entrusted  to  a  lieutenant-gover- 
nor, who  resides  in  Georgetown,  Demerara,  assisted  by  a 
Iri^ialative  council,  including  the  chief  justice,  high  sheriff, 
nitorney-general,  and  ten  other  persons.  The  administra- 
tion of  justice  is  confided  to  three  chief-justices  and  four 
pvii.^nc  judges  in  Demerara  and  Essequibo,  and  one  puisne 
j  u(l ge  in  Bel'bice.  There  are  further  6  protectors  of  Indians, 
A\  hose  functions  are  sufldcicntly  indicated  by  their  designa- 
tion, and  16  special  justices,  11  in  Demerara  and  Essequibo, 
an'l  5  in  Berbice,  who  were  appointed  on  the  passing  of  the 
act  for  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  in  1834,  and  whose 
fluty  it  is  to  watch  over  the  execution  of  the  law  on  behalf 
t'l"  the  apprenticed  population. 

Tiiore  has  been  no  census  of  the  population  in  Demerara 
and  Essequibo  since  October,  1829,  at  which  time  there 
V  ere  — 


\Vhitcs,  in  country— Demerara 
„                „         Essequibo 

Males. 
662 
476 

Females. 

no 

138 

Total. 
772 
614 

„      in  Georgetown,  Deme- 
rara   ,         .         • 

113B 
962 

248 
658 

1386 
1620 

Total  of  whites 

2100 

906 

3006 

Free  Giloured — in  country — 

Demerara 

463 

617 

1080 

„                 Essequibo 

„        in  Georgetown, 

Demerara  . 

442 
1625 

470 
2743 

912 
4368 

2530       3830 


Total  free  coloured 

Slaves,  in  country — Demeraral    «,  o^«    oq  oru!^^*^'^ 
„       Essequibo!    ^^'^^^    ^8,869  j.^3  .,. 


6360 

99 
53 
in  Georgetown,  Deme- 
rara   .         ,         .       3200       3407       6616 


Total  slaves    37,092    32,276    69,368 


ToImI  population  of  Demerara 

and  Essequibo  .  .    41,722    37,012    78,734 

TIjc  free  population  of  Berbice  in  1836  was — 

Males.        Females.        TuUl. 

Whites  ....       431  139  370 

Free  Coloured  .     .       681  980        1661 


Total  .     .     1112         1119         2231 

The  number  of  slavoM  in  1827  was  20,118 
M  »  in  1833  19,320 

The  number  of  the  negro  population  in  British  Guyana  in 
le^^oot  of  whom  eom])ensation  was  claimed  and  awarded 
un<ler  the  act  for  abolishing  slavery  was — 

Non-prnpdial,  whose  term  of  apprenticeship  will 

expire  August  1,  1838    ....    6.297 
Prapdial,  attached,  August  1,  1840  .  .  .   57,807 

i^ia'diul,  unattached        >f        n     .         •         .     5,473 


Total  for  whom  compensation  was  awarded      .  69,579 

C  liiMrenundcr6  years  of  age  on  August  1,1831,     9,893 
A'Jicd,  diseased,  or  otherwise  uon-clluctivo       •     3.352 


Tutal  slave  populnlion  , 
l\  C,  No  721. 


52,824 


The  value  put  upon  the  entire  slave  population,  computed 
from  sales  made  between  1822  and  1830,  was  9,489,539/.; 
and  the  compensation  paid  for  the  working  classes  out  of  the 
20  millions  awarded  by  parliament  amounted  to  4,268,809/. ; 
that  for  the  children  and  aged  persons,  &o.,  was  226,180/. 

The  quantity  of  exportable  products  raised  in  1836  was  — 

Demerara  and  E.<uequibo.  Berbice. 

.  85,982,756  lbs.  21,823,493 

.  2,348,920  galls. 
.   3,491,991      „ 
.   2,635,741  lbs. 
.      466,078      „ 

The  exports  of  these  products  were  made  to  various 
countries  in  the  following  proportions: — 


Sugar 
Rum  . 
Molasses . 
Coffee      . 
Cotton     . 


631,376 

543,578 

3,239,991 

190,824 


(countries. 


Sugar. 


Unitod 

Kiiitfilom  65,448 
Briti-b  N. 

American 

Colonios. 
Bxiti*h  >V. 

iDtlien      . 
Foiv.'ign 

Countries 


}  456 

1,179 
411 


0i 


434S 

53 

173 


Total.  67, 1?4  4677 


Total 
Value 


3814 

144 

G 
34 


3398 


Rum. 


19,779 
5,312 

2,057 
954 


1,529.918 


28,101 


5202 


251 


ft  * 


93 

88 


0 


1605 


37 


Cotton 


a- 

ft 

a 


5631,1647 


£ 

157.003 


3176 


339 


Coffee. 


3515 


£ 
40.149 


1.4  89^50  lb.) 
3033  tiercs.  / 
1429  bagH.  "' 
450  lbs  audi 

6  bajLfs.      J 
7300  lbs. 

35  tierces. 

10  bai.'*. 
208.450  lbs. 


Mulav> 
ties. 


sa 

a 


} 


1 ,705,75*)  \\n. 
3»  68  tierces, 
1445  ba^'s. 


£ 

247,444 


29,2/8 
6,402 

1.377 
1,726 


^.783 


£ 


The  value  of  British  goods  shipped  to  Guiana  in  each  of 
the  five  years  from  1832  to  1836  was  as  follows: — 

Dememrn  nod 


KsMquibo. 

B«rbice. 

Tot«l. 

1832 

.   £337,203 

£50,930 

£388,199 

1833 

.       337,483 

54,033 

391,520 

1834 

.       410,764 

52,687 

463,451 

1835 

•       439,773 

71,588 

511,361 

1836 

.       601,781 

96,214 

697,995 

The  number  and  tonnage  of  vessels  which  arrived  at  and 
departed  from  the  colony  to  various  countries  in  1836  were 
as  follows : — 


Inwards. 

Outward.i. 

Deniprara  and 

Demerara  aud 

Countries. 

Eikieqiubo. 

Berbice. 

Essequibo. 

Deibice. 

SJiiys. 

Tons. 

Ships 

Tons. 

Ship.. 

Ton.^. 

Ship.".   Ti)ns. 

United 

Kiiigiom  . 

194 

55,372 

46 

I1,W2 

212 

53.323 

45 

11,518 

British  Co 

luuius    . 

266 

25,869 

108 

8,657 

275 

27.442 

125 

10,074 

United 

StaU'8    , 

42 

5,593 

12 

1,807 

35 

5.294 

9 

1,239 

Forc'it^ii 

Countries 

41 

2.475 

7 

510 

21 

1,000 

6 

1,060 

Total. 

543 

89,309 

173 

22,516 

543 

92,064 

185 

23,941 

The  total  revenue  of  the  colony  in  1836  was  120,900/., 
and  the  total  public  expenditure  86,500/.,  exclusive  of 
45,400/.  incurred  for  mditary  protection. 

The  coins  current  in  the  colony  are  British  half-crowns, 
shillings,  and  sixpenny  pieces,  colonial  moneys  of  the  re- 
spective values  of  3,  2,  I,  ^.  and  i  guilders,  and  Spanish 
dollars,  half-dollars,  and  quarter-dollars.  There  are  no  gold 
nor  copper  coins  in  circulation.  Accounts  are  kept  in  Dutch 
currency  of  guilders  and  stivers :  20  stivers  are  equal  to  1 
guilder,  and  at  the  par  of  exchange  13^  guilders  are  equal 
to  the  pound  sterling.  The  actual  rate  of  exchange  tluc- 
ttiatcs  from  13  to  16  guilders  per  pound  sterling. 

II.  Dutch  Guayana,  or  Surinam,  extends  along  the  coast 
from  the  Courantyn  river  to  the  Marony,  and  between  them 
inland  to  their  sources,  which  are  probably  in  the  Sierra 
Acaray.  The  area  of  this  country  may  be  not  much  less 
than  30,000  square  miles.  Along  the  coast  and  along  the 
banks  of  the  rivers  are  many  settlements  and  plantations* 
especially  on  the  Surinam  and  Sarameca  rivers.    The  Je^va 

Vol.  XI.-3  T 


GUY 


S06 


GUY 


ire  numerous  ia  this  country;  and  in  the  interior  is  a 
village,  called  Savanna,  only  inhabited  by  Jews»  who  cul- 
tivate their  plantations.  In  the  higher  and  hilly  part  are 
the  Maroons,  or  runaway  negroes,  who  have  there  formed 
a  kind  of  political  society:  they  formerly  made  incur- 
sions into  tne  cultivated  districts,  but  now  live  in  peace, 
and  receive  some  presents  from  the  Dutch.  This  colony  is 
partly  the  property  of  the  town  of  Amsterdam.  It  exports 
sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  and  cacao.  The  population  amounts 
to  more  than  60,000  souls,  of  which  between  6000  and  7000 
are  whites,  and  more  than  50,000  negroes.  The  capital, 
Paramaribo,  about  10  miles  from  the  sea,  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  river  Surinam,  is  regularly  built  in  the  Dutch 
style,  Willi  a  population  of  20,000  inhabitants.  Tlie  streets 
are  wide  and  straight,  and  planted  with  orange-trees.  The 
houses  are  generally  two  stories,  and  built  of  wood.  There 
are  some  fine  buildings  in  the  town.  Near  it  is  the  fortress 
Zelandia,  in  which  the  governor  resides. 

III.  French  Guayana,  or  Cayenne,  extends  along  the 
coast  from  the  river  Marony  to  the  Oyapock,  which  separates 
it  from  the  empire  of  Brazil.  It  is  not  known  how  far  it 
extends  into  the  interior.  Its  area  is  stated  to  be  14,000 
square  miles.  Nearly  the  whole  tract,  even  along  the  sea- 
coast,  is  still  covered  with  large  forest- trees,  and  the  set- 
tlements are  neither  so  large  nor  numerous  as  in  British 
and  Dutch  Guayana.  The  French  export  sugar,  coffee, 
cotton,  cacao,  and  arnotto.  The  capital  is  Cayenne, 
situated  on  the  northern  side  of  an  island  formed  by 
the  river  Cayenne.  It  is  a  miserable  place,  with  a  po- 
pulation of  about  2000  souls,  and  its  harbour  is  shallow. 
On  the  mainland  is  the  plantation  La  Gabrielle,  where 
attempts  have  been  made  to  transplant  the  pepper-vine, 
the  ciove  tree,  and  the  nutmeg-tree,  from  Asia  to  America. 
Ii  seems  that  the  two  first  thrive  well,  but  the  nutmeg-tree 
ha.-  Vgenerated. 

The  population  of  French  Guiana  in  1834  was— 

Males.        Fflmalw.  Totel. 

Free  persons,  white  and  coloured  2,308        2,639        4,947 
Slaves   ....   9,240         7,896       17,136 


Total     11,548 
Free. 

Of  the  above  the  town  popula- 
tion comprises  .  .     2,758 
And  there  are  on  the  plantations    2, 1 89 


10,535  22,083 

SlaTes.  Total. 

2,333  5,091 

14,803  16,992 


Total     4,947       17,136       22,083 

The  number  of  births  in  1834  was  547,  and  of  deaths  709. 

The  number  of  plantations  in  the  colony  is  stated  in 
oflicial  returns  as  follows :— sugar  50,  coffee  22,  cotton  131, 
cocoa  6,  cloves  48,  araotto  114,  pepper  4,  provisions  250; 
total  631.  With  the  exception  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
sugar  planters,  who  confine  themselves  to  the  production  of 
that  one  article,  th^^re  is  hardly  a  cultivator  in  the  colony 
who  does  not  grow  upon  his  estate  more  than  one  descrip- 
tion of  produce.  In  the  foregoing  enumeration  each  plan- 
tation is  designated  according  to  the  branch  of  cultivation 
principally  followed. 

The  value  of  goods  imported  in  1834,  the  greater  part  of 
which  consisted  of  salt  provisions  and  flour,  was  68,999/. 
The  exports  in  the  same  year  amounted  to  89,768/. ;  the 
value  of  the  chief  articles  of  export  was — 

Sugar  .  £41,797 

Coffee  .  .  1,750 

Cloves  .  ,  11,213 

Arnotto  .  .  11,075 

Cotton  .  .  15,149 

The  shipping  that  arrived  at  and  left  the  colony  in  the 
same  year  were— 


iDwaidi. 
Ships.        Ton*. 

French      28         4374 

Foreign     12 


Ontiraids. 
Ships.       Tona. 

31  5032 

13 


40  44 

Hw/ory.— Guayana  was  discovered  before  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  by  Vincent  Pinion.  The  Dutch  forme'l 
the  first  settlement  about  1590,  on  the  Demerara  river, 
and  afterwards  at  other  places.  The  English  settled,  in 
1634,  in  the  neighbourhooKl  of  the  Berbice  and  Surinam  ; 
but  in  1667  the  anglish  settlements  were  given  up  to  the 


Dutch.  The  French  occupied  Cayenne  in  1638.  Dunne 
the  last  war  with  Prance  the  Ensush  occupied  the  Dutcb 
settlements;  and  by  the  treaty  of  raris.  1814,  they  restored 
only  those  between  the  Courantin  and  the  Marony  to  the 
Dutch,  retaining  possession  of  the  remainder.  (Bolinjc- 
brokers  Voyage  to  the  Demerary^  &c. ;  Von  Seeks's  /?<n- 
sen  nach  Surinam ;  Haef  ken's  Reize  naar  Owatema/a ; 
Hillhouse  and  Schomburgk,  in  the  London  GtograpktcjJ 
Journal ;  Waller's  Voyage  in  the  fVeet  Indies^  &c.) 

GUYENNE,  or  GUIENNE,  and  GASCOGNE.  two 
provinces  of  France,  forming  together  the  largest  of  the 
thirty-two  provinces,  or  military  governments,  into  which 
under  the  old  regime  France  was  divided.  The  Koveni- 
ment,  which  was  of  very  irregular  form*  extended  about 
245  to  250  miles  in  extreme  length  from  east  to  west,  frviii 
the  eastern  extremity  of  Rouergue  to  the  shore  of  the  Ba« 
of  Biscay,  and  about  205  to  210  miles  in  extreme  bread;h 
firom  north  to  south,  from  the  northern  extremity  of  Pen- 
gord  to  the  Pyrenees.  The  area  of  Guienne,  the  northern 
province,  was  estimated  at  15,847  square  miles,  and  that  uf 
Gascogne,  the  southern,  at  10,271  square  miles»  together 
26,1 18 ;  forming  an  area  equal  to  more  than  half  En«;lan<I, 
watered  by  the  Graronne,  one  of  the  finest  riven  of  Franc  r, 
with  its  branches,  the  Tarn,  the  Lot,  the  Dordogne»  and  a 
number  of  smaller  tributaries;  and  by  the  Adour»  e  con- 
siderable river,  with  some  of  its  tributaries. 

The  military  government  of  Guienne  and  Gasoo^e  i(a» 
bounded  on  the  north-west  by  the  province  of  Sauitom^L, 
on  the  north  by  the  province  of  Augoumois,  on  the  noriii> 
east  by  Limousin  and  Auvcrgne,  on  the  east  and  southif^a 
by  Languedoc  and  Foix,  on  the  south  by  the  Pyrenees*  Uj 
which  it  was  separated  iVom  Spain,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Gulf  of  Gascogne,  or,  as  it  usually  termed  by  the  £ngh>h, 
the  Bay  of  Biscay.  The  province  of  B^arn  was  S0TTt>unti«.d 
by  Gascogne  on  every  side  except  the  south;  indeed  Ikam. 
although  it  constituted  a  separate  military  government,  was 
really  a  subdivision  of  Gascogne.    [BbarnJ 

Guienne  and  Gascogne  were  both  divined  into  smallcx 
provinces,  and  these  again  were  subdivided  with  ^reat  mi- 
nuteness. Of  the  principal  divisions  a  table  is  given  ebe- 
where.    [FrancbJ 

The  capital  of  Guienne  was  Bordeaux  on  the  Goonnc 
(population  98,705  in  1836);  the  other  towns  of  some  DOI0 
were  Libourne  (pop.  9714  in  1836);  Bazas  (pop.  4446  m 
1836);  Perigueux  (pop.  8956  in  1831);  AeenCpop.  l^C^ii 
in  1831);  Cahors  (pop.  12,050  in  1831);  Monlauban  (pjp. 
25,460  in  1831);  Rhodez,  or  Bodes  (pop.  8249  in  l^i^n; 
Milhau  (pop.  9806  in  1831);  and  Villefranche  (pop.  9i-;ti 
in  1831).  The  capital  of  Gascogne  was  Auch  (pop.  lu,4t>. 
iu  1836);  and  the  other  towns  of  importance  were  C^ndao 
(pop.  7144  in  1836);  St.  Sever  (pop.  5494  in  1831);  Vox 
(pup.  4716  in  1S31);  Bayonne  (pop.  in  1831,  indudinjs  ^l 
Esprit,  which  is  in  fact  a  suburb  to  it,  20,668) ;  Pau  m 
B6arn  (pop.  11,285  in  1831);  Tarbes  (pop.  9706  in  1831) . 
St.  Beitrand  de  Comminge ;  and  St  Ijzier. 

The  province  of  Guienne  is  now  comprehended  in  t:.« 
departments  of  Giroude,  Dordogne,  Lot,  Lot  et  G«ronn<'. 
Tarn  et  Graronne,  and  Aveyron,  and  a  small  portion  in  that 
of  Landes :  Gascogne  is  comprehended  in  the  depaitmecta 
of  Landes,  Basses  Pyrenees,  Hautes  Pyr^^es,  Gen,  and 
Haute  Graronne,  and  some  small  portions  in  those  of  L0A  vt 
Graronne  and  Arrive. 

Guienne  derives  its  name  from  the  Aquitaniv  one  of  \i» 
three  great  branches  of  the  GaUic  people  whom  Cv^ar 
found  m  possession  of  Glaul.  [Prahcb.]  Thew  Aqmuai 
occupied  the  country  south-west  of  the  Garonne ;  but  «  Wu 
Augustus  divided  Uaul  into  four  provinces,  he  nve  Utc 
name  of  Aquitania  to  the  whole  country  from  the  Gaivnctf 
to  the  Loire;  the  original  country  of  the  Aquitmni  bccu*'i- 
ing  one  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  langer  province,  and  tak^.^ 
the  name  of  Novempopulana,  or  NovempopuUnift  (s.  sl  t^i* 
country  of  the  Nine  Natiops),  from  the  number  of  phnrii^i 
tribes  by  which  it  was  occupied.  In  the  decline  Jihm  Re- 
man empire  Aquitania  (in  the  more  extended  applicaL.<  i 
of  the  name)  came  into  the  hands  of  the  Visigo&s,  vc- 
made  Toulouse  their  capital,  and  extended  their  swejr  o«i: 
Spain  and  Narbonnese  Gaul ;  but  in  aji.  507  Cloris  k^&dt 
of  the  Franks  having  defeated  and  slain  Aiarie  U.  king  • .' 
the  Visigoths  in  the  battle  of  Voiull£  near  PoUiei^  wresbx 
Aquitania  from  the  Visigoths  and  brought  it  under  tbr  n 
minion  of  the  Franks.  That  part  of  Narbonneea  d^  i 
which  was  comprehended  in  the  more  modem  diTiaioc  ' 
Languedoc  remained  to  the  Visigothii  while  tbeir  oU^r 


GYM 


508 


GYM 


having  published  his  process  before  tne  appearanee  of  Mor- 
vcau's  tract  on  the  subject. 

In  1766  Morreau  commenced  a  course  of  lectures  on 
ehemistry  in  Dijon,  which  appear  to  have  given  great  satis- 
Action,  being  delivered  with  clearness  and  illustrated  by 
numerous  and  striking  experiments.  His  fame  now  began 
to  extend  to  every  part  of  Europe ;  and  in  the  year  follow- 
ing he  published  the  first  volume  of  a  course  of  che- 
mistry, entitled  *El6mens  de  Chimie  de  I'Acad^mie  de 
Dijon :'  the  work  was  completed  in  four  volumes.  This 
publication  was  received  with  great  approbation. 

He  afterwards  undertook  to  supply  the  chemical  articles 
for  the  'Encyclop^dieM6thodiqueV  the  articles  actW^,  a<M^* 
sion,  and  afflniii  contain  avast  body  of  information  clearly 
drawn  up.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that,  for  reasons  which  are 
not  known,  he  discontinued  his  connection  with  this  work. 

Feeling  the  reformation  required  in  chemical  nomencla- 
ture on  account  of  the  establishment  of  the  antiphlogistic 
theory,  and  of  the  numerous  new  facts  which  bad  been  dis- 
covered, he  published  a  paper  in  the  '  Journal  de  Phy- 
sique* for  1782,  to  show  the  necessity  of  establishing  a  new 
and  scientific  nomenclature.  This  memoir  undoubtedly  had 
a  great  share  in  producing  the  change  so  greatly  desired, 
and  indeed  rendered  absolutely  necessary  by  the  vast  accu- 
mulation of  facts. 

On  the  breaking  out  of  the  French  Revolution  he  became 
a  decided  friend  to  the  popular  cause,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  Constitutional  Assembly  and  of  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred. 

In  1 799  Bonaparte  appointed  him  one  of  the  administra- 
tors-general of  the  mint,  and  in  the  year  following  director 
of  the  Polytechnic  School ;  and  after  being  an  officer  of  the 
Le^rion  of  Honour  he  was  created  a  baron  of  the  French 
empire  in  1811.  At  an  advanced  period  of  life  he  married 
Madame  Picardet,  the  widow  of  a  Dijon  academician :  he 
left  no  children.  After  teaching  about  16  years  in  the 
Polytechnic  School  he  gave  up  the  appointment ;  and  after 
about  three  years'  retirement  ne  died  on  the  3rd  of  January, 
1816. 

The  publication  of  Morveau  on  chemical  suljects  are  very 
numerous,  and  few  of  his  contemporaries  contributed  more 
to  the  advancement  of  the  science ;  it  must  however  be 
confessed  that  he  was  not  the  author  of  any  striking  or 
fundamental  chemical  discoveries.  His  papers  may  be 
found  in  the  '  Memoirs  of  the  Dijon  Academy,'  the  '  An- 
nales  de  Chimie,'  and  the  'Journal  de  Physique.' 

GUZERAT,  or  GUJERAT.     [Hindustan.] 

GYALL,  the  name  of  the  Indian  Jungle  Bull,  Bosfroti- 
talis  of  Lambert.  [Ox.] 

GY'AROS.  one  of  the  smaller  Cyclades,  situated  nearly 
at  an  equal  distance  between  Andros,  Ceos,  and  Syros.  It 
is  about  four  miles  long,  and  three  miles  in  its  greatest 
breadth,  and  is  rocky  and  barren.  It  is  now  called  Ghioura, 
and  is  not  inhabited,  except  occasionally  by  fishermen. 
Under  the  Roman  emperors  it  was  used  as  a  place  of  ba- 
nishment, and  is  so  mentioned  by  Juvenal  (x.  170)  and 
other  writers.     [Banishment.] 

GYGES.    [Lydia.] 

GYLONGS.     [Bootan,  vol.  v.,  p.  170.] 

GYMNASTICS, or  more  properly ^mmuitc  (yvfivoffriKti, 
from  the  word  yvfivoQ,  naked ;  it  bemg  customary  among 
the  Greeks  to  strip  themselves,  wholly  or  in  part,  before  eii- 
^l^ing  in  exercises).  The  first  notice  of  their  employment 
IS  found  in  the  second  book  of  the  *  Iliad,'  where  the  Gre- 
cian soldiers  are  described  as  having  disembarked  from  the 
ships  and  playing  at  quoits  and  javelin-hurling  on  the 
beach ;  and  again,  in  the  twenty-third  book  Achilles  is  re- 
presented as  instituting  games  in  honour  of  Patroclus, 
whose  funeral  ceremonies  had  just  been  performed,  and  as 
bestowing  rewards  on  the  victors  in  chariot-races,  boxing, 
wrestling,  quoit-throwing,  &c.  At  this  time  they  seem  to 
have  been  principally  practised  as  combining  amusement 
with  the  best  means  of  obtaining  bodily  strength  and  ac- 
tivity ;  but  at  a  later  period  games  were  dedicated  to  the 
Gods,  and,  being  regularly  established,  were  conducted  with 
the  greatest  ceremony ;  honourable  rewards  and  civil  dis- 
tinctions were  publidv  bestowed  on  the  conquerors,  the 
chief  of  whom  were  deemed  in  no  slight  degree  exalted 
above  their  fellow-citizens.  These  rewards  being  called 
athta  (cl0Xa),  gave  origin  to  the  name  of  athieta  (a^Xiirac), 
applied  to  those  who  contended  for  them ;  a  designation 
adopted  by  the  Romans,  and  firom  their  language  introduced 
ur  owii  and  othert  of  modern  Europe. 


It  was  just  before  the  time  of  Hippocratea»  as  Plato  in  %h§ 
third  book  of  his  'Politeia'  telU  us,  that  gymnastic  «as 
made  a  part  of  medicine,  as  a  means  of  counteimcting  the 
bad  effects  of  increa^iing  luxury  and  indolence.  It  wa*  gra- 
dually reduced  into  a  complete  system:  public  buiMuu^ 
called  gymnasia  were  erected  for  the  purpose,  and  »upcri  it- 
tending  officers  appointed  by  the  state. 

The  first  gymnasia  were  built  by  the  Lacedamoninii* 
(Plato,  Vofjun^  lib.  i.),  and  after  them  by  tbe  Atl)enian»,  v  h  > 
had  three  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  their  ctu  . 
one,  called  Aoademia,  where,  attracted  by  the  pleasantly  a!  k« 
which  surrounded  it,  and  the  concourse  of  people  ul  a.'! 
classes  who  daily  resorted  thither,  Plato  was  in  the  babii  >J 
holding  his  conferences  with  his  pupils;  another,  naiut.«i 
Lyceum,  in  which  Aristotle  taught;  and  a  thirds  called  C*\- 
nosarges,  which  was  frequented  only  by  the  lower  ordt  rv 
Those  built  by  the  Romans  were  on  a  more  magaifiavjt 
scale,  and  from  the  extensive  baths  which  were  attached  w 
them  are  not  unfrequently  called  Thermo. 

The  exercises  practised  in  the  gymnasia  were  the  folluv.  • 
ing:— 

Dancing,  whicJi  was  of  various  kinds.  In  some  t'.** 
movements  were  much  like  those  of  modern  tumbler* ,  i.> 
others  balls  of  various  sizes  were  thrown  about  in  regu;  tr 
time  from  one  person  to  another;  in  others  various  figur. « 
and  actions  were  gone  through  in  imitation  of  battles,  sic.^.« 
&c.,  in  which  the  military  engaged  in  full  armour.  Ft  >  j 
the  second  kind  many  of  the  games  with  balls  seem  to  h.-' 
been  derived,  of  which  in  the  Roman  gymnasia  a  very  ctk  jI 
variety  was  practised. 

Wrestling, — I'his,  like  the  former,  was  practised  aliko  .r. 
the  gymnastics  of  the  military,  of  Xha  athleta»,  and  of  tit .  »- 
who  merely  used  the  exercise  for  the  sake  of  health.  G^itsi 
however  disapproved  of  it  as  too  dangerous  for  the  last  \\.t' 
pose,  for  he  says  that  fractures  and  dislocations  were  no  utif -«! 
quent  consequences  of  it  The  practice  seems  to  have  U-  w 
much  like  that  of  modern  wrestling;  in  one  kind,  the  yu- 
per  Lucta,  the  endeavour  of  each  combatant  was  meniv  :•' 
bring  his  adversary  to  the  ground;  in  the  other,  lu...  i 
Pancratium  volutaiorium,  the  combatants  lay  down  sui 
struggled  on  the  groimd,  where  each  endeavoured  to  Li. ,' 
the  other  below  him. 

Boxing. — The  use  of  boxing  teems  to  have  been  coutlhi  i 
to  the  gymnastic  practices  of  the  military  and  the  atU)eta% :  r 
neither  Galen  nor  any  other  writer  ou  medical  g>iuna>t  < « 
recommends  it.  It  was  practised  naked,  either  «r.h  !>■ 
open  or  clenched  hands,  or  with  brazen  or  storie  spliv .  % 
held  in  them  (whence  <r^ipofiaxtiv),  or  with  the  viv-.  u  . 
which  consisted  of  a  leathern  band  studded  «itli  mi . 
knobs,  wound  several  times  round  the  hands  and  wrists.  \ 
mixed  exercise  of  boxing  and  wrestling  (like  modem  box-  . ' 
was  also  practiseil  under  the  name  of  Pancratium^  but.  :.s 
the  two  of  which  it  was  composed,  it  formed  no  pan  ul  i  r.* 
medical  gymnastics. 

Ixunning. — This  formed  a  part  of  all  gymnastic  exiT«  i^-- 
and  was  strongly  recommended  by  Plato  (Nwm,  \iii.)  \.>  • 
practised  not  only  by  men,  but  by  youths  and  even  vvou.-. . . 
as  of  the  greatest  value  in  times  of  war. 

Leaping. — There  were  various  kinds.  Besides  juni{  . 
upwards  and  horizontally,  they  used  tp  practice  spnr..  • . 
from  their  knees,  and  with  heavy  weights  called  httlt  * 
(aXrt/pcc),  which  they  carried  in  their  hands,  or  on  t]>  - 
heads  or  shoulders,  or  even  on  their  feet  in  the  fon.i  ' 
leaden  shoes.  Sometimes  they  raced  for  a  long  distant  ..• 
jumping  towards  a  goal ;  and  they  had  a  game  (as  mi  - 
tioned  by  Virgil,  Georg»  ii.)  in  which  they  iumpcd  u  ... 
naked  feet  on  skins  filled  with  wine  and  well  oiled:  I.-  - 
the  object  was  to  maintain  the  upright  position  on  aliyh:  .. 
on  this  slippery  footing.  He  who  could  accomplb^  t  ^ 
most  frequently,  received  the  prize,  while  no  little  an.-.  -*- 
meut  was  excited  by  the  constant  falls  of  the  unaucc€^:^-> 

Quoits, — This  game  was  used  by  all  classes.    The  <hw    . 
or  quoit  was  a  round  leus-shapea  piece  c^  stonew  m  u 
brass,  about  three  or  four  fingers  thick,  and  nearly  a  T-*: 
diameter,  which  was  projected  under-hand.    ( See  \hv  \\. 
of  the  Discobolus  in  the  Townley  Gallery,  Brit.  M  . 
There  was  also  an  exercise  similar  to  quoiMmowif*.** 
which  the  halteres  were  employed.    They  were  round     .  • 
of  metal,  somewhat  contracted  in  the  middle  (very  i.^. 
modem  dumb-bell),  which  were  either  hurled  about   . 
caught  alternately  by  the  players,  or  were  used  by  stri*.    , 
them  one  against  the  other,  or  merely  by  throwing  a'   .. 
th#  ormii,  ojT  k«oping  them  «3ttended  while  tirns  loaded. 


6  Y  M  M 

Vtdgtudint ;  Hieronymus  If  ercurialii,  De  arte  Ojfmnartieil 

'ifrn' WW,  Venetii*.  1587,) 
GYMNOCE'PHALUS.  [CoaAcm*.  vol.  viii.,  p.  4.] 
GYMNODA'CTYLUS.  [Gecko,  yo\.  xi.,  pp.  103-105, 


.,  p.  4.-] 
.,  p.  20T.] 
tablished  by  GU- 
IS Ihnt  of 


106.] 

GYMNO'DERUS.   rCoBACi 

GYMNO'LEPAS.    [CiaRip 

GYMNOPS,ogenn8ofbirds(ffnu/i  . 
vier  iind  describeif  by  him  as  having  a  bill  strong 
the  Orioles  ;  the  nostrils  round,  without  scales  or  any  mem- 
branous entourage,  attd  a  ereat  part  of  the  head  denuded 
of  feathers.  He  refers  to  Oracula  catva,  Omel.,  Mt'no  Du- 
monlii.  Leas.,  and  Graeula  eyanotif.  Lath.  {Meropg  cyanotii, 
8h.),  as  examples. 

GYMNOSOPHTSTS.    [HiNDrsTAN.l 

GYMNOS  PERMS,  one  of  the  five  dwlsions  under  which 
the  vegetable  kinpiom  is  now  claasifled.  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  the  seeda  being  naked,  that  is  to  say,  unprotected 
by  a  pericarpial  covering,  and  fbrtillied  by  the  pollen  coining 
indirectcontactwith  the  ovule,  notbythe  intervention  of  the 
apparatus  called  stigma  and  style.  In  this  respect  Gymno- 
sperma  are  Bnal(^ou9to  those  reptiles  which,  in  the  animal 
kingdom],  have  eggs  that  are  imprecated  by  the  male  after 
they  have  been  deposited  by  the  mother. 

The  number  of  plants  in  which  this  peculiarity  exists  is 
inconsiderable;  they  entirely  belong  to  the  natural  orders 
Coniferte  in  its  moat  extensive  sense,  and  Cycadacen.  Equi- 
setaceie  perhaps  have  to  be  added,  but  this  is  apoint  at  pre 
sent  involved  m' 


Connected  with  the  singularity  in  the  manner  of  repro- 
duction, from  which  the  class  of  Gymnosperms  derives  its 
name,  ia  a  point  in  the  orgaoiiatiou  of  the  organs  of  vege- 
tation equally  remarkable.  Although  Gymnosperms  oon  tain 
the  mos4  gigantio  trees  which  enst  upon  the  fkce  of  the 
'\rth,  they  are  nevertheless  so  ill  provided  with  spiral  vea- 
b  that  it  U  in  bet  donbtflil  whethw  th^  [imwuii  ai^  pro- 


0  C  V  M 

perly  so  called,  and  their  vascular  organintion  it  fat  all  re 
Specls  exceedingly  low  and  imperfect 

In  their  manner  of  growth  Gymnospermt  correspond  on 
the  one  hand  with  Exogens,  the  wood  of  Conifer*  bi-in? 
arranged  in  concentric  circles,  and  on  the  other  with  Endo- 
gens,  the  wood  of  Cycadacem  being  very  neatly  hke  that  of 
u  palm-tree.  In  fact  ibc  class  of  Gymnosperms  may  be  con- 
sidered to  unite  the  two  clauses  ofExogent  and  End^f'ti* 
so  perfectly  that  not  a  link  remains  to  be  supplied.  Thcj- 
also  closely  border  upon  Acrogens,  of  which  Cyctulacrs 
have  the  gyrate  vernation,  Coniferie  the  veining,  and  in 
some  coses   the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  male  appa- 

In  addition  to  the  differential  characters  of  tbe«e  pUnli 
we  have  to  add  that  Iheir  sexes  are  always  separate,  ai.d 
that  their  leaves,  if  furnished  with  veins  at  all,  have  i\ir:u 
parallel  as  in  Bndogens,  or  forked  as  in  ferns,  and  acwx 
reticulated  as  in  the  class  of  Exogens. 

The  preceding  figure  of  Juniperus  Oxycedrus  will  kKio 
the  peculiarities  of  this  class; — Fig.  1  is  a  male  catkin; 
Jlg-2,a  scale  from  it  having  anthers  on  its  under  tide  ^jSe  ■<, 
a  f&male  cluster  of  Howcrs  seated  at  the  end  of  a  si-j'» 
peduncle ;/1|f.  4,  alon^itudinal  section  of  the  same,  shewing 
the  naked  ovules  sealed  within  the  scales  ijlg-  5  is  a  i  |-< 
fruit,  composed  of  three  scales,  became  fleshy  and  cunV'ii- 
dated,  and  burying  the  seeds  within  their  centre ;  /•■.  t 
is  the  same  fruit  divided  transversely,  to  show  bow  ihi 
seeds  are  placed  within  the  ripe  fruit;  ^.  7  is  a  wed 
Jig  H,  a  longitudinal,  and^^-.  9,  a  transverse  section  of  It* 

GYMNOTUS,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  section  Atxvl? -. 
Generic  characters: — Gills  partially  closed  by  a  membnr.i 
and  opening  before  the  peciornis ;  the  vent  placed  rery  t-ir 
forwards;  boily  without  any  perceptible  scaler,  and  wn'hoit 
dorsal  fin  ;  anal  fln  extending  the  greater  part  of  the  lenc!  l 
of  the  body. 

Gytnnotwt  elrctrieiu  (Linn.),  from  the  reaemblancr  it 
bears  to  an  eel,  and  the  electric  power  which  it  foi«e---« 
has  been  called  the  electric-eel.  It  is  about  Ave  or  aii  fr-t 
in  length;  the  head  is  rather  broad  and  dcprcwed;  il.r 
miizile  is  obtuse;  the  body,  compared  with  tfaat  of  iii' 
common  eel,  is  stouter  and  shorter  in  proportion;  the  r.:- 
terior  part  is  nearly  cylindrical,  but  towards  and  at  Ihe  ic  .1 
it  is  compressed ;  the  pectoral  Ena  are  small  and  ronnde  i 
the  anal  fin  commences  at  a  short  distanre  behind  the  li:  r 
of  the  pectoral  flns,  and  extends  uninterruptedly  lo  i;.«. 
tail ;  there  is  no  caudal  fln.     Its  colour  is  brownish' bbrk. 

The  ekctric-eel  is  said  to  communicate  sbucka  so  vibli:.: 
that  men  and  even  horses  are  overpowered  by  them.  Tii:- 
power  ii  dependent  on  the  will  of  the  animtd,  but  decrta.-  ■  > 
in  strength  if  frequently  repeated,  unless  at  considerali't 
intervals.  The  organs  by  which  this  shock  is  produced  i.i 
minutely  described  by  Hunter  in  the  6Sth  volume  of  ilir 
'  I'hilosophioal  Transactions.'  All  the  specie*  of  G\\^ 
nutiis  inhabit  the  rivers  of  South  America. 

Till"  genus  Cerapus  of  Cuvier  contains  such  ipecict  •.■: 
Gymnotus  of  the  older  authors  as  have  the  tail  lensih.'i.->. 
and  tapering,  and  the  body  compressed  and  fiiraishcd  »i.l. 
scnles.     They  also  inhabit  South  America. 

GYMNU'RA.  Dr.  Horsfleld  and  Mr.  Vigo^^  in  ('. 
number  of  the '  Zoological  Journal '  for  April — Septemli  .■. 
1827  (vol,  iii.l,  state  that  in  the  13th  volume  of  the  •  L.r- 
uean  Transactions'  an  animal  was  described  by  tbe  l>> 
lamented  Sir  Thomas  Stamford  RaSles,  which  be  hi: 
acquired  among  his  extensive  loological  collections  i  ■ 
Sumatra.  A  preserved  specimen,  according  most  arcu- 
rately  with  his  description  except  in  siie,  apparvnilT  --. 
consequence  of  its  being  young,  was  discovered  amon?  ii"- 
numerous  and  valuable  subjecia  with  which  he  enricM*!  it' 
museum  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London.  Tht(  *f 
cimen  Dr.  Horsfield  and  Mr.  Vigors  caused  to  beBsur«l  . 
the  '  Zoological  Journal ;'  and,  say  the  authors — '  Sinix  •■# 
first  examined  this  animal  we  have  been  fortunate  eini.  •'■. 
to  discover  in  the  same  collection  an  adult  specimen  in-: 
had  been  preserved  in  spirits.  We  are  thus  enabled  to  pit .' 
a  perfect  descrtption  of  the  species,  and  at  the  same  tim-. 
having  bU  the  materials  complete  befbre  us,  to  eharac(er-j<' 
the  group  to  which  it  belongs,  and  which  appean  to  us  lert 
distinct  from  any  hitherto  described.' 

Sir  Stamford  Raffles  referred  the  species  (0  the  Linnra: 
genus  yiverra,  and  recorded  it  as  Vnem  Gynwutra.  Du: 
although  he  did  not  nominally  raise  the  animal  to  the  im- 
portance of  %  gQutn,  JM  pne  m  deai  and  i 


«t 


deHTiptioB  of  iU  generio  chancten  that  Or.  Honlald  mi 
Mr.  Vigon  do  not  hadUle  to  fttttibut«  Ow  Bnt  indiotiDn 


Dental  lonnuU:  ineiMn  -z  ;  mninM  (Luiiuii),  .  _  • ; 
molm      j^  ■  ■■  =  H. 

haitort,  3  above,  remote,  rery  large,  aubRylindrical, 
roundod  It  the  apex  ;  B  below,  the  four  intermediate  ap- 
nroximate,  rather  ihort,  ioRlined  (proclive*}  compressed. 
ihe  anterior  itiT&ce  (patiiuS)  convex,  the  interior  Hat,  edge 
rounded  (scdlpro  rotundalo),  the  two  lateral  abhreviatod, 
icule.  Canine*  (Laniarii),  a  on  each  side  above,  remote 
'rom  the  incisors  and  shorter  than  them,  the  anterior  ones 
;he  longest ;  1  on  each  side  below,  very  large,  conical,  sub- 
kTcuBle,  looking  inwards.  Molar*,  8  on  eacli  side  above, 
■cmoie  from  the  canines,  the  three  anterior  unicuspid.  the 
Irat  elongated  and  sectorial ;  the  second  and  third  abbre- 
.'ialed ;  the  fburlh  with  an  elongated  conical  point  and  a 
wsterior  and  exterior  abbreviated  lobe  or  slcp(gradu)al  the 
)aso;  the  fifth  with  the  exterior  cusp  very  lonf^  and  the 
nisrior  ono  nbbret'iated  ;  the  sixth  end  seventh  verj-  larea, 
nulticuspid,  the  cusps  subabbreviated  and  rounded ;  the 
eighth  smaller  and  more  fashioned  for  triturating  (subtrito- 
ius),  Ihe  cusps  rather  obtuse ;  7  below,  the  three  anterior 
inicuspid,  compressed;  the  first  and  second  shorter;  the 
bird  subelongated ;  the  fburlh  with  an  elongated  cusp,  an 
(iilcrior  lobe,  and  another  posterior  loba  (gradu)  abbre- 
■iattid ;  the  flflh,  sixth,  and  seventh  very  large,  mullicua- 
lid,  the  cusps  rather  elevated  and  acute, 

llra-l  elongated,  acuminated,  narrowed,  compreased  on 
ho  sidiis,  Haltish  above.  Muzzle  (rostrum)  obtuse,  eion- 
,ated,  Bireiched  fbrward  (prolensum)  much  surpassing  the 
jwer  jaw  in  length,  Sottril*  lateral,  prominent,  with  the 
n  J rg ins  convoluted.  Tongue  rothor  smooth,  large.  Auri- 
ff»  ronnded,  somewhat  prominent,  naked.  Eyes  smill. 
Vhisheri  (vibrissa)  elorgated. 

B-<dif  rnlher  robust,  ground  of  the  fur  (cordaris)  soft,  but 
■itii  distant  erect,  subelongated,  harsh  hairs.  Tail  ratlier 
>ng,  smooth,  attenuated,  naked,  scaly,  with  a  few  scattered 
airs  in  youth. 

Feet  moderate,  plantigrade,  pentadactyle,  the  ftrefeet  with 

rather  short  thumb,  the  three  intermediate  flnRCis  rather 
Mig  and  subequal;  the  hind  feet  with  a  very  sliort  great 
ic.  the  three  intermerliate  toes  very  much  elongated,  and 
)e  external  toe  moderate.  Clauft  modurBle,  narrow,  curved, 
)mpre».»ed,  very  acute,  retractile. 

Such  is  the  character  Eiven  by  Dr.  Harsfleld  and  Hr. 
'i^ors  to  Gymnura,  and  tney  state  their  opinion  that  the 
direst  affinit}'  to  this  genus  appears  to  be  met  with  in 
"upaitt  (Raffles).  From  that  group  however  they  say  that 
'•ymnura  is  sufScicntlydistinKoisbed,  besides  the  difference 
I  llio  system  of  dentition,  by  the  elongation  of  Ihe  raitrvm, 
lecompanilive  robustness  of  the  body,  the  setose  character 
r  Ihe  hairs,  which  are  sparingly  mingled  with  the  soft  fur, 
le  Binall  retractile  claws,  and  the  nakedness  of  the  tail.  In 
•iicral  appei 
'sembianco 
<<i*. 

Deschplion  of  Gymnura  ifq^«f.~Gymnura.with  the 
xly,  feel,  stripe  abo\-e  the  eyes,  scatterwl  occipital  bairs. 
\d  ilie  basal  half  of  the  tail  black ;  the  head,  the  neck,  the 
atlercd  haira  of  the  back,  and  the  other  half  of  Ihe  tail 
bito.     (Horallcld  and  Vigors.) 


appearance  they  hold  that  the  group  bears  a  strong 
lanca  to  some  species  of  the  Mariuptal  genus  Didel- 


DimentioM  qfaa  adult  Sptamtn.  (H.  and  V.) 
ti.      ia.   I 
Lcnijlh  of  the  body  and  head  from  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  proboscis  to  the  root  of  the 

tail 12 

Length  of  the  tail 0 

..         the  head 0 

„         the  pruhoaci*  .0 

Breadth  of  the  head  across  the  ears  .        .  D 
Diatanee  between  the  eye*  .  0 

Height  at  the  shoulder       ...  0 

„      at  the  rump  ■       .       .0 

length  of  the  anterior  tarsus  and  toes       .  0 
„  tbo  poilerior  ditto     .       .       .0 


Ornnun  XnOlnH,  (Ilonlldd  uul Vigon,  ■ZoaVIamn,'  mL  ill) 
M.  Lesson,  nhose  ' Manual' beara  the  daleof  1B27,  phcea 
e  ninety-fourth  genus.  Gymmtra,  between  thudogd  with 
bysana's  feet  (Conir  pieiut,  Desm. ;  Hyana  picta,  Tumm.X 
and  Viverra,  Linn.,  the  first  subgenus  of  which  he  makes  to 
oonsiat  of  the  true  Civets.  He  uys  of  Gymnura, '  We  form 
this  genua  in  conformity  with  the  opinion  (d'aprfa  I'avis)  of 
M.  Destuarest,  in  order  to  place  in  it  an  animal  closely  ap- 
proximaline  to  the  Civets,  and  perhaps  apptoxiraaling  still 
nearer  to  the  Airaitoa'uri,  which  are  plantigrade.  We  place 
it  provisionally  among  the  digitigraaes.  It  haa  a  pointed 
muiiie,  a  soft  tongne,  rounded  eira,  erect  and  naked,  com- 

firessed  claws,  curved  and  sharp,  a  naked  tail,  and  the  fol* 
owing  denial  fbrmula: — 

'Incisives,  T-;  caninea,    . ;  molars,  _  _  -  =  4Q. 

'Intlu  wpcerjoto  the  two  middle  inciaives  are  the  largest, 
and  separated  (£cart£e$)  one  from  the  othar ;  the  two  lateral 
onea  are  very  small ;  the  canines  are  moderate.  The  Brat 
molar  has  two  pointa,  the  seeond  one  onlv ;  the  fourth  and 
Qflh  have  four  tubercles,  the  sixth  lias  only  three. 

'  /h  the  lower  jaw  the  canines  are  long, 

'  Species,  Gymnura  F^ffteiii,  Viverra  Gymnura,  Rafflen. 
This  sneoies,  from  the  Sast  Indies,  baa  the  muaile,  which 
exceeos  the  lower  jaw  by  an  inch,  pointed;  the  eyes  art) 
small,  the  moustaches  lone;  the  tail,  which  is  naked,  like 
ihat  of  a  n     '  


short  under  f^r  (bourre)  very  thick  and  soft,  and  a  long 
harsh  hair ;  the  body,  legs,  and  first  half  of  the  tail  are 
black ;  the  head,  the  neck,  and  the  glioulders  are  white ;  a 
black  band  jjiaues  over  the  eyes.    Habibi  unknown.' 

M,  Lesson  does  not  state  from  what  apociuien  he  has 
taken  his  descriptions,  which  vary  from  those  of  Dr.  Hars- 
fleld and  Mr.  Vigors,  in  some  inatanoes  essentially ;  but  the 
latter  state  the  ample  materials  from  which  they  defined 
their  characlers. 

CuTier,  in  his  '  Additions  et  Cortectiona'  to  the  first  voL 
of  hia '  R£gne  Animal'  (Ib29),  takes  no  notice  of  H,  Lesson's 
description,  hut,  referring  to  pue  126  of  hi*  own  volume, 
says,  '  The  genus  Gymnura  of  UM.  Vignn  and  Uorsfleld 
{tool.  Jnumai,  iiL,  pi.  B)  appears  to  approach  Cladobatet 
in  its  teeth,  and  the  shrcwa  (musaraignes)  in  ila  pointed 
muiilo  and  scaly  toil.  It  ha*  five  ungmculated  toes  on  all 
its  feet,  and  ratliW  stiff  bristles (soie*  assei  rude*)  projectinK 
fbrth  from  the  woolly  hair.  It  cannot  be  wall  ciataed  till 
its  anatomy  is  known.' 

The  term  Gymnura  has  been  applied  to  detignate  a 
genus  of  sea-duck* ;  and  Spis  uses  the  word  Gymmtri  a* 
Ine  name  of  a  family  of  South  American  monkeys.  [FttLi- 
ouLiNA,  vol,  xi.,  p.  It.] 

GYNATIDRlA,  one  of  the  classes  in  the  artificiul  sys- 
tem of  botany  invented  by  Linnaus,  the  character  of 
which  i*  to  have  the  stamens  and  pistil  consolidated  inio  a 
single  body.  The  principal  part  of  the  class  consists  of 
Orchidaceous  plants,  forming  in  it  the  order  Monondria. 

OYPA'ETOS,  Storr'a  generic  name  for  the  Laemmer- 
geyer,  or  Bearded  OrilEn  iGypaitat  barbatut),  a  bird  of 
prey  which  may  be  considered  as  intermediate  between  the 
Mgle*  and  the  vultures.    [YnLTUiunx.] 

GYPOGB'RAJJUS,  Illiger's  generic  name  lor  the 
Steretary  Bird.  Mr.  Beimet,  in  the  'Tower  Mcnagettu.' 
remoika  that  the  singular  conformation  of  this  bird,  &o  dif- 
ferent in  many  respects  from  that  of  the  order  to  which 
both  in  ill  leading  ohoraeters  and  in  it*  habits  it  obviously 
baloDgs,  rentbrM  it  for  a  long  time  the  torment  of  omi- 


GYP 


512 


GYP 


thologitte,  who  puziled  themselves  in  vain  to  assign  it  a  t 
definitive  place  in  the  system,  and  could  not  agree  even  with 
regard  to  the  grand  division  of  the  clam  to  which  it  ought 
to  he  referred.  *  Thus,*  continues  the  author, '  M.  Temminck 
was  at  one  time  inclined  to  refer  it  to  the  Gallinaceous 
order;  and  M.  Vieillot.  after  repeatedly  changing  his  mind 
upon  the  subject,  at  last  arranged  it  among  the  Waders, 
with  which  it  has  absolutely  nothing  in  common  except  the 
length  of  its  legs.    It  appears  however  to  be  now  almost 
universally  admitted  that  its  closest  affinity  is  with  the 
Vultures,  with  which  it  agrees  in  the  most  essential  parti- 
culars of  its  organization,  ^nd  from  which  it  differs  chiefly 
in  certain  external  characters  alone,  which  unquestionably 
give  to  it  au  aspect  exceedingly  distinct,  but  are  not  of 
themselves  of  sufficient  imiK>rtanoe  to  authorize  its  removal 
to  a  distant  part  of  the  classification.    It  constitutes  in  fact 
one  of  those  mixed  and  abermnt  forms  by  means  of  which 
the  arbitrarv  divisions  of  natural  objects  established  by 
man  are  so  frequently  assimilated  to  each  other  in  the  most 
beautiful,  and  occasionally  in  the  most  unexpected  manner.' 
The  'Tower  Menagerie*  was  published  in  1829,  and  the 
uncertainty  as  to  the  true  position  of  the  bird  does  not  seem 
to  be  entirely  removed  yet    One  of  the  last  writers  on  the 
subject,  Mr.  Swainson.  in  the  first  volume  of  his  *  Classifi- 
cation of  Birds'  (1836),  places  the  'Secretary  Vulture  of 
Africa'  among  the  Vulturidee;  but  in  the  second  volume 
of  the  same  work  (1837),  he  makes  it  a  genus  of  the 
Aquilina,  a  subfamily  of  the  Falconidte. 

Before  we  proceed  to  lay  before  the  reader  a  sketch  of 
the  opinions  of  systematists,  it  may  be  advisable  to  give 
some  account  of  the  habits  of  the  Secretary  Bird,  so  that 
they  may  be  borne  in  mind  and  applied  to  tnose  opinions. 

Habits, — Dr.  Sparrman  first  saw  this  bird  (a  drawing  of 
which,  given  by  M.  Vosmaer  under  the  denomination  of 
Saffittarita,  he  alludes  to)  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
>\arm  baths  of  Hottentot  Holland.  'It  is  not,*  he  says,  *  a 
very  shy  bird,  but  when  scared  begins  at  first  to  endeavour 
to  save  itself  by  alternatelv  hopping  and  scudding  along 
verv  swiftly,  and  afterwards  docs  it  more  effectually  by 
flignt.  In  external  appearance,  in  some  respects  it  re- 
sembles the  eagle,  and  in  others  the  crane,  two  birds  cer- 
tainly very  unlike  each  other;  though  in  my  opinion  it 
ought  to  be  referred  to  neither  of  these  genera.  The 
Hottentots  give  it  a  name  most  suitable  to  its  nature,  viz., 
as  translated  into  Dutch,  Slangen-vreeter  (or  Serpent- 
eater);  and  in  fact  it  is  for  the  purpose  of  confining 
within  due  bounds  the  race  of  serpents,  which  in  Africa  is 
very  extensive,  that  nature  has  principally  destined  this 
bird.  It  is  larger  than  our  crane,  with  legs  two  feet  and  a 
half  long,  and  the  body  in  proportion  less  than  the  crane's. 
Its  beak,  claws,  stout  thighs  covered  with  feathers,  and 
short  neck*  are  like  those  of  the  eagle  and  hawk  kind.' 
Tlien  follows  a  particular  description  of  the  bird,  after 
which  the  Doctor  continues  thus :  'This  bird  has  a  peculiar 
method  of  seizing  upon  serpents.  When  it  approaches 
them  it  always  takes  care  to  hold  the  point  of  one  of  its 
wings  before  it,  in  order  to  parry  off  their  venomous  bites ; 
sometimes  it  finds  an  opportunity  of  spuming  and  treading 
upon  its  antagonist,  or  else  of  taking  it  up  on  its  pinions 
and  throwing  it  into  the  air :  when  b^  this  method  of  pro- 
ceeding it  has  at  length  wearied  out  its  adversary,  and  ren- 
dered it  almost  senseless,  it  then  kills  it  and  swallows  it 
without  danger.  Though  I  have  very  frequently  seen  the 
Secretary  Bird,  both  in  its  wild  and  tame  state,  yet  I  have 
never  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  this  method  it  has  of 
catching  serpents ;  however  I  can  by  no  means  harbour 
any  doubt  concerning  it,  after  having  had  it  confirmed  to 
me  by  so  many  Hottentots  as  well  as  Christians ;  and  since 
this  bird  has  been  observed  at  the  menagerie  at  the  Hague 
to  amuse  and  exercise  itself  in  the  same  manner  with  a 
ptraw.  If,  finally,  this  Serpent-eater  is  to  bo  referred  to  the 
Accipitres,  or  the  Hawk  kind,  the  name  of  Fa/co  serpen- 
tarius  appears  to  be  the  most  proper  to  distinguish  it  by  in 
the  Systema  Xaturre.  It  has  even  been  remarked  that 
these  uirds,  when  tame,  will  not  disdain  now  and  then  to 
put  up  with  a  nice  chicken.' 

Snarrman,  it  is  true,  did  not  himself  see  the  scene  which 
ho  describes ;  but  that  his  account  is  correct  in  the  main 
will  not  be  doubted  when  we  present  tne  reader  with  a 

1  Station  of  the  testimony  of  an  eye-witness— of  one  at 
•e  relations  the  devoted  admirers  of  Buffon  were  too 
to  smile  incredulously,  but  whose  accuracy  is  now  ge* 
lly  allowed  to  be  unmipeachablek    We  give  it  entire, 


because,  even  in  those  parts  which  are  not  dinttlj  ffcr,^ 
tive  of  the  habits  of  the  bird,  tbe  difference  betwcta  -^ 
actual  observer,  the  field  zoologist,  who  had  ttodi«d  lut.n 
in  her  own  wildernesses,  and  the  cabinet  thtorut,  «W>  u. 
only  viewed  her  through  the  false  medium  of  hum  \' 
liant  but  delusive  imagination,  is  strikinsly  ditpUiei  L 
Vaillant,  in  one  of  his  journeys  in  the  Nsmaqua V  ■  *  - 
arrived  at  a  spring  at  the  very  moment  vhM  i  ,<^'  n 
was  drinking  there:  he  kflled  it  at  the  first  ibot.  bi»:  ;.  • 
to  the  well  the  name  of  the  Seeretan^s  PowUain.  lU  . 
rative  then  proceeds  as  follows:— 

'The  Dutch  have  named  this  bird  tbe  Se^ir, 
account  of  the  tuft  of  plumes  which  it  carries  it  u  . » 
of  the  head ;  for,  in  Holland,  clerks  (gens  de  ctbtDd;  \  * 
they  are  interrupted  in  their  writing,  stick  the  pre  r. 
their  hair  behind  the  right  ear,  so  as  to  imitile  is » : 
decree  its  crest.    Buffon,  speaking  of  it,  fsii  that ;  *• 
only  been  known  at  the  Cape  recently;  and  tbr  p* 
which  he  adduces  is,  that  Kolbe  and  other  lurcr' 
writers  say  nothing  of  it    This  is  ad\'anciD;  i  pw.^    . 
assertion  (un  fkit  faux),  and  endeavouring  U>  prv<(  >. . 
another  as  true  as  the  first    The  Secretary  is  koon  c 
Colonies  both  under  the  name  of  Seerdaris  sod  tl^ 
Slang^vreeter.     It  is  under  this  last  denemipaini  .. 
Kolbe  speaks  of  it ;  and  he  certainly  knew  it,  ti  lci<^ . 
the  relation  of  others,  because  he  exactly  ensmenun . 
the  kinds  of  food  which  it  habitually  takes.   It  ii  ta'   . 
in  his  description,  he  translates  Uie  Dateh  void  .*^ . , 
vreeter  by  tbe  French  word  PHiem,  and  that  (o(imi|.' 
be  makes  a  single  species  out  of  two  voy  ^iStm: 
But  Kolbe  was  no  naturalist,  and  his  work  coduj^ 
many  other  errors  that  it  would  be  astonishing  no:  t  < ' 
this.    I  have  been  more  surprised,  I  confess,  to  wk  ib: 
modem  naturalists,  even  those  who  have  spolcB  U  . 
Secretary  in  the  greatest  detail,  make  no  nentioo  i  t  ■ 
bony  and  blunt  protuberances  which  it  has  at  tbe  bttil 
last  joint  of  the  wings,  but  infinitely  less  appsreoi  u«.  * 
the  Jaeana  or  in  the  KamickL   This  omission  bts  if^-' 
strange  to  me,  in  Buffon  particulariv,  who  fau  not  dorr 
it  from  the  relation  of  others,  but  from  an  indiTiduil «: 
he  had  before  his  eyes,  and  which  I  believe  v»  i-  ' 
cabinet  of  Mauduit    It  is  nevertheless  an  cMeotu.  .  - 
sion,  because  it  deprives  the  Secretary  of  one  of  .'^.< 
cipal  distinctive  characters,  and  because  the  jntcSr.  ■  < 
of  which  I  speak  form  one  of  the  arms  of  ike  bjv  ^  • 
shall  presently  show.    I  ahall  permit  myself  Bcn-.>  r  ■ 
make  a  remark  on  what  Buffon  has  written,  .^cctfi ; 
him  the  Secretary  differs  from  other  birds  n  ui    • ' 
nature ;  and  its  timidity  is  even  such,  nys  be,  tb: « •  • 
attacked  by  its  enemies  it  hai  no  other  resouree  U  -^ 
scrvation  excepting  flight.    This  is  an  error.  T^"^  ^ 
have  been  able  to  study  this  bird  know  ihst.  in  .a:   * 
cially  on  reptiles,  it  is  continually  at  war  vith  tbn 
it  seeks  them  everywhere,  and  attacks  them  (at'K'  - 
For  this  assertion  I  cite  the  testimonjr  of  Quer^'^  • 
bring  forward  in  proof  of  it  the  &ct  which  I  bsrv  «  :-*  • 
'  In  descending  from  a  mountain  into  a  itrr  dir,  ^t 
(fondridre),  I  perceived,  nearlv  perpendieuhHTW' --^ 
a  bird  which  nused  and  lowered  itself  very  rspidlv. « •'- '  * 
extraordinary  motions.    Allhoueh  I  wcU  kor«  Uk  ""^ ' 
tary,  and  had  killed  many  of  tnese  birds  st  Nst^ 
impossible  for  me  to  recognise  it  in  the  vertksl  ^tbt  * 


being  discovered,  I  found  that  this  bird  m  t  Vr.- 
combating  a  serpent    Tbe  fight  was  xtrj  ibtf?  /«  ' 
sides,  and  tlie  skill  (la  ruse)  equal  on  the  part  o< '« 
the  combatants.    But  the  serpent,  which  pmciwd  : 
equality  of  its  strength,  employed  that  adrait  muB  v' 
is  attributed  to  it,  in  order  to  save  ttsdf  fay  flight  ^*'^  -'' 
its  hole;  while  the  bird,  divining  its  inienuoo.  f^-'r 
at  once,  and  throwing  itself  before  tbe  Krp(«i   * 
spring,  cut  off  its  retreat    Wherever  the  r«pt*  ^ 
to  escape,  there  it  alwars  fbund  tis  eneny.   TI>k^  * 
skUl  with  oouiage,  it  elected  itself  ienxtf  to  ti.^ 
the  bird,  and  presented,  with  a  frightful  fa*^  *  f  / 
gape,  inflamed  eyes,  and  a  head  awolkn  vtin  'H* 
poison. 

'Sometimes  this  offensive  lesistanee  foipettM^;' 
for  an  instant;  but  the  bird  loon  letomed  to  tlf '- j  • 
and  covering  its  body  with  one  of  its  ninp  «»      1^ 
struck  ita  enemy  with  the  other,  with  toe  ^  ^"^ 


GYP  51 

■Ito,'  UTt  Mr.  Vigon  in  continuation, '  bringt  it  more  close 
t«  the  VultuTts,  while  Ifae  comparative  Btraightnesa  end 
'iiluntneu  of  its  toes  distinguish  tnoni  from  the  hooked  and 
|ioiniod  talon*  of  the  Falcimt.  The  greater  dcTclopmcnt  of 
the  membrane  which  conneota  the  toes  affords  an  additional 
reason  for  placing  it  noar  the  Vulltirida.  lis  natural  situa- 
tion Ihercfore  apnears  to  tie  immediately  preceding  this 
family,  from  which  indeed  it  seems  only  to  deviate  in  the 
lenjcth  of  its  tarsi  and  ita  reptile  food.'  (.Linn.  Tran>.,  vol. 
xiv.) 

M.  LesEon  makes  the  third  and  last  fbmily  of  his  Diurnal 
birds  of  prey  consist  of  Gypoeeranui ;  the  first  connisis  of 
tlie  VulluriicB,  and  the  xecond  of  the  Faleonidee. 

Mr.  Swainson's  views  in  cunsiderinj;  the  Secretary  to  be 
the  thini  and  last  type  of  the  family  Vulturidee  are  noticed 
in  part  in  the  article  Dodo  (vol.  ix.,  pp.  54-55),  and  nc  refer 
the  reader  to  that  article  and  to  the  work  itself  (Clasitjica- 
tion  qf  Sirdi,  vol.  i.,  p.  265,  1836}  for  his  reasoning  on  the 
aubject,  merely  remarking  that  lie  there  comes  to  the  con- 
clusion that  Gypo^eranut  is  evidently  a  compound  both  in 
structure  and  habits  of  the  vulture  and  the  falcon,  and  that 
he  can  incur  no  risk  in  placinj;  it  as  the  most  aberrant  of 
the  former,  seeing  that,  without  atiy  reference  to  his  theo- 
retical opinions  on  the  subject,  such  an  intervening  station 
has  been  assigned  to  it  by  all  the  most  eminent  writers.  In 
the  '  Svnopsis '  (Classi/lcation  t^  Birdt,  vol.  ii.,  part  4, 
1837),  be  places  Gypogerantu  among  the  Aqtdlinte,  his 
first  subfamily  of  the  Palconidee. 

Mr.  Ogilby,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Zoological  Society  of 
London  (July,  IB35),  ob^r^'ed  that  a  Secretary  {Gywi^n.- 
nus)  ill  Mr.  Rendall's  collection  offered  some  peculiariLies 
when  compared  with  the  common  Cape  animal,  which  at 
first  induced  Mr.  Ogilb^  to  believe  that  it  might  be  a  dis- 
tinct species,  and  in  this  opinion  he  was  in  some  degree 
confirmed  by  Mr.  Gould  ;  but  he  stoted  that  a  more  atten- 
tive comparison  of  specimens  from  both  localities  (Mr. 
Rendoll's  having  been  sent  from  the  Gambia),  had  consi- 
derably shaken  his  original  opinion.  Mr.  Ogilby  remarked 
however  that  still  greater  differcnccii  are  indicated  by 
Sonnerat  in  bis  ll^rc  and  description  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Philippine  Islands,  and  which,  as  far  as  the  former  was 
aware,  had  not  been  noticed  by  more  recent  naiiiraliMs. 
Whether  or  not  the  Secretaries  of  these  three  Itwalities.  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  Gambia,  and  the  Philippines,  may 
eventually  turn  out  to  be  really  dislinol,  or  only  varieiicso'f 
the  same  species,  must,  bo  f\iTther  remarked,  be  left  for 
future  obser^-ation ;  but,  as  it  would  be  at  least  useful  to 
direct  the  attention  of  travellers,  eollectort,  and  zoologists 
to  the  subject,  he  stated  the  principal  marks  which  appeared 
to  distinguish  each,  giving  ihem  provisionally  specilic  names 
derived  ft-om  the  localities  which  they  respectively  inhabit, 
as  follows: — 

1.  Gypogfranui  Ca^iuit,  with  Ihe  plume  of  long  ceni- 
cal  fealhers  coinuiencing  upon  Ihe  occiput,  spreading  irre- 
Milarly  over  the  upper  part  of  the  neck,  narrow  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  their  length,  as  if  the  beard  bad  been 
cut  on  each  side  close  into  the  shad  of  the  quill,  and 
Mreading  only  at  the  point.  Inhabits  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope. 

2.  Gyp.  Gambiengia,  with  the  cervical  crest  commencing 
some  distance  below  the  occiput,  arranged  in  Iwo  regular 
series,  one  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  with  the  intermt^iale 
space  clear,  and  composed  of  long  spatule-shaped  feathers, 
much  broader  throughout  than  in  the  last  species,  though 
similarly  decreasing  in  width  towards  the  root.  In  bolli 
these  species  the  two  middle  fealhers  of  the  tail  are  consi- 
derably longer  than  the  others.     Inhabits  Senegambia. 

3.  Gyp.  Pkilippenris,  with  the  cervical  crest  spread  irre- 
gularly from  Ihe  occiput  to  the  bottom  of  the  neck,  the 
longest  feathers  being  those  situated  the  lowest,  which  is 
just  the  reverse  of  what  is  observed  in  Gyp.  Gamtneiiiis, 
and  with  the  two  exterior  tail-feathers  the  longest,  so  that 
the  tail  appears  forked.  This  is  apparent  not  only  in  Son- 
neral's  figure,  but  is  expresEly  mentioned  in  his  detailed  de- 
scription, and,  if  confirmed  by  future  observation,  is  clearly 
indicative  of  a  specific  distinction.  Inhabits  the  Philippine 
Islands,  Described  and  figured  in  Sonnerat's  '  Voyage  h  la 
Nouvelle  Guinfe,"  p.  87.  t.  SO. 

The  colours  of  the  three  species  or  varieties  here  indicated 
do  nut,  says  Mr.  Ogilby,  in  conclusion,  seem  to  bo  materi- 
ally different  in  other  respects. 

Sonnerat  commences  liis  description  by  saying  that  the 
Tetaiy  is  not  only  found  in  the  Philippines,  but  that  it 


<  G  V  r 

also  inhabits  Africa,  and  is  knovn  at  the  Cape'of  Goud 
Hope.  He  speaks  of  the  bird  as  being  of  the  fise  of  a 
Turkey  (Coq  d'Inde).  and  as  having  the  bill  and  feat  of  the 
Gallinaceous  birds,  but  notices  that  the  l«gs  are  denndcd  <<f 
feathers  to  just  above  the  knee.  Of  the  accuracy  of  ;lie 
description,  as  far  as  the  alleged  Gallinaceous  bill  and  (■■■.•: 
are  concerned,  the  student  will  have  an  opportunity  <■[ 
judging  from  the  Aftrican  specimens  in  our  museums,  and  i  :.e 
living  bird  in  the  menagene  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  Lon- 
don at  the  Regent's  Park.  But  travellers  and  collectors  n  i!1 
do  well  to  bear  Mr.Ogilby's  provisional  distinctions  in  niri'l: 
for  the  form,  as  we  have  seen,  is  so  interesting  to  iooI'j:::-'-. 
that  every  modification  of  it  must  be  considered  of  lali  l-. 
Speakingof  the  manners  of  the  bird  described  in  the  '  Vill- 
age i  ta  Nouvelle  Guinfe,'  Sonnerat  says  that  it  b  social  ... 
and  lives  in  a  state  of  domesticity ;  that  it  hunts  mis  li.  I 
might,  in  this  point  of  view,  become  useful  id  the  cuIoiul-, 
where  probably  it  would  not  be  difficult  to  multiply  it. 
Although  he  describes  the  bill  and  feet  of  the  Becrvlar^  :',• 
being  those  of  the  Gallinaceous  birds,  he  states  that  it  t  -A- 
on  flesh,  and  ought  consequently  to  be  placed  in  the  raiikv 
of  the  Birds  of  Prey,  among  which,  he  adds,  it  fuMi-.>  _:, 
entirely  insulated  genus. 


Dill  of  Sncn^Urr  Binl. 

Gypogframis  is,  as  M.  Lesson  has  staled,  and  as  at  | 
by  lU  Bbeleli.n,  a  true  Bird  of  Prey,  with  lonf  Ic- :   ■ 
number  of  tiieceivical  vertebree,  an  important' feaii.:'<'  :- 
cording  to  the  views  of  some  iool(^»ts,*  is  thirteen.  .• . 
alias  mcluded.     It  is  difficult  to  draw  the  line  betwtT:i    ' 
dorsal  and  cei-vicol  vertebm  in  birds;  but  in  two  tkelt 
of  the  Secretary  in  the  mus«um  of  the  Royal  CalleL-  •( 
Sui^eons  (No.  1207  and  No.  1207a),  there  are  DiBMe^■n^,:- 
tebre,  counting  from  the  ilium  to  the  cranium,  and  ai^'.-- 
thirteen  may  be  considered  cervical,  because  in  thEm  ihi. 
coslal  processes  are  anchyloied. 

Generic  Character.— Biit  rather  slender,  dMJrter  th  .-. 
the  head,  strong,  very  much  hooked,  curved  nearly  fniro  i 
origin,  and  furnished  wilh  a  cere  at  its  l^se.  rather  vsuii-L 
compressed  at  the  point;  noi/ri^ placed  at  asmalldislai  •- 
from  the  base,  lateral,  pierced  in  the  eera,  diagonal,  obtir. - 
qjen.  Feet  very  long,  slender,  the  tibia  fhsihered,  but  ■:  i 
quite  to  what  is  called  (improperly)  the  knee  behind,  «■..-. 
the  feathers  comeavery  little  below  the  joint  befaic:  ur^.  > 
long,  more  slender  below  than  in  its  upper  put ;  toet  »li<  - 
warty  below,  the  anterior  toea  united  at  the  base  b}-  atu -m- 
brane ;  hind  toe  articulated  upon  the  tanus.  '  H  i  • 
long,  armed  with  obtuse  spun;  the  Are  first  quiUt  v.^ 
longest  and  nearly  equal 

M.  Lesson  says  that  a  single  species  (African)  r/^^  -> 
&^fp#n(anu«,Gmel.)compoaeithisgenua.  and  thai  atlctr.;  ■. 
have  been  made  to  introduce  the  breed  into  Ibe  Kn^- 
iugar  islands  (Martinique,  &c.),  in  the  hope  that  it  m.     i 
diminish  the  race  of  the  formidable  TrigviiortpDalitti   ■ 
Yellow  Serpent  of  the  AtOMn  (TUgomKefikalut  latA  ■ 


S.  MacLciy'i  liamtd  ud 


Awi  On-),  the  uoti  duMTOiu  nptile  of  thoM  ]iarU,  «ix  or 
MVM  llvet  in  ten^h,  and  livalling  ibe  IUIiImiuiIu  in  the 
iattiMtj  of  ita  pouon. 


Gypajnuiu 


(Tbg  SRnUi)). 


DMcrip/ioit.— Siio,  about  threa  feel  in  kngtb.  Bye  ftill, 
■iinuunded  by  a  naked  ikin,  with  »  Miies  of  haira  beoealh 
ilic  ovorishadowing  feathen  in  the  form  of  an  eyebrow;  eye- 
lusher  long  and  atrang.  Plumage,  when  perfect,  for  the 
most  paTt  bluiih-grey,  vith  a  roddiih-brown  tinse  on  the 
Willi;!;  greater  quilli  black.  Throat  and  breaiit  nearly 
nhiie ;  rest  of  the  under  euifcca  black,  reddish,  and  vhite 
intermingled,  the  plumage  of  the  lega  bhriit  black,  with 
a  slii(ht  intemiixture  of  browniih  rayi.  Occipital  crest, 
which  ran  be  raised  or  depieaaed  at  pleasure,  consisting  of 
fo.illion  without  barba  at  the  base,  but  spreading  out  as 
Thoy  advance,  and  coloured  of  a  mixed  black  and  grey. 
Xwu  middle  tail  feath«i  longest. 

Tbe  Secretaries  live  in  pairs,  and  do  not  collect  in  flocka : 
thoy  build  on  high  trees ;  but  if  these  are  not  to  be  had,  in 
TcFTf  close  thicket*.  They  run  wilh  coniiderable  sniflness, 
and  are  approached  with  difficulty  by  the  sportsman.  [Qa- 
RiAMi.  vol.  vi..  p.  392.] 

GYPS.    rVnLTuaiD*.] 

GYPSIES.    [Gii^iBS.] 

GYPSUM,  or  sulpbale  of  lime,  is  a  mineral  which  is 
found  in  »  compact  and  cryslalliied  state,  as  alabaster 
[Alasastbk]  and  aeleniie,  or  in  tha  (brm  of  a  soft  chalky 
atone,  which  in  a  very  moderate  heat  gives  out  its  water  of 
crystallization,  and  become  a  very  fine  white  powder  exten- 
sively used  under  the  name  of  plaster  of  I^ris.  This  last 
is  the  most  common,  and  is  found  in  great  maaaea,  m 
Paris,  vhere  it  forms  the  hill  of  Montmartre,  near  Aix 
Provence,  and  near  Burgos  in  Spain.  It  is  found  in  smaller 
portions  in  various  parts  of  Europe. 

The  frequent  occurrence  of  gypeum  in  the  red  claya  of 
England  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  with  or  without  salt 
(chloride  of  sodium),  is  an  interesting  fact  tor  the  geologist. 
Sometimes  in  detached  nodules  of  fibrous  structure,  at  other 
times  in  thin  horiionlal  laminn  equally  fibrous,  and  occa- 
aionally  in  masses  which  ramify  into  vertical,  obllquo,  and 
coDtorted  plates,  with  fibres  perpendicular  to  the  aurfkce, 
and  meeting  or  leaving  a  cavity  in  the  middle,  the  gypseous 
masaea  in  the  red-marl  of  Cheshire,  Somerset,  Auat  Pa^ 
aa^e,  or  Trent  Fall,  suggest  but  do  not  rrove  the  truth  of 
a  notion  that  they  arc  scgrcgations  from  a  mingled  maaa  of 
muddy  sediment. 

The  selenitic  forms  of  sulphate  of  lime  occor  mora  | 


_  jlly  in  clayt  of  every  age,  but  espaeial^  in  tho  ooUtie  to> 
mationa.  and  are  produced  at  this  day,  commonly,  among 
diluvial  clays,  as  in  Scarborough  CliS 
For  the  chemical  compoaition  of  gypaum,  aaa  CaLcim, 


combination  chiefly  that  it  owes  its  peculiar  plastic  quali- 
ties; pulveriied  by  grinding  or  burning,  it  forms  a  neculiar 
apccies  of  manure,  of  which  the  effecU  are  striking  in  toow 
oases,  and  altogether  imperceptible  In  others.  Its  use  as  a 
ire  was  very  partialiy  known,  until  Mayer,  a  clergy* 
of  Kupfcraell,  in  the  principality  uf  Hohenlohe,  in 
Germany,  noticed  it  about  Ibemidaloof  tbe  last  century,  in 
a  correspondence  with  Count  Von  der  Schulenberg,  at 
Hehlen  in  the  electorate  of  Hanover,  as  having  been  long 
in  use  in  Ihe  neighbourhood  of  Gottingen,  as  a  top-dressing 
for  young  clover.  TscbelFeli,  the  zealous  Swiss  agriculturist, 
soon  after  tried  experiments  with  it;  and  hia  aucceis  intro- 
duced it  very  generally  into  Switierlond,  where  it  continues 
to  maintain  its  firat  reputation.  It  soon  spread  amongst  all 
experimental  agriculturists  on  the  Continent ;  and  it  is 
generally  considered  as  a  proof  of  good  forming  when  no 
reasonable  exoense  is  spared  to  procure  gypsum  or  the 
Dutch  peat-asnes,  which  are  founo,  on  analysis,  to  contain 
sulphate  of  lime.  In  Bngland  the  reault  of  experiments 
In  gypsum  has  not  always  been  so  favourable,  and  the 
a  of  this  manure  has  not  been  so  generally  adopted.  In 
some  instances  the  beneDt  waa  evident,  in  others  not  even 

Stible.    The  doubt  thus  thrown  on  its  efficacy  has 
it  to  be  negleeied.    In  our  opinion,  the  condemns' 
lion  of  it  is  not  founded  on  solid  grounds.     It  is  allowed 
1  in  cold  wet  soils  its  effects,  aa  also  that  of  bones,  are 

very  encouraging,  nor  on  very  poor  soils  ;  but  on  good 
loams  containing  d  due  proportion  of  humus,  and  on  all 
light  and  dry  soils  which  are  not  very  poor,  or  have  had  a 
due  portion  of  manure,  its  effects  are  striking.  We  have 
ourselves  experienced  the  benefit  of  grpsum,  not  only  on 
clover,  but  on  peas,  tores,  and  baaos,  wnere  tha  soil  waa  in 
good  heart  and  well  drained.  The  portions  of  a  field  sown 
with  gypsum  were  decidedly  superior  in  vigour  and  luxu- 

«  of  growth  to  those  where  it  had  not  been  used.    So 

'6  can  bear  testimony  to  its  use. 
has  been  found  extremely  efficacious  in  some  soils 
of  North  Amerina.  Benjamin  FrankUn  is  said  to  have 
been  one  of  the  first  to  try  ita  ferliliiing  power  on  clover. 
He  sowed  it  in  a  clover-fleld  near  one  ol  the  high  roads 
in  Pennsylvania,  so  as  to  form  the  letter*  of  a  sentence 
such  u  the  following :  *  This  is  manured  with  gypKum  ;' 
and  the  effect  was  such,  that  the  letters  could  be  readily 
distinguished  by  the  height  and  colour  of  the  clover,  where 
the  gypsum  had  been  sown.  This  naturally  drew  tbe  atten- 
tion ot^  all  those  who  passed  alonz;  and  no  better  method 
could  have  been  adopted  of  spreading  its  &me.  From  that 
time  gypsum  has  been  regularly  imported  into  America  for 
manure  from  HGvre,  to  which  port  it  is  brought  by  the 
Seine  from  Paris. 

Although  the  exact  manner  in  which  gypaum  acts  in  in- 
creasing the  vigour  of  certain  plants  is  not  yet  clearly 
shown,  we  know  by  experience  that  it  is  generally  bene- 
ficial in  porportion  to  the  quantity  of  humus  in  the  soil' 
that  it  is  of  little  use  where  the  land  is  wet  and  not  well 
drained;  and  that  its  effects  are  most  conspictious  in  light 
loams,  gravels,  and  sands,  provided  they  be  not  too  poor. 
It  has  little  effect  in  promoting  the  nowth  of  wheat,  oats, 
and  barley;  but  all  plants  with  broad  leaves  are  benefited 
in  proportion  as  the  dust  lodges  on  the  leaves.  In  a  case 
where  the  wind  had  carried  tbe  powdered  gypsum  over  part 
of  a  hedge  of  whitethorn,  it  showed  its  effects  by  making 
that  part  much  richer  in  foliage  than  Ihe  rest  From  this 
circumstance  it  has  been  recommended  to  be  sown  in  moist 
still  weather,  late  in  the  evening,  or  early  in  the  morning, 
that  the  dew  may  make  it  adhere  to  the  leaves.  The  heat 
of  the  suu  diving  the  leaves  would  prevent  this ;  heavy 
showers  will  also  wash  it  off;  and  therefore  a  showery  time 
should  be  avoided.    A  gloomy  baiy  day  is  tbe  most  ftvout- 

Tbo  plants  on  which  tbe  gypsum  produces  the  greatest 
effects  are  those  of  the  papilionaceous  order,  such  as  clover, 
peas,  beans,  vetches,  saintfoin,  and  lucem.  It  is  also  uae- 
ful  to  those  of  the  cruciform  order,  as  colia,  rape,  and  mus- 
tard, and  probably  turnips,  although  it  ha*  seldom  been 
tried  on  these ;  we  have  found  it  produce  a  viaihle  improve- 
3U2 


GYP 


516 


G  Y  R 


ment  in  beans  in  a  heavy  loam,  and  on  vetches  in  a  lighter 
soil,  but  in  both  cases  the  land  had  been  well  manured 
and  was  in  good  heart  We  would  by  no  means  recom- 
mend it  as  a  substitute  for  dung,  but  as  an  assistant  to  it ; 
considering  it  as  a  slimulant,  as  wine  is  in  the  digestion  of 
our  food.    In  both  cases  an  excess  may  do  harm. 

There  are  two  modes  of  pulverizing  gypsum :  by  buniing 
it  to  dissipate  the  water  of  crystallization ;  and  by  grind- 
ing it  in  a  mill,  or  pounding  and  sifting  it.  The  last  me- 
thod, if  done  suflBciently,  seems  the  best:  for  the  burned 
gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris,  attracts  moisture  so  rapidly,  and 
consolidates  so  soon,  that  the  first  shower  converts  the  fine 
dust  into  lumps  of  hard  stone,  thus  destroying  its  effect  on 
the  leaves ;  whereas  the  pounded  gypsum  does  not  set  so 
readily,  and  remains  in  a  fine  powder.  It  is  also  more  solu- 
ble in  water  than  that  which  has  been  burnt;  although 
Water  dissolves  only  a  very  small  proportion  of  it  before  it 
is  saturated.  Gypsum  is  the  substance  which  gives  water 
the  quality  called  hardness,  which  prevents  its  dissolving 
Boap.  The  gypsum  .is  deposited  by  boiling  the  water,  and 
adheres  to  the  sides  of  the  kettle.  Hence  it  is  probable 
that  where  the  water  is  naturally  hard,  gypsum  may  have 
little  effect  on  the  soil  as  a  manure. 

Gypsum  has  a  septic  quality,  tliat  is,  it  promotes  putre- 
faction in  animal  and  vegeUble  substances.  It  may  there- 
fore be  a  very  useful  ingredient  in  composts  of  which  the 
principal  part  is  farmyard-dung.  It  should  however  be 
UHcd  sparingly,  till  its  effecU  are  more  clearly  ascertained. 
The  Dutch  peat-ashes  and  those  from  Newbury  in  Berk- 
shire, which  are  in  such  repute  as  a  top-dressing  for  clover, 
probably  owe  their  power  of  accelerating  the  vegetation  of 
this  plant  to  the  gypsum  which  they  are  known  to  con- 
tain. Dutch  ashes,  like  gypsum,  have  little  effect  on  cold 
clay  soils,  but  act  most  powerfully  in  the  light  sands  of 

Flanders. 

This  manure  is  well  worth  the  attention  of  experimental 
agriculturists;  and  wo  doubt  not  that  it  will  repay  the 
trouble  of  making  numerous  and  accurate  experiments. 

GYRATION,  CENTRE  OF.  When  a  system  of  heavy 
bodies,  or  any  system  possessing  weight,  has  a  fixed  axis  of 
revolution,  the  centre  of  gyration  is  a  point  at  any  such  dis- 
tance from  the  axis,  that  the  moment  of  inertia  would  not 
be  altered  if  the  whole  mass  were  collected  at  that  point. 
The  moment  of  inertia  being  found  by  multiplying  every 
mass  by  the  square  of  its  distance  from  the  axis,  the  dis- 
tance of  the  centre  of  gyration  is  found  by  dividing  this 
moment  of  inertia  by  the  whole  mass,  and  extracting  the 
square  root  of  the  quotient  As  this  term  is  now  very  little 
used,  we  refer  to  Inertia  for  further  information. 

GYROCARPUS,  a  genus  of  plants  containing  few 
species,  but  these  few  are  widely  distributed ;  one  being  found 
in  South  America  on  the  mountains  of  New  Granada  and 
Caracas,  a  second  on  those  of  the  Coromandel  Coast,  and 
two  others  in  the  tropical  parts  of  New  Holland.    Gyro- 


carpus  has,  in  confonnity  to  the  opinioa  of  Mr.  Brown,  been 
considered  as  allied  to,  and  by  sOme  it  has  been  placed  in 
Lauraceee.  Blume  refers  it  to  his  new  order  of  Uli^ereo?. 
The  flowers  are  polygamous  or  hermaphrodite ;  the  perianth 
superior,  four-  to  octi-fid ;  stamens  four,  opposite  to  aivi^siunt 
of  perianth;  anthers  two-celled,  with  the  cells  opening  by 
a  valve  from  below  upwards ;  drupe  one-seeded,  having  at- 
tached to  it  two  long  membranous  wings ;  the  prolongati"-! 
of  two  divisions  of  the  perianth  as  in  Uipterocarpeie.  Ti:e 
embryo  is  inverse;  the  cotyledons  twisted  spirally.  l..u 
American  is  so  closely  allied  to  the  Asiatic  species,  as  to 
have  been  thought  identical  by  Dr.  Roxburgh.  The  la'ier 
grows  to  be  a  large  tree  with  cordate  leaves,  which  arc  de- 
ciduous about  the  end  of  the  rainy  season ;  after  which  ilic 
flowers  make  their  appearance  in  the  cold  weather,  bui  L:e 
shortly  followed  by  the  new  leaves.  The  wood  of  this  tit  > 
is  whitish-coloured  and  very  light.  It  is  preferred  whL'(ie\  tr 
procurable  for  making  the  catamarans,  or  rafisun  uLua 
the  natives  come  off  to  ships  through  the  heavy  surf  uf  iho 
Madras  coast. 

GY'RODUS  (yvpoc,  round,  6Sov^,  a  tooth),  a  genus  of 
fossil  fishes  established  by  Agassiz.  The  mouth  of  tb<r>« 
fishes  was  armed  with  rows  of  round  grinding  teeth  in  the 
palate  for  the  crushing  of  hard  Crustacea  and  fishes  witS 
bony  scales.  In  very  fine  specimens  five  rows,  which  uere 
placed  on  the  os  vomer  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  remain  m 
the  stone,  though  no  other  part  of  the  head  is  preser\cd ; 
but  generally  tne  teeth  are  loose,  and  were  in  that  ^uiic 
terme<l  Bufonites  by  the  old  writers  (Llwyd,  Sec.)  on  or- 
ganic remains.  (See  Dr.  Buckland  s  Bridw.  Treatise,  yl 
xxvii.).    The  fishes  of  this  genus  belong  to  the  oolitic  strata. 

GYROGONITES  (yvpoc,  round,  ywvta,  angle).  Ti:;* 
name  was  given  by  Lamarck  to  small  fossil  bodies  found 
in  fresh- water  tertiary  strata  (Isle  of  Wight,  near  Pan.% 
&e.),  under  the  supposition  that  they  were  shells  of  |h '.)- 
thalamous  cephalopoda.  (Animaux  sans  Vertebres,  tu:i]. 
vii.)  Lamarck  was  aware  that  his  opinion  was  conto^!L>l, 
and  that  some  persons  imagined  the  small  globular  trans- 
versely carinated  gyrogonites  were  the  seeds  of  an  aquat.c 
plant,  but  he  *■  could  not  believe  it.'  It  was  however  dc- 
monstrated  in  the  *  Geological  IVansactions,*  vol.  iL,  Stroond 
Series,  that  they  were,  in  truth,  the  fruits  of  Chan,  &  gen u$ 
of  plants  found  in  many  fresh-water  ponds,  llie  ^tem 
and  other  parts  of  this  plant  are  very  calcareous.  \^  e 
shall  not  enlarge  further  on  this  curious  group  of  fus^;l^ 
but  refer  the  reader  to  Adolphe  Brongniart,  Histotre  d'  t 
Vcgctaux  FossileSt  the  article  *CharacesB,'  finr  notice^  "f 
their  botanical  relations,  and  to  Mr.  Lyell's  intere^tii.;: 
memoir  in  Geol.  Trans,,  vol.  ii..  New  Series,  for  an  accoui.: 
of  the  occurrence  of  Cbara  hispida,  fossil  in  the  marU  of 
Bakie  Loch,  Forfarshire,  as  weU  as  living  in  other  lake^  of 
the  vicinity.'.  .. 

GYROIDFNA.    [Foraminifbiu.  voL  x.,  p.  348.j 


INDEX  TO  THE  LETfER  G. 


VOLUME  XI. 


G.  papfc  31 
(i.  Ill  muBic,  31 
(iiii'ioii,  31 
(i.ilre.s  [Guebres] 
(i.nK-tmsch,  32 

(.uHiv  [CEstridcB] 

r.'i.lufa?.  32 
(...•1,  Gaelic,  32 
G  'cta,  33 

(i.iilurins  [Gofoiius] 
(j'alorius,  33 
Giii^e,  33 
(7  iiUiite,  33 

(i.iii,  :i3 

Giiliac  [TarnJ 

Gailiaid,  33 

(i<»m»«borouj;h,  34 

(Vainsborotigh,  Thomai,  34 

Gaius,  or  Caius,  34 

Galdcz  [Moldavia] 

(tal  loro  [LeniuridaB] 

(Taian^^a,  or  Galaogali  35 

(iaiaiitlius,  35 

(i.l  aj)airL«,  35 

(la  a: Ilea,  35 

(i.ilatia,  36 

Galatians,  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to 

thf,  37 
G;il;i\aura  rPseudozoaria] 
(ialaxy  [Milky  Way] 
(f.ilUj.  37 
G.iibauum,  38 
Gailiula    [Ualc)'otiidn ;    Jaca- 

mar] 
Galea  j  Kchinidae,  vol. ix.  p.  259] 
G.ilcua  [Lead] 
('.iit-na  [Illinois] 
( I  lien  us,  Claudius,  38 
(y.ileolri  [Ecluiiidse,  vol.  iz.,  p. 

->J'J] 
Galeolaria  [DiphyUes,  vol.  ix,  p. 

10;  Serp'.didaj] 
Galenpithccus  [Pleuroptera] 
(riKotes  [Iguanidte] 
GiitMites    [Kchioida,  vol.  is., 

])!>.  259,  261] 
G.iletius  [Maxiinianug] 
(nl'^ulus  [Ri>ller8] 
(i.iliacecp,  40 
(i.itiaiii,  40 
(T.iiicia  (Austria),  41 
G.ilicia  (Spain),  43 
(I'l  ictiN  [GrihonJ 
GaMee  [Palestioe] 
G  1 1  oi,  Vincentio,  44 
G.iiiU'i,  Galileo,  44 
G'liiiais  [(ialiaceae] 
i'  >i!]'ea,  47 

G  /tij  ca  (Materia  Medica),  47 
G.li,  St.,  Canton  of,  48 
(.  ilUDr.,  49 
(tal>    Hile] 

<'  lU  Stones  [Calculus] 
(.•al Kites  [Gallic  AcidJ 
ti.tliiou,  50 
G  iilery,  50 

^tilkry  (militaiymiain)^),  50 
(»a.i«*y.  51 
G.iiicy  Slaves,  51 
^»  I    a  [France] 
G  .  1  did,  51 
G.iiiic  Acid,  51 
*»aiM(ola?,  51 
ttu.l.tiiius,  51 
(v  iilin:p.  52 
<».»Um»ecta,  52 
GjI: inula  [RalUda] 


I  Galliot,  52 
Gallipoli,  52 

Galiipoli  [Otranto,  Terra  di] 
Gallon,  53 
Galloway,  53 
Galls,  53 

Gallus  I^Phaiiianida ;  Poultry] 
Galuppi,  53 
Galvani,  53 
Galvanism,  54 

Galvanism  (medical  uses),  56 
Galvanometer,  56 
Gal  way,  county,  57 
Galway,  town,  60 
Gama,  Vasco  de,  62 
Gambia,  63 
Gamboge  fCamboge] 
Gamb6gia  [Hebradendion] 
Game  Laws,  64 
Oaming,  64 
G&mmanis,  65 
Gammut,  66 
Ganga  [Tetraonids] 
Gangaiii  [Circars,  Northern] 
Gau^anvlli  [Clement  XIV.] 
Ganges  [Hindustan] 
Gannat  [  AUier] 
Gannet  [Booby,  vol.  v.] 
Ganym6da,  66 
Gaol  [Prison] 
Gaol  Delivery,  66 
Gap,  city,  66 
Gar  Fish,  66 
Garcao,  67 

Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  67 
Garcilaso  the  Inca,  67 
Garcinia,  67 
Garczyuski,  68 
Gard,  68 

Gard,  Pont  du  [Gard]  • 

Garda,  lake,  70 
Garden,  70 

Garden  Husbandry,  74 
Gardiner,  Bishop,  11 
Garfagnana,  78 
Gariic,  1^ 
Garnet,  78 
Garnet,  Henry,  78 
Giirnier,  79    . 
Garonne,  79 
Garonne,  Haute,  79 
Ghirrick,  David,  81 
Garrow  Hills  [Hindustani 
Garridns  [Corvidas,  vol.  viii.,  p. 

69] 
Garr)ice8e,  82 
Garter,  Order  of  the,  82 
Garth,  82 
Garve,  83 
Gas,  83 

Gas- Lighting,  85 
Oascoigne,  Sir  VVm.  [Henry  V.] 
GascQuy  [Guyenne] 
Gasholder  and  Gasometer,  89 
Gassendi,  89 
Grasterdpoda,  91 
Gasteroptera  [BulladsB,  vol.  vi., 

p.  13] 
Ga8ter6steu8  [Stickleback} 

Gastric  Juice,  93 

Ga&trochse'na,  93 

Ga^troplex    [Gasteropoda,  voL 

xi.,  p.  92 ;  Patelluidea] 

Gataker,  94 

Gates,  95 

Gateshead,  95 

Gatiuc,  or  Gastine,  95 

Gatinois,  95 


Gatshina,  95 

Gitterer,  96 

Gaubil,  96 

Gaiidaina,or  Gautama  [Buddha, 

vol.  v.,  p.  527] 
Gauging,  96 
Gaul  [France*] 
Gaulua    [Candeish,  vol.  vi.,  p. 

233] 
Gauls  I  Cclta  ;  France] 
Gaurs  [Guebres] 
Gauze,  96 
GauzDu-Pouco  [Deer,  vol.  viii., 

p.  3r.l] 

Gavelkin'l,  97 

Gavial  [Crocodile,  vol.  viii.,  p. 

167]    ■ 
Gavot,  97 
Gay,  97 

Gay-Lussite,  97 
Gaya  [Bahar] 
Gaza,  98 

Gaza,  Theodore,  98 
Crazelle   [Antelopei   vol.  ii.,  p. 

83  ;  Goat] 
Gazette,  98 
GeberH  [Guebres] 
Gebhaidi,  98 

Gebia,  Gebios  [Thalassina] 
Gecarcfnus,  98 
Gi'cko,  Gecko  Family,  Geck6- 

tidse,  102 
Geddes,  106 
Gedike,  107 

Geertruydenberg  [Brabant] 
Geese  [Gouse] 
Gehlenite,  107 
Gehy'ra    [Gecko,  vol.  xi.,   pp. 

104,  105] 
(Jfla,  107 
Gelasimus,  108 
Gelasius  I.  II..  108 
Grelatiu    [Food,  vol.  x.,  p.  343] 
Gelder  Rose,  or  Gueldres  Rose, 

108 
GeiC-e,    Claude    [Claude    Lor- 
raine] 
Gellert,  108 
Gellius,  Aulus,  108 
Gelon,  108 
Glemellaria  [Cellarina,  vol.  vi., 

p.  405] 
Gemicell&ria    [Cellariaa,    vol. 

vi.,  p.  404] 
Gemini  (constellation),  109 
Greminiani,  109 

Gemmastrsea  [  Madrephyllioea] 
GemmuKna  [Foraminifera,vol. 

X,,  p.  348] 
Gems  [Cameo ;  Intaglio] 
Gendarmerie,  109 
Gender,  110 
Greodre,  Le  [Legendre] 
Genealogy  [Pedigree] 
(Genera,  111 
General,  111 
Gh;ueral  Asserablyof  the  Church 

of  Scotland,  112 
Generalissimo,  113 
Generating  Functions,  113 
Genc&is,  113 
Gene.isee  [New  York] 
Geuetta  (Gennet)  [ViverridaB] 
Geneva,  Geneve,  114 
Geneva,  L  tke  [Lemau,  Lake] 
Gretieva  (spirituous  liouor),  116 
Gcnevre,  Mont  [Alps] 
Genghis  Khau^  116 


Genii,  117 

Genitive  [Ablative  Case] 

Genius.  117 

Gr«in!is,  Countess  dc,  1 17 

G**nnesaret  [PalestiiiteJ 

G^noa,  G^nova,  118 

G^^nov^bi,  119 

Genseric,  120 

G^rntiana,  120 

GentianaL^tea,  120 

Gcntianaceo!,  121 

Gentleman,  121 

Geritoos  fliiudustan] 

Genus,  122 

Geobdella  [Leech] 

Geocentric.  122 

Geocichla,  122 

Geocochlides,  122 

Geodesy,  122 

Geoemy'da  [Tortoises] 

Gkoffiata  Inermis,  124 

Gkoffrey  of  Monmouth,  124 

Geography,  124 

Geology,  127 

Gf^meter,  151 

Geometrical,  151 

Geometrical  Proportion,  Pro- 
gression, &c.  [Proportion, 
Progression,  &c.] 

Gk'oraetry,  151 

Geometry  of  the  Greeks  [Geo- 
metry] 

G^omys  [Muridas] 

Geophonus  [Foraminifera,  vol. 
X.,  p.  348] 

Geoponika,  156 

George  L,  II.,  III.,  IV. (of  Eng- 
land), 156—169 

Gh'orge  I.  II.  (of  Russia),  169, 
170 

George,  St.,  170 

Georgetown  [Columbia,  Dis- 
trict of  ] 

Georgia  ( Russian),  171 

Georgia  (iu  America),  17S 

Greorgics  [Virgii] 

Georglua,  180 

Georgium  Sirlua  [Uranus] 

Georychus  [MuridwJ 

GreosauruM.  IbO 

Gerace  [Calabria] 

GeraniiceflB,  181 

Gerard,  181 

Gerarde,  181 

Gerbert,  Martin,  182 

Gkjrbert  (Pope  Sylvester  II.), 
182 

Gkrbillus  [Jerboa] 

Gkrfalcon  [Falconidae  ;  Fal- 
conry] 

Gkrmeiui,  St.,  182 

German's  St.  [Cornwall] 

German  Banate,  183 

German  Ocean  [North  Sea] 

German  icus,  Caesar,  183 

Germany,  183 

Germen,  199 

G^ermination,  199 

Ger6na  [Catalonia] 

Gers,  199 

Gerson,  201 

Gervase  of  Canterburj*,  201 

Gervase  of  Tilbury,  201 

Gervillia,  202 

Grervlsia,  202 

Grer)6hia  [Medusa] 

Gefcner,  Conrad,  202 

Gesner,  J,  M.,  204 


518 


INDEX. 


VOU  XI. 
Gossner,  Solomon,  204 

eiiner&cea,  204 
Gesture  [Oratory] 
Geta,  204 
Gets,  205 
Geum,  205 
Gt^ysers  [Iceland] 
Gex,  205 

Gharra  F  Hindustan] 
Ghauts  [Hindustan] 
Ghebres  [GuebresJ 
Ghee,  205 

Gheel,  or  Gheelen,  205 
Ghent,  206 

Ghibelins  [Dante;  Florence] 
Ghibcrti,  208 
Ghilan  [Persia] 
Ghirlandaio,  208 
Ghizni  [Afghanistan] 
Ghooli^hoola,208 
Ghunpore  [Hyderabad] 
Giann6ne,  208 
Giant,  209 

Gitint*8  Cause wayi  210 
Giard{ni,211 

Gibbon  (zoology)  [Hylobates] 
Gibbon,  Edward,  212 
Gibbons,  Orlandoj213 
Gibbons,  Grinling,  213 
Gibbous,  213 
Gibbs,  James,  213 
Gibbsite,  214 
Gibraltar,  214 
Gibraltar,  Bay  of,  215 
Gibraltar,  StraiU  of,  2 1 5 
Gibson.  Dr.  Edmund^  215 
Gien  [Loiret] 
Gieseckite,  216 
Giesseu,  216 
Giirora,216 
Gift,  217 

Gi^gleswick  [Yorkshire] 
Gijon  [Astunas] 
Gil  Vicente,  217 
Gilb<:rt,  G.,  218 
Gilbert,  N.  J.  L.,  218 
Gild  [Boroughs  of  England  and 

Wales] 
Gildas,218 
Gilding,  218 
Gilead  [Palestine] 
Qilliesi&cee,  221 
Gills  [Fish] 
Gilly  [Hainault] 
Gillvfluwer,  221 
Gilolo  [Aloluccas] 
Gilpin,  Bernard,  221 
Oilpin,  William,  222 
Gin  (spirituous  liquor),  223 
Gin  [Cuttou] 
Ginger  [Zingiber] 
Ginguen^,  223 
Ginkell  [Athlone] 
Ginseng,  223 
Gioja,  2-23 
Giuja  [Compass] 
Giuidaiio,  224 
Giorgione,  224 
Giotto,  225 
Qiovio  (JoTius),  225 
Gipsies,  225 
Giraffe,  226 

Giraldus  Cambrenslg  [Barri] 
Oirardon,  235 
Girdle,  235 
Girgeh  [Egypt] 
Glrgenti,  235 

Gironde  [France ;  Garonne] 
Girunde,  department,  236 
Girondins,  237 
Girons,  St.,  237 
Girvan  [Ayrshire] 
Gi<ilio  Rom4no,  237 
Givet  [Charlemont] 
(rizeh,  or  Jizeh  [Egypt] 
Gizzard,  238 
Glaciers,  238 
GlaciH,  240 
Gladiators,  240 
Glamorganshire,  241 


VOU  XV. 
Gland, 250 

Gland,  in  Botany,  250 

Gland uHna  [Foraminifera,  vol. 

X.,  p.  347] 
Glanvile,  250 
Glare&nuM,  251 
GUr6ola  [Pratincole] 
Glarus,  canton,  251 
Glorus,  town,  251 
Glasgow,  251 
Glass,  253 

Glastonbury  [SomerBetshirej 
Glatz,  circle,  257 
Glatz,  town,  257 
Glauber  (painter),  257 
Glauber  (chemist),  257 
Glauber  Salt,  257 
Glauberite,.257 
Glauchau  [Schtfnburg] 
Glaucolite,  257 
Glauc6ma,  247 
Glauconie,  258 
Glauc6nome,  258 
Glauc6nome,  258 
Glaucopis,  258 
Glaucus,  259 
Glazing,  260 
Glazing  [Earthenware ;  Foice- 

lain ;  &c.] 
Glebe  Land,  260 
Glee,  260 
Gleicheniacese,  260 
Gleim    [Germany,    Language 

and  Literature] 
Glendwr,  Owen,  260 
Glenotremites,  262 
Glires,  262 
Glisson,  263 
Globba,  263 
Globe,  263 

Globe  of  Compression,  263 
Globular  Projection,  263 
Globular  Sailmg,  263 
Globulari4ceiB,  263 
Glogau,  263 
Glommen  [Norway] 
Glori6«a,  264 
Gloskowski,  264 
Gloss,  Glossary  [Dictionary] 
Glossopetra,  264 
Glossophaga  [Cheiroptera,  vol, 

vii.,  p.  23] 
Gloss6pteris,  264 
Glottis  [Lcurynx] 
Gloucester,  Kobert  of,  264 
Gloucester,  city,  265 
Gloucestershire,  265 
Glove,  276 
Glover,  Richard,  276 
Gloves,  Commerce  in,  276 
Glow-worm  [Lampyris] 
Gluchoff  [TschernigovJ 
Glucinium,  277 
Gluck,  277 

GlUckstadt  [Hobtein] 
Glue,  278 

Glumaceous  Plants,  278 
Gluten  [Food,  vol.  x.,  p.  343] 
Glutton  [Gulu] 
Glycerin  [Soap] 
Glycy'meris  [Pyloridea] 
Glycyrhfza,  278 
Glycyrhfza  Glabra,  278 
Glykas  [Byzantine  Hiitorians, 

vol.  vi.,  p.  82] 
Gmelin,  J.  G.,  279 
Gmelin,  S.  G.,  279 
Gmelin,  J.  F.,  279 
Gmelina,  279 
GmUnd  [laxt] 
Gnat  [Culicides] 
Gndthodon,  280 
GnathophylluB'  fPalemonida] 
Gnathostoma,  ?80 
Gneiss,  280 

Gnomic  Poets  of  Greece,  280 
Gn6mon,  280 
Gnomonic  Plrojection,  281 
Gnossus  [Candia] 
Gnostics,  281 


VOL.  XT. 
Gnu,  or  Gnoo  [Aat«lope,  voL 

ii.,  p.  90] 
Goa,  281 
Goat,  281 

Goatsuckers  [Night  Jars] 
Gobelin,  286 
Gobi,  286 
Gobio,  286 
Godalmiog  [Surrey] 
Grodavery  ^Hindustan] 
Godefroy    Gothofredus] 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon  [Boailloa] 
Go^lfrey,  Thomas,  287 
Godiva  [Coventry] 
Gk)dmanchester   [Huntingdon- 
shire] 
Godolphin,  287 
Godoonoff,  288 
Godstow  [Oxfordshire] 
Godwin,  Francis,  289 
Godwin,  William,  290 
Godwin,  Mary  Wollstonecxan, 

291 
Godwit  [Scolopacidas] 
Goes  [Zeeland] 
Goethe  [Gdibe] 
Gogra  [Hindustan] 
Gogu^r,  291 
Goitre  [Bronchocele] 
Gojam  TAbyssinia] 
Golcomla  [Hindustan] 
Goking   [Germany,   Language 

and  Literature] 
Gold,  291 

Gold-beating  [Gilding] 
Gold  Coast  [Coast,  Gold] 
Gold  Fish  [Cypriniass] 
Gk)ldberg  [Liegpiitz] 
GNilden-crestedWreo  [Sylviadss] 
Gulden  Fleece  [Argonauts] 
Golden  Number,  293 
Golden  Rule  [Proportion] 
Gold6nch,  293 
Gold6ni,  294 
Goldsmith,  Oliver,  295 
Golius,  296 
GoU,  or  Gault,  296 
Goltzius,  296 
Gomnr,  296 
Gombroon,  296 
iKmera  fCanaries] 
Gdmdr  [Hungary] 
Gompholite,  296 
Gondar  [  Abyssinia] 
Gondi  [Rets,  Cardinal  de] 
Gondola,  296 

Gonfal6ne,  Guntfan6n,  297 
Gong,  297 
G6n<ora,  297 
Qoniati^s,  297 
Guni6meter,  300 
Goniometry,  300 
Groni6pora  [MadrtphyllioBa] 
G6nop1ax,  Gonoplak  Tribe,  Go- 

noplacians,  300 
Gonzaga,  302 
Gonzulo,  302 
Good  Friday,  308 
Good  Hope,  Cape  of  [Cape  of 

Good  Hopel 
Good,  John  Mason,  303 
Goodeniicen,  304 
Goodwin  Sands  [Kent] 
Goomtez  [Hindustan] 
Gooria  [Georgia] 
Goosander  [Merganioae] 
Groose,  Goose  Tnbe^  Ansoiiiu^ 

304 
Gooseberry,  309 
Gorcum  [UoUand] 
Gordi&nus    (the    Slder     and 

Younger),  310 
Gordi&nns    (llaicas  Antonioa 

Pius),  311 
Gordon,  Thomas,  311 
Gordon,  William,  311 
Goree,  311 
Grorge,  311 
G6rgias,311 
Gh>rg6nia  f  Zoopfaytaria] 


,  VOLX . 
Gorgonoe^nhalus  [Sesllindesl 
Gorgons,  G6rgoass,  312 
Gorlitz,  circle,  312 
Gdrlitz,  town,  312 
Gdrtz,  circle,  342 
Gdrtz,  town,  312 
Goruckpore  [Oude] 
Goshawk  I  Falceoidc,  toL  l 

pp.  178,179  ^ 

Goslicki,  312 
Gospel,  312 
Gosport,  313 
Gosselies  [Haiosalt] 
Gostelin,  313 
Grossy'piura,  313 
Gotha,  315 
Gothard,  St  [Alfs] 
Gdthe,  316 
GOtheborg,  317 
Gothlaud  [Sweden] 
Gothland,  island,  317 
Gothic  Architscluie,  318 
Grothic  Language,  327 
Gothofriduft  (Denyi  GodelroT\ 

328 
Gk)thofr6dus    (Jacques    Gude- 

froy),  328 
Goths,  Gothi,  328 
GOttingen,  principality,  3:29 
GOttingen*  town,  329 
Gtottorp  [Schleswig] 
Grottsched     [Gerinaoy.     Lia> 

linage  and  Uteiatuie] 
Grouda,  330 
Gkiiigh,  330 
Guurd,  330 
Guut,  330 
Government,  332 
Grower,  John,  334 
Goyaz  [Brazil,  vol  v.|  p.  36S] 
Gossi,  GsapaMs335 
Gozzi,  Carlo,  333 
G^Ezo  Islands,  33& 
Graaf  Reynet  [Cspe  of  Good 

Hope] 
Grabe,  336 
Gracchus,  Tiberias.  336 
Gracchus,  Cains.  337 
Grace,  Days  of  [Bill  U  Si- 

change] 
Grace,  337 
Graces,  Gritin,  337 
G^racias  i  Dies  [CeotalAsw- 

rica,  p.  419] 
Graci6sa,  337 
Gficula  [Stunidft] 
Graduate  [Arts,  Degrees  mj 
Graduation,  338 
Grsecia  Magna  [Msgos  6m 

ciaj 
Gnevius,  340 
Grafting,  341 
Gnftooy  343 

Graham,  Jants  [Moolitsi] 
Qraham  Island,  342 
Grain  (weight),  342 
orainirer,  343 
grains  of  Paradise,  343 
G^'^kle  [Lamprotorais] 
QrallsB,343 
Grallat6res,  343 
Qraminicea,  345 
G^Axnmar  [Langusgt] 
Gnunmont,  348 
Grammoni.  Count  349 
Gnunpian  Mountain^  34S 
Grampound  [ComwtJ] 
Grampus  [Whales] 
Gnn,  county,  349 
Gran,  town,  349 
Gren&da,  provinee,  319 
Granida,  city,  350 
Granida,  New,  350 
GranadUla,  354 
Gran&tum  [Punical 
Graaby,  Uarquis  o4  354 
Grand  Bank  [NewfoQDaUod] 
Grand  Junction  Canal  [Gsasi] 
Grand  Jur^  [^""T) 
Grand  Ser|ea&tyi  954 


1 


INDEX. 


TOL.  XI. 
Grandee,  354 
(iranp^f  La  fLagranfj^e] 
(iraiiiciis  [AJexander  111.)  yoU 

i.,  p.  296] 
Granite,  355 
(irant,  3.')5 
(xi.inthAm,  355 
(iranville,  356 
(»r  iniilation  [Wound] 
(^r ape  Shot,  356 
(r:a]ie  Vine,  356 

(iripsits,  Grapsus  Tribe,  Orap 
soiilians,  359 

(;iM])inlithiu,  363 

iinisa  Land, 363 

(iraS'C,  304 

Grateli'ipia,  365 

(^rati.iiuis  (eni^ror),  365 

(riatiuiius  (lawyer),  365 

Gr.ittau,366 

(;r:itz,  circle,  367 

drafz.  tuwn,  367 

(rruiKiindten  (Grifona),  367 

(rraiKk-nz  [Marienwerder] 

(iraiin,  368 

(rruitwucke,  368 

(i  ave  [Accent] 

drave  [  Brabant,  North] 

(jravol,  369 

(»iavclines  [Nord] 

(r.-a\  er  [Engraviog*,  vol.  vtii.,  p. 
441] 

(graves,  Richard,  369 

(graves an de,  S*  [S^GraTesande] 

(^ravesend  [Kent] 

(Tfavina,  369 

(Ttavitation,  370 

(gravity,  Centre  of,  400 

(vravity.  Specific  [Specific  Gra- 

(;ray,  Tliomaa,  400  vity] 

(;rayliii«7,  401 

(Cray's  Thurrock  [£uez] 

(;ia\st(ine,  401 

(iieat  Britain,  401 

<i  I  caves  [Armour] 

(jreavus,  John,  425 

(rfi-Ues,  425 

(rii'oce,  425 

(Tr«-<'ci>,  Kingdom  of,  431 

(rrecian     Architecture      [Civil 
Architecture] 

(irtvk  Church,  435 

( I  reek  Music  [MuaiCyHiatoryof] 

(ireen  [Light] 

(Treene,  Maurice,  436 

(ireeufmch,  436 

(irt'enhouse,  437 

(iroenlaiid,  438 

(Jrtenock,  439 

(iiceiiiiaud,  439 

(Vreenshank,  440 

(Treonstonc,  440 

(ireenwich,  440 

( ;  I  con  wich  Obwifvatory,  440 

(r.<  ^oriaij Calendar  [Kalendar] 

ii\  s4<''rius     Conatitimonsy  Ro- 
man] 


VOL.  XI. 

Gregoriui  Corinthiue,  442 

Gregory  of  Naziansus.  442 

Gregory  of  Nyssa  [Fathers  of 
the  Church] 

Gregory    Thauraaturgos   [Fa- 
thers of  the  Church] 

Gregory  of  Toum,  443 

Gregory  1.— XV.  (Popes),  434 
—447 

Gregory  (family),  447 

Greifswalde,  447 

Greits  [Reuss] 

Grenftda,  448 

Grenade,  448 

Grenoble,  448 

Grds,  449 

Gre«ham,  Sir  Thomas,  449 

Gresham  College^  449 

Gressetj  450 

Grary,  450 

Gr^wia,  451 

Grey,  Lady  Jane,  451 

Greyhound,  451 

Greywacke  [Grauwacke] 

Griesbach,  45 1 

Grimm,  454 

Grimsby  [Lincolnshire] 

Grind  el  wald  [Bern,  vol.  iv.,  p. 
302] 

Grfslea,  454 

Grisons  [Graubilndten] 

Grit,  454 

Groeyn,  454 

Grodno,  province,  454 

Grodno,  town,  455 

Groins,  455 

Gronin gen,  455 

GronoviuR,  456 

Groom,  457 

Groftbeak  [Fringillids  ;  Haw- 
finch 1 

Grose,  l^rancis,  456 

Grossulacee,  457 

Gr6tius,  457 

Ground  Base,  453 

Ground-Gru,  458 

Groundsel,  459 

Grouse  [Capercailzie;   Tetrao- 
nidfe] 

Gnib  [Pupa] 

Grtibenhagen,  459 

Grfiida  [Herons] 

Gruin&les,  460 

Grtinberg,  460 

Grus,  460 

Grusia  [Georgia] 

Gruter,  460 

Gmyere    [Cheese,  p.  14] 

Gryllidff,  460 

Gryphea,  4€1 

Guachiro  Binl,  460 

Guadalaviar  [Spain] 

Guadalajara  (^Spain;,  462 

Guadaliijara  (Mexico),  462 

Guadaluupe,  462 

Guadalquivir  [Spain] 

Guadjana  [Spain] 


VOL.  XI. 
Guatacum,  463 
Guafacum  officindle,  463 
Guan    [Cracids,  vol.    viii.,  p. 
Guandeo  [Llama]  130] 

Guanaxu^ito,  464 
Guancab^lica  [Peni] 
Guapor^  [Brazil,  p.  359] 
Guardian,  464 
Guarini,  465 
Guastalla  [Parma] 
Guatem&la,  465 
Gn&va,  or  Guaiava  [Psidium] 
Guayaquil,  466 
Guazu-Bira,  Guasu-Pita,  Gua- 

zu-Puco  [Deer,  vol.  viii.,  p. 

361] 
Guben,  circle,  466 
Guben,  town,  466 
Gudgeon,  467 
Guelderluud,    or    Geldetland, 

467 
Guelders,  467 

Guelphs  and  Guibelines,  467 
Guenons,  467 
Guercino,  469 
Gueret.  470 

Guericke,  Otto  [Air  Pump] 
Guernsey,  170 
Guescliu,  Du,  473 
Guiana  [Gu\aaa] 
Guibelines  [Guelphs  and  Gui- 
belines] 
Guicciardfni,  473 
Guicowar  [Hmdustan] 
Guido,  d'Arezzo,  474 
Guido  Reni,  474 
Guignen,  De,  475 
Guildfonl  [Surrey] 
Guilds  [Borougha  of  England 

and  Wales] 
Guillemots,  475 
Guillotine,  479 
Guimaraes    [Entre     Douro    e 

Minhu] 
Guinea,  479 
Guiuea,  New  [Papu.i] 
Guinea  [Money] 
Guinea-Fowl  [Phasianidae] 
Guinea  Pepper,  480 
Guinea-Pig  [Leporidn?] 
Guineit  [Pas  de  Calais] 
Guingamp,  480 
Guipuzcoa,  480 
Guiscard,  Robert  [Naples] 
Gaischard,481 

Guise,  or  Guvse,  Dukes  of,  481 
Guitar,  482  ' 
Giijerat  [Hindustan] 
Guldinus.  or  Guldin,  4S2 
Gulf  [Bay] 

Gulf  Stream  [Atlantic  Ocean] 
Gull  [LaridBDJ 
Gulo,  482 
Gum,  486 
ttum  Resins,  4S6 
Gum  Tragacanth,  or  Gum  Dra- 

(;on  [Tragacanth] 


619 

VOL.  XI. 

Gumbinncn  [Prussia,  East] 

Gums  [Dentition] 

Gun  [Arms] 

Gun- Metal  [Bronze] 

Gun-Shot  Wounds.  486 

Guuduck,  or  Gondock  [Hindus 
Stan] 

Gunnery,  489 

Gunpowder,  495 

Gunpowder  Plot  [Fawkes  j  Gar- 
net] 

Gunter,  496 

Guntoor  [Hindustan] 

Gurra  [Hindustan] 

Gurwal  [Hindustan] 

Gust&vus  Erickson,  497 

Gustavus  Adolphus,  497 

GustavuH  III.,  498 

GuHtavus  IV.,  498 

Gustrow  [Mecklenbiirg-Schwe- 
rin] 

Gutenberg.  500 

Guthrie,  William,  500 

Gutta  Serena,  501 

Guttlfera;,  501 

GuttulJna  fForaminifera,  vul, 
X.,  p.  34S] 

Gutturals  [Alphabet] 

Guyana,  or  Guayana,  502 

Guyenne,  or  Guieune,  and  Gas- 
cogne,  506 

Guytou  de  Morveau,  507 

Guzerat,  or  Gujerat  [Hindu- 
stan] 

Gyali  [Ox] 

Gy'aros.  508 

Gyges  [Lydia] 

G}  longs  [Bootan,  vol.  v.,  p. 
170] 

Gymnastics,  503 

Gymnoccphalus  [Coracina,  vol, 
viii.,  p.  4] 

Gymnodiictylus  [Gecko,  vol» 
xi.,pp.  103-105,  lOG] 

Gymnoderus  [Coracina,  vol, 
viii.,  p.  4] 

Gymnolepas  [Cirripeda,  voL 
vii.,  p.  207] 

Gymiiops,  510 

Gymnosophi&ts  [Hindustan] 

Gymnosjjerms,  510 

Gymndtus,  510 

Gymnura,  510 

Gynandria,  511 

GypaStos  [Vulturida?] 

Gyjogerauus,  511 

Gyps  [VnlturidflpJ 

Gypsies  [Gipsies] 

Gypsum,  515 

Gyration,  Centre  of,  516 

Gyrocarpus,  516 

Gy'rodus,  516 

Gyrogonites,  516 

Gyrcidlna  [Foraminifera,  toL 
x.,p.318j 


H. 


H  is  an  aspirate  of  tbe  guttural  series,  and  is  a  faint  pro- 
nunciation of  the  sound  which  in  the  high  German  alphabet 
is  denoted  by  ch.  In  the  earliest  alphabets,  as  the  Greek 
and  Hebrew,  tbe  symbol  whence  the  modern  character  is 
derived  [Alphabet,  pp.  382,  383]  denoted  the  syllable  che 
or  he.  Hence  the  Hebrew  name  was  cheth  or  neth ;  and 
the  Greek  probably  at  first  Jieta,  as  it  was  afterwards  eta. 
As  the  guttural  sound  disappeared  in  the  latter  language, 
the  letter  finally  denoted  the  simple  vowel  e.  On  the  other 
hand  in  the  Latin  alphabet  it  was  retained  as  the  symbol  of 
the  aspirate.  The  English  name  aitch  was  probably  at  first 
ecA,  with  the  vowel  prefixed,  as  in  ^,  el,  &c.  The  guttural 
sound  of  ch  is  often  confounded  with  the  sibilant  ck^  as 
beard  in  church. 

The  letter  h  is  liable  to  tbe  following  changes  in  different 
dialects : — 

1.  H  is  interchangeable  with  c.  This  is  well  seen  in  a 
comparison  of  the  Latin  and  German  languages  [see  C,  3]. 
To  tne  examples  there  given  may  be  added  the  Latin  decern 
compared  with  the  German  zehen,  and  ducere  compared 
with  Ziehen  (zug), 

2.  H  is  interchangeable  with  ch,  Tlius  the  Greek  forms 
Xtifi^tav,  xciM^P^^oCf  x^^^^t  x^P^^c*  X^M^**  ^^  severally  con- 
nected with  the  Latin  hietns,  hibernus,  hio,  hortus,  burnt, 

3.  H  with  chih.  This  is  similar  to  the  interchange  of  k 
with  A/,  as  seen  in  the  various  forms  of  the  Latin  roots  plec 
VLXifiplect,  f^^cand  neat.  Of  the  interchange  between  the  aspi- 
rates there  are  examples  in  the  Greek  x^<c  compared  with 
the  Latin  root  hes,  seen  in  keri  and  /lesternus,  and  perhaps 
the  Greek  x^ov  (nom.  xdtuv)  compared  with  the  Latin  humo 
(uom.  humus). 

4.  H  is  interchangeable  with  g.  Examples :  the  German 
zefie  compared  with  the  Latin  digito;  the  German  fliehen, 
«fA«n,  compared  with  the  English  substantives  yf/u-///.  sight; 
and  perhaps  the  Latin  veh^mene,  the  first  clement  of  which 
is  identical  with  the  German  prefix  wegy\x,  derivation  which 
will  make  vehemeiis  equivalent  to  arnefis  or  demens, 

5.  H  with  8.  Compare  the  Latin  sub,  sex,  septf^m,  sus, 
saiio,  with  tbe  Greek  vno,  il,  iirra,  vf,  aWofiai,  &c.  Thus 
the  antient  Spanish  town  Hermandica,  mentioned  by  Livy 
in  his  2 1st  book,  is  proved  by  the  Greek  form  Helmantice 
to  be  identical  with  Salmantica,  the  antient  name  of  Sala- 
manca. 

6.  H  with/.  Hence  the  Latin  words  hostis,  hostia,  says 
Festus,  were  sometimes  written  fostis,  fosiia.  So  too  the 
French  word  hors,  well  known  in  the  phrase  hors  de  combed, 
is  derived  from  the  Latin  /oris.  The  Spanish  language 
abounds  in  examples  of  this  change,  as  in  the  names  Her- 
dinando  and  Ferdinarido  ;  so  also  hermoso,  from  the  Latin 
formoso ;  the  Portuguese  retains  the  form /or;»o*o. 

7.  H  with  u>.  Many  Greek  words  which  had  originally 
the  di^^amma  (another  name  for  the  letter  w)  at  the  begin- 
ing,  took  a  mere  aspirate  afterwards.  So  in  our  own  lan- 
guage the  word  who  has  nearly  exchanged  the  w  for  what 
is  sounded  as  an  ti;  and  the  relative  adverb  how  is  no  doubt 
derived  from  the  relative  itself.  It  is  in  this  way  that  the 
Latin  homo  is  uomo  in  Italian  and  uhom  in  Walachian. 

8.  When  any  consonant  or  consonants  in  the  middle  of 
words  bad  nearly  lost  all  sound,  the  letter  h  appears  to 
have  been  employed  as  a  fit  representative  of  the  vanishing 
sound.  Hence  in  Latin  mihi,  for  what  would  appear  by 
analogy  to  have  been  once  mibi ;  and  in  Genuan  stehen 
and  gehen,  for  what  must  originally  have  been  standen  and 
gangeru 

9.  The  letter  h  is  often  dropped  altogether  in  pronuncia- 
tion, and  hence  in  writing  also.  This  was  perhaps  the 
reason  why  the  Greeks  gave  up  the  letter  h  for  the  little 
mark  called  the  spiritus  asper.  In  Laiin  many  woids  are 
written  indifferently,  with  or  without  an  A,  as  arena,  harena ; 
arundo,  harundo;  onustus,  honmtus.  Thus  the  last  words 
show  that  hoHjor  and  hon^us  {onus),  hovestus  and  Hon  us  t  us, 
are  all  of  the  same  oriLjin,  beinjr  derived  from  a  root  httn, 
denoting  a  load  or  charge,  which  is  either  an  honor  or  a 
burden,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  case.     The  Italians 

'  e  most  part,  like  the  inhabitants  of  antient  Rome,  are 
to  all  aspirates  ;  the  people  of  Tuscany,  on  the  other 
still  maintain  their  antient  character  for  the  strongest 
iciation  of  these  harsh  souud& 


HAARLEM,  HAERLEM,  or  HARLEM,  is  a  larpe  r.tv 
in  the  province  of  North  Holland,  in  the  kingdom  of  if,« 
Netherlands,  on  the  navigable  rifer  Spaarcn,  \ihir!i  ru  < 
from  the  Lake  of  Haarlem  into  the  Y,  by  which  it  V  >  i 
communication  with  the  Zuydersee,  and,  by  mcaiL<  of  na.i 
gable  canals,  with  Amsterdam,  Leyden,  and  tbe  I^Ao  <  i 
Haarlem.  It  is  fortified  in  the  old  style,  and  was  font,.  ;•, 
considered  a  place  of  great  strength.  It  was  a  Huun  !.  : 
town  in  the  middle  of  the  twelflh  century,  and  aciixl  an  v, 
portant  part  in  the  wars  between  the  Dutch  an*^!  the  \V  ^i 
Frieslanders.  In  1492  it  was  taken  by  the  revolted  pon^n  \^ 
of  Nortb  Holland ;  but  the  Imperial  governor,  Albert, »!  ur 
of  Saxony,  recovered  it  in  the  same  year,  deprived  it  of  j , 
its  privileges,  and  imposed  heavy  contributions.  Id  xl*^  :\- 
volt  of  the  Netherlands  in  the  sixteenth  century,  it  ]\.d 
the  allies  in  1572;  it  was  in  consequence  besieged  b\  t  •. 
Spaniards,  but  after  an  obstinate  resistance  of  nearlv  i  ^  . 
montlis  it  was  obliged  to  surrender  to  Frederick,  >•  u  • : 
the  duke  of  Alba,  who  treated  the  inhabitants  wi:h  trr*- . 
cruelty.    In  1 577  it  was  retaken  by  the  prince  of  Out  l  ■ 

The  manufactories  of  Haarlem  were  formerly  ven  ti  .- 
rishing,  and  it  has  still  some  good  silk,  ribbon,  velvet,  i  •  \ 
and  oUier  manufactures;  but  its  establishments ft)r  )>!.  \ 
ing  linen  and  thread,  once  the  most  celebrated  in  Kur    . 
have  fallen  entirely  into  decay.     The  culture  of  fli  wi?  ' 
still  very  important,  though  the  times  are  long  sna> ' 
when  10,000  florins  were  given  for  one  tulip:  th«  .:  . 
florists,  now  about  seventeen  in  number,  live  chieti)  'H : 
south  side  of  the  town,  and  supply  tbe  remote2»t  ]<>  • 
Europe  with  flowers,  especially  hyacinths  (even  n"\^ ! 
23  to  100  florins  are  sometimes  paid  for  a  root).    lU^'. 
attained  its  highest  prosperity  in  the  seventeenth  (vr. 
but  it  gradually  declined,  and  in  recent  timtw  si:  • 
severely  from  the  French  revolution  and  its  subk" ..  • 
France.    The  decrease  of  the  population  bears  ni«'!  i  - .. 
testimony  to  this  decay:  in  1740  it  was  still -lu.oi'i  • 
was  reduced  in  1785  to  30,000,  and  in  1819  to  Iv. 
1837  it  had  increased  to  about  22,000,  and  on  the  ■. 
the  town  appears  to  be   recovering.     Thouj^h  not  ' 
to  I^yden  and  some  other  towns  in  Holland,  it5  >  * 
are  remarkably  clean,  planted  with  trees,  and  tniv«>r^  . 
numerous  canals.    Among  the  public  buildin<?s  ttic 
remarkable  are  the  town-liall,  a  handsome  buildin?.  v     ^ 
valuable  collection  of  pictures ;  the  palace,  orPrtnzerih. f 
some  of  the  churches,  especially  the  cathedral  tbe  li:.'  > 
church  in  Holland,  in  which  is  the  celebrated  orr»^.  ;•  '  ^ 
the  largest  and  most  perfect  instruments  in  the  hc  1  . 
taining  8000  pipes,  some  of  which  are  38  feet  hi.;.i '-    •' 
feet  in  diameter  (it  has  GO  stops).    Haarlem,  beM .  •      » 
other  useful  and  charitable  institutions,  has  an  a^^^i  <•  •    ' 
sciences,  a  botanic  garden,  a  public  library,  and  IV     » 
institution,  which  comprehends  an  establishment  f>>  >  ' 
poor,  a  society  of  natural  history,  valuable  coUecH.»M.    Ij 
an  observatory.    The  library  boasts  of  the  early  pn»'lu  :    » 
of  Laurence  Coster,  a  native  of  this  town,  to  «ri'-:    f 
Dutch  attribute  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printinir  n\    ••► 
and  have  placed  his  statue  in  marble  in  toe  narkti  p    • 
In  1824  the  fourth  centenary  of  his  supposed  inventi  '-'>  •*♦ 
celebrated  with  great  ceremony,  and  a  monument*''    '1 
in  his  honour  in  the  Haarlem  Bosch,  a  most  delighn .' :    ^ 
near  the  town,  remarkable  for  the  great  height  ami 
of  the  trees,  and  in  which  there  are  numerous  '^'   '  • ' 
houses  with  tine  gardens,  the  most  distinguishes! »'  '    * 
is  that  of  Welgelegen,  the  splendid  seat  of  M.  1^  ■'     ' 
banker.    The  Lake  of  Haarlem  is  about  fourteen  K  . 
miles  in  its  greatest  length,  and  nearly  as  many  m  1 
but  only  mx  feet  deep.    It  has  been  frequently  pi-  ^ 
drain  this  lake,  and  to  cultivate  the  many  thou«:in  t  » 
land  which  it  co\ei-s.     As  the  overflowing  has  of.i 
sioned  much  injury,  the  idea  of  draining  app^nr-  '• 
been  generally  entertained*  butMio  plan  yet  oftcK»iI  ir. 
approved  ;  and  n  bill  introduced  by  the  go^ernm  > ' 
present  session  (April,  1838)  was  rejected  oImi'I- 
mously  in  the  Second  Chamber  of  the  Slates  Gciua.- 

HAARLINGEN.    [Friksland.] 

HABAKKUK    (pfjpnn,    'k^^ojtoi^^  •a^3«  .^ 

/Soxo^fc),  one  of  the  twehe  uiinor  Hebrew  prup>  ^ 


H  AB 


522 


bAi 


greater  part  of  the  Aaigau,  and  portions  of  the  present 
cantons  of  Bern,  Lucera,  Zurich,  and  Zug,  besides  the  ad- 
vocacy or  protectorship  of  the  Waldstatter,  or  forest  cantons. 
By  this  inheritance  Rudolf  whose  domains  were  at  first 
very  limited,  became  lord  of  considerable  territory,  though 
he  was  by  no  means  equal  to  the  great  electoral  princes  of 
Germany.  But  he  found  a  powerful  friend  in  Werner, 
archbishop  of  Mainz,  who  was  so  pleased  with  the  abilities, 
the  wisdom,  and  justice  which  Ruaolf  displayed  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  his  enlarged  territories,  that  he  cast  his  eyes 
upon  him  as  a  fit  occupant  of  the  Imperial  throne.  The 
archbishop  sounded  the  other  electors,  and  won  them  all 
over  to  his  views,  except  Ottocar,  king  of  Bohemia,  whose 
ambassadors  protested,  though  in  vain,  against  Rudolf  *s 
election,  which  took  place  at  Frankfurt  in  1273.  Rudolf 
was  then  besieging  Basel,  the  burghers  of  which  city  had 
killed  some  of  his  relatives  in  an  affray.  On  the  news  of 
his  elevation  the  people  of  Basel  were  the  first  to  hail  him  as 
the  head  of  the  empire  and  to  swear  allegiance  to  him,  and 
Rudolf  hastened  to  Aix-la-Chapelle,  where  he  was  crowned 
King  of  the  Romans  by  his  friend  the  archbishop  of  Mainz. 
The  next  thing  was  to  have  his  election  acknowledged  by 
the  papal  see.  Fortunately  for  him,  Gregory  X.,  then  pope, 
was  a  man  of  a  moderate  disposition  and  conciliatory  tem- 
per, and  lie  willingly  acknowledged  Rudolf  as  head  of  the 
Western  empire,  while  Rudolf  on  his  part  made  several 
timely  concessions  :  ho  renounced  all  jurisdiction  over 
Rome,  all  feudal  superiority  over  the  marches  of  Ancona 
and  the  duchy  of  S  pole  to,  all  interference  in  ecclesiastical 
elections,  and,  excepting  the  right  of  temporal  investiture  of 
newly  elected  bishops,  which  he  retained,  he  acknowledged 
the  independence  of  the  Germanic  church  on  the  crown. 
This  was  a  happy  termination  of  the  quarrel  of  two  cen- 
turies* duration  between  the  church  and  the  empire.  Rudolf 
turned  next  to  Ottocar,  king  of  Bohemia,  who  reruscd  alle- 
giance to  him.  Ottocar,  besides  Bohemia,  had  taken  pos- 
session of  Moravia,  Austria,  Styria,  Carinthia,  in  short,  of 
the  greatest  part  of  the  present  Austrian  empire.  Rudolf 
laid  siege  to  Vienna,  and  crossing  the  Danube  on  a  bridge 
of  boats,  defeated  Ottocar,  who  sued  for  and  obtained  peace 
by  giving  up  Austria,  Styria,  Carinthia,  and  Carniola.  Ru- 
dolf confirmed  him  in  the  possession  of  Bohemia  and  Mo- 
ravia. Rudolf  appointed  his  two  surviving  sons,  Albert  and 
Rudolf,  joint-dukes  of  Austria  and  Styria,  giving  Carinthia 
to  Meinhard,  count  of  the  Tyrol,  whose  daughter  had  mar- 
ried his  son  Albert,  but  stipulating  for  the  right  of  reversion 
to  his  own  family  in  the  event  of  the  extinction  of  Mein- 
hard*s  male  posterity.  Ottocar  having  soon  after  revolted, 
was  again  defeated  and  killed  in  battle,  and  his  son  Wen- 
ce>laus,  who  had  married  a  daughter  of  Rudolf,  succeeded 
him  as  king  of  Bohemia,  and  continued  the  peaceful  liege 
of  his  father-in-law.  But  the  greatest  merit  of  Rudolf  is 
that  of  having  restored  order  and  tranquillity  in  the  internal 
administration  of  Germany.  In  successive  diets  he  com- 
pelled or  persuaded  the  princes  to  submit  their  differences 
to  arbitration,  to  swear  to  the  ubser\'ancc  of  the  public  peace, 
and  to  consent  to  the  demolition  of  tho  fortresses  which  had 
been  erected  by  the  nobles  for  plunder  as  well  as  for  war. 
In  ouc  3rear  he  razed  seventy  of  these  mischievous  strong- 
hi)lds,  and  he  condemned  to  death  no  fewer  than  twenty- 
nino  nobles  of  Tliuringia,  who  still  presumed  to  disturb  the 
public  peace.  Rudolf  granted  a  number  of  charters  to 
many  towns  and  rising  municipalities.  His  reign  exhibited 
a  remarkable  novelty  for  Germany — internal  tranquillity. 
His  probity  became  nroverbial,  and  his  sincere  res|'ect  for 
religion  is  attested  by  many  facts.  He  forgot  personal 
wronijs,  and  gratefully  rewarded  personal  ser\'iees,  especially 
tn  tho^o  who  had  rendered  him  assistance  in  his  early  life. 
He  was  accessible  to  the  humblest  of  his  people.  '  He  lias 
b<»en  truly  called  the  second  restorer  of  the  empire;  none  of 
bin  predecessors,  cxceminoj  Charlemagne,  ever  procured 
hucb  benefits  for  it.  That  ne  who  rose  from  the  condition 
of  an  humble  territorial  count  to  that  of  a  great  emperor 
roust  have  been  an  extraordinary  man,  cannot  be  disputed. 
If  lie  owed  much  to  his  good  fortune,  he  was  still  more  in- 
debted to  his  own  merit.  Accident  might  have  introduce<l 
him  to  the  archbishop  of  Mainz,  but  accident  could  not  have 
won  the  admiration  and  esteem  of  that  prelate.  Well  may 
the  House  of  Austria,  indisputably  the  noblest  in  Europe, 
>:lory  in  its  founder.*    (Dunham,  tiistoi-y  of  the  Germanic 

dulfl.  died  in  1291,  in  a  good  old  age,  leaving  only 
TTiving  son,  Albert,  besides  leveml  daughters.    Uis 


other  son,  Rudolf,  died  before  his  fiither,  Wvibs  qm  i» 
John,  under  Albert's  guardianship.    Albert  I.,  dakctl 
Austria,  was  elected  emptor  in  1298,  and  wu  muriovli: 
Windisch,  in  Aaigau,  by  his  nephew  John,  to  vka'^ 
would  not  give  up  his  paternal  mheritanoe.  [Aluit  V 
He  left  a  numerous  progeny.    His  eldest  son,  tiMi  nj- 
ried  the  widow  of  Wenceslaus,  and  succeeded  to  the  crti 
of  Bohemia  in  1306,  but  died  shortly  aAer.  A^i  «. 
cond  son,  Frederick  Uie  Handsome,  duke  of  Austin,  ri  i  ^  - 
1 330,  without  issue.    His  brother  Leopold,  who  ibvod  «d 
Frederick  the  administration  of  the  AustrisQ  d<JiD.£  ^ 
marched  against  the    Swiss,  and  was  defSeatcd  I7  t  m 
at  the  battle  of  Morgarten,  1 5th  November,  I3l}.   H. 
died  in  1326.    Albert's  fourth  son,  Albert  lU  taT^'iir* 
Wise,  succeeded  his  brother  Frederick  u  duke  of  A.«*  1 
and  of  Styria,  and  died  in  1358,  Icavinga  nameir^iuf;: 
His  eldest  son,  Rudolf  HI.,  duke  of  Austria,  beraz., .-. 
1363,  count  of  Tyrol  and  Carinthia  by  the  extnr   .  .' 
Meinhard's  male  posterity,  and  died  in  1365.   He  «u  ^.r 
ceeded  by  his  brother  Albert  HI.  jointly  with  his  oih;:  *  - 
ther,  who  is  styled  Leopold  H.,  and  who  fouzht  b^u.^'  '. 
Swiss,  and  was  defeated  and  killed  at  the  battle  uf  S' . 
nach,  9th  July,  13S6.    Albert  himself  died  in  1303/- :    : 
his  dominions  divided  between  hit  two  soa«:  tlu  r  ': 
Albert  IV.,  became  duke  of  Austria,  and  the  otbtt.  I^ 
pold,  duke  of  Styria  and  Carinthia.    Albert  IV.  ■!.  ' 
1404,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Albert  V.  tif  Au*  . 
wlio  married  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  the  Empertir  ^ :  - 
mund,  whom  he  succeeded  as  king  of  Hunear}  a»!  I 
mia  in  1 437,  and  in  the  following  year  was  eleritHl  (i.;*  - 
by  the  name  of  Albert  II.  of  Germany.    He  daii  \q  :  / 
in  a  village  of  Hungary,  while  defending  that  r.     * 
against  Amurath  II.,  sultan  of  the  Ottomans.    !!.« t-  ^ 
mous  son  Ladislaus  succeeded  to  the  titles  of  '1  . 
Austria  and  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  uaiT  ' 
guardianship  of  his  cousin  Frederick,  duke  of  Stjrii.  f. 
Hungarians  however  would  not  acknowledge  ibi  .  t- 
Ladislaus,  and  offered  the  crown  to  another  LadiUss*.  I  . 
of  Poland,  who  was  shortly  after  killed  at  the  U  - ' 
Varna  against  the  Turks,  a.d.  1444.    Hie  Hun^r. 
then  chose  as  their  regent  Jolin  Hunniades,  und^r  t  -. 
nal  alle<;iance  to  Ladislaus  the  Posthumous.  TU  6 
mians  reihsed  to  acknowledge  Ladislaus,  and  cbos  P  . 
brad  as  their  leader.  In  1451  however  Ladislaus  mt«Kt:  ' 
lodged  king  of  Bohemia,  Podiebrad  submitted  to  kc.  ^- 
was  confirmed  in  his  authority.    Ladislaus  wm  l*^'  k 
minal  king,  and  he  died  at  Prague  in  1459,  lesv:.-  - 
cousin  Frederick  of  Styria,  who  had  been  cleriei  c- 
by  the  name  of  Frederick  IH.,  heir  to  his  nunnri-*     • 
Ilie  reign  of  Fhsdcrick,  which  lasted  more  than  bJ  •    - 
tury,  was  inglorious  to  himself  and  disastrous  tn  *:  •  • 
jects.    [Frederick  III.  of  Germa^tt]    Mitth.i»^ 
II us,  the  son  of  Hunniades,  seized  upon  tb  ^'* 
Hungar)-,  and  Podiebrad  upon  that  of  Bohemxi' 
their  death  both  crowns  were  united  on  the  betd  <>>  (• 
laus,  son  of  Casimir,  king  of  Poland.    Of  his  brr  . 
states  of  Austria  Frederick  was  oblij^ed  to  rwjri « :  *' 
his  own  brother  Albert    Frederick  however  <i*  »«>" 
in  marrying   his  son  Maximilian  to  Mary,  dii:-'" 
Charles  the  Rash,  and  heiress  to  the  vast  domm-'-*' 
ducal  House  of  Burgundy,  by  which  metiu  fr 
Comtf,  Alsace,  the  Nethcrlancis,  Artoi^  in  »btt. 
father's  territories,  with  the  exception  of  Bur^n^*?!  ? 
which  was  annexed  to  France,  were  united  to  ibe  f':' 
the  House  of  Austria.    It  was  on  the  occasioD  uf  t-  *  ^ 
riago,  A.D.  1477,  that  Fri'derick  bestowed  on  bi»  v  V 
milian  the  title  of  Archduke  of  Au^^tria,  wliich  h»  *  '  ' 
sors  have  born  ever  since.     Frederick  died  ui  .<     ■ 
Maximilian  succeeded  him  in  the  Austrtiii  doin"i  " 
well  as  on  the  Imperial  throne,  haring  been  tiedfi  K  - 
tho  Romans  in  nis  fhther*s  lifetime.     lDdted.fr:« 
timo  down  to  the  dissolution  of  the  German  ta?^'  - 
own  days  tlie  Imperial  dignity  may  be  said  to  b«f  l** 
hereditary  in  the  House  of  Austria.    The  reipi  wf  Mf. 
ban  wos  an  important  one  both  to  OennsQ)  to^  ' 
Austrian  dominions.    He  consolidated  both  tK-  ^  * ' 
his  house  and  that  of  the  empire.    He  was  the  tt<  *'-  ' 
the  public  law  of  Germany,  and  the  crt«tor  of  G*- 
military  dit^oipline,  being  tho  first  to  e«tabli5b  i  *  - 
army,  with  ii  1  uiry,  cavalry,  and  arti'ler)*,  dtvi*W  ' 
ments  and  stl-livided  into  companies.     He«'--' 
reversion  of  Ihnigary  and  Bohemia  to  bb  po^C'  ' 
double  mairiiue  of  (he  Arehduehett  Ibn^  ^  "* 


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524 


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twenty-three  he  was  the  successful  competitor  in  the  con- 
court  for  a  professorship  of  hydrography  at  Collioure. 
Some  memoirs  on  mathematical  subjects  which  he  ad- 
dressed to  Monge,  then  minister  of  marine,  procured  him 
to  be  called  to  Paris,  from  whence  he  was  sent  to  fill  a  pro- 
fessorship at  Mezidres,  and  at  the  end  of  1 794  was  appointed 
to  the  Ecole  Poly  technique,  at  its  eitablisUment  In  this 
post  he  continued  till  the  accession  of  Louis  XVIII^  by 
whose  feeble  and  fanatical  government  he  had,  in  1616, 
the  honour  of  being  deprived  of  his  professorship,  at  the 
same  time  when  Monge  was  expelled  from  the  Institute. 
The  government  above  mentioned  refused  to  sanction  his 
admission  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences ;  nor  was  it  till  after 
the  Revo}ution  of  1830  that  the  fellow- labourer  of  Monge, 
the  instructor  of  Poisson,  Fresnel,  Arago,  and  of  more  than 
two  thousand  of  the  best  qualified  public  officers  in  France, 
was  permitted  to  sit  among  his  former  pupils  at  the  Palais 
de  I'lnstitut  M.  Hachette  died  in  January,  1834,  at  the 
time  when  the  cholera  was  raging  in  Paris,  though  not  of 
that  disorder.  Independently  of  his  public  services,  he 
obtained  the  respect  of  the  whole  community  for  his  private 
worth  ;  and  the  writer  of  this  article,  who  enjoyed  nis  ac- 
quaintance and  correspondence  during  the  last  years  of  his 
life,  can  bear  testimony  to  the  openness,  simplicity,  and  be- 
nevolence of  his  character,  which,  though  not  very  common 
to  such  an  extent  among  his  countrymen,  are,  of  all  other 
qnalilies,  those  which  most  assist  and  least  require  their 
well-known  iiddress  sad  manners. 

The  greater  part  of  the  life  of  M.  Hachette  was  devoted 
to  the  development  of  the  descriptive  geometry  of  Monge, 
and  its  application  in  the  arts  of  life,  particularly  in  the  de- 
scription and  construction  of  machinery.    The  attention 
which  was  paid  to  this  subject  from  the  opening  of  the  Po- 
lytechnic School  was  one  main  cause  of  the  improvement 
which  took  place  in  France  as  to  all  matters  connected  with 
construction.    There  is  no  question  that  since  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1789  that  country  has  made  very  rapid  progress  in 
all  that  relates  to  the  arts  which  depend  upon  geometry. 
The  genius  of   Monge  and  the  foresight  of  those  who 
founded  the  Polytechnic  School  were  the  primary  causes  of 
this  improvement:  M.  Hachette  was  the  most  distinguished 
among  those  whose  efforts  filled  up  the  details,  disseminated 
the  knowledge  of  the  whole,  and  kept  alive  the  impulse 
which  the  new  state  of  things  had  given.    Monge  Xeh  the 
details  of  the  descriptive   geometry  for  the  most  part  to 
Hachette,  who  made  the  first  special  applications,  and  par- 
ticularly to  the  construction  of  machinery.    His  works  on 
descriptive  geometry  (that  of  Monge  being  comparatively 
elementary)  and  on  machinery  are  in  high  repute,  and  the 
former,  in  our  opinion,  still  continues  to  be  the  best  of  those 
which  enter  as  much  into  detail. 
The  works  of  M.  Hachette  are: — 
•  Programmes  d*unCours  de  Physique,'  1809;  an  exten- 
sion of  a  work  previously  written  by  Monge  and  Hachette 
in   1805.      'Correspondence  sur    TEcole   Polytechnique,' 
1803-1815,  a  work  edited  by  M.  Hachette,  and  containing 
many  memoirs  by  himself,  some  of  great  interest    *  Epures, 
or  Collection  of  Drawings  exemplifying  the  processes  of  De- 
scriptive GKjometry,'  1817.    '  Elemens  de  G6om6trie,  k  trois 
dimensions.'  1817,  in  two  parts,  geometricad  and  algebraical. 
This  work  is  remarkable  as  containing  various  theorems, 
demonstrated  geometrically,  which  had  not  been  previously 
obtained  without  algebra.   *  First  and  Second  Supplements 
to   the  Descriptive  Geometry  of  Monge,'  1812  and  1818. 
•  Trait^  E16mentaire  des  Machines,' first  edition  about  1820, 
and  three  others  since  published.    M.  Hachette  had  pre- 
viously, in  1808,  taken  a  share  in  the  work  of  M.  Lanz  and 
B^tancour,  •  Sur  la  Composition  des  Machines.'  *  Geometric 
Descriptive,'   1822.      Various  memoirs  in  the  •  Annales 
d'Agriculture  ,•'  •Soci6t6  Roy  ale,  &c.,d' Agriculture;'  *  So- 
ci6t6  d'Encouragement,'  &c. ;    *  Journal  de  L'Ecole  Poly- 
technique,'  8cc.  &c. 

HACKET.  JOHN,  was  born  in  the  year  1592,  and  edu- 
cated at  Westminster  School,  whence  he  was  elected  to 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  at  the  age  of  sixteen.  In  1618 
he  took  orders,  and  soon  after  became  chaplain  to  the  bishop 
of  Lincoln.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  he  was 
appointed  one  of  a  sub- committee  whose  office  it  was  to  pre- 
pare a  report  on  ecclesiastical  reform  for  a  commission  em- 
powered by  the  House  of  Lords.  To  this  scheme  however  a 
stop  was  put  by  the  prevalence  of  the  troubles  and  the  op- 
nosition  made  by  the  bishops.  During  the  civil  war  he  es- 
ted  the  cmuM  of  Charles,  and  his  house  was  a  kind  of 


1 1, 


.11 


rallying  point  for  his  party.  His  zeal  however  led  him  into 
difficulties,  and  he  suffered  a  short  imprisonment ;  but  aft(*r 
the  Restoration  he  accepted  the  bishopric  of  Lichfield  ar.J 
Coventry,  where  he  died  in  1670. 

To  Bishop  Hacket  we  are  chiefly  indebted  for  the  ri»- 
storation  of  Lichfield  cathedral.  It  had  been  cannonaile  1 
and  subjected  to  all  sorts  of  insult  anrl  pillage  at  the  haifi- 
of  the  Puritan  party;  however,  during  the  eight  )ea:» 
that  he  held  the  bishopric,  he  oontrivedt  partly  at  his  i.v.  n 
expense  and  partly  by  subscription,  to  put  it  into  comju-.'c 
repair.* 

HACKNEY.    [Middlesex.] 

HADDINGTON.    [Haddingtonshire.] 

HADDINGTONSHIRE  is  one  of  the  three  couwti>-  cf 
Scotland  included  under  the  general  name  of  the  Loth:.^i>. 
and  is  very  commonly  called  East  Lothian.  It  is  a  tnt..^ 
time  county,  bounded  on  the  north  and  north -cast  b\  .1  «.• 
German  Ocean,  on  the  north-west  by  the  Frith  of  Forth,  >\\ 
the  south-west  by  Edinburghshire,  or  Mid  Lothian,  and  o\\ 
the  south-east  by  the  Lammermuir  hills,  which  are  partU  m 
the  county  of  Berwick.  It  is  comprised  between  55  46'  ar.'l 
56°  5'  N.  lat.,  and  2°  20'  and  3°  2'  W.  long.  The  e\trei:u- 
length  of  the  county  from  east  to  west  is  about  27  niu'  ^ 
and  its  extreme  width  from  north  to  south  is  somewhat  K  n 
than  16  miles.  The  area  contains  174,080  statute  acre^  d 
which  130,264  are  cultivated. 

General  Appearance.— T\iQ  surface  of  the  county  ib  ci- 
tremely  diversified,  though  not  mountainous.  The  prin- 
cipal hills  are  those  of  Lammermuir,  from  the  sum  in  n 
which  the  distant  prospect  is  both  rich  and  beaut  i  I  (a 
The  general  inclination  is  from  the  foot  of  the  Lainh  '-r 
muir  range  towards  the  north-east,  but  the  descent  is  : 
from  uniform.  From  the  shore  of  the  Frith  of  Forth  'i.-- 
county  consists  of  a  series  of  parallel  ridges  running  t.< -u 
west  to  east,  and  successively  increasing  in  altitude  ut  .  1 
thev  reach  the  Lammermuir  hills. 

Soils.— In  the  north-western  part  of  the  county,  C4»:ii- 
prising  the  whole  of  the  coast-lands  from  Raven s>hei...> 
Craig  on  the  east  as  far  as  Preston  Pans  on  the  wot,  i:  .> 
prevailing  soil  is  productive,  and  consists  of  a  light  rich  1<  :.ii' 
with  a  substratum  of  clay.  In  the  Lammermuir,  or  frou::,- 
eastern  district,  the  soil  is  principally  moor  or  moss,  thou^'.i  ::t 
in  the  glens  and  fiats  \vhich  intersect  the  mountains  it  is  ■ : 
superior  quality  and  kept  under  a  regular  rotation  of  c:.*:.,. 
In  the  upland  district,  which  extends  along  the  foot  of  :  • 
Lammermuir  hills  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  com/ .. 
the  soil  is  a  gravelly  loam  resting  upon  a  dry  bottom,  •  . 
its  improvementy^wing  to  its  elevation,  was  much  nejf Li  i.  '. 
till  within  the  last  thirty  ^'ears,  ^thia.which  period  ii  I,  -> 
been  rendered  comparatively  productive.  In-lbe- hiiZh.  r 
grounds  of  this  district  the  limestone  rock  approaches  ^  » 
near  the  surface  as  to  admit  of  but  a  shallow  furrow.  Ti.v 
midland  district,  through  which  the  river  Tyne  flows,  tv:. 
tains  a  considerable  variety  of  soil ;  nearly  the  vi  he  Ic  <  t 
which  is  extremely  valuable  and  principally  arable.  I  . 
Haddington  parish  it  is  generally  good  and  highlv  c:i.- 
tivated,  but  at  Gladsmuirit  is  thin  and  of  inferior  qua!;;. 
Upon  the  whole  it  appears  that  four-fifths  of  the  s^il  . 
this  county  is  in  tillage  ;  the  remaining  fiAh  comprtst,-^  t;  • 
woods,  plantations,  pastures,  and  wastes. 

Climate. — The  diff'erent  elevations  of  the  several  distri.ts 
occasion  a  corresponding  variation  in  the  climate,  and  ihi  .• 
is  probably  no  county  in  Scotland  of  equal  extent  in  \y\,; 
the  barometric  changes  arc  so  frequent,  or  in  which   >. 
many  varieties  of  temperature  occur. 

The  harvest  is  frcquentlv  three  weeks  or  a  month  ca  I  r 
in  the  northern  than  in  the  southern  districts.  Tuu  at.* 
the  coast  the  snow  soon  disappears,  but  in  the  upUu(l^  ^ 
lies  long  on  the  ground,  and  the  highest  parts  of  the  l.^ui 
mermuir  are  oi'.casionally  covered  with  snow  duritit?  . 
fourth  part  of  the  year.  In  general  the  climate  is  cur^ 
dered  salubrious  and  remarkably  free  from  endemtc  xV^- 
ease  and  contagious  fever.  The  vegetation  is  comparati\  ^ ;  v 
early,  but  subject  to  injury  from  the  easterly  wuios  dun^  1, 
the  months  of  April  and  May. 

Fisheries.— Of  late  years  the  herring-fishery  has  ij»>: 
proved  so  productive  as  formerly,  and  the  same  circui^;- 
stance  has  occurred  lately  on  all  the  northern  coasts  of  Sco:- 
land,  the  best  explanation  of  which  seems  to  he  the  un- 
certain habits    of  this  fish.    In  August  and  Septeiobc:. 

•  Rcm'b  •  Cyclopiedia,"  quoting  ftom  Iho  '  Biagraphia  Pritaniika.* 
the  cxtxnise  (,2<i.O0O/.')  to  Hackrl  lumM'If.  but  the  exact  fom  h« 
16^.  I2i.    bee  Britton's  '  UiitUli  Cathednl*,' 


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526 


HAD 


sort  of  clinkstone,  apparently  contemporaneous  with  North 
Berwick  Law  and  Trapraine,  the  two  principal  heights  in  the 
vicinity. 

The  harhour  of  Dunhar  is  situated  in  a  red-coloured  trap- 
rock,  which  forms  a  single  bed  of  great  thickness.  To  the 
south-east  of  the  harbour  the  coast  is  low  and  sandy,  con- 
sisting of  old  red  conglomerated  sandstone,  trap-tufa,  and 
greenstone  rock.  The  lower  strata  of  the  sandstone  are  calca- 
reous, containing  the  impressions  of  animals  and  vegetables. 
To  the  north-west  of  the  harbour  the  coast  is  more  elevated 
and  rugged,  consisting  of  lofty  cliffs  of  red-coloured  trap- 
tufa,  whicli  are  succeeded  by  others  of  red  and  white  sand- 
stone. The  tufa  is  much  used  in  the  construction  of  ovens. 
From  Belhaven  Bay  to  North  Berwick  the  coast  is  low  and 
sandy,  with  the  exception  of  the  small  promontory  of  Whit- 
berry  Head  and  Ravensheugh  Craig.  Whitberry  Head  has 
been  described  by  Dr.  Macknight  in  the  *  Memoirs  of  the 
Wernerian  Society,'  under  the  name  of  Ravensheugh.  The 
opproach  to  it  on  the  land  side  is  gradual,  but  towards  the 
sea  it  presents  a  precipitous  front  from  40  to  50  feet  in 
height.  *  It  is  a  trap  formation  apparently  overlying,  but  in 
reality  subordinate  to  the  old  red  sandstone,  and  consists 
of  basalt  with  crystals  of  hornblende,  red  and  green  trap- 
tuif  impregnated  with  lime,  beautiful  clinkstone  and  clink- 
stone-porphyry, or  porphyry  slate.'  (Dr.  Macknight.)  About 
a  mile  north-west  of  Whitberry  is  the  elevated  rock  called 
Ravensheugh  Craig,  consisting  principally  of  clinksttme 
and  basalt,  with  crystals  of  hornblende.  To  the  north  of  the 
Peffer  the  coast  again  becomes  elevated,  and  near  Tantal- 
lan  castle  the  clitfs  are  particularly  rugged,  and  rise  to  the 
height  of  100  feet.  About  a  mile  to  the  south-east  of 
the  above  town  stands  the  beautiful  hill  called  North  Ber- 
wick Law.  Its  form  is  that  of  a  cone,  having  its  apex 
500  feet  above  the  sea-level.  *  The  lowest  rock  visible  is 
a  variety  of  the  trap-tuff.  Higher  up  is  amygdaloid.  The 
middle  and  upper  parts  of  the  hill  are  of  a  beautiful  and 
very  sonorous  variety  of  clinkstone-porphyry;  and  the  sum- 
mit-rock cUnkstone-porphyr}%  intermixed  with  crystals  of 
augite,  thus  foiining  a  transition  into  greenstone.  The 
clinkstone  is  in  some  places  columnar,  and  forms  cliffs  of 
considerable  magnitude.*  (Professor  Jameson.)  The  western 
part  of  the  county  contains  excellent  coal,  which  belongs  to 
the  great  coal-field  of  Scotland  that  lies  to  the  south  of  the 
Forth  and  Clyde. 

Chief  Towns. — Haddington  is  the  county  town  and  a 
royal  burgh  of  considerable  antiquity.  It  is  16  miles  east 
from  Edinburgh.  Its  records  are  said  to  have  been  de- 
stroyed during  the  invasions  of  the  English,  by  whom  the 
town  was  several  times  burnt,  so  that  the  period  at  which 
it  became  a  burgh  of  regality  is  not  known.  The  oldest 
charter  extant  is  that  of  James  VI.,  dated  13th  January, 
1624.  The  town  is  the  birth-place  of  John 'Knox,  the 
Scotch  reformer,  who  also  received  his  education  at  the 
grammar-school  of  the  burgh.  It  is  agreeably  situated  at 
the  foot  of  the  Garlton  hills,  which  shelter  it  on  the  north. 
On  the  east  it  is  separated  by  the  Tyne  from  the  suburb  of 
Nungate,  with  which  it  communicates  by  a  stone  bridge  of 
four  arches.  The  town  is  paved,  and  lighted  with  'gas,  and 
consists  principally  of  two  streets  running  east  and  west, 
intersected  by  a  third  at  right  angles.  The  church  is  a 
venerable  structure  in  the  Gothic  style,  surmounted  by  a 
square  tower  90  feet  high.  The  choir  and  transept  arc  in  a 
dilapidated  state.  There  are  some  other  public  buildings 
on  a  large  and  elegant  scale,  and  the  suburbs  are  adorned 
by  numerous  villas  with  adjoining  grounds  and  gar- 
dens. Tlie  management  of  the  affairs  of  the  burgh  is 
vested  in  a  council  of  25  persons,  who  are  elected  pursuant 
to  the  provisions  of  the  Burgh  Reform  Act.  The  magis- 
trates consist  of  a  provost,  three  baillies,  a  treasurer  and 
dean  of  the  guild.  The  average  income  of  the  burgh, 
arising  from  lands,  fees,  customs,  &c.,  is  about  1400/.  The 
county  courts  are  held  here  during  the  session  by  the  she- 
riff, and  there  is  also  a  small-debt  court  evei-v  alternate 
Thursday.  The  town  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in 
wool,  in  tanning,  and  in  preparing  bones  and  rape-cake  for 
manure.  It  is  also  one  of  the  largest  wheat-markets  in 
.cotland.  Besides  breweries  there  are  two  extensive  dis- 
Ueries  in  the  vicinity,  but  the  working  of  the  latter  had 
I'een  discontinued  in  1835. 


Haddington,  in  union  with  Je<lburgh,  Dunbar,  Laud*  r, 
and  North  Berwick,  returns  one  member  to  parliament. 
The  county  also  returns  one  member.  The  populati«>n  uf 
the  burgh  and  parish  in  1831  was  5883.  Besides  the  paro- 
chial school,  wnich  is  supported  by  the  landward  bent  ir^ 
there  is  an  endowed  grammar-school  and  a  school  for  En^'- 
lish  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  geography,  with  a 
department  for  mathematics.  In  1823  a  mechanic's  ui^ti- 
tution  was  founded,  and  is  now  provided  with  a  suita:  It- 
apparatus,  museum,  and  library.  Tlie  town  is  aUo  tl.<- 
head-quarters  of  the  Itinerary  Ifibrarics,  first  estabK^lt  i 
by  Samuel  Brown,  Esq.  m  1817.  Besides  branches  <«f  ;1  - 
Bank  of  Scotland  and  the  British  Linen  Company.  tbiTc  i^ 
a  savings*  bank,  established  in  1815.  Several  b«ne\<j.'M; 
and  friendly  societies  have  been  established  within  the  1  «t 
few  years.  The  poor  are  provided  for  by  an  annual  a^3.•v>- 
ment  and  by  voluntaiy  donations. 

The  seaport  town  of  Dunbar,  situated  28  miles  ca>t  ]  ? 
north  from  Edinburgh,  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the  y-  '- 
850,  when  it  was  burned  by  Kenneth,  king  of  Scoiliit  i. 
It  was  again  destroyed  in  1548  by  an  English  army.  «*  ■:: 
by  Henry  VIII.  to  chastise  the  Scots  for  refusuig  to  ^.  • 
tion  the  alliance  of  their  young  queen  with  his  son.  1 .  •♦ 
town  was  first  erected  into  a  free  burgh  by  David  II.,  a  . 
its  privileges  have  since  been  confirmed  and  ext«;niU-il  \ ) 
several  royal  charters.  Its  annual  revenue,  arisiu^  li  .  i 
lands  and  imposts,  is  about  1300/.,  and  the  manageiuent  * 
its  affairs  is  vested  in  a  provost,  3  baillies,  a  treasurer,  j-  ^ 
15  councillors.  The  harbour,  though  difficult  of  acce^N  .^ 
safe  and  commodious,  and  will  admit  vessels  of  3Cu  '«  ..- 
burthen.  At  spring-tides  there  are  14  feet  water,  ai.I  .- 
neap-tides  9  feet.  The  custom-house  dues  for  the  \«... 
ending  January  5,  1835,  auiounted  to  2942/.  15^.  D  .n;  i: 
was  formerly  noted  for  its  malt ;  at  the  present  timt?  i*  > 
eoually  famed  for  its  ale.  Here  once  stood  the  cattle  ;  • 
wnich  Queen  Mary  fled  in  1565,  after  the  assassinat  luu  .f 
Rizzio.  For  a  particular  account  of  the  ruins  of  th:^  re- 
markable fortress  the  reader  is  referred  to  Sir  Walter  Scv;:  <» 
*  Provincial  Antiquities.'  The  population  of  the  h\iv-.i 
and  parish  in  1831  waa  4735.  Besides  two  parochial  :.:  : 
three  unendowed  schools,  there  are  a  grammar-school  at. ; .. 
mathematical  school.  The  master  of  the  grammar-s-ci.. •  . 
has  a  house  and  a  salary  of  40  guineas ;  the  teacher  ot  :  i  ^ 
mathematical  school,  a  house  and  a  salary  of  20*.  The  oi  . . 
friendly  society  now  existing  is  that  called  the*  8a.l.r.o' 
Society.'  This  has  been  long  established,  and  its  affuiir^  • . 
well  conducted,  that  at  the  present  time  it  possesses  lairlt  ^ 
property.    [Berwick,  North.] 

Population, — The  county  is  divided  into  25  parishes,  tl.* 
aggregate  population  of  which  in  1831  was  36,1 45,  Tit.  17..:  7 
males  and  18,748  females.  In  1821  the  population  va« 
35,127,  and  in  1811  it  was  31,164,  thus  showing  an  mm :.-  - 
of  nearly  13  per  cent  in  the  10  years  ending  with  l&Jl.  i- .; 
less  than  3  per  cent  in  the  10  years  ending  with  1>  >:. 
The  area  comprises  174,080  acres. 

Education. — The  means  of  education  in  this,  as  in  nr"-: 
other  counties  of  Scotland,  are  very  genendly  dii^i.^^  t 
among  the  labouring  classes.  Besides  the  prt^*ate  an<l  un- 
endowed schools,  there  are  numerous  parochial  and  Sui.  i  •) 
schools.  The  latter  are  usually  taught  by  the  elders  o(  U\ 
established  church, '  each  taking  charge  as  far  as  is  p  *  > 
ticable  of  the  young  in  his  own  allotted  district  of  i:- 
parish.'  (New  Statistical  Account.)  In  some  pari>l^» 
there  is  a  regulation  that  no  farm  servant  shall  pay  n*<  . 
than  40s.  per  annum,  whatever  number  of  children  ho  i:>  it 
have  attending  the  parochial  school;  in  others,  li'  i  c 
parents  are  too  poor  to  pay  for  the  education  of  tl». 
children,  the  school  fees  are  paid  for  them.  This  is  t. « 
custom  in  the  parish  of  Ormiston,  wherein  it  is  said  thut  :  ^ 
children  are  to  be  found  between  the  ages  of  six  a.t. 
fifteen  who  can  neither  read  nor  write. 

(Playfair's  Geographical  De9cription  qf  Scotland:  S  ~ 
clair's  General  Account  qf  Scotland;  Sinclair's  Huibart'i^ 
of  Scotland;  New  Statistical  Account  qf.  Scotland;  M.. 
Cul loch's  Statistical  Account  qf  Great  Britain;  Mem  .*% 
of  the  Wernerian  Society;  SomerviUe*s  Surpiy  qf  tj*t 
Lothian ;  Parliamentary  Papers,  &c.) 

HADDOCK,  a  species  of  oodfiah.    [Moeshiu.] 


End  of  Volume  thb  Eleventh.  ' 

PtiBitd  by  WuxsAH  Ciowbs  uA  Som,  Slamte4fltoc«l»'